TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

TWI Knowledge Summary

Arc weldability of alloy steels

by Adrienne Barnes

Cracking
Alloy steels are potentially susceptible to the following types of cracking:
Hydrogen cracking
Solidification cracking
Reheat cracking
Liquation cracking
With knowledge of the factors that control these cracking mechanisms, it is
generally possible for weld procedures to be developed for most modern alloy
steels to allow crack-free weldments to be produced by arc welding. More
details on each of these cracking mechanisms can be found in Fabrication
cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - A guide to best practice

Mechanical properties
In the majority of cases, elevated temperature strength and oxidation
behaviour are the key areas of concern. Joint strength can generally be
readily achieved through the use of appropriate welding consumables
although the long term creep performance can be reduced relative to base
material (by up to ~20%), particularly in higher alloy grades, by the
development of a creep-weak or 'soft' zone in the outer HAZ, known as the
Type IV zone.
These materials are generally used in the PWHT condition and the toughness
of both HAZ or weld metal is usually satisfactory. For low alloy steels, HAZ
toughness can be improved by ensuring a sufficient level of alloying to give
transformation to low carbon martensite rather than bainite, and in this respect
Ni-additions can be beneficial.
However, depending on the impurity content, low alloy steels may be
susceptible to temper embrittlement if cooled slowly through the 350-600C
temperature range, either during PWHT or, more commonly following elevated
temperature service. Susceptibility to temper embrittlement can be minimised
through careful control of impurity levels in base material and welding

consumables at the time of procurement. For more information, look at the

FAQ - What is temper embrittlement and how can it be controlled?

Service degradation
Welds in alloy steels may be subject to temper embrittlement (as previously
discussed), hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen attack and creep damage.
During elevated temperature hydrogen service, gaseous hydrogen can enter
steel and, if the partial pressure and temperature are below those required to
achieve hydrogen attack, no problems will be encountered at elevated
temperature. If allowed to cool to near ambient temperature, for example
during shut down, hydrogen embrittlement can occur which may lead to
cracking. If the temperature and partial pressure of hydrogen are high,
hydrogen attack may occur. The hydrogen absorbed into the steel, combines
with carbon in the steel to form methane; this may lead to decarburisation and
the formation of voids or microcracks and blistering can develop.
If subjected to an applied load at elevated temperature (within the creep
regime) for extended periods of time, creep damage/deformation may occur.
Creep occurs by a combination of dislocation movement, grain boundary
sliding and diffusion. Creep damage can vary in severity from a coarsening of
carbides and the formation of isolated cavities to orientated cavities through to
microcracks and macrocracks. Where a material operates within the creep
regime regular inspection, including dimensional measurements and
microstructural replication, is required to allow the material condition and
residual life to be assessed.