Lens and optics

Snell’s law
This states that the ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence and angle of refraction at a
boundary is a constant. This constant is the refractive index of the boundary.

Sin (i)/Sin (r) = refractive index (n) 

The same form of relationship also applies to the ratio of the speed of light in the two materials.
For a boundary between air and another transparent material: 

speed of light in air (v1) / speed of light in material (v2) = refractive index (n) 

This will basically ask you to plot sin(i) over sin(r); the angle of incidence over the angle of
refraction in accordance to snell’s law. It will look like this:

The gradient will be the refractive index (n). This has no unit.
Momentum

 A moving object has momentum which is defined by the equation:

p = mv

 Where:
o p = momentum in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s)
o m = mass in kilograms (kg)
o v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)

 This means that an object at rest (i.e v = 0) has no momentum

 Momentum keeps an object moving in the same direction, making it difficult to change
the direction of an object with a large momentum

 Since velocity is a vector this means that the momentum of an object also depends on
its direction of travel
 This means that momentum can be either positive or negative
o If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in
the opposite direction (to the left) will have negative momentum

Example to visualize:

Try practice with questions from here:

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/calcpad/momentum/problems
https://mmerevise.co.uk/gcse-physics-revision/momentum/
Equations of motion
 The first equation of motion is given as:
v = u + at
Where,
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
t = time taken
 The second equation of motion is given as:
v2 = u2 + 2as
Where,
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
s = displacement
 The third equation of motion is given as:
S= ut + ½ at2
Where,
u = initial velocity
a = acceleration
S = displacement
t = time taken

 The fourth equation of motion is given as:

S= (u+v) t
Where,
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
S= displacement
t = time taken

*learn how to transpose these to get what you need

This has some really good practice:
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-6/Sample-Problems-and-Solutions
Electricity
Electric current is the flow of a charge. This flow of current can involve electrons, ions or holes. Any
material that allows current to flow through them is called a conductor. 

Alternating Current vs Direct Current

Electric current flows in two ways:  Alternating Current (AC) or Direct Current (DC). The main
difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons flow. In DC, the
electrons flow steadily in a single direction, while in AC, electrons keep switching directions,
going forward and then backwards.

AC current has a frequency of 50 or 60 hertz. This means that the electrons are flowing back and
forth along a wire 50 or 60 times each second. This type of current is mainly found on grid
systems that deliver current to homes to power appliances and lights etc. 
In a battery, however, the charges flow in one direction only. This is called d.c or direct current. 

Comparison of Alternating Current vs Direct Current

 Both current types can be represented by voltage time or current time graphs
 Direct current may be steady or fluctuating 

These graphs can appear differently, this is based on definition.

Power
Power is a measure of the rate of work.
The equation is power= work/ time
In that, power is measured in watts (W), work in newton meters (Nm) or Joules (J).
Use this as a guide: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/Lesson-1/Power
This is relatively simple once you master that the work is force x distance and you divide by the
allotted time granted if they ask for power, if not transpose with whatever is given.
Now, power can also be asked in relation to circuits:

Where P= power in watts (W)

I= current in Amps (A)
V= voltage in volts (V)

Depending on the situation i.e., if everything above isn’t given (though rare as the former is the
main law) then,
Power can be:
 The power formula can be rewritten using Ohm's law as P =I2R or P = V2/R, where V is
the potential difference, I is the electric current, R is the resistance, and P is the electric
power.
Use this as a reference: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-3/Power-
Revisited
Waves and interference
A wave is an oscillating disturbance (vibration) that travels from one point to another
through a medium and transmits energy.
Parts of a wave
 Key terms
 Phase is the position of a point on a wave within its cycle. If two points as in the same
position, then they are said to be in phase. If they differ by exactly half a wave, then they
are exactly out of phase.
 Wavelength (λ) is the length of one wave. It can be determined as the distance between
successive crests or trough or any two corresponding points on a wave.
 Period (T) is the time taken for one wave to be generated or for one wave to pass a
certain point. It is also the time taken for a wave to move a distance of one wavelength.
Frequency (f) is the number of waves generated (or passing a point) in 1 second hence its
measured in Herts (Hz)
 Transverse Waves: waves which vibrate at a right angle in their direction of motion. So,
for instance if the wave is going forward then the vibration may be up & down or left &
right.
 Longitudinal Waves: waves which vibrate parallel to their direction of motion. So for
instance if the wave is going forward then the vibration may be back & forth.
 Refraction: the process in which a wave bends as it goes from one medium to another.

 Nature of Bending: When the wave moves from a fast medium to a slow medium, the
wave bends towards the normal. When the wave moves from a slow medium to a fast
medium, the wave bends away from the normal. The angle in the fast medium is always
greater than the angle in the slow medium.
 Diffraction: Diffraction is the process in which a wave spreads as it encounters an
obstacle or gap.
 Interference: the way waves interact (merge) with each other to create new wave patterns.

N.B., Destructive is like two people holding a jumping rope.

 Critical angle: The maximum angle, to the normal, at which light can move from a slow
medium to a fast one, without being totally internally reflected. Its calculated as sin(c)=
 1/n sin of the critical angle is 1 divide by the refractive index, hence, c is the sin inverse
(sin-1) of the answer you get. This can be calculated on calculator as sin second function
then put your number but to just find sin press sin and put the number in bracket.
The double slit experiment is to help understand wave theory, you can skim over this section:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pk6s2OlKzKQ
In 1801, Thomas young performed experiment which showed that light could diffract and
interfere. This was the first evidence produced to show light’s wave-like properties. This
experiment is known today as ‘Young’s Double Slit Experiment’.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
[1] Aim: To demonstrate the exhibition of the wave properties of
diffraction and interference by light through Young’s Double Slit
Experiment.
[2] Apparatus:
Light Source, hard paper, razor, paper holders, white screen,
camera.
[3] Diagram

[4] Method
(a) Cut a single slit in one of the hard paper as shown in the diagram above.
(b) Cut two slits in the other hard paper as shown in the diagram above.
(c) Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
(d) Turn on the light source.
(e) Observe the pattern on the screen.
(f) Draw and/or take a photograph of the pattern if possible.
[5] Results

The light was shown to create a pattern of bright and dark bands on the screen. Most of the bright
bands were in areas without a straight-line path of the source.
[6] Interpretation
Since the bright bands were in areas without straight line view of the source, they could only
have been produced by spreading (diffraction) of the light as it passed through the two slits. The
dark bands can only be explained in terms of some sort of cancelling out. This would be
destructive interference. The bands are therefore called interference patterns. The bright bands
are created by constructive interference and dark bands are created by destructive interference.
The pattern shows two wave features: diffraction and interference.
[7] Conclusion
Based on the results, of bright and dark bands pattern obtained, it was shown that light behaves
as a wave, since it underwent diffraction and interference.

 Easy way to remember electromagnetic waves if they appear:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5vkYjV1V1A
Remember the mnemonic Raw Meat Is Very Unsanitary eXcept Giraffe
Thermodynamics
Specific Heat Capacity: Specific Heat Capacity (c) is the amount of Heat Energy (E H ) required
to Change the Temperature (ΔT) of 1kg of a substance by 1°C. Simply put Energy per Unit Mass
per Unit Temperature Change.

EH

Where, EH= m x c x T
Heat energy= mass (kg) x c (the specific heat capacity is usually provided, of water it is
4200J/kg/c or 4.2J/kg/c) x T (final temp. – initial temp.)
Latent heat: Specific Latent Heat (l) is the amount of Heat Energy (E H ) required to change the
state of 1kg of a substance. Simply put Energy per Unit Mass.
L= EH/M
Where, latent heat= EH/ mass (kg)
Latent Heat of Fusion (l f ): This is the amount of heat required for Melting or Freezing a
substance. Remember heat is added during melting and removed during freezing. This is heat
required for a phase change of 1kg of a substance at constant temperature.
Latent Heat of Vaporisation (l v ): This is the amount of heat required Boiling or Condensing of
1kg of a substance. Remember heat is added during boiling and removed during condensing.
For latent heat of fusion and vaporization, lv or lf= EH/ m
So they are equal to heat energy/ mass (kg)
Transpose where necessary for what is asked for.
To understand, this is a great source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/thermalP/Lesson-
2/Measuring-the-Quantity-of-Heat
Radioactivity
For this go through these notes:
https://classroom.google.com/c/NDkwMDIwMzUyMzk1/m/NDkwMDIwNjg2MTY2/details

Theory:
History
 Indivisible Spheres – Democritus ~ 400bc
At around 400 years before the time of CHRIST, the Greek philosopher Democritus
proposed that if one kept dividing matter into small pieces, there will come a point where it
would not be able to divide again. He said that these were the smallest possible particles
(Indivisible Spheres). This is where the word Atom comes from the Greek word ‘Atomon’
(indivisible or uncuttable).
 Continuous Ether – Aristotle ~350bc
About 40 years after Democritus, another Greek philosopher came up with an idea that
disagreed with him. He said that matter was made up of substances that could continuously
be divided. This delayed the development of the atomic theory for almost 2000 years.
 Atom – John Dalton ~ 1777
After examining the results of experiment done in combining elements, Dalton realised the
following. (1) The total mass of the combining elements at the beginning of a reaction was

the same as the mass of substance formed at the end of the reaction; and (2) Their
combining masses were in simple whole-number ratios.
This led him to conclude that there must be a basic unit of the element and that this basic
unit did not break up in chemical reactions. He pictured the atoms as Pool Balls.
This revived the idea of the Atom.
 Electron – J. J. Thomson 1897
James John Thomson discovered the Electron in 1897 by doing experiments with Cathode-
Ray Tubes. He then derived a new description of the Atom called the Plum Pudding model.
 Cathode Ray experiments
In 1897 J. J Thompson conducted experiments with Cathode ray Tubes. These tubes
passed a beam of particles from a negative electrode, through a vacuum, to positive
electrode. He also used electric plates to deflect the beam and noticed that they always
moved towards the positive – thus they had to be negative. When he measured their
deflection by a magnetic field, he realised that their properties did no change – thus
they had to be a type of particle.
So Thomson identified this negatively charged particle which is now called the
Electron.
 Plum Pudding Model
After finding the electron he came up with a new description (model) of the atom.
Unlike Dalton’s Pool Ball Model, his model had smaller particles in the atom.
His Model is the Plum Pudding Model. A plum pudding is a pudding with Plums
(prunes or raisins) in it. However it would be easier to explain as a Water Melon. The
Seed would represent the Electrons (since he knew electrons were particles) and the
rest of the Flesh represented the Positive Charge.
 Nucleus – Ernest Rutherford 1911
Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus in 1911 by using the results of experiments done
by his students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. After discovering the nucleus, he
described a new model of the atom called the Planetary Model. He later discovered the
Proton through further experimentation and analysis.
Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Geiger and Marsden performed the experiment led Rutherford to discover the
Nucleus.
 Procedure
They fired alpha particles (heavy positively charged particles) at a gold foil. They
then observed where the alpha particle landed on a special rotating screen.
 Results
They observed that [1] Most (99.88%) went straight through; [2] Few (1%) were
slightly deflected by small angles; and [3] Very Few bounced back.
 Diagram Illustrating Results

 Conclusion
Rutherford used these results to conclude that [1] Most of the atom is empty
space; [2] 99.9% of the mass of the atom is concentrated in a very small positive
place called the nucleus in the centre of the atom; and [3] the electrons are found
in the empty space outside of the nucleus.
 Planetary Model
From the findings above Rutherford came up with a new description of the atom
called the Planetary Model. In this model the sun represented the nucleus and the
planets represented electrons going around the nucleus.
 Discovery Of The Proton
Through careful experiments, Rutherford realised that the charges of the nucleus of
other elements were always whole number multiples the charge of Hydrogen nucleus.
That suggested that hydrogen nucleus had the smallest unit of charge. He concluded
that the Hydrogen nucleus was a single particle which he called Proton. Since the mass
and charge of the hydrogen nucleus were already known Rutherford also knew the
mass and charge of the Proton.
 Shell Model – Niels Bohr 1913

While Rutherford’s planetary Model was great, there were flaws. The Electron should fall
into the nucleus.
Bohr proposed a better Model. It is called the Shell Model. Instead of each electron having
its own orbit, electron orbited in groups at specific radii called shells.
 Neutron – James Chadwick 1932
When Rutherford measured elements Rutherford realised that the mass was more than the
charge. This meant that there was another particle in the nucleus providing mass but no
charge. He knew that the particle existed but had no evidence to support it.
Later on James Chadwick did experiment which detected this neutral particle being emitted
from Beryllium when it was bombarded with Alpha particles.

Know the plum pudding model

by J.J Thompson

Application of Einstein’s formula in finding the energy released from an emission

Example,
Calculate the energy released in the following nuclear reaction.

Mass of Reactants = 239.05216 + 1.00867 = 240.06083u

Mass of Products = 133.90539 + 102.9272 + 3 (1.00867) = 239.8586u
Mass Defect in u = Mass of Reactants – Mass of Products = 240.06083 – 239.8586 = 0.20223u
Mass Defect in kg (Δm) = 1.66×10 -27 × 0.20223 = 3.35702×10 -28 kg
Energy = Δm × c 2 = 3.35702×10 -28 × (3×10 8 ) 2 = 3.02132×10 -11 J
E= ∆mc2
Energy release (J)= Change in mass: mass of reactants – mass of products (Mr- Mp) (kg) X
speed of light (3x108)2 (ms-1)
Explanation:
So they’ll give you an emission equation with the corresponding mass number of everything.
You add up the masses on the reactant side and the product side. Then you subtract your total
from the product side from the mass side. The answer you get is in kg so to convert to the right
unit, multiply your answer by the constant 1.66x10-27. From here we use Einstein’s equation: E=
m x c2. You multiply your new mass (whatever you got when you multiplied the mass by the
constant) by the speed of light squared (3x108)2. After this, the answer you get is in joules.
This is how the exam will come: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-tYCpXHm1M