CHE 413 LECTURE NOTE

MASS TRANSFER OPERATIONS

When two phases of different compositions
are brought into contact, a transfer of
components may occur from one phase to
the other and vice versa. This is the physical
basis of mass transfer. If the two phases are
allowed to remain in contact for a sufficient
time, they will reach an equilibrium where
there is no further net transfer of
components between the phases.
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement, under the
influence of a physical stimulus, of an
individual component through a mixture.
The most common cause of diffusion is a
concentration gradient of the diffusing
component.
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION AND TURBULENT
OR EDDY DIFFUSION
When a concentration gradient exist within a
fluid consisting of two or three components,
there is a tendency for each constituent to
flow in such a direction as to reduce the

concentration; this process is known as

mass transfer.
Molecular diffusion is concerned with the
movement of individual molecules through a
substance by virtue of their thermal energy.
FICKS LAW OF DIFFUSION
The rate of transfer of A in a mixture of
two components A and B, will be determined
not only by the rate of diffusion of A but also
by the behaviour of B. The molar rate of
transfer of A per unit area, due to molecular
motion, is given by the equation:
NA = - DAB dCA/dy
( 1 )
Where N is the rate of diffusion
( mol/area(time) )
DAB is the diffusivity of A in solution in B. CA
is the molar concentration of A, y is the
distance in the direction of diffusion. The
corresponding rate of diffusion of B is given
by :
NB = - DBA dCB /dy
(2)
Where DBA is the diffusivity of B in A.

The negative sign indicates that diffusion

occurs in the direction of a drop in
concentration. Equations 1 and 2 are known
as Ficks law.
If the total pressure and hence the
total molar concentration is anywhere
constant, dCA/dy and dCB/dy must be equal
and opposite and therefore A and B tend to
diffuse in opposite directions. In a distillation
process where the two components have
equal molar latent heats, condensation of
one mole of the less volatile material
releases sufficient heat for the vaporisation
of one mole of the more volatile component,
and therefore equimolar counter diffusion
takes place with two components diffusing
at equal and opposite rates.
When the fluid is turbulent, eddy or
turbulent diffusion takes place in addition to
molecular and the rate of diffusion is
increased and can be written as:
NA = - ( DAB + ED)dCA/dy
3
DIFFUSION IN GAS PHASE
EQUIMOLECULAR COUNTER DIFFUSION

Two components diffusing at equal and

opposite rates.
Suppose two vapours A and B are diffusing
at equal and opposite rates and PA and PB
are their partial pressures at any point in the
system. If A and B are ideal gases, we can
write:
PAV = nART and PBV = nBRT
Where: nA and nB are the number of moles
of A and B in a volume V, so that:
PA = nA RT = CA RT = cA RT
4
V

MA

PB = nB RT = CBRT = cB RT
5
V

MB

Where cA and cB are mass concentrations,

and MA and MB are molecular weights of
components A and B respectively. If the total
pressure P is everywhere constant in the
system, from equations 4 and 5 we can get:
P = PA + PB = RT( CA + CB) = RT( cA + cB )
M A MB
P = RT( CT )

If the total pressure P is

everywhere constant in the system, from
equations 3(a) and 3(b) we can get
P = PA + PB = RT (CA + CB) = RT(CA/MA +
CB/MB) ..(4)
P = RT(CT) .. (4a)
Where CT is the sum of the molar
concentration of A and B
So that
dPA/dy = - dPB/dy 5(a)
dCA/dy = - dCB/dy . 5(b)
and
dCA/dy = -dCB/dy . MA/MB 5(c)
By substituting from equations 3(a) and
3(b) into equations 1(a) and 1(b), the mass
transfer rate can be expressed in terms of
partial pressure gradients rather than
concentration gradients.
Thus
NA = - DAB/RT . dPA/dy 6(a)
And NB = -DBA/RT . dPA/dy = + DBA/RT . dPA/dy
. 6(b)
By eqn. 5(a)

In equimolecular counter diffusion, the total

pressure at any point in the system will
remain constant as a result of diffusion, and
therefore equal numbers of molecules will
diffuse in each direction.
i.e. NA = - NB
So that DAB = DBA = D ...

7(a)

from eqn. 6(a) and 6(b)

Thus
NA = - D dCA/dy = + D/RT dPA/dy 7(b)
Integrating at two different points gives
NA = - D (CA2 CA1)/y2 y1 8(a)
Or in terms of pressure
NA = - D (PA2 PA1)/RT (y2 y1) .. 8(b)

DIFFUSION THROUGH A STATIONARY GAS

The second type of simple mass transfer is
called diffusion through a stationary gas. It
involves both molecular transport and bulk
flow. Diffusion through stationary gas occurs
when one boundary of the diffusion system

is permeable to only one component. As a

result there is no net movement of the other
component, which is said to be stationary. In
gas absorption diffusion through a
stationary gas occurs, For example,
absorption of ammonia from an air
ammonia mixture by water.
The rate of diffusion of A and B are given
by equations 7(a) and 7(b). If a surface is
introduced on which A is absorbed but B is
not, the partial pressure gradient will be set
up causing A to diffuse towards and B away
from the surface. Let us imagine the process
continued for a short interval. A will be
absorbed at the surface and B will try to
diffuse away and therefore a total pressure
gradient will be produced causing a bulk
motion of A and B towards the surface, in
addition to the surface by diffusion since
there is net motion of B, the bulk rate of flow
must exactly balance its transfer of
diffusion.

Surface absorbing
A

Diffusion of

Bulk flow of A
Diffusion of B
Bulk flow of
B
Thus the bulk rate of flow of B = - NB
= - D dCA/dy
The Bulk flow of B is accompanied by bulk
flow of A
Bulk flow of A = -NB. CA/CB
= -D dCA/dy . CA/( CT CA) ..(9)
The total rate of transfer of A is obtained by
summing the transfer by diffusion and bulk
flow
CT = CA + CB
Thus by adding 7(a) and 7(b), the total
transfer NA is given by
NA1 = -D dCA/dy D dCA/dy CA/CT CA
= - D dCA/dy . CT/CT CA .. (10)
This is known as Stefans law integration of
equation(10) between (1) & (2)

NA1 = DG/y2 y1 in CT CA2/CT CA1

(11)
= - D/y2 y1 . CT/(CT CA)m (CA2 CA1)
Where
(CT CA)m = (CT CA1) (CT CA2)
In CT CA1/CT CA2
NA1 = -D/y2 y1 . CT/CBM (CA2 CA1)..
11(a)
= -D/RT(y2 y1) . P/Pam (PA2 - PA1) .
11(b)
Where the suffix m denote the log mean
value of the quantity at the positions (1) and
(2)
Equation (11) can be simplified when the
concentration of the component A is small.
Under these conditions CA is small compared
with the total concentration CT then
equation 11 gives
NA1 = DCT/y2 in(1 (CA2 CA1/CT CA1)
= DCT/y2 y1 (-(CA2 CA1/CT CA1) (CA2
CA1/CT CA)
For small values pf CA, this reduces to

NA1 = - D/y2 y1 (CA2 CA1) .. (12)

This eqn (12) is identical to eqn8(a) for
equimolecular counter diffusion. Thus the
effect of bulk flow can be neglected at low
concentrations.

PROBLEM 1
Ammonia gas is diffusing at a constant rate
through a layer of stagnant air 1mm thick.
Conditions are fixed so that the gas contain
50% by volume of ammonia at one
boundary of the stagnant air. The ammonia
diffusing to the other boundary is quickly
absorbed and the concentration is negligible
at that plane. The temperature is 295Ok and
atmospheric pressure and under these
conditions the diffusivity of ammonia in air
is 0.18an2/sec. Calculate the rate of diffusion
of ammonia through the air.
SOLUTION

Let subscript 1 and 2 refer to the two sides

of the stagnant layer and subscript A and B
refer to air and ammonia respectively.
Assumption: Consider an Ideal gas. The
appropriate equation is
NA = -D/RT(y2 y1) . P/PBM (PA2 PA1)
Take R = 8.314 KJ/(Kmol)(k)
P = 101.3 KN/m3
PA1 = xPT where x = mole fraction
PA1 = 103.3 x 0.5 = 50.65(KN/m2)
D = 0.18 (cm2/s)
PA2 = 0
Y2 Y1 = 1mm = 1x10-3m
PBM = PB2 PB1/In PB2/PB1
= +50.65/In 101/50.65 = 73.07(KN/m2)
PB1 = P PA1
= 101.3 50.65
= 50.65(KN/m2)
PB2 = P PA2
PA2 = 0
... PB2 = 101.3 0 = 101.3(KN/m2)
D = 0.18cm2/s = 0.18 x 10-4m2/s

P B1M = 73.07(KN/m2)
WA = -0.18 x 10-4 / 8.314 x 293x10-3 x
101.3/73.07 x (0 50.65)
= 5.15 x 10-4(Kmol/(m2)(s)
PROBLEM 2
A simple rectifying column consist of a tube,
arranged vertically and supplied at the
button with a mixture of bezene and toluene
as vapour. At the top, a condenser returns
some of the products as are flux which flows
in a thin film down the inner walls of the
tube. The tube is insulated and heat loss can
be neglected. At one point of the column,
the vapour contains 70% by mole of
benzene and the adjacent liquid reflux
contains 59% benzene. The temperature at
this point is 365ok. assuming the diffusional
resistance to water vapour transfer to be
equivalent to the diffusional resistance of a
stagnant vapour layer of 0.2mm2 thick,
calculate the rate of interchange of benzene
and toluene between vapour and liquid. The
molar latent heats of the two materials can
be taken as equal. The vapour pressure of

toluene at 365oK is 54KN/m2 and the

diffusivity of the vapour is 0.051 cm2/s.
SOLUTION
Take liquid surface as point, 1 and the
vapour side of the stagnant layer as point 2.
This relates to equation of equimolecular
counter diffusion. From equation 8(b)
NA = - D( PA1 - PA2 )
RT( y1 y2 )
D = 0.051 cm2/s = 0.051x 10-4 m2/s
Denote B = benzene and T = Toluene
T = 365OK
R = 8.314 KJ/(Kmol)k
Y2- y1 = 0.2mm = 0.2x10-3m
For toluene :
NT = D ( PT2 PT1 )
RT(y2 y1)
PT1 = ( 1 0.59) x 54
=22.14 ( KN/m2)
PT2 = ( 1 0.7) x 101.3

= 30.39 ( KN/m2)
NT = - 0.051 x 10-4( 30.39 22.14 )
8.314 x365 x0.2 x10-3
= - 6.93 x 10-3 (kmol/(m2)s )
The opposite signs indicate that the two
fluids are diffusing in same magnitude but in
opposite directions.
COMPARISON OF RATE OF MASS TRANSFER
IN EQIUMOLECULAR COUNTER- DIFFUSION
AND IN DIFFUSION THROUGH A STATIONARY
GAS
From equation 8a and 8b,
NA = - D( CA2 CA1 )/ (y2 y1)
..8(a)
NA = - D( PA2 PA1)/ RT( y2 y1 )
8(b)
We can write from 8(a)
NA = - D CA2 CA1 = hD ( CA1 CA2)
(13)
Y2 y 1
Where hD = D/ y2 -y1
From 8(b)

NA = KG( PA1 PA2 )

.13(a)
Where KG = D/RT(y2 y1 )
hD and kG are mass transfer coefficients.
For diffusion through a stationary gas B,
from equation 11a:
NA = - D CA2 CA1 x CT = hD [ CA2 CA1 ]
. 14
y2 y1

CBM

where hD = D CA2 CA1 x CT

y 2 y1

CBM

= KG ( PA2 PA1 )
14 a
Thus NA = CT = KG
..15
NA

CBM KGM

Where CA is small compared with CT, it is

seen by comparing equation 8 and 12 that
the rate of transfer of A is the same for
equimolar counter diffusion as is for
diffusion through a stationary gas.

DIFFUSIVITIES OF VARIOUS VAPOURS

Diffusivities of vapours are most
conveniently determined by the method
developed by WINKELMANN. Liquid is
allowed to evaporate in a vertical glass tube
over the top of which a stream of vapour
free gas flows, sufficiently rapid for the
vapour pressure to be maintained almost at
zero. If the apparatus is maintained at a
steady temperature, there will be no eddy
currents in the vertical tubes and mass
transfer will take place from the surface by
molecular diffusion alone. The rate of
evaporation can be followed by the rate of
fall of the liquid surface, and since the
concentration gradient is known, the
diffusivity can then be calculated.

DIAGRAM

In many cases, the diffusivity D for the

transfer of one gas in another may not be
known and experimental determination may
be practicable. Many attempts have been
made to express D in terms of the physical
properties and the following empirical
equations of MAXWELLS modified by
GILLILAND gives satisfactory agreement
with the observed figures:
D = 4.3 T1.5 ( 1/MA + 1/MB )
P ( VA1/3 + VB1/3 )2
Where D = diffusivity in cm2/s
T = absolute temperature in
kelvin
MA and MB = molecular weight of A and
B.
P = total pressure in N/m2
VA, VB = molecular volumes of A and B.
The molecular volume is the volume in m3 of
1 kgmol of the material in the form of liquid
at its boiling point
and is a mixture of the volume occupied by
the molecules themselves. It may not

always be known, but an appropriate value

can be obtained by the application of
KOPPS law of additive volumes. Kopp gave
a particular value for the equivalent atomic
volume of each element. When the atomic
volumes
of the elements of the molecule in question
are added in their appropriate proportion,
the equivalent molecular volumes is
obtained approximately.

CONVECTION
In correction the rate of heat transfer
from solid boundary to a fluid is
Q = Ahc (Ts - T)

Ts > T

Where hc = heat transfer coefficient

h = f(,

, k, Cp, D, U)

where = density
= fluid viscosity
k = thermal conductivity

Cp = Heat capacity
D = dimension
U = velocity of flow
ENERGY TRANSPORT
Transport of heat between a solid
boundary and a fluid takes place by
conduction and mass transport. If
the boundary is at a higher
temperature than the fluid, heat
flows first by conduction from the
olid to the fluid particles. This
transmitted energy increases the
internal energy of the fluid and is
carried away by the motion of the
fluid. When the heated particles
reach the region of lower
temperature. They transfer the heat.
Convection is the mode of heat
transfer closely linked with fluid
motion and so is necessary to study
the fluid behavior and motion. It is

necessary to establish whether the

fluid is laminar or streamline flow.
The fluid moves in layers, the
particle follows a smooth and
continuous path. The particles in a
layer remain in an orderly sequence
without crossing one another.
E.g. Soldiers on a parade provide an
analogy to this. They march along
well defined lines one behind the
other and maintain the order even
when they turn over a corner and
pass over an obstacle.
Turbulent flow resembles a crowd
of a commuters at a railroad station
during the rush hour. The general
head of motion is from the gate to
the train but superimposed on this
are the derivations of individuals as
per their instantaneous direction and
the ability to pass the less agile
members of the crowd. However, if

the statistical average is taken it

could be steady and regular.
When a fluid is laminar motion
along a surface at a temperature
different from that of the fluid, heat
is transferred from the surface by
molecular conduction. In turbulent
flow, conduction mechanism is aided
by eddies which carry lumps of fluid
across the streamlines. These act as
carriers of energy and transfer
energy by mixing with other particles
of fluid. An increase in the rate of
mixing results in an increase of heat
transfer. The fluid motion can be
induced in two ways.
1.
Free or national convection as in the
case of water heated on a stove or like
the air heated in a desert.
2.
The second type of motion is by an
external agency like a pump or a blower.
Cooling of an automobile by blowing air
by a fan on the radiator is an example of
forced convection.

BOUNDARY LAYER
When a fluid flows along a surface the
particles within the vicinity of the surface
are slowed down. The particles adjacent to
the surface stick to it and will have zero
velocity. The rest of the particles attempting
to slide over these surfaces are slowed
down due to viscous shear in streamline
flow. In turbulent flow, lumps fluid particles
cause the shear. A short distance from the
surface, the velocity of the particles
approaches that of the free stream. The fluid
contained in the region of substantial
velocity change is called a hydrodynamic
boundary layer. The thickness of the
boundary layer is the distance from the
leading edge at which the local velocity
approaches 99% of the free stream.
The velocity profile near the leading
edge are in the laminar boundary layer. The
flow within the boundary layer remains
laminar only for a certain distance from the
leading edge and then becomes turbulent.
There are always small disturbances, but as
long as the viscous forces are large and

dominate the inertia forces, they prevent

disturbances from growing. As the laminar
layer keeps increasing, the ratio of viscous
to inertia forces decreases and eventually a
point is reached where the disturbances will
not decay but grow with time. Then the
boundary layer becomes unstable and the
transition from laminar to turbulent flow
begins. Eddies and vortexes are formed and
destroy the laminar regularity of the
boundary layer motion. Quasi-laminar
motion exist only in the thin immediate
vicinity of the surface which is known as
laminar sub-layer. The region between
laminar sub-layer and fully developed
turbulent layer is called buffer layer.

The boundary layer (B.L.) divides the flow

the flow field into two domains: a region
where the velocity gradient is great and

region where the velocity gradient is nearly

equal the free stream velocity and the
effects of viscosity are negligible. For some
distance the flow is laminar and later it is
turbulent. Even in turbulent flow there is a
laminar sub-layer. The distance from the
leading edge at which the boundary layer
becomes turbulent is called the critical
length Xc. It is specified in terms of the local
Reynolds number, known as the critical
Reynolds number.
Critical Reynolds number = U Xcf/
= inertia
force/viscous
force
= DU/
The point of transition depends upon : the
surface roughness, disturbance levels and
even heat transfer. When the flow is calm,
no disturbances occur, then laminar flow is
possible even at Reynolds number of 5
106. If the surface is rough and disturbances
are introduced into the flow, the flow
becomes turbulent at a Reynolds number of
8 104. Under average conditions, the flow
over the plate becomes turbulent at a

distance from the leading edge where the

local Reynolds number is 5 105.
Consider a body of fluid in laminar flow over
a flat plate of cross sectional area A. We
define the following:
Tw = temperature of the wall (plate).
T = temperature of the free stream fluid.
t = thickness of the wall at which the free
stream attain the body fluid temperature.
t = the imaginary thickness in which the
fluid flows by conduction(i.e heat transfer is
by conduction, otherwise it is by
convection).
Q = h A ( Tw - T ) = - K A T/ y
h L/K = - ( T/y)w/ (Tw - T/L)
The quantity h L/K = Nusset number or
Nusset modulus. This quantity is also
refered to as Biot number. Nusset number is
used only im convection while Biot number
is used im lumped heat transfer

ENERGY EQUATIONS IN A CONTROL

VOLUME
Consider an elemental control volume inside
a thermal boundary layer. A few
assumptions are made which are:
(a) The thermal conductivity and specific
heat of the fluid are constant.
(b) The heat flow is in the y-direction and
is negligible in the x-direction
The energy balance is:
Energy in = Energy out
The following equations results from
the derivations which are omitted here.
Blassius plotted values of u/u and
y/x(ux/ ) and obtained a curve. At
the point where the ratio of u/u
approaches that of the free stream
velocity i.e 99%, the abscissae
becomes 5.0
/x Re = 5.0, or
= 5.0 x/Rex
u = velocity at a particular point of
interest.
u = free stream velocity.
SHEAR STRESS
Shear stress = s = 0.332 u/xRex

Drag coefficient = s /(u2/2) =

0.664/Rex
This is termed as local drag coefficient
or local friction coefficient.
Average drag coefficient over a length
L = Cf
= 1/L L0 Cfx.
dx
= 1.33/Re L
THICKNESS OF THERMAL BOUNDARY
LAYER
Thickness of thermal boundary layer
= th = /Pr 1/3
Where Pr = Prandtl number = Cp/K
K = thermal conductivity
The thickness of the thermal boundary
layer th is the distance from the
surface at which the temperature
difference between the wall and the
fluid approaches 99% of the difference
in temperature between the wall and
the free stream.
By knowing hydrodynamics
characteristics we can obtain
information for the heat transfer
characteristics.

Analogous to the hydrodynamic case,

the thermal boundary layer thickness
t is defined as the distance required
for the temperature T to reach 99% of
its free value T. The following
assumptions apply:
(a) Steady incompressible flow.
(b) Constant fluid properties evaluated
at film temperature.
(c) Negligible body forces, viscous
heating(low velocity) and
conduction in flow direction.
HEAT FLUX
Q/A = - K [ T/ y ]|y=0 = 0.332
(K/x) Re1/2 Pr1/3
(T - Tw)
TOTAL HEAT TRANSFERRED
Total heat transferred from plate width
b and length L is: 0.664 (Tw - T)
KRe1/2Pr1/3b
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
The heat transfer coefficient:
hcx = Q / A ( Tw T)

= 0.332 k/x Rex1/2

Pr1/3
LOCAL NUSSELT NUMBER
Local Nusselt number is denoted as
Nux
Nux = hc x/k
= 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
AVERAGE NUSSELT NUMBER
Average Nusselt number is derived
from integrating from 0 to L. L0
hcx = Q/A( Tw - T)
= 0.332(K/x)Rex1/2Pr1/3
(local average)
hc = Q / 6( Tw - T)
= 0.664 ReL1/2Pr1/3(k/2L )
(average)
EXAMPLE 1
Air at 15.5OC and 1 atmosphere
pressure is flowing over a plate at a
velocity of 6m/s. The plate is 0.6m
wide and at 60oC. Calculate at: x=
0.6m and x= xc
(a) Boundary layer thickness

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Local friction coefficient

Average friction coefficient
Local drag stress.
Thickness of thermal boundary
layer.
(f) Local convective heat transfer
(g) Average convective heat transfer
(h) Rate of heat transfer by convection.
= 1.137 kg/m2
Cp = 103 kg/kgok
= 1.861 10-5
k = 0.027 w/mk
SOLUTION
ReNO at x = 0.6m
(a) Re

0.6

= UX

= 6 x 1.137x 0.6
1.861 x 10-5
= 2.19 x 10-5

At x = xc = critical distance ( exists at NRE =

5 x 105 )
XC = 5 x 105 x
U

U = 6m
6 x 1.137
= 1.34m
= 5x
Rex
At x = 0.6m
= 5 x 0.6
2.19 x 105
= 6.41 x 10-3
At xc = 1.34m
= 5 x 1.34
5 x 105
= 0.009
(b) Local friction coefficient
Cfx = 0.664
Rex
At x = 0.6, Cfx = 0.664
2.19x 105
= 1.4 x 10-3
At x = 1.34

Cfx = 0.664
5 x 105
= 9.39 x 10-4
( c) average friction coefficient
At x = 0.6m, Cf = 2Cfx = 2 x 1.4 x 10-3
At x = 1.34m, Cfx = 2 x 9.39 x 10-4
= 18.78 x 10 -6
(d) s = 0.332 U Rexx
X
At x = 0.6m
s = 0.332 x 6 x 1.861x10-5 2.19x105
0.6
= 0.029
At x = 1.34m
s = 0.332 x 6 x 1.861x10-5 5x105
1.34
= 0.019
(e) th = / Pr1/3
Pr = 0.69 = Cp/k
Pr1/3 = 0.691/3 = 0.854
At x = 0.6m

th = 6.39x 10-3 = 7.23x 10-3

0.884
At x = 1.34m
th = 0.009 = 0.012
0.884
(f) Local convective heat coefficient
The local Nusselt number Nux is given as:
Nux = hc x/k = 0.332 Rex1/2Pr1/3
hcx/k = 0.332 Re1/2 Pr1/3
To calculate the Prandtl number
Pr = Cp/k
Pr = 103 x 1.86 x10-5 = 0.69
0.027
Pr1/3 = 0.691/3

= 0.884

At x = 0.6m
Nusselt number:
Nux = 0.332 Re1/2 Pr1/3
= 0.332x( 2.19x105)x 0.884 =
137.34
hcx/k = 137.34
hc = 137.34 x k

x
= 137.34 x 0.027
0.6
= 6.18 w/m2s
At x = 1.34m
Nusselt number :
Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2Pr1/3
= 0.332x (5x 105)x 0.884
= 207.53
hcx = 207.53x 0.027
1.34
= 4.182 w/m2s
(g) Average convective heat coefficient
At x = 0.6m
hc = 0.664 Rex1/2Pr1/3 k/x
= 0.664x(2.19
x105)x0.884x0.022/0.6
= 12.36w/m2s = 2x the local
At x = 1.34m
hc = 2x 4.182
= 8.364 w/m2s = 2x 4.182

= 8.364 w/m2s = 2 x local value

(h) Rate of heat transfer by convection:
The total heat transferred is given by:
Q = h A ( Tw - T)
Where the average value obtained by
calculation
Q/A = h( Tw - T)
At x = 0.6m
Q/A = 12.6 ( 60 15.55)
= 560 watts
At x = 1.34m
Q/A = 8.364(60 15.55)
= 372.19 watts
Heat transfer rate:
Qc = 0.664 k Re1/2Pr1/3( Tw - T)
At x = 0.6m
Qc = 329.67 watts
At x = 1.34m
Qc = 0.664 x 0.027x( 5x105)x0.884x(60
15.55)
=498 watts

REVISION QUESTIONS
Q 1. Nitrous oxide gas diffuses at a constant
rate through a stagnant layer of air 1.2mm
thick. Conditions are fixed so that the gas
contain 45% by volume of nitrous oxide at
one boundary of the stagnant air. The
nitrous oxide diffusing to the other boundary
is quickly absorbed and the concentration is
negligible at that plane. The temperature is
293k and atmospheric pressure. Under
these conditions, the diffusion of nitrous
oxide gas in air is 0.20cm2/sec . Calculate
the rate of diffusion of nitrous oxide gas
through the air.
Q 2 (a) Explain the following:
(i)

Hydrodynamic boundary layer.

(ii) Thermal boundary layer

(b)
Glycerin at 25oC flows over a flat
plate 0.5m wide at a pressure of 1
atmosphere. The velocity of glycerin is given
as 4 m/s. Determine at X=0.5 and X=Xc :

i)

Hydrodynamic boundary layer.

Thickness of Thermal boundary

layer
Local friction coefficient
Nusselt number
= 1.o15 kg/m3
Cp = 1.5103
=2.0510-5 kg/m.s
k = 0.036 w/m.s
HEAT EXCHANGERS
A heat exchanger is any device that effects
the transfer of thermal energy from one fluid
to another. In the simplest exchangers the
hot and cold fluids mix directly; more
common are those in which the fluids are
separated by a plane wall. This type, called
a recuperator, may range from a simple
plane wall between two flowing fluids to
complex configurations involving multiple
passes, fins, or baffles. In this case
conductive and convective heat transfer,
and sometimes radiation, principles are

required to describe the energy exchange

process.
Many factors enter into the design of heat
exchangers, including thermal analysis, size,
weight, structural strength, pressure drop
and cost.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Common heat exchangers include the flatplate, shell-and-tube and crossflow types. A
double-pipe exchanger, the simplest form of
the shell-and tube type, is shown in figure
below.

t2

T1

T2

Counter Flow
t1

If the fluids both flow in the same direction,

it is referred to as a parallel,-flow type; if
they flow in opposite directions, a counter
flow.

In crossflow heat exchangers the fluid flows

at right angles to each other. The sketch
below show a schematic diagram of a
counter-flow heat exchanger.
t2

T1

T2

Counter Flow
t1

Temperature

T1
t1

hot fluid
T2 t2

t2

cold fluid

t2

Distance

T1> T2 since hot fluid is losing heat.

t1> t2 since cold fluid is picking up heat.

In the case of countercurrent flow, the

difference in temperature between the two
ends of the heat exchange is almost equal.
In the case of parallel or co-current flow ,
the difference in temperature between the
two ends is large.
Q=U A ( t ) {U is overall heat coefficient }

Now Q is highly dependent on t

In the case of a countercurrent heat
exchange the unit surface will be
transferring the same amount of heat
through the length of the exchanger
whereas in the case of a parallel heat
exchanger, a unit surface of the exchanger
at the inlet will be transferring more
heat/unit surface than at the exit.
Considering the total amount of heat the
heat exchanger transfers, the counter
current flow is better than the parallel flow
heat exchanger.
LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE
Assumptions for the derivation of log mean
temperature for counter current flow.
1.U is constant over the entire length
of the exchanger.

2. The flow rates of the fluid are

constant.
3. The specific heats of the fluids are
constant.
4.There is no change of phase during
the period of heat transfer.
5. There is negligible heat loss.
Consider the surface area of
transfer dQ is given as

dA

dQ=U dA ( T t )

( mark)

M h C h ( dT ) ( for hot fluid )

M c C c dt ( for cold fluid )

Using these equations derive logmean temperature

dT =

U dA (T t )
dQ
=
M hCh
M h Ch

similarly for the cold fluid

dt=

U dA ( T t )
dQ
=
McCc
McCc

dT dt=U dA ( T t )

d ( T t )
=U dA
( T t )

1
1

M h C h M c CC

, the heat

where =

1
1

Mh Ch Mc Cc

Integration yields

[ ln ( T t ) ] =U A

( T 1t 2 )
U A
( T 2t 1 )

ln

The heat transfered is given as

Q=M h Ch ( T 1T 2 ) =M c C c ( t 2t 1 )

T T
1
= 1 2
M h Ch
Q
Also
t t
1
= 2 1
M c Cc
Q

1
1
1

= ( T T 2 ) ( t 2 t 1 ) ]
Mh Ch McCc Q [ 1

1
( T t ) ( T 2t 1) }
Q{ 1 2

Substituiting for

ln

( T 1t 2 )
T 2t 1

Q=

=U A

1
[ ( T t ) ( T 2t1 ) ]
Q 1 2

U A [ ( T 1 t 2 ) ( T 2t 1 ) ]
ln

T 1t 2
T 2t 1

Defining the log mean Temp as ( T )m

( T ) m=

( T 1t 2) ( T 2t 1 )
T 1t 2
ln
T 2t 1

Q=U A ( T )m

where

t 1=T 1t 2
t 2=T 2t 1

for counter flow

t m=

t 1 t 2
t1
ln
t2