Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PROLOGUE
A Civil Engineer has often to face some problematic soil such as expansive
soils. Expansive soils of Central India, commonly known as Black Cotton
soils, cover approximately one-sixth of the total area of our country. Such
soils exhibit extreme stages of consistency from very hard to very soft when
saturated.
Literature on Black Cotton soils dates back to thousands of years ago. Sage
Bhrugu in his scripture Bhrugu Samhita has classified all soils into four
groups based on their color, taste, odor, sound and their performance.
Six senses of perception: A site is to be selcted by using five senses of
perception for its color,smell, shape, sound and touch.
Soil Classification based on Color: The soil has four basic colors, white,red,
yellow or black. The site with black soil should be rejected for construction.
Classification based on Smell: The soil having smell of rotten fish should be
rejected for construction.
Classification based on Shape: shape of plot can be square, rectangular,
hexagonal, octagonal or circular, but a square plot is most suitable.
Classification based on Taste: The taste of soil can be sweet, sour, bitter.
The site with soil of sweet taste is most suitable.
Classification based on Sound: The ground when tamped with wooden
rammer produces different sounds such as that produced by horse, flute,
veena or drum. The ground which produces ringing sound should be
selected.
Classification based on Touch: The ideal site is one which is cold in summer and
warm in winter.
According to Sage Bhrugu, Soils, white in color, smelling like that of clarified
butter and of good taste is the best. Soils black in color, smelling like blood
and of sour taste is the worst.
Worlds First Reference describing expansive soils: Bhrugu also mentioned that
marshy land, cracking when exposed to sun rays, made porous by wind or
insects, devoid of water, full of poisonous or thorny trees, used as cemetery,
sloping towards south or land of saline soil was worst for construction
purposes. In other words the sage has described the properties of expansive
soils.
Around 1950 the subject of expansive soils attracted attention of scientists
and engineers. Since then innumerable of technical papers are published.
This subject is also attaining more and more importance in our country.
Many institutes of higher education have introduced this subject in their
curriculum.
Though the references on this subject are many, there is no single text book
which presents update information on this subject. With this background it
was thought of compiling the vast information and presenting in a report
form.
Mr. A.M. Patankar, D.M. Mukewar and S.L. Khankhoje have made an attempt
to review the technical literature and append with information from bulletins
and Indian standards.
Apart from partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor
of Civil Engineering of Nagpur University, if this report can arose some
interest in the subject of expansive soils, the purpose of this edited review
report, will be more than fulfilled.
ii
This
iii
CONTENTS
Chapter
Title
Page No
22
4 Construction Techniques
34
44
47
62
Bibliography
63
iv
LIST OF TABLES
No.
Particulars
Page
1.1
2.1
09
2.2
09
2.3
13
2.4
17
2.5
19
2.6
20
3.1
24
3.2
25
3.3
26
26
27
27
6.1
Permeability
studies
on
stabilized
soils
58
(Wadgaon)
6.2
59
6.3
61
***.***
LIST OF FIGURES
No.
Particulars
Page
1.1
01
1.2
02
1.3
02
1.4
1.5
03
2.1
08
2.2
11
2.3
12
2.4
13
2.5
19
2.6
20
3.1
24
3.2
28
3.3
29
3.4
30
4.1
37
4.2
38
4.3
42
5.1
Construction Stages
45
5.2
Measurement of bulb
45
5.3
45
5.4
Boring in progress
46
5.5
46
5.6
Reinforcement details
46
5.7
Standard dimensions
46
**.**
vi
SYNOPSIS
In India the expansive soils cover approximately 20 percent of the total land
area. These expansive soils are known by various local names such as Black
cotton soils or Regur.
An attempt has been made to compile information from various text books,
technical papers, bulletins and codes of practices.
Chapter II describes identification and classification of expansive soils. In
addition to simple tests some specialized tests such as Differential thermal
analysis (DTA) are discussed. Classification systems suggested by various
agencies are also included in this chapter.
Chapter III describes the physical and engineering properties of expansive
soils. Various theories of swelling, measurement techniques and factors
affecting swelling -shrinkage of soils are also described briefly.
Chapter IV describes various construction techniques for sub-structures in
expansive soils. Remedial measures for damaged structures are also
discussed.
Chapter V deals with under-reamed pile foundations in details.
Various stabilization methods for pavements on expansive soils are
discussed in chapter VI, Inorganic additives such as Lime, Cement fly-ash
and also organic additives for sub-grade stabilization are discussed in this
chapter.
Based on the limited review of the available literature on expansive soils,
suggestions for further studies are made.
***.***
vii
1- INTRODUCTION
1.0 The definition of expansive soil may be stated as follows. Expansive
soils are those soils which swell considerably on absorption of water and
shrink on removal of water. The expansive soil has considerable strength in
dry state, but the strength goes on reducing on absorption of water. The soil
exerts considerable pressure on foundations during swelling.
1.1 Expansive soils are found in some regions of India and many other
countries. These soils pose major foundation problems, causing damage to
the super structure if proper precautions have not been taken.
Fig.1.3 shows a typical bank failure caused by deep shrinkage cracks at the
top of the slope and loss of the strength at the slope toe from expansion
under light loading with resulting increased water content.
Such heave and stability failures are not limited to hydraulic structures
alone. For instance highway pavements and building footings may displace
by seasonal or other moisture changes due to desiccation by tree roots.
Radhakrishna, S. (41) has suggested that the presence of tree adjacent to a
foundation located in clay soil subjects the foundation to undue stresses due
absorption of subsoil moisture, resulting in shrinkage of the soil underneath
the foundation. Many houses and other lightly buildings have been literally
torn apart by sub soil volume changes. Cracking of a wall by uplift of the
expanding clay is shown in Fig.1.4.
the clay under the inside edge of the footing gaining moisture and expands
while the clay under the exterior edge remains dry and compressed. This
tilting is sometimes aided, and sometimes caused by lateral swelling of
compartmented clay fill. This tilting of the footing is shown in figure 1.5.
1.2 Soils are originated from rock due physical and chemical disintegration
processes and deposited due to wind, ice, gravity and water.
The black cotton soils are grouped under tropical black earths of the great
soil group of the generic classification. The heavier black soils are called
black cotton soils because of their suitability to grow cotton. The black color
is variously assigned to the presence of humus, organic iron and aluminum
compounds etc. Locally these soils are also known as Ragur soils. These soils
cover the Deccan plateau covering entire Maharashtra state, South Gujarat,
central and western Madhya Pradesh, Southern part of Andhra and Orissa
states. Black soils also occur in a smaller area of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
and Tamilnadu. In western half of the Deccan plateau the black soils rests on
trap or Basalt rock, while in the eastern part these soils rest on granite of
gneisses.
The Deccan Plateau is an undulating country with hills and dales. Accordingly
depending upon the situation along the slopes, the black soils are shallow,
medium or deep. They are brown chestnut and black in color, light, medium
or heavy in texture respectively. Along the slopes of Ghats , the soils are
coarse and gravelly. In the bases of hills and along the river valleys, the
black soils are often 20 ft deep.
The shallow black soils are light black in color, coarse in texture and often
eroded. These are usually of low fertility. The deep and heavy black soils are
highly clayey and unworkable during rainy season. The clayey soils in the
lower layer do not admit any drainage and hence the very deep black soils
are unfit for irrigation. They are workable during monsoon are therefore,
mostly used for rabbi crops only. The medium black soils are only 1.5 to 3
feet deep and are rich in lime and lime nodules. The subsoil and partially
disintegrated rock below, allow easy drainage because these medium black
soils are highly retentive of moisture and swell during rainy season. In hot
weather these shrink heavily and develop numerous cracks which may be
several feet deep. With advent of rains, the loose top soil fills up these
cracks.
Black soils are usually deficient in nitrogen, organic matter and in many
places, of phosphoric acid also. These are rich in lime while potash content
varies widely. Their clay mineral consists of Montmorillonite type. In general
black soils are considered more fertile than any other Indian soils.
Owing to the undulating nature of undulating nature of Deccan plateau, the
black soils show considerable variation in morphology of their profiles.
Topography, rain fall and drainage seem to play an important role in soil
formation. In general, black soil profiles possesses approximately all the
three horizons, A, B and C. The A horizon can be divided into the darker A-1,
rich in organic matter and A-2 which is lighter in color. The deeper black
soils are highly clayey and top layer may extend to several feet. The
transition from A to B is gradual. The B horizon is alluvial horizon rich in
lime. Both calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate are found. The
morphology of a typical medium black soil is given below.
Table -1.1- Morphology of a typical medium black soil
No
A1
Depth
0-30 cm
Description
Black, homogeneous, granular, porous, clay
loam, low in lime, plenty of cracks in
summer.
A2
15 - 50 cm
30 - 100 cm
Grey
black
heterogeneous,
gradual
slightly
transition,
cloddy
and
50 - 100 cm
porous,
partially
disintegrated
rock.
In the heavier black soils called Regur, the A and B horizons may extend up
to 2-3 m. These are highly clayey and difficult to work.
1.3 The existence of expansive soils and the problems associated with such
soils present worldwide is discussed in the next chapter.
***.***
of pore volume because the absorbed benzene measures pore volume and
the water measures absorption required to fill the pore volume and cause
swelling.
2.1.3 Indian standard code of practice (I.S.2911-Part III, 1973 Appendix A)
has modified the free swell test and the modified test is known as
Differential free swell test (DFS test). In this method two samples of oven
dried soil passing 425 micron sieve and weighing 10 gm each are used. One
sample is poured slowly in 50 ml graduated glass cylinder filled with
kerosene ( a non-polar liquid). The other sample is poured in another 50 ml
graduated cylinder filled with distilled water. Both the cylinders are left for
24 hours and the respective volumes are noted. The DFS is calculated as
below.
Degree of expansiveness
< 20 %
low
20-35 %
Moderate
35-50 %
High
>50 %
Very high
However the above test cannot be considered realistic as drying may change
the soil characteristics considerably.
2.1.4 Colloid content, plasticity index and shrinkage limit
The colloid content of soil is fraction finer than 0.001 mm to be determined
from sedimentation analysis (Hydrometer or pipette method), and is the
most active part of any soil, causing swelling. The expansiveness is
proportional to colloid content present in soil. The high plasticity index (PI) is
indicative of the capacity of soil to absorb higher amount of water when
changing from plastic to liquid state. A low value of shrinkage limit (SL)
indicates the soil will start swelling at low water content. Thus all the three
Index properties are indicative of potential volume change. United States
Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) has proposed identification criteria as
mentioned in table 1.3 below.
Table 2.2- Identification criteria by U.S.B.R.
1-Colliod
2. Plasticity
3.Shrinkage 4-Probable
5-Degree of
content
Index (PI) %
Expansion
#
<15
<18
<15
<10
Low
15 -23
10-16
10-16
10-20
Medium
20- 31
25-41
7-12
20-30
High
>28
>35
>11
>30
Very high
Recent studies indicate that the plasticity index of a soil alone can be used to
have an assessment of the capability of the soil for swelling accurate enough
for practical purposes.
2.1.5. Load Expansion Test
The purpose of this test is to measure total volume change from natural or
remolded condition to the air dried and saturated conditions respectively.
Two identical specimens (undisturbed or remolded) at desired density and
water content, are taken in the ring of fixed ring type consolidometer. The
specimen are allowed to dry in air to at least the shrinkage limit. Volume of
one specimen is measured by immersion in mercury. The other specimen is
loaded in consolidometer to a pressure intensity equivalent to that due to
the anticipated structural load and the specimen is saturated. The change in
volume is recorded.
2.1.6 Dehydration Test (Ref. 31)
The test consists of recording the percentage loss in weight of clay upon
heating to higher and higher temperatures and plotting volume vs
temperature. Heating is continued till there is no loss in weight occurs. The
position of the flexural point in temperature vs loss of weight curve gives an
indication of the type of mineral percent. Ref. fig.2.1.
10
is
important
to
the
engineering
analysis
of
clayey
soils,
11
diffraction of x-rays with wave length 1 is employed to determine the interatomic distances and rearrangements of atoms in a crystal. The interference
patterns which result from the X rays passing through a crystal are
photographed,
and
distances
between
the
resulting
lines
measured.
12
3 -10 %
70-100%
Colloid content
40-50%
13
Liquid Limit
40-100%
Plasticity Index
20-60%
Shrinkage limit
9-14%
40-50%
Hygroscopic moisture
12-13%
Exchangeable Calcium
40-80 m.e./10gm
2-5 m.e./10gm
40-50 m.e./10gm
pH
8-9
CaCO3
5-15%
SiO3
50-56 %
Fe2O3
8-12 %
SiO2 / Al2O3
3 to 5%
In all 210 soil samples were investigated, out of which some were subjected
to chemical tests also. The chemical test results did not show any specific
tendency for classification purpose.
Systems of classification based on the physical properties were developed.
Some of these are given below.
1. Textural classification-Grain size analysis and distribution.
2. Cassagrandes classification- Suitability for load carrying capacity.
3. U.S.P.R.A. classification-Based on L.L, P.I., mechanical analysis and
group Index.
4. Civil Aeronautics Administration classification-Based of mechanical
analysis, P.I., expansivity, C.B.R. and general description of soil based
on field examination.
5. Compaction classification (Based on maximum compaction attained by
soil.
14
6. Burmister
classification
(Based
on
grain
size
classification
and
distribution.
Out of the above six classification systems the U.S.P.R.A. was approved in
1952 by Indian Road Congress. Initially in this system all the different soils
were divided in eight groups, ranging from A1 (well graded gravels or sands)
to A8 (Peat).It was based on six properties.
1. Particle size distribution.(P.S.D.)
2. Liquid Limit.(L.L.)
3. Plasticity Index.(P.I.)
4. Shrinkage Limit.(S.L.)
5. Field moisture equivalent.
6. Centrifuge moisture equivalent.
This system was revised in 1955. The number of groups was reduced from
eight to seven, by considering only first three properties i.e. PSD, LL and PI.
All black cotton soils of India fall under A-7 group of USPRA classification
system. The subgroups are given by group index method.
Group Index (GI) = 0.2 a+0.005 ac+ 0.01 bd.
Where
a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
35 and not exceeding 75 expressed as number (0<a<40).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
15 and not exceeding 55 expressed as number (0<b<40).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 60,
expressed as positive number (0<c<20)
15
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding
30, expressed as positive number (0<d<20).
Thus Group Index varies between 0 and 28.
The soils collected from various states of India were found to have a Group
Index of more than 20 which is the upper limit of A-7 group. So the
extension of GI is done by fixing higher values of the fraction passing ASTM
200 sieve, L.L. and P.I. This was done by raising the values of a, b, c and d
from the following expressions.
a= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
35 and not exceeding 100 expressed as number (0<a<65).
b= than portion of percentage passing 200 B.S. Sieve (I.S.8), greater than
15 and not exceeding 80 expressed as number (0<b<65).
c=portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40% and not exceeding 85,
expressed as positive number (0<c<45)
d= portion of numerical Plasticity Index greater than 10% and not exceeding
44, expressed as positive number (0<d<34).
a, b, c, d have the same meaning and thus the new maximum value
of GI is 50.The group A-7 was subdivided as below.
Group Index GI
New Sub-Group
Less than 20
A-7
20-30
A-7a
30-40
A-7b
40-50
A-7c
16
2.3.2. Bolton Seed et al (1962) tried to classify the soil depending on the
swelling potential. Because they found that if the three properties i.e.
Plasticity Index (PI), Shrinkage Limit (SL) and clay content are considered at
a time, it leads to a contradictory results. So they found a clear out relation
between swelling potential and clay content. They arrived at an equation,
S = (3.6 x 10-5)x A2.44 x c3.44
Where S=Swelling potential
A= Swell activity= (Plasticity Index)/(Clay fraction)
c= % of clay fraction.
A set of curves were given for computing S for different values of PI and c.
A Table 2.4 gives the classification of swelling soils based on S.P.
Table
2.4-
classification
of
Swelling
expansion
potential %
Low
0 to 1.5
Medium
1.5 to 5
High
5 to 25
Very high
greater than 25
2.3.3 Ranganathan B.V. and Sally N.B. (1965) suggested a rational method
for the prediction of swelling potential. Swelling potential was defined as the
percentage of swell under a surcharge load of 1 psi. of a soil compacted at
its optimum moisture content (OMC) to a dry density in standard AASHO
compaction test.
content. Thus,
17
18
Shrinkage Index
0 -20
Medium 20 -30
High 30 -60
Very High >60
.
19
20
15-19.9
20-24.9
Type of soil
25-29.9
30-34.9
35-39.9
swelling index ()
Non-Swelling
1.12
1.11
1.09
1.08
Slightly Swelling
1.12-
1.11-
1.09-1.19
1.08-1.17 1.07-1.15
1.23
1.21
1.23-
1.21-
1.19-1.28
1.17-1.25 1.15-1.22
1.39
1.30
1.39
1.30
1.28
1.25
Medium Swelling
Highly Swelling
1.07
1.22
***.***
21
A degree of
22
The suction potential theory of Schcefield, also does not account for the
entire swelling as it is observed that there is residual swelling even if soil
suction is nil.
There is further intake of moisture until the hydration of ions and soil
particles is complete and particles of soil have reoriented with respect to
forces which keep them together, viz the confining pressures and the
attraction between clay particles. Both these concepts viz the theory of
double layer depending entirely on physical chemical properties and suction
potential based on capillary only, do not take into consideration the effect of
elastic properties in relation to external forces.
Terzaghi, K. has advanced hid concept of swelling based on elastic properties
of soils. According to him, the swelling is wholly due to elastic properties of
soils, the physic-chemical properties of soil do not play any role in the
swelling phenomenon. This is true for two reasons. Firstly, the surface
behavior of charged particles leading to Base Exchange and absorption of
water molecules as dipoles, have profound influence on swelling. Secondly
the interlayer spaces in which water molecules are retained influence
swelling. The application of pressure brings the particles closer expelling
pore water. Increase of pressure expels more water that has been absorbed.
The process goes on till the inter particle spacing has been reduced to a
distance of approximately 20A. At this stage all the water between particles
is tightly held and the extraction of inter particle water by inter granular
pressure alone is thus impossible though there might be isolated areas of
mineral to mineral contact where water has been completely eliminated. Also
the inter layer water which is responsible for swelling to a large degree is not
removed by mechanical means.
It is thus evident that for any theory to explain swelling phenomenon in soils
completely, it should take into account the physic-chemical affects due
23
hydration of exchangeable ions and that of clay particles, the soil suction
and elastic behavior of soils in relation to external forces. Further research of
the subject should aim at combining the three concepts to obtain a more
rational theory of swelling phenomenon.
3.3 Physical and engineering properties of black cotton soils varies from
place to place. Out of various research papers available on this subject few
papers contains properties of local soil. A compilation of various properties of
black cotton soils, if made, will be very useful to engineers and research
workers.
Katti, R.K. and others (ref.21) collected soil samples from 16 different
locations and conducted detailed laboratory investigations and have given
physical and engineering properties of Black cotton soils a tabular form. The
same table is reproduced here. The various locations are indicated in the soil
map.
Table 3.1-Locations of 16 soil samples
S1-Solapur 2
S2-Poona1
S3-
S4-Nasik
Siddheshwar
S5-Nagpur
S6-Solapur 1
S7-Yeldhari
S8-Amraoti
S9-Baroda
S10-Bezwada
S11-
S12-Wadgaon2
Wadgaon1
S13- Poona2
S14-Calcium
Bentonite
S15-Sodium
S16-Powai
Bentonite
Mumbai
24
Liquid Limit
S.G.
Specific Gravity
P.I.%
Plasticity Index
Clay -5
Fraction < 5
S.L. %
Shrinkage Limit
Clay -1
Fraction < 1
S.R.
Shrinkage ratio
..
Density -SP
OMC-SP
Optimum
moisture
content
as
per
light
compaction
Density-MP
OMC-MP
Optimum
moisture
content
as
per
heavy
compaction
Sw.Pr.
Swelling pressure
pH
Acidity/ Alkalinity
Org. Mat.
Organic material
CO3
Carbonate contents
B.E.C. -400
B.E.C. -2
SiO2 %
Silica Content
Al2O3 %
Alumina content
CaO %
Calcium hydroxide
MgO %
Magnesium hydroxide
FeO3 %
Ferric Oxide
TiO3 %
Titanium Oxide
SO3 %
Sulphur oxide
25
LOI %
Property
L.L %
P.I.%
S.L. %
S.R.
S.G.
Gravel
%
Sand%
Silt %
Clay -5
Clay -1
IS
classification
S1
69.2
27.3
12.4
2.07
2.74
21.0
18.0
28.2
32.8
M.H.
Loss on ignition
21.0
34.5
41.5
M.H.
16.6
32.5
48.5
M.H.
12.5
28.2
50.8
M.H.
18.0
26.5
52.5
M.H.
10.0
32.5
54.0
M.H.
S8
81.0
34.0
10.0
2.1
2.72
0.0
13.5
32.5
54.0
M.H.
..
Property
L.L %
P.I.%
S.L. %
S.R.
S.G.
Gravel
%
Sand%
Silt %
Clay -5
Clay -1
IS
classification
S9
56.5
30.5
8.2
2.2
2.73
0.0
17.0
27.0
56.0
MH
26.0
18.0
62.0
MH
12.0
25.0
68.0
-
MH
15.2
15.8
69.5
42.5
MH
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
-
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
-
S16
65.0
44.0
20.0
2.9
0.0
28.0
27.1
11.2
27.2
CH
..
Table 3.5- Properties of Black cotton soils
26
Property
Density -SP
S1
1.40
S2
1.33
OMC-SP
Density-MP
OMC-MP
Sw.Pr.
pH
Org.Mat.
CO3
B.E.C. -400
B.E.C. -2
SiO2 %
Al2O3 %
CaO %
MgO %
FeO3 %
TiO3 %
SO3 %
LOI %
29.5
1.67
23.0
8.75
0.55
2.42
57.6
109.2
49.3
13.7
6.9
4.8
14.8
1.9
1.6
16.5
29.4
1.66
24.0
3.9
8.45
1.42
6.65
60.0
50.3
21.9
8.0
4.4
1.4
0.3
13.6
29.5
1.68
20.0
8.5
0.7
3.3
65.3
124.6
47.1
16.7
6.2
3.2
12.6
1.5
1.9
13.0
23.0
1.80
17.0
0.95
8.2
0.4
0.5
51.1
99.4
58.1
15.6
2.7
2.5
10.3
1.3
1.8
8.6
28.5
1.63
20.0
3.0
8.5
0.8
2.6
59.1
111.0
48.6
13.8
7.2
5.0
13.4
2.2
2.0
4.8
29.2
1.64
22.0
8.7
0.8
1.9
58.5
160.6
47.7
15.5
4.4
3.7
15.1
2.4
1.4
10.7
S8
1.33
33.0
1.43
24.5
7.4
0.6
0.2
72.4
132.4
53.2
15.7
2.8
2.7
14.0
2.0
1.2
9.2
..
Property
Density -SP
S16
1.29
OMC-SP
Density-MP
OMC-MP
Sw.Pr.
pH
Org.Mat.
CO3
B.E.C. -400
B.E.C. -2
SiO2 %
Al2O3 %
CaO %
MgO %
FeO3 %
TiO3 %
SO3 %
LOI %
24.5
1.84
19.6
0.95
8.5
0.6
0.2
38.2
83.2
61.3
13.6
2.7
1.8
11.3
2.0
0.9
9.4
36.0
1.61
30.5
44.5
42.5
21.2
0.62
1.51
9.45
0.52
-
30.4
1.63
28.5
8.8
0.4
0.4
47.4
97.8
57.0
17.5
1.6
2.6
10.3
1.1
1.3
8.2
26.0
6.7
3.6
69.4
48.3
22.0
1.0
1.9
7.5
1.0
0.01
-
30.0
1.59
25.0
7.5
1.0
0.3
70.8
110.8
47.5
17.8
4.5
3.9
13.7
1.3
1.2
8.8
29.4
8.5
1.4
6.7
57.0
108.0
50.3
21.9
8.0
4.4
1.5
0.3
13.7
140.0
-
27
28
29
30
31
32
at
el
(ref.15)
measured
lateral
swelling
pressures
on
two
33
4 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
4.1 Expansive soils always pose various problems to foundation engineers.
Almost all cohesive soils have expansive property from insignificant to highly
significant. Expansive soils are found in various parts of the world such as
USA, South Africa, Australia, Spain, Israel, Myanmar and India. In India
these expansive soils are known by local names such as Black Cotton soils
(BC) in central India, Bentonite in Rajasthan and Kashmir, Mar or Kabar in
Uttar Pradesh. These soils occupy about 30 to 40 % of the land area of
India.
4.2 The problems posed by expansive soils of India can be summarized as
below,
4.2.1 Deep excavation for foundation: BC soils are residual soils resulting
from weathering of Igneous rock (Basalt). The thickness of soil stratum can
be high as 3 to 10 m. laying the foundation on a firm non-swelling stratum
involves
34
4.2.4 High cost and low reliability of rehabilitation: Remedial measures for
damaged structure are costly and not reliable in long term. Hence
prevention is better than cure.
4.3 Construction techniques for foundations in expansive soils:
4.3.1 Removal of entire expansive soil: The first and very simple method is
to remove the entire layer of expansive soil up to firm and non-expansive
stratum.
4.3.2 Other practice is to provide a cushioning layer between bottom of
foundation and top of soil. The cushioning layer is granular soil to allow the
swelling of soil to penetrate in its voids. Laboratory tests have shown that if
an expansive soil is permitted to expand by slight amount, the swelling
pressure is reduced by considerable amount. This method is suitable if the
thickness of swelling soil stratum is less than 2 m.
Dawson (ref.7) conducted study of foundations on expansive soil, permitted
to swell laterally by providing honeycomb tiles.
Reiner (Ref.42) presented an economical type of foundation. As per his
method the foundation pit was covered by a thin layer of lean concrete
covered with a layer of bitumen. The lean concrete layer cracks and bitumen
enters into the cracks and provides a cushion.
Boardman (Ref.3, 4) proposed a method in which brick walls are reinforced
and building is divided into separate units allowing open joints. But this
method is suitable for sites at which seasonal changes in water content of
ground are not much.
Date (ref.18) adopted an inverted T beam and pile foundation system. It
was assumed that during dry season loads would be transferred to piles and
in wet season the swelling pressures would be resisted by inverted T beams.
35
4.3.6 A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath the structure and supports all the walls and columns. This type is
used when the allowable soil pressure is low and building loads are heavy.
The raft is also used when where soil mass contains compressible layers
which may lead differential settlements. The raft or mat tends to bridge over
the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement. It is also used
to reduce settlement above highly compressible soils by making the weight
of the structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil
excavated.
4.3.7
36
of the clay will be the governing factor. The uplift pressure is greatest near
the top of the pier where the clay expands most. In some cases, uplift has
been sufficient to pull the pier in two at the top of bell. Ref. Fig.4.1
(c) Use smallest pier compatible with load and bell size in order to keep
surface area minimum.
(d)
37
let into the hole before the concrete has been placed in the bell otherwise a
shaft may be cast with no footing.
4.3.9 The grade beams or plinth beams cast in contact with desiccated clay
are sometimes broken be uplift pressure of expanding clay. Even if the grade
beams were reinforced to resist this pressure, the uplift on the supports may
cause as much damage as if the beam were allowed to break Provision
should be made for a void under grade beams into witch the clay can expand
without exerting uplift pressure.
The use of collapsible card board beam boxes is much more practical and
sure method of preventing uplift under grade beams. These cardboard boxes
are shipped flat and are folded to form a hollow box of the proper
dimensions for the purpose. The cardboard is treated to prevent immediate
disintegration and to remain strong enough to support runways for concrete
buggies long enough, for concrete to be placed and harden. These cardboard
beam boxes are produced commercially in Kansas and Texas.
4.3.10 Several methods have been devised for casting the structural floor
system on forms that lie directly on the clay and disintegrate after a short
period leaving a space for expansion of the clay.
38
may be used. In
this method split sonotube are laid side by side to provide forms for joist
39
below the bottom of the concrete joists. The bottom of space between the
two halves is filled with sand about 7 to 8 cm deep. The joist steel and
concrete are placed to form a reinforced concrete floor slab supported on
grade or plinth beams After a short time, the sonotubes disintegrate, the
sand runs out from under the joists, and a void is formed into which the clay
can swell without exerting pressure on the bottom of the slab.
4.3.11 The most common and best suited of all is the under-reamed pile
foundation. This method is discussed in detail in the next chapter.
4.4.0
There are problems posed to the old buildings which are standing.
The techniques or the remedial measures used for the prevention and
further developments of cracks are discussed below.
4.4.1
So the fast growing trees should not be planted near the foundation.
40
(2)
(3)
are
often
constructed
on
clay
shale
foundation.
Concrete
41
42
It has been observe that the underground flexible aprons around buildings
arrest further cracking. After two cycles of seasons the cracks becomes
stable and no further damage is generally noticed.
***.***
43
44
.
Fig.5.3- Details of under-reamed pile
45
***.***
46
47
increased
indication
that
volume
change
tendency
has
been
48
The dispersive action of NaOH with small addition is evident. The L.L. of nearly all
the soils increases up to about 1 to 1.5% and in the same range the P.L. decrease
and P.I. increases. Larger addition invariably causes lowering of L.L., increase in
P.L. and decrease in P.I. At small percentage of NaOH decrease in S.L. is observed.
However beyond about 0.75% the S.L. value nearly always increase with increasing
additive. These results indicate that while at low percentages of NaOH these is a
tendency for dispersion to take place, further addition results in less of plasticity
and increase in S.L.
The addition of Ca(OH)2 beyond about 1% distinctly goes on reducing the L.L. and
P.I. and increasing P.L. These results indicate that all the soils become non-plastic
beyond 1.5%, except S-10 soil. The shrinkage limit value continuously increase
with the addition Ca(OH)2.
Mg(OH)2 does not seem to have appreciable effect on the consistency properties of
any of the soils.
6.1.2
Chlorides: CaCl2, BaCL2 and MgCl2, do not have much effect on the
P.L. and S. L. of the soil. However, there is decrease in L.L. values and decrease in
P.L. value. It may be noted that while in case of Ca(OH)2 there is an increase in
P.L. and S. L. with the additive, these values more or less remains constant in ease
of calcium chlorides. This effect may be due to the fact that the chlorides are more
alkaline than the corresponding hydroxides.
With the addition FeCl3, the L.L. value show a tendency to decrease and P.L. values
more or less constant. It was possible to determine S.L. only in case of S-9, S-10,
S-11 soils and these did not show significant change. In other soils, it was not
possible to determine S.L. values. It was observed that the addition of FeCl3
beyond L percent makes the soil mass porous like bread. This may be due to the
formation of HCL which on reaction with the carbonates present on the soil evolves
CO2. the escape of the gas gives rise to the porous structure. Chemical test
confirmed that CO2 was liberated during the processes. It may be noted that S-9,
S-10, and S-11 soils contain less than 0.5% carbonates which the other contain
even up to 6.65%.
49
KCI and NaCL were tried only on S-2 soil, These chemicals increase the S.L. values
to a great extent while L.L. and P. L. values decrease. KCI seems to be more
effective than NaCL.
6.1.3
Carbonates :MgCo3 increases the L.L. and P.L. values while BaCo3
does not show any marked effect. The S. L. values tend to increase. Na2Co3 was
used with S-2,S-4,S-5, and S-6 soils. All carbonates may be said to produce
dispersion and cause increase in plasticity.
6.1.4
Cement :It can be noted that cement has a similar effect as Ca(OH)2
but to a lesser degree. This may be due to the lesser amount of free lime available
from cement. It may be noted that even with 10 per cent of cement, the soils do
not become non-plastic. The S.L. values however, considerably increase with the
addition of cement.
6.1.5
Na2Sio3 :Sodium silicate increase the L.L. and P.I. for all the soils and
make them highly plastic. This may be attributed to the disperse effect. The S.L.
values seem to increase with the additive.
6.1.6
5 and S-6 and its effect is found to be similar to that of FeCl3. the S.L. Values could
not be determined since the soil turned porous due to the evolution of NH3.
6.1.7
(PO4)2 were tried only on S-2 soil. In general Na2SO4 shows an increase in L.L.
and P.I. due to the dispersion. Variation in P.L. and S. L. were not significant CaSO4
and MgSO4 behave more like dispersing agent K2Cr2O7 decreases, L.L., P.L. and
P.I. and S.L. is increased.
6.2
due to the reaction between soil and chemical is dependent upon (i) The amount of
chemicals (ii) pH of the soil (iii) The amount of time allowed for the reaction. The
chemicals used are hydroxides of Na, K, Mg and Ca, chlorides of Ba, Ca and Mg,
Carbonates of Na, Ba, and Mg and cement. The chemical used in various
percentages between 0 and 7.
50
Free water is essential for reaction to take place between soil and the chemical
added.
6.2.1 Hydroxides: Plasticity characteristics of the soil are arranged by the addition
of hydroxides at zero aging period. The L.L. value of the chemically treated soil
show an increasing trend upto 3% of NaOH, 0.5% of KOH, 0.1% of Ca(OH)2. The
L.L. values at the above percentages fro NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2. are 147,84.8, and
87.7% compared to the value of 81% for raw soil. The initial increase is more
predominant in case of NaOH, due to its highly dispersive nature. These effects are
also reflected in the variation of P.I. NaOH increases the P.I. from 35% to 85% at
3% additive and decreases to 15.5 percent at 7 per cent additive. The hydroxides in
general improve the shrinkage properties of soils at zero aging period.
With aging L.L. tend to decrease with all hydroxides while the P.L. remains constant
or show a tendency to decrease. For instance it may be noted that from fig. that
L.L. values with 0.5 percent of NaOH at 0, 48 and 96 hours aging are 101.5, 85.0,
and 80.3 per cent respectively while the P.L. values at the same percentages at the
corresponding curing period are 56.7, 47.0 and 47.0 This decrease in L.L. may be
due to the formation of complex cementing gel produced due to the reaction
between chemical and the soil constituents. The amount of this cementing gel
formed depends upon the amount of chemical added and time allowed for the
reaction and pH of the system. With more chemical and more time, more quantity
of the gel like cementation material would be formed.
The S.L. values increase with aging beyond 1.5% of NaOH, while the values reduce
with aging when Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are added.
6.2.2 Chlorides: S-8 soil i.e. the soil from Amravati shows the same behavior with
chlorides at the aging period as other soils described earlier, showing decrease in
L.L. with the addition of chemicals and a negligible effect on P.I. and S.L. values.
With aging chlorides decrease the L.L. and the P.I. The P.L. values show a slightly
decreasing trend although in the case of CaCl2, there seems to be an increasing
value beyond 72 hours. This may be due to the gel formation.
51
Fig. shows the effect of aging of CaCl2 on consistency properties. It may be noted
that at 1% additive the L.L. values at 0, 48 and 96 hours are 76.8,72.6 and 71.0
respectively and the corresponding P.L. values are 34.7, 31.7, 31.7 and 34.9.
6.2.3
Carbonates: The zero hour L.L. and P.I. values of the soil sample
increase with the addition fo carbonates , the effect being more pronounced with
Na2Co3 , S.L. is unaffected by carbonates.
With aging there is a definite decreasing trend in L.L. and P.I., the change being
predominant at higher percentages. This may be attributed to the formation of gel
like cementing.
The values of L.L. at 0.5 percent Na2Co3 at 0,48 and 72 hours are 89.2, 79.0 and
77.0 percent and P.I. values are 48.9, 37.6 and 35.3 at the corresponding curing
period respectively.
6.2.4
Bearing Characteristics: A study was conducted on S-2 soil i.e. from Poona
treated with KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2, cement and Na2Co3, to get an idea about the
bearing characteristics used for this study was 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 3.0, and
7.0 percent of the oven dry weight of the soil. C.B.R. test at standard proctor
density with surcharge on soaked samples were conducted. The No. of days soaking
was 4 days.
The test results are presented in table. From the data it may be noted that beyond
1 percent KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 and cement appreciably increase the C.B.R. values.
52
The increase in C.B.R. values is an indication that the complex cementations gel
which are formed have cementing property even under highly wet condition. This is
an important factor with respect to the stability of the soil-chemical system under
field condition. Further studies on expansive soils subjected to drying and rewetting
is needed, because it is expected after drying the gel may attain a condition of
insolubility. Na2CO3 does not seem to have much effect on C.B. R. Values.
6.4
to
study
the
effect
of
inorganic
chemicals
on
the
permeability
characteristics of three black cotton soils, viz. S-2, S-4, and S-12 i.e., from Poona,
Nasik and Wadagaon. The chemicals selected for the study are hydroxides of Na, K,
and Ca chlorides of K, Na, Ca and Mg and carbonates of K, Na, Ca, Ba and Mg and
were used in proportions of 0.1, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0, 7.0 and
10.0 percent on the basis of even dried weight of soil. The procedure for mixing
was the same as in consistency studies. The mixtures were compacted to field
densities of 1.330, 1.225, 1.253gm/cc. For S-2, S-4 and S-12 soils respectively in
Jodhpur pattern moulds by static compaction. The samples were then saturated
under vacuum for 36 hours prior to conduction the permeability test by the falling
head method. The experiments were run in duplicate. The values obtained were
erratic during the first few hours but attained fairly constant values at the end of 10
hours and the values are recorded at the end of 12 hours.
The data collected in the case of soils S-4 and S-12 is presented in tables.
6.4.1
three soils bring down the permeability values to less than that obtained for the
bank soil. Beyond this percentages, the permeability values increase continuously
up to about 10 percent, the increase being very rapid beyond 5 percent. The values
in units of 10-7 cm/sec. for S-2 soil at 0.1.3 and 10 percent additives at 3.2, 0.5,
1.4, 869.4 respectively while corresponding values for S-4 and S-12 soils are 9.6
and 4.8, 1.6 and 2.6,8.0 and 36.1 and 3140 and 1685 respectively. The decrease in
permeability at the lower percentages may be due to the dispersion effect of NaOH.
53
At higher percentages, aggregation effect seems to set in, leading the higher value
of permeability.
KOH shows the similar trend to that of NaOH. However, the dispersive action is
noticed over a much smaller range (0.1 to 0.25 percent ) ain this care and the rate
of increase is much higher at larger percentages. The values show a decreasing
trend beyond 7 percent, in all the soils. This trend can be observed from the tables.
The permeability values increase as high as 15, 450 x 10-7, 21275 x 10-7 and
17,300 x 10-7 cm/sec at 7 percent in soils S-2 S-4 and S-12 which are about 2000
to 5000 times their original values.
The dispersion and aggregation effect due to K ion are similar to Na ion. It has
already been noted while discussion the consistency properties of the soils, that
KOH is more effective in causing aggregation effect due to the proper co-ordination
number and ionic radius of the K ion. Moreover KOH is stronger alkali than NaOH
and therefore the permeability values obtained much higher than NaOH. When the
percentage, however, is increased more than 7 percent, the mineral breaks up into
their constituents in the highly alkaline environment and complex compound that
are formed block the horse, thus causing decrease in the values of the
permeability.
Ca(OH)2 was used with soils S-2 and S-4 Even at 0.1 percent level, there is
significant increase in the coefficient of permeability. The coefficient of permeability
goes on increasing with the addition of chemical and reaches a value of 304.6 x 107 cm.sec. in case of soil S-2 at 7 percent and 711.5 x 10-7 cm/sec. in case of S-4
soil at 5 percent. Beyond these percentages the permeability values tend to
decrease.
6.4.2
Chlorides: NaCL and KCL are not much effective on account of their
54
with the humus of the soil. With 10 percent of NaCL, the permeability value of the
S-2, S-4, and S-12 soils are 14.8, 45.2 and 30.1 x 10-7cm/sem., while with the
same amount of KCL, the values are 68.1, 1775.0 and 988 x 10-7cm/sec.
respectively.
The continuous increase of permeability up to 10 percent NaCL in the case of S-12
Soil, show that the aggregation continuous to occur even up to that percentage and
this may be due to the clay content of the soil being the highest of all the three
soils used.
CaCL2 behaves in a very much similar way as Ca(OH)2 increasing the permeability
values at all percentage, permeability as high as 65.0 x 10-7cm/sec. at 7 percent in
the case of S-2 Soil, 1150 x 10-7 cm/sec
value of the permeability even at low percentage. Further addition of additive does
not appreciably alter the values.
K2Co3 and CaCo3 were tried on S-2 and S-4 soils. K2Co3 being a comparatively
stronger alkali than Na2 Co3, permeability value decreases initially up to about 2 to
3 percent, due to the dispersion and beyond this the values increase due to the
removal of humus. The values obtained at higher percentage are in between those
of KCL and KOH.
CaCo3 reduces the permeability up to 1.5 percent, where after the values
continuously increase up to 10 percent. For instance in the case of S-4 soil, the
permeability at 1.5 per cent is 2.6 x 10-7cm/sec. which rises to 34.8 x 10-7cm/sec.
at 10 percent. The chemical has low order of solubility and dissociation and hence
at low percentages, the fine particle of the un-dissociated chemicals, plug the pores
into the soil sample, thereby lowering the permeability values. At higher
55
6.5
The studies conducted by Katti on lime alone on soils. S-1 to S-12 i.e.
6.5.2
increasing amount of cement. There are several mixes in all soil, containing less
than 15 per cent total admixture which give 7 day strengths as high as 500 to 600
psi. Normally 6 to 12% of total admixtures is found to be sufficient to give more
than 300 psi after 7 day curing, the amount of lime content in combination may
vary between 2 to 4 percent and cement 4 to 10 percent. These observations show
56
that the presence of lime has changed the texture of the soil giving rides to
reduction in surface area and making the mixes behaves like silty or sandy soils.
It may be noted that the strength of soil-lime-cement mixes is due to the combined
effect of aggregation, hydration and posssilanic reactions.
6.5.3
57
6.5.6
base and sub-base construction with a wearing coat in top, the mixes are subjected
to wetting and drying tests, as per ASTM procedure, for volume change
measurements.
6.5.7
density and increase in O.M.C. However with increasing amount oaf lime for zero
aging period, there is increase in density upto certain amount of lime added and
decrease thereafter. For other aging period with the addition of lime up to a certain
amount the density rapidly decrease. Further addition of lime would not bring about
any greater reduction in density.
The alteration in density due to the addition of various percentages of cement to
the different soil-lime mixtures does not show any definite trend.
6.5.8
Field Test on Soils with Lime and Cement: It can be observed from the
studied indicated that artificial resins were a mean for accomplishing a practical
stabilization with satisfactory results. The most effective of these artificial resins is
the resin formed by the reacting on two parts of anticline to one part of the furfural.
58
Aniline and furfural are two liquid organic chemicals that polymerize on contact to
form a resign know as aniline furfural resin. Aniline reacts with baldheads to from a
group of compounds that are known as Schiff bases.
6.7
sugar factory in area close to the factory it is available cheap. Some of the
laboratory experiments have shown that the soil can be successfully stabilized with
molasses. Molasses is a mixture of Glucose (C6H12O6) and Sucrose (C12H22O12). Also
small quantities of inorganic salts and organic compounds are present.
able No. 6.1- Variation of Permeability of S-12 soil, with the addition
of various Inorganic Chemicals.
Chemic
al
0.2
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
10
379.
415.
1685.
5
K expressed in unit of 10-7 cm/Sec.
NaCH
6.
6.0
1.4
1.7
2.6
4.2
4.9
36.1
6
KOH
4.
3.8
8.1
9.9
8
NACl
7.
17.
74.
284.
609
1168
1730
1145
8.0
8.4
8.2
8.7
9.5
13.4
16.9
20.8
24.7
30.1
7.
12.
9.7
12.
21.
36.
60.5
80.5
159.
368.
988.0
9.
10.
16.
23.
29.
60.
231.
247.
282.
410.
2.
3.6
3.9
2.6
0.9
1.3
1.3
0.8
1.9
2.0
4
KCl
CaCl2
Na2CO2
497.0
1.9
59
60
5.0
2.5
2.9
2.6
6.7
7.5
11.1
21.9
34.8
7.8
7.2
8.5
13.9
36.3
22.3
20.5
11.5
6.1
6.9
6.9
7.6
7.5
7.4
10.0
22.8
11.4
5.7
2.5
2.8
BaCO3
5.2
MgCO3
7.5
1.1
K2CO3
0
2179.
1.9
1.9
761.5
0398.0
MgCl2
973.0
79.2
1150.0
890.0
304.
322.0
308.0
63.4
4.845.5
40.3
34.7
25.2
18.3
1775.0
628.0
297.0
151.0
89.3
63.7
29.7
17.3
14.0
10.4
14.2
45.2
41.7
34.6
41.3
15.8
5.6
9.8
13.7
16.1
15.6
12.9
589.5
489.5
711.5
343.0
306.5
272
119.5
75.0
30.8
21.7
19.7
1.6
3.3
7.7
8.0
50.9
328
314
22.4
27.6
66.5
2380.
12520
21725
15167
1.7
8.3
10
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.75
0.5
3.1
12.5
0.1
0.25
6.1
9.7
8.4
6.3
KOH
1.7
42.6
10.3
5.7
4.8
4.5
5.4
3.4
3.4
NaOH
666.5
1.6
1.4
1.8
1.7
1.7
2.7
5.8
5.1
KCl
51.5
8.9
2.3
1.8
1.2
1.6
2.2
3.3
Chemical
Ca(OH)2
NaCl
CaCl2
Na2CO3
CaCo3
61
Chemical
Chemical Percent
0.0
0.1
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.0
3.0
KOH
3.84
3.72
4.66
4.22
5.19
3.90
16.46 26.18
NaOH
3.84
4.50
3.99
3.87
3.86
4.28
21.44 23.59
Ca(OH)2
3.84
4.54
3.84
4.86
5.90
8.38
47.20 83.18
Cement
3.84
4.23
4.13
4.59
4.67
5.64
11.39 42.33
Na2CO3
3.84
4.78
3.33
3.27
4.07
4.11
5.16
7.0
6.31
***.***
62
7-CONCLUSIONS
An attempt has been made to review and edit the vast literature available on the
subject of expansive soils, so as to elucidate the present status of knowledge on the
subject.
Though there are number of identification methods and techniques, classifications
systems of expansive soils are only few. None of the classification system takes into
account the percentage of clay minerals.
The literature on engineering properties is scanty and gives properties of some local
soils only. A systematic soil survey of expansive soils should be undertaken. The
procedure for measurement of swelling pressure needs standardization taking into
consideration of various factors affecting it. There is much scope for effect of
swelling on retaining structures.
Each of the construction technique described in the chapter 4, has its own
limitations. Under-reamed pile foundations described in detail in chapter 5 but the
other foundation techniques are becoming important. There is a scope to develop
some simple techniques for low cost houses.
Stabilization methods using inorganic and organic additives are described in chapter
6, but more practical methods need to be developed.
Our sincere efforts to include maximum available information had certain limitations
such as non-availability of references and time limit to complete the project work.
***.***
63
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VITA
Name
Guide Dr. A.S. Nene
Mobile No
nene_ashok@yahoo.com
9404082547
sunilkhankhoje@gmail.com
9822576672
.
1. Er. Sunil Khankhoje
2. Er. A.M. Patankar
3. Er. D.M. Mukewar
67