METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the
study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz.,
primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character. The secondary data are that which have already been
collected by someone else and which already has been passed through
statistical processes. The researcher would have to decide which sort
of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data
collection.

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Comparison between primary data and secondary data

PRIMARY DATA
SECONDARY DATA
These are first-hand original
These are second-hand readydata collected by research
made data
through various methods.
collected by some other agency
but not
by the researcher.
Collection is time and cost
Easy and quick collection at less
consuming. It is complicated
cost.
too.
Sources of primary data are the Sources could be internal or
sampling units chosen.
external
records.
Primary data are reliable and
Supplementary to primary data.
accurate when properly
collected.
Primary data affect the
They provide secondary
research directly.
information.

6. Primary data are latest useful

for current problems.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Secondary data are historical.

Page

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

1. OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the methods of collecting data. It is used to get
both past and current information. For example, instead of asking
respondents about their current behaviour, we may observe it and
record our observations. Although it is not possible to observe past
behaviour, we may observe the results of such behaviour. In a way,
secondary data reflect the results of the past behaviour of people as
also of past occurrences.
In marketing research, the observational method is not used frequently.
At the outset, let us see an example indicating how observation may
be used in marketing research. One of the factors influencing the sale
of a branded product is how readily it is kept in stock. An interested
manufacturer may send some observers to a sample of stores to find
out how frequently the product is out of stock. Likewise, sales are also
influenced by its display position in a store. A prominently displayed
product will receive greater attention of the people visiting the store as
against another product displayed in an obscure corner.
Advantages of observation
1. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
2. It enables a researcher to record behaviour as it occurs. The
information obtained is not complicated by either the past
behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
3. It can be used regardless of whether the respondent is willing to
report or not. In a field survey, if an enumerator comes across an
unwilling and hostile respondent, he cannot collect the desired
information. But, this problem does not arise at all in the case of
direct observation.
4. It can be used even when it pertains to those who are unable to
respond such as infants and animals.
Limitations of observation
1. The information provided by this method is very limited.
2. The current behaviour of a person or a group of persons can only
be observed. One is not able to observe the past behaviour nor

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

can one observe a persons future behaviour because the act of

observation takes place in the present.
3. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. For example, inaccessibility of people to be
observed.
4. The method is very slow and expensive. As such, when a large
number of persons are to be contacted, it becomes unsuitable.
Methods of Observation
Structured-unstructured Observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem has been
formulated precisely and the observers have been told specifically
what is to be observed. They may be given a simple form to record
their observations. They are considered appropriate in descriptive
studies.
Unstructured observation implies that observers are free to observe
whatever they think is relevant and important. While structured
observations are free from subjective bias, unstructured observations
are subject to this limitation. The extent of the bias may vary to the
extent an observation is unstructured.
Participant-non participant observation
When the observer observes the group by becoming a part of the
group so that he can experience what the members of the group
experience, the observation is called participant observation.
In non-participant observation, the observer observes as a detached
emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel.
There are several merits of the participant type of observation:
The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the
group.
The researcher can even gather information which could not
easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.
The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by
informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation:
The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is
not solved; and it may narrow-down the researchers range of
experience.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Disguised-undisguised Observation
In the case of disguised observation, the subjects do not know that
they are being observed. In some cases, disguised observation may be
made by the observer by posing as one of the shoppers who are being
observed. This type of observation is often preferred because it is
feared that people may behave differently when they know they are
being observed.
Controlled-uncontrolled Observation
Observations in field studies are in their natural setting and are,
therefore, called controlled observation. The major aim of this type of
observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons.
Uncontrolled observations are observations in a laboratory setting, on
the other hand, enables the observer to control extraneous variables
which influence the behaviour of people. Observational studies in
laboratory settings enable the collection of data promptly and
economically and in addition, permit the use of more objective
measurements. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized
data upon which generalizations can be built with some degree of
assurance. The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of
subjective interpretation. Generally, controlled observation takes place
in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under
controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to
in case of exploratory researches.
Direct-Indirect Observation
In the case of direct observation, the event or the behaviour of a
person is observed as it occurs. In contrast, indirect observation
implies that some record of past behaviour is observed. In other words,
the behaviour itself is not observed, rather its effects are observed. An
observer engaged in indirect observation generally looks for physical
traces of behaviour or occurrence of an event. Suppose, he is
interested in knowing about the liquor consumption of a household, he
would like for empty liquor bottles in the garbage. Similarly, the
observer may seek the permission of the housewife to see the pantry.
He may carry out a pantry audit to ascertain the consumption of
certain types of products. It may be noted that the success of an
indirect observation largely depends on how best the observer is able
to identify physical traces of the problem under study.
Human-mechanical Observation
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Another way of classifying observations is whether they are made

manually or by machines. Most of the studies in marketing research
are based on human observation wherein trained observers are
required to observe and faithfully record their observations.
In some cases, mechanical devices such as eye cameras and
audiometers are used for observation. One of the major advantages of
electrical/ mechanical devices is that their recordings are free from
subjective bias. As against this, such observations may be less valid
than human observations because the observers power of integration
can lead to a more valid evaluation of the observation.
2. INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oralverbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method
can be used through personal interviews (like depth interviews), focus
group interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
Personal interviews
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person
or persons.
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is
usually carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interviews
as structured interviews. Such interviews involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of
recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed.
Against it, the unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility
of approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a
system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of
recording information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is
allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary
questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. But this sort
of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much
more difficult and time consuming.
Depth interviews
When a researcher is interested in in-depth investigation of
perceptions, attitudes or motivations of the respondents, an
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

unstructured interview called Depth Interview is conducted. On

account of their flexibility, such interviews help a researcher in asking
probing questions to secure as much information as possible. A
procedure similar to that used by a psychiatrist is followed. The
researcher asks such questions as are appropriate without any formal
questionnaire with him. For example:
o What make of scooter did you buy?
o Did you compare different scooters before buying a
Bajaj?
o What has been your experience with it?
o Is it easy to maintain?
o Is it reliable on busy roads?
o Are you satisfied with its performance?
Thus, the researcher will continue asking questions till he is satisfied.
The main advantages of depth interview are:
1. The researcher is able to access the information that he might
not have otherwise got. Such interview offers flexibility to an
interviewer because it is like an informal discussion between him
and the interviewee on the latters experiences.
2. Depth interviews may lead to motivational pattern wit respect to
a particular brand or other action under investigation.
3. It proves a strong stimulus to the insight of the interviewer.
Disadvantages of dept interview are:
1. Depth interviews lack a systematically defined way of analyzing
the information obtained.
2. The information obtained is non-quantifiable and is based on
human judgment that increases the subjectivity.
3. It needs far more vigilance and training on the part of the
interviewer. In the Indian marketing research context depth
interviews lack popularity because of non-availability of
professional personnel.
4. This method also requires considerable amount of time in
interviewing.
Focus-Group interviews
In this method, the interviewer collects a small number (say about 8
people) of representative consumers for discussion on a particular
subject. A group smaller than this proves to be insufficient for a focus
group. A group, say 10-12 people, is regarded as too large as the
people have to wait for long for their turn to come.
Major advantages of personal interviews are as follows:

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

1) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.

2) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any,
of the respondents.
3) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity
to restructure questions is always there, especially in case of
unstructured interviews.
4) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.
5) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this
method.
6) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no
difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains
very low.
7) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer
the questions.
8) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may
secure the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if
mailed questionnaire is used.
9) The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or
educational level of the person interviewed and as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
10)
The interviewer can collect supplementary information
about the respondents personal characteristics and environment
which is often of great value in interpreting results.
Weaknesses of personal interview method are as follows:
1) It is a very expensive method, especially when large and widely
spread geographical sample is taken.
2) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as
that of the respondent; there also remains the headache of
supervision and control of interviewers.
3) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or
executives or people in high income groups may not be easily
approachable under this method and to that extent the data may
prove inadequate.
4) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when
the sample is large.
5) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate
the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give
imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
6) Under the interview method the organization required for
selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex
with formidable problems.
7) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents
that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very
difficult requirement.
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

For successful implementation of a personal interview:

1) the interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and
briefed. They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, and
impartial and must possess the technical competence and
necessary practical experience.
2) occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
interviewers are neither cheating, nor deviating from instructions
given to them for performing their job efficiently.
3) some provision should also be made in advance so that
appropriate action may be taken if some of the selected
respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available when an
interviewer calls upon them.
4) effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere of trust and
confidence, so that respondents may feel at ease while talking to
and discussing with the interviewer.
5) the interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently and
must record the responses accurately and completely. At the
same time, the interviewer
6) must answer legitimate question(s), if any, asked by the
respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has. The
interviewers approach must be friendly, courteous,
conversational and unbiased.
7) the interviewer must keep the direction of interview in his own
hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and must make all
possible effort to keep the respondent on the track.
Telephone interviews
This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,
but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed
regions.
The chief merits of such a system are:
1) It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2) It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
3) It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost
per response is relatively low.
4) Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5) There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; the non-response is generally very low.
6) Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
7) At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise
cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

8) No field staff is required.

9) Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
Demerits of telephonic interviews are as follows:
1) Little time is given to respondents for considered answers;
interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most
cases.
2) Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities.
3) Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
4) It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answers are required to various questions.
5) Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult
to handle.
3. QUESTIONNAIRE
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of
big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research
workers, private and public organizations and even by governments.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to
respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and
business surveys.
Types of questionnaires
The questionnaires can be classified into two main types:
a) Structured questionnaire
A structured questionnaire is a formal list of questions framed so
as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the questions strictly in
accordance with a pre-arranged order. If, for example, the
marketing researcher is interested in knowing the amount of
expenditure incurred on different types of clothing, i.e. cotton,
woolen or synthetic, by different households classified according
to their income, he may frame a set of questions seeking this
factual information. If the marketing researcher appoints some
interviewers to collect information on his behalf, the interviewers
are expected to adhere to the same order in asking questions as
contained in the questionnaire.
A structured questionnaire can be of two types, namely,
disguised and non-disguised. This classification is based on
whether the object or purpose of the survey is revealed or
undisclosed to the respondent. Thus, a structured-non-disguised
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

questionnaire is one where the listing of questions is in a

prearranged order and where the object of enquiry is revealed to
the respondent. Most marketing research studies use this type of
questionnaire.
In
the
case
of
a
structured-disguised
questionnaire, the researcher does not disclose the object of the
survey. He feels that if the respondent comes to know the object
of the survey, he may not be objective in giving the necessary
information and, as such, its purpose may be defeated.
Questionnaires of this type are known as structured and nondisguised questionnaires.
Advantages of structured questionnaire:
It facilitates the collection of information in a systematic
and orderly manner as the questions have been formulated
in advance.
Since the questions asked by each interviewer happen to
be identical and are asked in the same order, the
information is generally not vitiated on account of the
varying characteristics of the different interviewers.
A structured questionnaire calls for a straightforward and
simple approach on the part of interviewers. As such, even
less qualified interviewers can be deployed in canvassing
such a questionnaire.
Such a questionnaire makes it far easier to edit, tabulate
and interpret the data it contains.
A structured questionnaire can be conveniently pre-tested
so that suitable modifications can be made in the
phraseology of questions or in their sequence or both.
Limitations of a structured questionnaire:
This arises when the respondent is asked questions
concerning personal or motivational aspects.
b) Non-structured questionnaire
A non-structured questionnaire is one in which the questions are
not structured and the order in which they are to be asked from
the respondent is left entirely to the researcher. He asks the
questions in the manner in which he deems fit in a particular
situation. In fact, he may only have certain main points on which
he may develop the questions at the time of the actual interview.
As it will be seen, a non-structured questionnaire is devoid of
rigidity and allows considerable freedom to the researcher is
choosing the order as well as the specific content of questions.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Normally, unstructured questionnaires are used in exploratory

research when some respondents are contacted. It is only
subsequently, on the basis of answers received, that a wellstructured questionnaire is developed. This is because the
interviewer has a better understanding of the problem on hand
only after the exploratory research.
Questionnaires of this type can be split into two sub-types.
Where the purpose of the enquiry is disclosed to the
respondents, the questionnaires are known as non-structured
and non-disguised while in other cases, the questionnaires are
classified as non-structured and disguised questionnaires.
Advantages of unstructured questionnaire:
The interviewer is free to ask probing questions to get at
the key motivational factor or factors.
Such questionnaires facilitate the conducting of interviews
in an informal manner.
They also lend flexibility to the whole process of
interviewing.
Limitations of unstructured questionnaire:
A point worth emphasizing is that in the case of
unstructured questionnaires, the role of the interviewer
becomes far more important as compared to the one when
a structured questionnaire is used. In view of this, more
capable interviewers are required to handle them, which
raise the cost of the survey.
Also, the interviewer needs more time per interview if it is
unstructured. This also enhances the overall cost of the
field survey.
The researcher faces problems while editing and tabulating
an unstructured questionnaire.
Designing a questionnaire
Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey
operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not
properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. A questionnaire
should be designed in such a manner that responses can be easily
tabulated and translated into findings and recommendations that
satisfy the required objectives of the research project.
While designing a questionnaire, one must keep the following
considerations in mind:

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

 FIRST, does it provide the necessary information that is required

for the research project?
SECOND, is it designed for the convenience of the respondents?
THIRD, does it meet coding, editing and data processing
requirements of the research project?
Steps involved in development of a questionnaire
Step1:

Specify what information will be sought.

Must be clear about the information you need to answer
the issues to be addressed in the research project.
Do not try to extract that information which respondents
hesitate in providing either it is too confidential or too
private and personal to be shared with another person.
Try to ask only and the only information that are relevant
for your research; for that one should have absolute clarity
about the research problem.

Step 2:
Determine type of questionnaire and method of
administration.
Structured or unstructured?
Obtaining information through well designed written
questions or through showing pictures and telling stories
about these pictures, or collecting information verbally or
in writing.
Questionnaire will be administered by self, by hired
personnel/agency; through mail; or telephonic interviews
or through internet/email.
Whether interviews will be conducted in phases.
Step 3:

Determine the contents of individual questions

How many questions need to be asked and what all to be
asked in each questions.
Whether related questions should be put under one
question with various sub-questions or should they be
asked as main questions without any sub-questions.
Not try to ask so many things just in one question!
To determine the contents of questions, a researcher
should address the following issues:
o Is the question necessary?
o Are several questions needed instead of one?

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

o Do the respondents have necessary information to

provide?
o Will the respondents like to provide information about
the questions asked?
Step 4:

Determine form of responses to each question

Should the questions asked be in the form of open-ended
questions or close-ended questions? An open-ended
question gives the respondent complete freedom to decide
the form, length and detail of the answer. Open questions
are preferred when the researcher is interested in knowing
what is uppermost in the mind of the respondent.
Should close-ended questions be in the form
dichotomous questions or multiple-choice questions?
o An example of a dichotomous question is:
Do you use tobacco in any way?
Yes
No

of

o An example of a multiple choice question is:

Which of the following brands do you use for washing
clothes?
Surf Excel
Ariel
Rin
Tide
Wheel
Others

Step 5:

Scaled Response Questions: These questions are designed

to capture the intensity of the respondents answers.
Determine wording/ phrasing of each question
Use simple words. Avoid technical jargons.
Avoid any kind of ambiguous words like often, generally,
reasonably etc.
Avoid ambiguous questions.
Lengthy questions should be avoided.
Avoid leading questions: A leading question is one which
attempts to guide the respondents answer. For example:
o Would you like to vote for Mr. Rana Singh, a man who
has criminal background?
Yes/No
o Are you in favour of a balanced budget?
Yes/No
Avoid generalizations and estimates.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Step 6:

Step 7:

Step 8:

Avoid double barreled questions.

One should avoid combining two questions into one. For
example:
o Which of the following modes of transport is cheaper
and more convenient? (i) Train (ii) Bus
It is quite likely that according to the respondent both the
attributes, namely cheapness and convenience may not be
applicable to either of the two modes of transport. One
may be cheaper while the other may be more convenient.
Determine the sequence of questions
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothlymoving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question
to another should be readily apparent to the respondent
You may start with simple and interesting questions.
Start with broad questions and narrow down to more
specific questions - it is called Funnel Approach.
Beginning and ending of a questionnaire may have simple
and less demanding questions and in mid, have more
demanding and serious questions.
Care should be taken to sustain the interest of the
respondent until the last so that he is able to answer
specialized questions in a normal manner without fatigue
and indifference.
Ensure proper placing of branching questions so as to
ensure proper skip pattern.
Place difficult and sensitive information at the end of the
questionnaire.
Put personal information first so as to gain the familiarity
with the respondents.
Determine the layout of questionnaire
Physical appearance of a questionnaire may affect the
cooperation and thus, the quality of responses one can
obtain.
Ensure proper size and layout of a questionnaire.
A questionnaire should not give a feeling of cluttered or
crowded appearance.
It should be properly stapled/bounded and handy.
Reexamine steps 1-7 and revise if necessary

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Step 9:

Pretest questionnaire and revise if necessary

Pre-testing implies that the questionnaire is tried out on a
few respondents and their reaction to the questionnaire is
observed. It helps the researcher decide whether any
changes in the question content or wording are required. If
so, specific changes that are desirable are ascertained and
incorporated in the questionnaire.

Mail Questionnaire
Broadly, there are three types of survey namely, personal, mail and
telephone. As far as the telephone survey is concerned, it is not
commonly used in India. As such, the personal interview and mail
survey are the only two methods. Since a mail survey needs a
questionnaire which should have some additional characteristics, it is
necessary to look into this aspect in some detail.
The merits of collecting information by mailing questionnaires are as
follows:
1. It is much easier to approach a large number of respondents
spread all over the country through post.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought answers.
The quality of answers is, therefore, likely to be superior to that
obtained in the personal interview.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
5. Since a large number of respondents can be approached all over
the country through mail in a short period, a mail questionnaire
saves a lot of time in collecting the desired information.
6. There is a good deal of saving in the total cost of a mail survey
as cost of travelling, boarding and lodging of interviewers is not
to be incurred. This enables the organizers of the survey to
complete the investigation within a limited budget. .
7. Mail questionnaires also avoid the bias arising from any
inhibitions in answering questions. In particular, when questions
are of a personal nature, the respondents may hesitate to answer
them in the presence of an interviewer. This type of inhibition will
not be there if the mail survey is undertaken.
8. Finally, mail questionnaires will not have the problem of noncontacts in the strict sense as might be the case in personal
interviews when the interviewer finds that the respondent, being
away from home, is not available.
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
2. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
3. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of
omissions is difficult.
4. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
5. It is not suitable when questions are difficult and complicated. In
such a case, the help of interviewers is required to offer some
introductory explanation to the respondent.
6. When the researcher is interested in the spontaneous answers of
the respondent or his own answers uninfluenced by others who
may influence his thinking, the mail questionnaire is
inappropriate.
7. In case of mail questionnaires, it is not possible to verify whether
the respondent himself or herself has filled in the questionnaire.
8. The researcher has to accept the answers as they are provided in
the mail questionnaire. In case there is any inconsistency or
ambiguity in the answers, it will be difficult for the researcher to
make use of such a questionnaire. He cannot further probe into
the same to get some additional information or to remove the
inconsistency or ambiguity.
9. A mail questionnaire does not allow the researcher to
supplement the information by his personal observations. That
will be possible only when the questionnaire is canvassed by him
personally.
10.
This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

1.

2.

3.

Comparison between personal interviews and mail

questionnaires
PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
MAIL QUESTIONNAIRES
A limited number of people can Much easier to approach a large
be approached at a time.
number of respondents spread
all over the country through
post.
They are likely to be affected by Free from any interviewers bias
the personal preferences or and errors.
dislikes
of
the
individual
interviewer.
Questions are to be answered on The quality of answers is likely
the spot.
to be superior as respondents
can think over the question
leisurely at home before giving

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

his answer.
4.

Its a time consuming process.

5.

Costlier than mail questionnaires.

6.

Respondents may hesitate to

answer certain questions in the
presence of an interviewer.
Faces the problem of non-contact
when the interviewer finds that
the respondent, being away from
home, is not available.

7.

Since a large number of

respondents can be approached
all over the country through
mail in a short period, a mail
questionnaire saves a lot of
time in collecting the desired
information.
There is a good deal of saving in
the total cost of a mail survey
as cost of travelling, boarding
and lodging of interviewers is
not to be incurred.
They avoid the bias arising from
any inhibitions in answering
questions.
Mail questionnaires will not
have the problem of noncontacts.

4. SCHEDULES
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These
enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and
record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also
remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition
or concept of difficult terms. The enumerators should be trained to
perform their job well. Enumerators should be intelligent and must
possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth.
Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and hardworking and should
have patience and perseverance.
Comparison between questionnaires and schedules
QUESTIONNAIRES
SCHEDULES

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
1
0.

1
1.
1
2.

The questionnaire is generally

sent through mail to the
informants.
To
collect
data
through
questionnaire
is
relatively
cheap and economical.

Non-response is usually high in

case of questionnaire as many
people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire
without
answering
all
questions.
Bias due to non-response often
remains indeterminate.
Identity
of
respondent
is
unknown.
Its likely to be very slow since
many respondents do not
return
the questionnaire in time
despite several reminders.
Personal
contact
with
respondents is generally not
possible.
Can be used only when
respondents are literate and
cooperative.
Wider and more representative
distribution
of
sample
is
possible.
Risk of collecting incomplete
and wrong information is
relatively more.

They are generally filled out by

the research worker or the
enumerator.
To collect data through schedules
is relatively more expensive since
considerable amount of money
has to be spent in appointing
enumerators and in imparting
training to them.
Non-response is generally very
low in case of schedules because
these are filled by enumerators
who are able to get answers to all
questions.
Danger of interviewer bias and
cheating is always there.
Identity of respondent is known.
Information is collected well in
time as they are filled in by
enumerators.
Direct
personal
contact
established with respondents.

is

Information can be gathered even

when the respondents happen to
be illiterate.
Difficulty in sending enumerators
over a relatively wider area.

Information collected is generally

complete
and
accurate
as
enumerators
can remove the difficulties, if any,
faced by respondents in correctly
understanding the questions.
The success of questionnaire The
success
of
schedules
method lies more on the depends upon the honesty and
quality of the questionnaire competence of enumerators.
itself.
Observation is not possible in Along
with
schedules,
this case.
observation method can also be

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

used.
CHOICE OF SURVEY METHOD
Comparison of Survey Methods
Criteria
Personal
Mail
survey
survey
1 Probable response
Fair
Poor
. rate
2 Time required
Slow
Slow
.
3 Cost
High
Low
.
4 Control of sample
Good
Poor
.
5 Quantity of
Good
Limited
. information
6 Quality of information
Good
Fair
.
7 Supervision of field
Fair
None
. work
8 Versatility
Excellent
Fair
.

Telephone
survey
Good
Fast
Low
Excellent
Limited
Excellent
Excellent
Good

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data is data that has been collected by others for another purpose. It is
important to us because it can save considerable time and effort in solving the research
problem at hand. Researchers should always conduct a thorough data search in the
development and execution of any research programme.
USES OF SECONDARY DATA
The uses of secondary data can be conveniently arranged into the following four
categories:
1. Problem recognition: A constant monitoring of secondary data can provide the impetus
for problem recognition. Moreover, exploratory studies maybe initiated to identify future
opportunities or weaknesses in the firm's current operations.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

2. Problem clarification: Secondary data can also fruitfully be used to help clarify the
specific problem that we may be facing. Here, clarification usually means making the
decision problem more reachable by delineating the components of the situation. Another
related use of secondary data is that they can help plan the study design and provide
information to write the research proposal.
3. Formulation of feasible alternatives: Alternatives must exist before decision-making
can take place. Secondary data are very useful in generating viable alternatives to solve
problems. The multiplicity of data sources, research approaches and managerial styles
usually lead to a number of possibilities which should be examined by the researcher.
4. Problem solution: Not only are secondary data helpful in the definition and
development of a problem, they are often sufficient in and of themselves, to generate a
problem's solution.
ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
1. The major advantage of secondary data is economy. As the data are already
available, they can be obtained at a relatively low cost.
2. The secondary data can be obtained quickly.
3. The secondary data enable the researchers to identify the deficiencies in the data
and make primary data collection specific.
4. They are useful in the case of exploratory researches as they provide increased
understanding of the problem.
5. They act as a basis for comparison after primary data are collected.
6. They provide for data which cannot obtained by the typical organization like
census reports.
LIMITATIONS OF SECONDARY DATA
1. The available data may not suit the current purpose of research, due to
incompleteness,
generalities and so on.
2. Information may be outdated or obsolete.
3. The methodology used in collecting the data such as the sample size, date of the
research, etc., may be unknown.
4. All the findings of a research study may not be made public.
5. Conflicting data may exist.
6. It may be difficult to determine the accuracy of the secondary data.
EVALUATING SECONDARY DATA

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

The researcher before using any secondary data has to satisfy himself as to their accuracy
and reliability. He has to evaluate secondary data on the following considerations:
1. Availability: At times, one may find that secondary data are just not available on
the problem at hand. The secondary data must be available for use.
2. Relevance: Relevance means that the data available must fit the requirements of
that problem. This would cover several aspects. First, the unit of measurement
should be the same as that in the marketing problem. Second, the concepts should
be the same as are envisaged in the problem. Also, the data should not be
obsolete.
3. Accuracy: In this regard, one should consult the original source. This would not
only give comprehensive information but would also indiacte the context in which
data have been collected, the procedure followed and the extent of care exercised
in their collecction.
4. Sufficiency: Finally, the data should be sufficient. If the data are inadequate, then
compliance with the preceding requirements will be in vain.

SOURCES OF SECONDARYDATA

Internal Sources
Sources

Accounting
Records

Salesforce
Reports
Government
Publications

Dr. Amit Gupta

Internal
Experts

External

Miscellaneous
Reports
Non-government
Publications

Page

Regular publications
Like census, journals

Ad hoc publications
like enquiry reports

Universities
Industry &
Trade association

Consumer
research
agencies

Syndicate International
Services
publications
Internal sources
Internal sources can be classified under four broad categoriesaccounting records, sales force reports, miscellaneous reports and
internal experts.
Accounting records: These generate a good deal of data. As profits are
based on sales, sales invoice is a good source. Normally, a sales
invoice includes name of the customer, address of the customer, items
ordered, quantities ordered, quantities shipped, discounts allowed,
price charged, total amount of sales and the date of sales. It often
contains information on sales territory, sales representative and
warehouse from which the product was dispatched. Such information
can be extremely useful in undertaking a detailed analysis of sales by
product, customer, industry, geographic area, sales territory and sales
representative. Compared with corresponding data on costs, it can
indicate the level of profits (or loss) for each product. This apart, data
on advertising expenditure along with the time period would also be
available.
Sales force reports: This source can provide very useful marketing
information but somehow it has remained largely untapped. This is
because sales persons may not be giving detailed reports. In order to
ensure that this source is more useful, it is necessary to organize the
system properly. It should be a simple process of reporting the
information. Sales persons may be encouraged to provide accurate and
comprehensive information. Some incentive may be given to those
who report accurately and adequately.
Miscellaneous reports: Any studies done earlier on marketing problems
of the company, special audit, etc. come in this category. Such reports
on varying subjects should be properly maintained and easily
accessible when required.
Experts: Experts working in the company can also be a good source of
internal data. Executives working as product managers, marketing
research managers, public relations personnel and advertising
personnel have specialized knowledge relevant to marketing problems.
Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

However, this source is least tapped. A limitation of this source is that

information is in the experts mind and not on paper. The experts can
provide useful information or ideas on a given marketing problem
whenever a serious discussion is held in a meeting.
External Sources
The external secondary data do not originate in the firm and are
obtained from outside sources. It may be noted that secondary data
can be collected from the originating sources or from, secondary
sources. For example, the Office of the Economic Adviser, Government
of India, is the originating source for the data on wholesale prices. In
contrast, a publication such as the Reserve Bank of India Bulletin
containing some parts of the series of wholesale prices is a secondary
source.
Generally, the originating source of external secondary data should be
preferred on account of several reasons. First, the originating source is
more likely to explain the object and procedure of data collection.
Second, the originating source is more likely to present all the data,
whereas a secondary source may present a part of such data,
depending on its requirement or convenience. Finally, the originating
source would be more accurate as each additional repeating source of
secondary data presents another possible source of error.

Government Publications: A large bulk of secondary data useful to a

marketing researcher is found in various government publications. To
begin with, the Registrar General of India conducts a population census
throughout the country every ten years and brings out demographic
data in voluminous reports. These publications provide perhaps the
most basic source of information useful to the marketing researcher.
The data relate to various characteristic such as the break-up of
population by sex, rural urban residence, age, education and
occupation. While it is true that these statistics are available only
decennially, they are the most authentic and are often used as the
basis for projection for future years.

The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) brings out statistics of

national income. Its major publication, National Accounts
Statistics is brought out once a year and contains estimates of
national income for several years. The figures are given
separately for major economic activities such as agriculture,
industry, trade, transport, etc. Besides this, the estimates of

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

saving, capital formation and consumption expenditure, together

with national and public sector accounts are given.

The Director General of Commercial Intelligence, Government of

India, brings out from Calcutta, monthly statistics of the foreign
trade of India. The statistics are contained in two separate
volumes one for the export trade and the other for the import
trade. These statistics are compiled on a very comprehensive
basis, covering a very large number of products and are
extremely useful in undertaking region wise, country wise or
product wise studies on the prospects of foreign trade. They also
provide historical data over a long period, thus enabling the
researchers to study the changing composition of Indias foreign
trade over a chosen period.

The Wholesale Price Index numbers are constructed by the Office

of the Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
Government of India. This is a weekly series and it is revised
from time to time so as to make it representative of all the
products. The present series uses 1993-94 as the base year. The
products covered are food articles, food grains, non-food grains,
minerals, fuel, power, light and lubricants, various manufactured
products such as textiles, chemicals, metal, machinery and
transport equipment.

All-India Consumer Price Index numbers for (a) industrial

workers, (b) urban non-manual employees, and (c) agricultural
labourers.

Some other official publications include the:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Basic Statistics relating to the Indian Economy, which is an

annual publication of the Planning Commission. It contains
data on various aspects of the economy for several years.
Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, which is a monthly journal
dealing with all aspects of the economy in general, and
currency and finance in particular.
Currency Finance Report, which is an annual publication
brought out by the Reserve Bank of India.
The Economic Survey, which is an annual publication of the
Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance,
Government of India. It is published on the eve of the
presentation of the national budget and contains a detailed
review of the different sectors of the economy. Detailed
statistics are also given in the publication.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

(v)

Agricultural Situation in India, which is a monthly journal of

the Directorate of Economics and Statistics of the Ministry
of Agriculture, Government of India. It contains current
statistics and articles on the assessment of the agricultural
situation in the country and the states.
(vi) The Indian Labour Journal, which is a monthly journal of the
Labour Bureau, publishes statistics on price indices,
employment, wages and earnings, absenteeism, etc.
(vii) The Indian Labour Year Book, which is an annual
publication, contains detailed statistics on wages and
earnings, cost of living, industrial relations, labour welfare
and industrial housing.
(viii) State Statistical Abstracts and District Statistical
Handbooks, which are published by various State
Statistical Bureau, publish statistical abstracts for their
states.

National Sample Survey (NSS), which was set up by the

Government of India in the Ministry of Planning in 1950. The
objective of setting up this organization was to obtain social,
economic, demographic, industrial and agricultural statistics on a
comprehensive and continuing basis.

Non-government Publications:

National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), which is

a premier research institution in applied economics in India. The
NCAER studies are The Great Indian Market (2005) and the
Great Indian Middle Class (2004). The GIM gives information on
consumer purchasing patterns and product preferences such as:
Who owns what, where and why?
What products are consumers buying?
What does the future hold for your market?
How are preferences likely to change in urban and rural
areas by 2010?
Where can you source the most recent information on
products after census 2001?

The Marketing Whitebook published by Business World. The

publication covers a wide variety of marketing data under eight
different sections, each of which contains the latest data relating
to that section. For example, data on consumer psychographics,
emerging consumer markets, product penetration in Indian
households, emergence of rural markets, etc. are given in
relevant sections.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

The R.K Swamy BBDO Guide to Urban Markets provides a

rigorous explanatory framework. It provides a simple way of
indexing market potential across different towns, aggregated into
states and regions. It has developed the market intensity index
(MIl), which is a good indicator of the character of the market.

Besides these three major sources of marketing information,

there are a number of private organizations which bring out
statistics. For example, the Indian Cotton Mills Federation brings
out statistics on the cotton textile industry. Likewise, the annual
report of the Bombay Mill Owners Association contains the latest
statistics on the working of the member units.

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)

is associated Chamber of Commerce and Industry of India, IndoAmerican Chamber of Commerce, etc. These chambers or their
federations occasionally bring out memoranda dealing with a
specific industry and its problems.

Syndicated Services: Syndicated services are provided by certain

organizations, which collect and tabulate marketing information on a
continuing basis. Reports based on the marketing information collected
by such organizations are sent periodically (weekly, monthly, or
quarterly) to clients who are subscribers. Syndicated services are
normally designed to suit the requirements of many individuals or
firms. Such services are particularly useful in the spheres of TV
viewing, magazine readership, and the movement of consumer goods
through retail outlets.
Syndicated services may be regarded as an intermediate source
falling between the primary and secondary sources. This is because
they possess the characteristics of both types of sources. As such
services are based on data collected specifically by the organization
from original sources and since they are current in nature, the data
may be called primary. On the other hand syndicated data may be
regarded as secondary data as they are collected by an independent
organization for purposes of sale to a large number of firms.
Consumer Research Services: It goes to the credit of these agencies
that some of the studies conducted by them were of pioneering nature,
involving the development of appropriate concepts as well as sampling
and measurement techniques. They have a large field set-up
supported by full-time investigators in different parts of the country
having several years of professional experience.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page

Publications of International Organization: So far the discussion was

confined to national organizations. There are several international
organizations that publish statistics in their respective areas. Some of
these organizations publish data on India along with that of other
countries. The main advantage of such data is that international
comparisons can be drawn.

Dr. Amit Gupta

Page