Chapter 10.

Sources of Magnetic Fields

Magnetic fields, Biot Savart Law
10.1 Introduction
So far we have dealt with static electric fields caused by electric charges at rest. We saw that
Electric field intensity, E is the only fundamental vector field quantity required to study
electrostatics in free space. In a material medium, we found it convenient to define a second vector
field quantity, the electric flux density or the Displacement vector, D, as we were able to account
for the polarization. We also noted that when a test charge, q, is placed in an electric field, E, it
experiences an electric force given as:

𝐹⃗𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
A Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersterd, discovered that forces exist between current carrying
wires. Soon after Ampere did experiments with parallel wires carrying currents and realized the
forces behave quite differently as compared to the Electric forces we have seen so far. Two wires
carrying current in the same direction attract while they repel if the current is in opposite directions.
This force is only observed between two moving charges. The force cannot be represented in terms
of 𝐸⃗⃗ or 𝐷
⃗⃗. We need to define a new field term. These were big discoveries which ultimately lead
to the realization that electricity and magnetism are related. We will come back and see what the
forces are later once we have understood the source of these forces.
The understanding of these forces is developed through defining a new field term, called magnetic
flux density, also many times simply called magnetic field, 𝐵 ⃗⃗. The units of 𝐵
⃗⃗ is webers per square
meter (Wb/m2). The source of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ is moving charges or current i.e. current creates 𝐵 ⃗⃗ around it. The
field only interacts with moving charges and creates a force on moving charge. Let us consider a
charge q moving in magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ with velocity 𝑢
⃗⃗. The force on the moving charge q is given
as:
⃗⃗𝒎 = 𝒒𝒖
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩
If we have both Electric field and magnetic field in space, then the total force on the charge will
be given as:
⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝒒(𝑬
⃗⃗ + 𝒖
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗)

The force equation is called Lorentz’s force equation. In this chapter, we will understand the nature
⃗⃗⃗ and how it is created around current carrying wires. Next week we will look at the Gauss Law
of 𝑩
equivalent of Magnetic fields.
The study is called Magnetostatics, but it is a misnomer. We should remember that static charges
do not create magnetic fields. We need moving charges to create magnetic fields. What we mean
by magnetostatics is that the field is created by charge moving at uniform velocity which does not
change with time and hence, the field does not change with time.
10.2 Cross Product
We will be using cross-product extensively with magnetic fields. Let us revise what it is and
⃗⃗ with an angle 
develop techniques to evaluate it quickly. Let us consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
between them. The vector or cross product of these vectors is a vector perpendicular to the plane
containing A and B; and its magnitude is ABsin()

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵
𝜃
𝐴⃗
Figure 1. Cross product between two vectors

The magnitude of the cross-product is simple to calculate. It is simply the product of the
magnitudes of the two vectors and sine of the angle between them. To determine the direction, we
use Fleming’s left-hand rule. We use the middle finger, index finger and thumb as shown in the
figure below. The three fingers are all extended 90 degrees to each other. Turn the middle finger
towards your palm, index finger as if you are pointing to some one and thumb as if you are giving
an ok sign. The first vector, 𝐴⃗ goes along the middle finger; the second vector, 𝐵 ⃗⃗ goes along the
index finger and the thumb gives the direction of the cross product (calling it 𝐶⃗).

𝐶⃗
⃗⃗
𝐵

𝐴⃗

Figure 2. Flemings Left Hand Rule

You can also use Fleming’s right hand rule as shown in the
figure below. Again open the middle finger, index finger and 𝐶⃗
𝐴⃗
thumb in a similar fashion but using the right hand. However,
here the convention is different. The first vector in the cross-
⃗⃗
𝐵
product goes along the index finger; the second vector goes
along the middle finger and the direction of the cross-product
is given by the thumb. Figure 3. Flemings Right Hand Rule
Choose one of the two rules (based on which hand you are comfortable with) and become
comfortable with it. They will play very important role in our calculations.
In terms of co-ordinate systems, remember the order of co-ordinate axis were also defined using
Fleming’s left hand rule. Thus, we can create simple mnemonic. In Cartesian coordinates, we have:

The result of the cross-product between two coordinate vectors is the next vector following the
arrows. When we follow the direction of the arrows, the result is positive; when we go against the
direction of the arrows, the result is negative. Thus, we have
𝑥̂ × 𝑦̂ = 𝑧̂ ; 𝑦̂ × 𝑧̂ = 𝑥̂; 𝑧̂ × 𝑥̂ = 𝑦̂
and
𝑦̂ × 𝑥̂ = −𝑧̂ ; 𝑧̂ × 𝑦̂ = −𝑥̂; 𝑥̂ × 𝑧̂ = −𝑦̂
These same rules follow for cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates with the following
mnemonics:

This is the reason we had paid careful attention to defining the order of the coordinates in Chapter
1.
10.3 Gauss Law for Magnetism
As a kid you must have played with magnets. They have a north pole and a south pole. North pole
is the pole where the magnetic fields lines leave the magnet while south pole is the pole where the
magnetic field lines enter the magnet. You break a magnet, both pieces have a north pole and a
south pole. Unlike charge, you cannot isolate a single pole at least in the classical world. What this
means is that the magnetic field lines close upon themselves. They have to make a closed loop.
Mathematically, this simply means that the flux on a closed surface will be 0. Whatever field lines
leave the closed surface, will enter the closed surface somewhere else. Thus, we have:

⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝑆
This is the Gauss Law for magnetism and the second Maxwell equation (we are finally done with
half the course!).
As per our current understanding, Gauss Law for magnetism is only true is only true in the classical
world. According to Dirac and our current understanding of quantum mechanics, there needs to at
least one magnetic monopole somewhere in the universe for the charge to be quantized. Even one
magnetic monopole would be good enough. We haven’t found them yet and it is believed they
were created during the early stages of the big bang and have expanded out to the edges of the
universe beyond our reach. Finding magnetic monopoles is one of the goals of the Large Hadron
Collider, CERN.
10.4 Biot Savart Law due to current
In many applications, we are interested in determining the magnetic field due to a current-carrying
circuit. Let is consider a circuit with a very thin wire placed arbitrarily in space. The wire is
carrying current I. We want to calculate the magnetic field at point P.
We take a small section of the circuit at an arbitrary point A, and create a differential length element
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙. The direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is the direction of the current. This segment can be thought of as a vector
quantity having a magnitude of the length of the segment and the direction along the direction of
current. Thus, the infinitely small current element can be written as 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Let us call, the distance
from this small current element at A to the point P as r and the corresponding unit vector as 𝑟̂ .

Figure 4. Setting up a differential element for calculating magnetic field of a current carrying circuit

The Biot-Savart Law gives us an expression of the differential magnetic field due to the
⃗⃗⃗⃗ as:
differential current element, 𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 is a universal constant called the permeability of free space and is given as:
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚/𝐴 (T is tesla)
Please note that the expression is very similar to the square law in Electrostatics (see if you have
been paying attention and have learned how to integrate for E-field, this chapter will not be bad,
else it will be quadruple the work) as:
1 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
However, there are certain important differences. Electric field is in the same plane as 𝑟̂ unit vector.
However, 𝑑𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is in perpendicular to the plane containing the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟̂ . As we have drawn
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the figure, 𝑑𝐵 is pointing out of the paper. We represent this by a picture. Pointing out will be dot
inside a circle ( ) while pointing into the screen will be a cross inside a circle (. ). Think of a
vector as an arrow. When the vector is pointing towards you, you only see the point of the tip (thus
a dot) while when the vector is pointing away from you, you see the feathers on the quill (thus a
cross).
This out of plane considerations means, that for many problems, the direction of dB remains the
same even when we go to different parts of the circuit and hence the integral is easier than that of
the Electric field (where the direction of the field was changing). However, there would be
problems where we would have to think truly in 3 dimensions.
⃗⃗ at a point will be given as:
The total magnetic flux density or magnetic field, 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗ = ∫
𝐵
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 4𝜋 𝑟2
⃗⃗, we follow similar steps as we had done for Electric field calculations. Briefly the
To evaluate 𝐵
steps are:
Step 1: Choose the co-ordinate system which allows us to easily integrate the circuit. The co-
ordinate system will be based on the shape of the circuit.
Step 2: Define point A arbitrarily on the circuit and define it coordinates using the coordinate
system. Define the length of dl in terms of the variables in terms of the co-ordinate systems.
Step 3: Evaluate 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ , including its amplitude and direction (using one of Fleming’s rules).
Step 4: Look for symmetry to see if 𝐵 ⃗⃗ only exists in one specific direction. If it does, then
decompose 𝑑𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in that direction.
Step 5: Integrate.
We will see how to do these steps as we do examples.

10.5 Biot Savart Law for moving charges

Let us say we have a disk of charge which we are rotating at a specific angular frequency. To us
as the charge is moving, it would look as if current is flowing and hence, magnetic field will be
created (are not electrons moving around the nucleus?). We can find equivalent current or we can
modify the Biot Savart Law equation to be written in terms of charge and velocity. Let us see how.
 𝑑𝑞
We know current I is charge per unit time and hence, we can write 𝐼 = . Thus, Biot-Savart Law
𝑑𝑡
becomes:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ 𝜇0 𝑑𝑞 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . We get:
However, we can move differential elements around. So, let us move dt under 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙⁄ × 𝑟̂
𝜇0 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑞
4𝜋 𝑟2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
But, 𝑑𝑙⁄𝑑𝑡 is simply the velocity of the moving charge. Thus, the differential magnetic field
becomes:
𝜇 𝑣⃗ × 𝑟̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟2
When charge is moving, we can break the charge into small differential elements (dq) (just like
what we did for Electric fields) and calculate the differential field due to the differential charge.
Let us start doing examples to understand how to use Biot-Savart Law to calculate magnetic
fields of circuits.
Example 1. Magnetic field due to a finite straight fire
A thin, straight wire is carrying current I as shown in the figure below. Calculate the magnetic
field at point P on an axis going half-way through the wire. We are assuming that the leads to the
ends of the wire cancel the field at point P (e.g. you twist the wires).

h
I

Solution:
Since, the current is flowing in a straight line, we can use Cartesian coordinates. Let us place x-
axis on the line with origin at the center and y-axis being vertical. z-axis points out of the screen.
We choose an arbitrary point, A on the line at a distance x away from the center and create a ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
element as 𝑑𝑥𝑥̂. With this we get:
 𝑦̂

𝑟̂
P
r
h

I
O A 𝑥̂
x ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑥̂
𝑑𝑙

Now let us evaluate, 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ . The direction of the vector is determined by Left hand rule where the
middle finger goes in direction of dl i.e. x; index finger goes in the direction of r and you see that
the thumb is pointing outwards. Thus, the direction of the vector 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ will be pointing out of the
page i.e. in 𝑧̂ direction. To evaluate the magnitude we use the definition of cross product and get:

| ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑟̂ |sin (𝜃)

𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟̂ | = |𝑑𝑙

However, |𝑟̂ | = 1 (𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟), |𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗⃗ | is dx and sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin (𝜃). Thus, the magnitude
of
ℎ
| ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟̂ | = 𝑑𝑥 sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = 𝑑𝑥
𝑟
Using Biot-Savart Law, the differential field becomes:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ 𝜇0 𝐼ℎ
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑧̂
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is already in one of our axis directions and as we move point A to different parts
Notice that 𝑑𝐵
of the line, the direction of 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ remains the same. Unlike Eletric field for a line charge, the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a constant. So we do not need to look for symmetry and can setup the integral.
direction of 𝑑𝐵
We are moving A from x = -L/2 to x = L/2. We will get:
𝐿/2
𝜇0 𝐼ℎ 1
𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫
⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑧̂
𝑥=−𝐿/2 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼ℎ 𝐿/2 1
= 𝑧̂ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋 𝑥=−𝐿/2 𝑟 3
𝜇0 𝐼ℎ 𝐿/2 1 𝜇0 𝐼ℎ 𝐿
= 𝑧̂ ∫ 2 2 3/2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑧̂
4𝜋 𝑥=−𝐿/2 (ℎ + 𝑥 ) 4𝜋 2
√𝑅2 + (𝐿⁄ )
2
See more examples in handwritten notes.