Biology AS

Edexcel
Unit 1
Topic Overview
Structure of the Heart Blood Pressure
Arteries and Veins Carbohydrate Structure
The Cardiac Cycle Lipids
Atherosclerosis  Energy Budget
Estimating Risk Cholesterol
Identifying Health Risks Caffeine affecting heart
Prevention and rate
Treatment of CVD Vitamin C
Structure of the Heart
Learn the names of the
different valves,
arteries and veins for the
exam.

Also known as
Atrioventricular valve.
Arteries and Veins
Arteries: Veins
 Narrow lumen  Wide lumen
 Thick muscular walls with elastic  Thinner walls
fibres  Less collagen
 More collagen  Has valves to stop backflow
 Smooth muscle  Pumps deoxygenated blood to
 No valves the heart
 Pumps oxygenated blood to the  Blood at low pressure
body
 Blood at high pressure
Arteries
Every time the heart contracts, blood is forced into
arteries and their elastic wall stretch to accommodate
the blood.
When the heart relaxes, the elasticity of the artery
walls causes them to recoil behind the blood, helping
to push the blood forward.
The blood moves along the length of the artery as each
section sin series stretches to recoil in this way.
Veins
The heart has a less direct
effect on the flow of blood Valves preventing backflow
through the veins.
In the veins, blood flow is
assisted by the contraction of
skeletal muscles during
movement of limbs and
breathing.
Backflow is prevented by
valves within the veins
The steady flow without pulses
of blood means that the blood
is under low pressure in veins
The Cardiac Cycle
Phase 1: Atrial Systole
(Ventricles are relaxed) The
atria contract, decreasing the
volume of the chamber and
increasing the pressure inside
the chamber This pushes
the blood into the ventricles.
There is a slight increase in
ventricular pressure and
chamber volume as the
ventricles receive the ejected
blood from the contracting
atria.
Phase 2: Ventricular Systole
(The atria relax). The ventricles
contract, increasing their
pressure. The pressure becomes
higher in the ventricles than the
atria, which forces the
atrioventricular valves shut to
prevent back-flow.
The pressure in the ventricles is
also higher than in the aorta and
pulmonary artery, which forces
open the semi-lunar valves and
blood is forces out into the arteries.
 The Cardiac Cycle
Phase 3: Diastole
 The ventricles and atria both relax. The higher pressure in the
pulmonary artery and aorta closes the semi-lunar valves to
prevent back-flow into the ventricles.
 Blood returns to the heart and the artia fill again due to the
higher pressure in the vena cava and pulmonary vein. This starts
to increase the pressure of the atria.
 As the ventricles continue to relax, their pressure falls below
the pressure of the atria and the atrioventrivular valves open
this allows blood to flow passively into the ventricles from
the atria
 The atria contract and the whole process starts again.
 The Cardiac Cycle
Pulmonary Aorta Pulmonary
Artery vein

Vena Cava

Or Or
Atrioventricular Atrioventricular
valve valve
Atherosclerosis
What is it?
It is the disease process that leads to coronary heart
disease and strokes.
Fatty deposits can either block an artery directly, or
increase its chance of being blocked by a blood clot
(thrombosis) – the blood supply can be blocked
completely and cells can be permanently damaged.
What happens in atherosclerosis?
 The endothelium becomes damaged. result from
high blood pressure which puts an extra strain on the layer of cells, or from toxins in cigarette
smoke in the bloodstream.
 Then there is an inflammatory response once the inner lining of the artery is
breached. White blood cells leave the blood vessel and move into the artery
wall accumulates chemicals e.g. Cholesterol.
 A deposit builds up called an atheroma
 A hard swelling called a plaque occurs on the inner wall of the artery. The
build-up of fibrous tissue means that the artery wall loses some of its elasticity.
 Plaques cause the artery to become narrower. This makes it more difficult for
the heart to pump blood around the body and can lead to a rise in blood
pressure.
 Now there is a dangerous positive feedback plaques lead to raised blood
pressure and raised blood pressure makes it more likely that plaques will form
Blood Clots (Thrombosis)
Thrombosis is used by the body to prevent lots of blood being
lost when a blood vessel is damaged. A series or reactions
occurs that leads to the formation of a blood clot.
1. A protein called thromboplastin is released from the
damaged blood vessel
2. Thromboplastin triggers the conversion of prothrombin
(soluble protein) into thrombin (an enzyme)
3. Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen
(soluble protein) to fibrin (solid insoluble fibres)
4. The fibrin fibres tangle together and form a mesh in which
platelets and red blood cells get trapped – forms a blood clot.
Blood Clot (diagram of thrombosis)

Fibrin fibres
have tangled
together to form
a mesh.
Estimating Risk
Risk – ‘the probability of occurrence of some unwanted event or
outcome’
The statistical chance of something unfavourable happening is
supported by scientific research e.g. The actual risk of dying from
CVD is 60% higher for smokers than non-smokers.
People’s perception may be different from actual risk

May overestimate the risk e.g. May have known someone who
smoked and died from CVD, therefore think if you smoke you will die
of CVD. Articles and media give constant exposure which make
people worry
Underestimate risk, could be due from lack of information making
them unaware of the factors that contribute to diseases like CVD.
Identifying Health Risks
Lifestyle risk factors for CVD:
1. Diet – high in saturated fats increases blood cholesterol level
leads to atheroma formation, which leads to blood clots
and therefore heart attack or stroke. High is salt increases
risk of high blood pressure.
2. High blood pressure – increases risk of damage to the artery
walls, which increases risk of atheroma formation leads
to CVD.
3. Smoking – CO combines with haemoglobin and reduces
amount of oxygen transported in the blood.
4. Inactivity – lack of exercise increases risk of CVD as it
increases blood pressure
Identifying Health Risks
Factors beyond your control
1. Genetics - inherit particular alleles that make them
more likely to have high blood pressure or high blood
cholesterol, more likely to suffer from CVD
2. Age – risk of developing CVD increases with age.
Arteries lose some of their elasticity
3. Gender – men are 3 times more likely to suffer from
CVD than pre-menopausal women
Prevention and Treatment of CVD
Antihypertensives Plant Statins
Include diuretics, beta-blockers, Reduce blood cholesterol
vasodilators
Reduce high blood pressure – less level by reducing amount
chance of damage to artery walls. of cholesterol abosorbed
Benefits – different antihypertensives
by the gut
work in different ways, so can be
given in combination. Blood pressure Benefits – reduce risk of
can be monitored at home
Risks – palpitations, abnormal heart
developing CVD
rhythms, fainting, headaches and Risks – reduce the
drowsiness, all side effects from
blood pressure being too low. Allergic
absorption of some
reactions and depression vitamins from the gut
Prevention and Treatment of CVD
Anticoagulants
 Reduce blood clots – blood clots are less
likely to form at sites of damage in artery
walls, so less chance of a blood vessel
becoming blocked by a blood vessel
 Benefits – can be used to treat people
who already have blood clots or CVD.
Prevent any existing blood clots from
growing any larger and prevent any new
blood clots from forming
 Risks – if person is badly injured, the
reduction of blood clotting can cause
excessive bleeding, which can lead to
fainting or even death. Other side effects
are allergic reactions, osteoporosis and
swelling of the tissues.
Platelet Inhibitory Drugs
A type of anticoagulant
They work by preventing
platelets clumping together to
form a blood clot
Benefits – can be used to treat
people who already have blood
clots or CVD, (but can’t get rid of
existing blood clots)
Risks – side effects including,
rashes, diarrhoea, nausea, liver
function problems and excessive
bleeding
Blood Pressure
Elevated blood pressure, known as hypertension, is
considered to be one of the most common factors in
the development of CVD.
Systolic pressure – pressure in the artery is at its
highest, ventricles have contracted and forced blood
into arteries
Diastolic pressure – pressure is at its lowest in the
artery when the ventricles are relaxed
Blood Pressure
A sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood
pressure
Blood pressure is reported in 2 measures

Systolic
pressure, the
max blood
pressure when
the hearts Diastolic pressure,
contracts the blood pressure
when the heart is
relaxed
Blood Pressure
What determines blood pressure?
Contact between blood and the walls cause friction, this
impedes the flow of blood – peripheral resistance
If the smooth muscles in the walls of an artery contract,
the vessels constrict , increasing resistance – blood
pressure is raised.
If the smooth muscles relax, the lumen is dilated, so
peripheral resistance is reduced and blood pressure falls.
Any factor that causes arteries or arterioles to constrict
can lead to elevated blood pressure e.g. Natural loss of
elasticity with age, adrenaline, high-salt diet.
Diagrams related to blood pressure
Carbohydrates Structure
Carbohydrates are the main energy supply in living
organisms.
Most carbohydrates are large, complex molecules
composed of long chains of monosaccharides
Glucose is a monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms in
each molecule

Structure of alpha- glucose.

Carbohydrates Structure
Monossaccharides are joined together by glycosidic
bonds in a condensation reaction
When 2 monosaccharides join together, they form a
disaccharide
Names of disaccarides:
1. Maltose – glucose and glucose with a 1-4 glycosidic
bond
2. Lactose – glucose and galactose, 1-4 glycosidic bond
3. Sucrose – glucose and fructose, 1-2 glycosidic bond
Two alpha glucose molecules can be joined
together by a CONDENSATION REACTION in which a
molecule of water is formed from two -OH groups
in the two molecules

Water is formed
in this reaction

The remaining O atom forms a link between

the carbon 1 of one glucose molecule and the
carbon 4 of the other. This is called a 1,4
glycosidic link.

The disaccharide formed from two glucose

molecules is MALTOSE.
Carbohydrate Stucture
A polysaccharide is formed when more than 2
monosaccharide join together

Lots of glucose molecules are joined together by 1-4 glycosidic

bonds to from amylose.
Carbohydrate Structure
Animal cells get
energy from
glucose. Store excess
glucose as glycogen.
Lots of side branches
– glucose can be
released quickly.
Very compact
molecule.
Insoluble in water,
doesn’t cause cells to
swell by osmosis.
Large molecule,
store lots of energy.
 Carbohydrate Structure
Long, unbranched chain of
glucose joined together
with glycosidic bonds. Has
a coiled structure to make
it compact – good for
storage as you can fit more
in to a small space
Starch is the main energy storage
material in plants. Plants store
excess glucose as starch
Starch is a mixture of two
polysaccharides; amylose &
amylopectin.
Long branched chain
of glucose . Side
branches allow
enzymes that break
down molecules to
get to the glycosidic
bonds easily. Glucose
can be released
quickly
Lipids
Triglycerides are a type of lipid

It is made up of one molecule of glycerol

with 3 fatty acids attached to it.

The fatty acid molecules have long tails

made of hydrocarbons
The tails are hydrophobic.
These tails make lipids insoluble in
water.

All fatty acids consist of the same

structure, but the hydrocarbon tail
varies .
Lipids
 Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions and broken up by
hydrolysis reactions
 Three fatty acids and a single glycerol are joined together by ester
bonds
 A hydrogen atom on the glycerol molecule bonds to a hydroxyl (OH)
group on the fatty acid, releasing a molecule of water.
 Reverse happens in hydrolysis – molecule of water added to each ester
bond to break it apart, and the triglyceride splits up into 3 fatty acids
and one glycerol molecule .
Lipids
 Saturated and unsaturated lipids
 Saturated – animal fats (butter)
 Unsaturated – plants (olive oil). Melt at a lower temp
 The difference between these 2 types is their hydrocarbon
tails.
Does not have double bonds
between carbon atoms – every
carbon is attached to at least 2
hydrogen atoms. ‘saturated’ with
hydrogen.

Has double bonds between

carbon atoms. Double bonds
cause the chain to kink. If 2 or
more, the lipid is called
polyunsaturated.
 The Energy Budget
 You need a constant supply of energy to maintain your essential body
processes which are ongoing, even when you are completely at rest.
 Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the name given to energy needed for
essential processes.
Normal weight – equal
energy input and output

Underweight - illness,
diet, eating disorder.
Excessive exercise,
stress, high BMR

Overweight – overeating
and low exercise
Cholesterol
It is a lipid made in the body
Some is needed to function normally
Needs to be attached to protein to be moved around, do the body forms
lipoproteins
High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
1. Mainly protein
2. Transport cholesterol from body tissues to the liver where it’s recycled or
excreted.
3. Function is to reduce total blood cholesterol when level is too high
 Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
1. Mainly lipid
2. Transport cholesterol from liver to the blood, where it circulates until
needed by cells
3. Function is to increase total blood cholesterol when level is too low.
Cholesterol
A diet high in saturated fats increase the rick of CVD.
This is because it increases blood cholesterol level.
This increases atheroma formation which can lead
formation of blood clots which can cause heart attacks
and strokes.
Caffeine affecting heart rate
Investigation: observe daphnia through a microscope to see the effect
of caffeine on the heart rate.
1. Make up a range of caffeine solutions of different concentrations,
with control solution with no caffeine
2. Transfer one daphnia into dimple of cavity slide
3. Place slide onto the stage of a light microscope and focus on bating of
the heart
4. Place small drop of caffeine solution onto daphnia
5. Count number of heartbeats in 10 secs and multiply by 6 to calculate
beats per min.
6. Repeat with all caffeine solutions, keeping all factors constant
7. Compare results to see how caffeine concentration affects heart rate.
Caffeine affecting heart rate
Ethical Issues:
1. Studying animal allows scientists to study things
unethical to study using humans
2. But using animals can also be seen as unethical –
can’t give consent
3. Some believe more acceptable to perform
experiments on invertebrates than on vertebrates –
simpler organisms which have much less
sophisticated nervous system
4. Could cause distress or suffering to living organism
Vitamin C
Investigation to test how much vitamin C is in fruit juices:
1. Have about 6 different fruit juices of known concentrations
2. Measure out a set volume of DCPIP into a test tube
3. Add one of the fruit juices to the DCPIP, drop by drop, using a pipette.
4. Gently shake the test tube after each drop of fruit juice is added
5. When the solution turns colourless, record the volume of fruit juice that
has been added
6. Repeat experiment twice more, with same solution to record an average
7. Make sure all other variables are kept constant
8. Use the results to make a line graph, showing volume of vitamin C
solution against its concentration – calibration curve
9. This means an unknown solution can be tested in same way to find
vitamin C content