Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section 1:
Definitions and Historical
Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Section overview
This section introduces participants to the concept of cultural diversity through
providing definitions of terminology used when discussing cultural diversity; considering
some of the historical events in Australia relating to immigration patterns; and providing
a snapshot of Australian demographics relating to cultural diversity in Australia today.
We also introduce the concept of social justice as a current framework for understanding
cultural diversity.

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

define and use key terminology related to cultural diversity

relate migration patterns to immigration settlement policies

outline the impact of key historical events in Australia and how they have shaped
cultural diversity in Australia

recognise the demographic characteristics of Australia

define social justice in the context of Australian migrants

describe some of the paradoxes of globalisation

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section Contents
Section requirements ..................................................................................................................... 1
Orientation to this module ........................................................................................................... 2
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
Cultural diversity ............................................................................................................................ 3
Immigration .................................................................................................................................... 4
Historical perspective of cultural diversity ................................................................................. 6
Demography .................................................................................................................................10
Social justice ..................................................................................................................................13
Globalisation .................................................................................................................................16
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................17

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Section requirements
Activities
There are five activities in this section.

Textbook
There is no set textbook for this module.

Readings
There are three readings for this section. You will find them in the readings
pack for this module:
1.

Moir-Bussy, A., & Sullivan, B. (2007). Culture and diversity in

counselling. In N. Pelling, R. Bowers, & R. Armstrong (Eds.), The
practice of counselling (pp. 160-181). Melbourne: Thomson.

2.

Yusuf, I. (2009, March 31). Australian Muslims not a monolith. The

Sydney Morning Herald, 11.

3.

Gannon, M. (2008). Globalisation and culture. In Paradoxes of culture and

globalisation (pp. 190-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Self-Assessment
Please complete the self-assessment questions at the end of this section to test
your understanding and knowledge against the objectives stated in this section.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Orientation to this module

Difference is of the essence of humanity. Difference is an accident of birth and it
should therefore never be the source of hatred or conflict. The answer to
difference is to respect it. Therein lies a most fundamental principle of peace:
respect for diversity (Hume, 1998, as cited in Khurana, 2009, para. 11).
This module provides a broad overview of cultural diversity in Australia from both a
historical perspective and through analysis of current demographics. By understanding
key terminology and socio-cultural theories, students will develop a deeper understanding
of the importance of cultural diversity to Australian society as well as the issues faced by
those from other cultures.
Throughout this module, students are expected to develop cross-cultural sensitivity and
awareness, as well as effective inter-cultural communication skills for working with
diversity in organisational and counselling settings.
Remember that when we refer to cultural diversity, we are referring to any group that
identifies itself as a minority or different to the prevailing, dominant culture. In this
section we will discuss the following groups: immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers.
Other groups that exist in our society and workplaces include: the socially disadvantaged,
rural, gay or lesbian, aged Australians and the disabled. In your professional reading you
may also find the term CALD to refer to Cultural and Linguistic Diversity.
Principles outlined in this section may apply to these groups.

Activity 1.1
If you are an overseas student, please answer the following questions as
appropriate for your situation.

1.

List three reasons why it is important for you to understand the history,
key socio-cultural theories and terminology relating to cultural diversity
in Australia.

2.

Write two objectives (knowledge or skills) you would like to gain as a

result of completing Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives
of Cultural Diversity

3.

List a topic regarding approaches to cultural diversity that you find

interesting and would like to see covered, at some point, in the module.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Introduction
Australia is a nation of many nationalities. This section focuses on the movement of
peoples to Australia, resulting in the cultural diversity we see today.
We begin with an overview of cultural diversity and immigration that introduces important
concepts, and terminology. Using correct definitions will provide us with a common basis
for understanding our world and will ensure meaningful dialogue in personal or
professional settings. This focus on terminology will continue throughout the module.
The second topic provides a historical perspective to cultural diversity in Australia by
looking at the movement of people to Australia and the impact of the most significant
immigration policies on cultural diversity. Indigenous Australia is a critical component of
Australias cultural diversity; however, given its importance and complexity it will be
addressed and explored in depth, in a later section of the module.
The third topic studies some of the most recent Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
information which paints an accurate picture of our current cultural diversity.
The final topic explores social justice, which to a great extent characterises Australias
current approach to cultural diversity.

Cultural diversity
Simply put, cultural diversity refers to the array of differences among groups of people
with definable and unique cultural backgrounds (Diller, 2007, p. 4). Cultural diversity is
a society composed of people from many cultural and linguistic groups. This term is
frequently used to mean multiethnic, multifaith or multilingual in the Australian context.
Jerry Diller (2007) defines an ethnic group as:
any distinguishable group whose members share a common culture and see
themselves as separate and different from the majority culture. The observable
differences whether physical, racial, cultural, or geographic frequently serve as
a basis for discrimination and unequal treatment of a minority ethnic group
within the larger society (p. 4).

The nation state and diversity

Within almost all countries there is an existing level of diversity be it ethnic, religious,
linguistic, or regional differences.
The homogeneous society is largely a construct of 18th and 19th century European
political philosophy. The concept of the independent nation state was characterised by a
belief in a unity of language and culture, though not always religion. For example, in
Britain the ideology of the Anglo-Saxon English speaker emerged and other languages
and dialects were suppressed, reviled or ridiculed, for example, the Gaelic languages and
northern English accents.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Likewise, in the post-colonial era, many Asian countries used similar approaches to their
developing national identities. Hostilities in the former Soviet Republic point to the
enduring nature of diversity in all its forms and the consequences of both its repression
and resurgence in a militant form. Likewise in Zimbabwe, with the dispossession of
white settlers who have lived in Zimbabwe for generations as lawful citizens.
The model of nationalism and national identity means that new immigrants are expected
to renounce, for the most part, their traditional cultures on arrival. This process is
known as assimilation.
Integration is the maintaining of important aspects of ones culture whilst fitting into the
overarching legal and social framework of the host society. As the civic processes have
changed, so too have other institutional forms, such as management and counselling theory
and practice. Again, these issues will be explored further in this module.

Immigration
Immigration is a fact of modern history and modern society. There are few, if any,
countries in the world that can claim they do not have immigrants living within their
boundaries, or at the very least asylum seekers, refugees and transient (even illegal)
workers from other countries.
The number of international migrants continues to grow. For example, in 1996, Stephen
Cranby (1996) estimated that international migration resulted in 125 million people living
in countries not of their birth. In 2005, the International Integration and Refugee
Association estimated 190 million international migrants, about three per cent of global
population. The Middle East, some parts of Europe, small areas of South East Asia and
a few spots in the West Indies have the highest numbers of immigration population
recorded by the UN Census 2005 (US Law, 2009).
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that in
December 2006 there was a global population of 8.8 million registered refugees and as
many as 24.5 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) in more than 50 countries.
The actual global population of refugees is probably closer to 10 million, given the
estimated 1.5 million Iraqi refugees displaced throughout the Middle East (Central
Intelligence Agency, 2009).

Categories of immigration
Each individual country has its own specific categories of immigration which are used by
government officials to accept or reject immigrants. Whilst there have been
recommendations and attempts to update the definitions provided by the 1951 United
Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, and modified by its 1967
protocol, the following definitions remain commonly accepted.

Immigrants: refers to people who are immigrating to a country other than that of
their origin or usual place of residence, on either a permanent or temporary basis.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Refugees: refers to any person who is outside his or her country of origin or
habitual residence and is unable or unwilling to return there owing to: a wellfounded fear of persecution; and serious and indiscriminate threats to life, physical
integrity, or freedom resulting from generalised violence or events seriously
disturbing public order.

Asylum seekers: are those seeking international protection. In some countries an

asylum seeker is someone whose claim has not yet been finally decided on by the
country in which he or she has submitted it. Not every asylum seeker will
ultimately be recognised as a refugee, but every refugee is initially an asylum-seeker.

Although refugees are increasingly confused with other migrants, the difference is, in
principle, quite clear. Refugees do not choose to leave their countries, but are forced to do
so out of a fear of persecution. By contrast, other migrants decide to leave of their own
volition, for instance, to improve their economic situation or because of family links.
There are also emigrants, who are people emigrating from their country of origin or
usual place of residence, and internally displaced persons who are still within their
country of origin, but have been displaced from their usual place or area of residence.
The term migrants is commonly used instead of immigrants or emigrants. It is not
incorrect, as such, but it is less specific than the two terms it replaces.
The term humanitarian refers to immigrants who are accepted because of specific
occurrences. They may be people living in a country where there is civil war, or an area
where their homes have been destroyed by a major natural disaster.
In 2008, the highest number of visas granted in Australia were to students (278,184) and
economic migrants (108,542) compared to only 13,014 visas for humanitarian reasons
(including refugees) (Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2008). These
statistics, at least in part, reflect the socio-political values we place on the different
categories of migrants.
Notice that throughout this module we do not refer to race as a distinguishing
characteristic. Even though the term is commonly used, there is by definition only one
race, the human race. As Tucker (1987) states:
Following UNESCO gatherings of leading scientists in Paris between 1947 and
1950, it was concluded that for all practical purposes race is not so much a
biological phenomenon as a social myth (p. 17).
All other differences between human beings can be ascribed to ethnicity. Ethnicity
refers to differences in all of the following: cultural practices, religion, language, and a
notion of shared history. Interestingly, in Australia, it was not until the 2001 census that
data about peoples ancestry, ethnicity and identity was collected.

Immigrant labour
The international flow of labour is not a new development. For example, the migration
and settlement of overseas Chinese communities to countries, including Australia, in the
nineteenth century was largely a result of labour shortages and discontentment. The
destruction caused by World War II created huge numbers of refugees and displaced
persons, many of whom migrated to the Americas, South Africa and Australia.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

This pattern has come to characterise many economies, especially the more affluent
economies. For example, today Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States have tens of thousands
of guest workers from countries including Pakistan, India, Indonesia and the Philippines.
1n 2008, Australia approved a similar guest worker scheme with South Pacific countries
such as Vanuatu, Tonga, Papua New Guinea and Kiribati participating. The scheme
aims to provide employment for our neighbours and resolve a labour shortage in regional
Australia. However, with the current global financial crisis (as at 2009), these schemes
may not continue.

Activity 1.2
Consider your countrys historical national identity and what its identity is
today. Include a brief comparison between historical and current categories
of immigration. How might the current trends impact on your work as a
practitioner?
If you live in Australia, you are likely to have noted how our national identity has
changed from a rural identity based on convict and rural heritage where Australia rode
on the sheeps back and most migrants were from England to an Australia where most
people live near the coast in cities and large towns and come from many different
countries. Many people do not come as planned migrants but as refugees. These trends
will impact on your work because people will have different values and expectations,
languages, and communication styles.
We will be looking at these issues throughout this module.

Historical perspective of cultural diversity

Since immigration settlement programs began in 1881, Australia has had various changes
in social policy, which have influenced our sense of national identity and the way we view
different cultures.

Immigration policies
Since 1945, it is estimated that over six million people from over 250 countries have
migrated and settled in Australia (MacLeod, 2006). The immigration program has gone
through many stages during this time, including assimilation, integration, and
multiculturalism. We will look at each of these in turn.

White Australia policy

In 1901, an Immigration Restriction Act, known as the white Australia policy was
designed to exclude non-whites from migrating to Australia. White Australia was made up
of 95% British and Irish ancestry, with a Christian, predominantly non-Catholic spiritual
base. English was the main language spoken, and political and legal institutions were
British influenced. People who were non-British (and later non-European) were excluded
from entry through applying discriminatory selection criteria. It was widely believed that
non-British immigration would threaten national identity and social cohesion.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

This policy had a tremendous impact and stimulated the phenomena known as
xenophobia, which is a strong dislike or distrust of foreigners. Immigrants from areas
outside Britain were discouraged. The White Australia policy was gradually abolished
over a period of twenty-five years, with the final vestiges being removed, only in 1973, by
Whitlams Labor Government.

Reading
Moir-Bussy, A., & Sullivan, B. (2007). Culture and diversity in counselling. In
N. Pelling, R. Bowers, & R. Armstrong (Eds.), The practice of counselling
(pp. 160-181). Melbourne: Thomson.
This reading provides an overview of the multicultural debate through
reflecting on topics that will be explored throughout this module, Approaches
to Cultural Diversity. Topics include ethical imperatives for counsellors,
counselling and multiculturalism, globalisation, and social justice.

Assimilation 1947 to mid 1960s

From 1947 Australias immigration settlement strategy was based on the policy of
assimilation. Immigrants of non-English speaking backgrounds were expected to divorce
themselves completely from their own culture and be absorbed into the majority culture
and become culturally indistinguishable from the Anglo Saxon/Celtic population.
Unemployed migrants were housed in camps if they had no local relatives or sponsors.
Australias policy was to ensure that European immigrants became permanent settlers but
that they did not differ too much from the average Australian. It was also important that
immigrants provided labour for national projects and that ethnic enclaves were avoided.
The Adult Migrant English Program was started in 1947 to teach English. Schools did
not allow children of migrants to speak other languages, thus the school had a key role in
forcing people to speak English from the onset of their migration (Castles, 1992). Also
important during this phase was the Good Neighbour movement which began in 1949.
Charitable and religious organisations worked with immigrants to provide assistance,
whilst supporting the assimilation policies.
The result of the assimilation policy was that immigrants felt isolated and many lived in
relative poverty (Castles, 1992). This was especially true if the following events occurred:

failure of their children to do well at school

family breakdown

lack of support in learning English

illness in the family

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Integration the mid 1960s to 1972

The need to attract new immigrants, including those who would not necessarily be
European or English speaking, resulted in another policy change. Included in the 170,000
migrants entering Australia during this phase was a large number of Asian immigrants.
The Australian Government recognised the importance of ethnic organisations in
helping the process of resettlement and integration. According to James Jupp (1992), the
settlement arrangements for migrants had the following objectives:

to alleviate the material problems of new settlers

to house them

to teach them basic linguistic and cultural skills so they could integrate into the
majority society

to ensure basic health

to equip them with skills and attitudes for surviving as free settlers
The program also aimed to influence public opinion: to persuade Australians that
immigrants would make good New Australians; to argue that working
conditions and housing for Australians would not be adversely affected by
immigrants; to impress on aliens the need to assimilate rapidly to Australian
culture; and to stress that refugee migration was an expedient which did not
challenge the established principle of attracting settlers from Britain (Kutz, 1988,
as cited in Jupp, 1992, p. 131).

Multiculturalism 1972 to today

Multiculturalism is not defined in terms of cultural pluralism or minority rights, but in
terms of the cultural, social, and economic rights of all citizens in a democratic state.
Multiculturalism is not limited to immigrants and those people who speak languages
other than English.
The first phase of multiculturalism was to assert migrant rights. Under the Whitlam Labor
Government, non-discriminatory criteria for entry into Australia were adopted. At the
same time, the extra privileges for British settlers were abolished and specialised services
were provided for migrants, including telephone translators. Migrants were involved in the
planning and implementation of ethnic organisations, which led to a migrant rights
movement and the formation of Ethnic Communities Councils in all states of Australia
(Castles, 1992). By 1973, the term multiculturalism had been introduced and migrant
groups were forming state and national associations to maintain their cultures and promote
the survival of their languages and heritages within mainstream institutions.
In 1975, the government under the Liberal-Country Party Coalition responded to the
Indonesian-Chinese crisis and allowed entry to a significant number of refugees from
Asia. A new emphasis called cultural pluralism was adopted which challenged the
assimilation theory that still reigned as the conventional wisdom about migrants
(MacLeod, 2006).

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Under Bob Hawke, the ALP Government in 1986 increased the intake of immigrants to
stimulate economic growth. The slogans of this phase of multiculturalism were
participation, access and equity for people with ethnic backgrounds. However, as
Australias economic structures became strained, people began to question the
expenditures on multicultural services and the fear of an Asianised Australia surfaced.
In 1989, the Labor Government, with opposition support, produced the National
Agenda for a Multicultural Australia. This was followed by a review in 1999 and the
establishment of a Council for Multicultural Australia (CMA) in 2000 to implement the
new agenda and raise awareness and understanding of multiculturalism.

Current multicultural policy

The governments current multicultural policy statement, Multicultural Australia: United
in Diversity was issued on May 13, 2003 and reaffirms the fundamental principles of the
New Agenda for Multicultural Australia. The following text is sourced from the
Department of Immigration and Citizenship. There are four principles that underpin
multicultural policy.

Responsibilities of all: all Australians have a civic duty to support those basic
structures and principles of Australian society which guarantee us our freedom and
equality and enable diversity in our society to flourish.

Respect for each person: subject to the law, all Australians have the right to
express their own culture and beliefs and have a reciprocal obligation to respect the
right of others to do the same.

Fairness for each person: all Australians are entitled to equality of treatment and
opportunity. Social equity allows us all to contribute to the social, political, and
economic life of Australia.

Benefits for all: all Australians benefit from the significant cultural, social, and
economic dividends arising from the diversity of our population. Diversity works
for all Australians.

However, racism and xenophobia remain a cause of distress and suffering for migrants
from several ethnic and racial backgrounds. This will be further discussed in the section
on inclusion and exclusion. In addition, the integration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islanders has been slow, undermining the goals of multiculturalism. This will be
discussed further in Section 9.

Activity 1.3
1.

As an Australian practitioner or manager, have you experienced a

reduction in the four principles that underpin our multicultural policy
due to the current global financial crisis? Please provide examples.

2.

If you are an overseas student, identify any policies relating to cultural

diversity. Does your country have a multicultural policy? If so, how
does it compare to Australias?

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

You may have noticed that people are less tolerant of people from other cultural
backgrounds during the current global financial crisis. This may be because they fear that
allowing more migrants into the country threatens the jobs of other Australians. This
intolerance may manifest itself as lack of respect and, at its worst, discrimination and
racism.

Demography
Jeffrey Alexander and Kenneth Thompson (2008) define demography as:
The study of the growth, size, composition, distribution, and movement of the
human population (p. 505).
The following information is taken from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS)
website, which offers the most up-to-date figures available on all areas of Australian life.
Please note, the most recent census was done in 2006, however the ABS website does
carry out regular (weekly) statistical and reference information updates. The information
provided below, other than Australias resident population, is based on the 2006 census.

Components of population growth

The population of Australia has more than doubled in the last fifty years, from 9.4
million in 1956 to 21.5 million in 2009. According to the ABS:
Natural increase has been the main component of population growth in Australia
over this period, contributing around 60% of the total increase. Net overseas
migration, while a significant source of growth, is more volatile, fluctuating under
the influence of government policy as well as political, economic and social
conditions in Australia and the rest of the world (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2006, para. 6).
The following table shows yearly growth due to natural increase and net overseas
migration from 1956 to 2006.
Figure 1: Components of population growth

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008a, December). Australian demographic statistics. Retrieved August
21, 2009, from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3101.0

10

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

There has also been a diversification of Australias migrant population over the past
twenty years. While many of the source countries of migrants to Australia have remained
the same (especially the United Kingdom and New Zealand), there have also been
significant changes, including large increases in numbers of people born in Asian
countries, including China. In 1985-1986, Sudan was ranked seventy-fifth as a source of
settlers to Australia, and had climbed to seventh in 2005-2006. Conversely, Vietnam,
which was ranked third in 1985-1986, fell to tenth in 2005-2006.
The 2006 Census showed that 26% of people born in Australia had at least one overseasborn parent. These people are classified as second generation Australians. The number
of people who are overseas-born varies between the states. New South Wales has the
highest percentage, followed by Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia. This has
not changed since the previous census in 2002.

Activity 1.4
Note: If you are an overseas student, look at your countrys most recent
census and answer the following questions based on your countrys census
statistics over the past ten years. Consider changes to:

yearly growth due to natural increase and overseas migration

main countries of migrants birth

languages spoken by migrants

Australian students should base answers on the information provided above

from the 2006 Census.
1.

What major changes in Australian demographics can you identify in the

last sixty years?

2.

Why do you think there is a large variation in demographic proportions

between each state of Australia?

3.

What fluctuations can you see in Australias demographics due to

economic and social conditions in Australia and the rest of the world?
In particular, consider the current global recession.

Major changes you may have listed probably include the greater numbers of people from
Asia, parts of the Middle East and now parts of Africa. The large variation in
demographic proportions tends to occur because of family migration patterns, and
people choosing to settle in areas in which there are already people with similar cultural
backgrounds, religion, or language.
The current global recession and political problems, including civil war, are two major
impacts on global people movement with an increase in boat people arriving in Australia,
primarily from the Middle East and Sri Lanka.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

11

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Languages
Although English is Australia's national language, the cultural diversity within the
population has resulted in over two hundred languages being spoken in the community,
including more than sixty different languages spoken by Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Australians.
In 2006, the six most commonly spoken languages other than English were Italian,
Greek, Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin and Vietnamese. Greek, Arabic and Italian speakers
had the largest proportions of Australian-born speakers, reflecting the fact that these
languages were mainly brought to Australia more than twenty years ago and have been
maintained among the children of those migrants. Languages spoken by migrants
arriving in Australia more recently, such as Mandarin and Filipino, had a smaller
proportion of Australian-born speakers.

Religion
Whilst it is hard to provide a precise definition of religion, the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (1998) notes that religion can be regarded as:
A set of beliefs and practices, usually involving acknowledgment of a divine or
higher being or power, by which people order the conduct of their lives both
practically and in a moral sense (para. 6).
As Australias population grows in numbers and diversity, so do the religious groups
represented. Unfortunately, while religion is a source of meaning and comfort to people,
it has also been the cause of many of the worlds wars and conflicts. At an everyday
level, it is also the source of a great deal of misunderstanding and prejudice.
The number and percentage of affiliates for each religion at the 2001 and 2006 censuses
on population and housing show that followers of religions other than Christianity have
experienced the largest proportional increases since the 2001 census. The number of
persons affiliated with Buddhism increased by 17%, with Hinduism by 55%, Islam 21%
and Judaism 5% by 2001 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008a).

Reading
Yusuf, I. (2009, March 31). Australian Muslims not a monolith. The Sydney
Morning Herald, 11.
This recent article highlights how different cultural groups face prejudice and
discrimination at different points in history. In the late 1980s, fear and
intolerance towards people with AIDs was prevalent. Today, fear of the Islam
religion has resulted in negative stereotypes of Moslems coming to Australia.

12

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

The ageing population

The age of migrants was first identified as a significant factor in the 1991 Census. The
population of people born overseas is today generally older than that of the Australianborn population. This reflects the past immigration selection policies which favoured
people within a limited age band.
Forty years after the commencement of Australias mass immigration program,
many of the numerically large groups from Northern and Southern Europe are
ageing (Wooden, Holton, Hugo, & Sloan, 1994, p. 5).
It is projected that the overseas-born population aged sixty years and over is growing
steadily. The largest group is projected to be from Indo-China. Due to good health
practices, other large groups will be those from Greece, Yugoslavia, the Middle East,
and Germany.
In the 12 months to June 30, 2008, the number of people aged 85 years and over
increased by 20,700 people (6.0%) to reach 364,900. Over the past two decades, the
number of elderly people increased by 165%, compared with a total population growth
of 29% over the same period. Increased life expectancy for both males and females has
contributed to this rise. There were almost twice as many females (241,700) than males
(123,100) in this age group at June 30, 2008, which reflects the higher life expectancy at
birth for females compared with males (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008b).
This trend in turn impacts on labour availability. The ageing population and the acute
skills shortage that is predicted as a result of this, have highlighted the role migration will
play in the economic and demographic future of Australia.

Social justice
In the early years of migration, people were expected to fit in. Later, it was seen that
migrants have varied needs because of their migration experience, cultural isolation, and
resettlement. Hence, they may need special recognition in terms of access to services,
rights, access, equity, and participation in areas such as education and employment.
Over time, the notion of access and equity has increased in significance. Today, all
states and territories are committed to the principle of access and equity with each state
and territory having an Office of Multicultural Affairs (or equivalent) providing strategic
advice on issues affecting people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.
Together with the Australian Multicultural Advisory Council, they attempt to ensure that
people from culturally diverse backgrounds, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples, have equal access to all services in Australia, are able to express and
share their cultural heritage within legal and social frameworks and contribute to, and
participate in, all levels of public life without prejudice or discrimination.
Unfortunately, these ideals are not always achieved. Nonetheless, whilst it has been
difficult to persuade organisations to change their practices and services to cater for all
clients, today, government departments (or organisations accredited by government
agencies) are required to commit to access and equity for clients and customers
through their policies, procedures, and work practices. Indeed, many organisations, in
both the private and public sectors, approach access and equity in terms of corporate
social responsibility.
Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

13

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

The importance placed on access and equity, at all levels of government, recognises the
value of residents who speak languages other than English as being a commodity from
which we need to draw for the development of the state. This places a large obligation
on service providers within government public institutions to provide equitable and
accessible service. This is a complex task. It involves long-term challenges of beliefs and
prejudices which have been entrenched for a long period of time.

Humanitarian programs
Australia signed the 1951 United Nations Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to
the status of refugees. The Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC)
coordinates these commitments.
There have been many changes to Australias humanitarian programmes. For example,
in 2000, the Temporary Humanitarian Concern visa was introduced for people from
Kosovo and East Timor who had been in Australia on safe haven visas. This visa
meant they could remain in Australia and receive medical attention until they were able to
return to their home country. In 2000-2001, some 164 Temporary Humanitarian
Concern visas were granted primarily to people from the countries of former Yugoslavia,
Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia, the Middle East, and South-West Asia, including Iraq,
Afghanistan and Iran, and parts of Africa including the Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia.
The current Humanitarian Program has two components.

The onshore (asylum or protection) component: offers protection to people in

Australia who meet the refugee definition in the United Nations Refugees
Convention.

The offshore (resettlement) component: offers resettlement for people outside

Australia who are in need of humanitarian assistance.

The number of applications for resettlement is far greater than the visas available each
program year. For instance, in 2007 to 2008, more than 47,000 people applied for visas
and less than half were granted.
In May 2008 the Government instituted an increase in the humanitarian program to
13,500 places for 2008-2009. Africa, the Middle East and Asia will remain priority
regions (Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2008).

Asylum seekers
Some refugees enter and stay in Australia without valid visas. Until the time they are
granted a visa, they are referred to as asylum seekers. Before 1989, there were around
five hundred applications for asylum from people who were already in Australia. Then,
in 1989, primarily due to the Tiananmen Square massacre, there was a huge increase in
applications, with 16,248 applications between 1990 and 1991.
Between 2000 and 2001, 1,508 people were refused entry at Australias airports. Over
4,000 people, on fifty-four boats, arrived without authority from countries including Iraq,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Bangladesh, China, and Turkey. They included
doctors, clerical workers, mechanics, self employed and the unemployed (Department of
Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, 2001). More recently, there have been increasing
numbers from Afghanistan and Iraq in response to increasing instability in the region.
14

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Australias Refugee and Humanitarian Program offers protection to asylum seekers (or
illegal immigrants) who are found to be owed Australias protection under the United
Nations 1951 Convention and relevant Australian laws.
People who arrive in Australia without proper documentation are kept in detention
centres while their case for asylum is being investigated.
The issue of mandatory detention caused much controversy during the Liberal Coalition
Government, under John Howard, who took a very hard-lined stance towards asylum
seekers. His attitudes towards asylum seekers was epitomised by his 2001 comment We
will decide who comes to this country and the circumstances in which they come,
following an incident with asylum seekers which attracted world-wide attention.

Case Study: Tampa

In 2001, a Norwegian cargo ship named the Tampa sparked a diplomatic
dispute between Australia, Norway, and Indonesia, as well as worldwide
controversy when it came to the aid of 438 asylum seekers whose dilapidated
fishing boat started to sink 85 nautical miles off the Australian territory of
Christmas Island.
Border security loomed large in the public consciousness as refugees from the
Taliban in Afghanistan and Saddam Husseins Iraq sought to flee to asylum in
countries around the world.
Rather than explaining the reasons for their flight, the Government, at that
time, on the eve of the 2001 election, refused the refugees rescued by the
Tampa entry to Australian territory. Shortly afterwards the Federal
Government announced that unauthorised arrivals by boat into Australia
would be processed in offshore detention centres on Nauru, Manus and
Christmas Island, aiming to keep them out of sight and out of mind. This
came to be known as the Pacific Solution.
The Tampa case study above exemplifies how global geopolitical events, including war
and terrorism, can impact on our perceptions of certain cultural groups and hence our
willingness to embrace cultural diversity. The trend of an ageing migrant population will
also impact on practitioners working in culturally diverse environments.
The current Labor Government whilst still committed to effective border security moved
rapidly to end the Pacific Solution and close the offshore processing centres in Nauru
and Manus Province (Papua New Guinea) with the last group of refugees departing
Nauru for resettlement in Australia in early 2008. In response to the continuing
downward trend in the numbers of people being detained, several onshore detention
facilities have been closed. In addition, a community detention program was established
in 2006 that allows children and their families, unaccompanied minors, and people with
special needs to live in the community while their immigration status is resolved.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

15

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Globalisation
Globalisation is included as a topic in this section because of the impact it has had and
will continue to have on global migration, emigration and immigration, which in turn
influence the management of cultural diversity in the community and at work.
The term globalisation is used differently in different contexts. However, as Mead (2005)
cautions, it should not be interpreted as simply the expansion of trade and capitalism
between different counties. However it is defined, it is eroding the influence of national
borders and changing international relations between countries. Simply put, globalisation
has come about because of the internationalisation of financial systems and production
and the sophistication of information technologies.
Globalisation is a widely used term that often implies that because countries trade with
each other they are growing more alike. However greater interaction and inter-dependency
does not mean that we are becoming more alike. Superficial similarities such as
multinational services and companies and modes of fashion should not as Andrew DuBrin,
Carol Dalglish, and Peter Miller (2006) note that the underlying value system may be very
different and relatively unaffected by globalisation (p. 139). In fact, it appears that as the
world becomes smaller, the pressure to preserve difference becomes greater.
The pressures to preserve political and economic sovereignty, as well as cultural
identity and integrity, have remained, and have grown even stronger as evidenced
by regional tensions in Spain, Ireland, Belgium and most dramatically in the
former Yugoslavia. Indeed, it seems that the pressure for convergence or
integration may in fact create an equal if not stronger pressure for divergence or
fragmentation (Fayerweather & Webber, as cited in DuBrin et al., 2006, p. 18).

Reading
Gannon, M. (2008). Globalisation and culture. In Paradoxes of culture and
globalisation (pp. 190-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
This reading uses paradoxical reasoning for studying and analysing
globalisation. The reading defines and describes globalisation and provides a
range of paradoxes relevant to globalisation and culture, including the
following questions: Can global economic integration occur without political
and cultural integration? Is globalisation an old or new phenomenon? Does
globalisation encourage nationalism?

Activity 1.5
How does globalisation impact on you professionally? Briefly describe three
observations from a professional perspective.
You might have mentioned the increase of people from countries such as the
ex Soviet bloc counties which are now part of the European Union (EU) or
people from South East Asia.

16

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

Approaches to Cultural Diversity

Conclusion
We discussed the impact of immigration patterns and policies on Australian cultural
diversity. The implication of these patterns and policies throws light on prevailing and
past socio-political attitudes and behaviours, particularly towards migrants from both
non-European and European backgrounds.
We looked at Australian demographics, learning about population, origins, cultures, and
why some people have pertinent characteristics such as poor English competency. We
also discussed socio-political circumstances of some of these cultures.
Federal and State government migrant settlement policies were discussed, giving us an
awareness of the attitudes of people at certain times in our history. These policies act as
a backdrop for understanding why people may resist change, and maintain prejudices,
racist and discriminatory views which, in turn, affect others in a social situation.
We also studied the concept and practice of social justice which to a great extent
characterises Australias current approach to cultural diversity. The readings introduced
contemporary issues, including the ongoing fear of Islam and globalisation.
By having studied demography, settlement policies, ethnicity, and cultural affiliation we can
work more effectively and appropriately with others from culturally diverse backgrounds.

Self-Assessment
Did you achieve the objectives for this section? To test your knowledge,
write brief answers to the following questions:
1.

How might an immigration settlement policy relate to migration

patterns in Australia?

2.

Describe the demographic characteristics of Australia in the 2006

Census. For overseas students, use the most current statistics from
your country.

3.

How will current migration, language patterns, and globalisation impact

on your work as a practitioner and in managing cultural diversity?
Identify and briefly describe three challenges and suggest how you
might respond to these challenges.

Section 1: Definitions and Historical Perspectives of Cultural Diversity

17