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Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs
such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets.
Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal
tract by the hepatic portal vein (the "first pass effect"), making them unsuitable for oral use.
Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosa, so that they
bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some
drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to
be given in very high doses or by injection
For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not
be suitable. For example, salbutamol, used to treat problems in therespiratory system, can have
effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling
smaller doses direct to the required site of action.
A proportion of the population have difficulties swallowing tablets either because they just don't
like taking them or because their medical condition makes it difficult for them
(dysphagia, vomiting). In such instances it may be better to consider alternative dosage form or
administration route.
Tablets are solid dosage forms usually contains active pharmaceutical ingredient and excipients in powder, crystalline or granular
form with or without diluents which is prepared either by moulding or compression process. They are solid, biconvex or flat in shape
and vary in size, shape and weight which is depends on the medicaments which are used for preparation. They are also varying in
hardness, disintegration; dissolution characteristics and thickness depend on their intended use and method of manufacture. Tablets
are the most widely used solid dosage forms because of their advantages and popularity increasing day by day. Tablet usually
contains filler, diluents, binders, lubricants, glidants, disintegrants, antiadherent, colouring agents and flavouring agents as
excipients.[Ansel's Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Eighth Edition, Loyd V. Allen, Jr, Nicholos G.
Popovich, Howard C. Ansel, 2005, pp-228-245]
Advantages
Unit dosage forms with accurate, stable dose and great precision and least variability.
Most stable with respect to physical, chemical and microbiological attributes.
Cheapest oral dosage form, easy to handle, use and carry out with attractive and elegant appearance.
Cheap, easy to swallow and production does not require and additional processing steps.
Provide protection of medicaments from atmospheric conditions like air, moisture and light, etc.
Provide prolonged stability to medicaments.
Low manufacturing cost as compare to other solid dosage forms and large scale production is possible.
Administration of minute dose of drug in accurate amount.
Unpleasant taste can be masked by sugar coating.
Easy to divide into halves and quarters whenever fraction dose is required.
Formulate as a special release products such as enteric or delayed release products.
Packing and production is cheap and does not require more space for storage.
Disadvantages
Drug which are amorphous and low density character are difficult to compress into tablet.
Hygroscopic drugs are not suitable for compressed tablets.
Drugs with low or poor water solubility, sloe dissolution, high absorbance in GI tract may be difficult to formulate.
Sensitive to oxygen drugs may require special coating.
Cost of production may be increase because of coating and encapsulation to remove bitter and unpleasant
Types of tablets
There are many types of tablets according to the intended of use and manufacturing process.
Implantation tablet: Implantation tablets are injected under the skin by giving a small surgical cut into the skin. A special injector a
hallow needle and plunger may require for administration. Purpose of these tablets is to prolong drug effect from month to year.
These tablets are implanted intramuscularly or subcutaneous so they must be sterile and packed in sterile container.
[Pharmaceutics - I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7,21]
Tablet Excipients:
Excipients are substance other that active ingredient in formulation of tablet. The roles of excipients are to ensure tabletting
operation satisfactory and ensure that tablets of specified quality are prepared. Depend on intended use; they are subcategorised in
different groups. However excipients affect properties of tablets.
Diluents or filler
A small amount of powder requires forming suitable size tablet for easy handling. Normally tablet weigh 50mg so some amount of
bulk drug requires to incorporation in formulation of tablet which enhance size of tablet. These powders known as diluents or fillers.
The ideal dilute should have following properties- cheap, chemically inert, acceptable taste, good compactability and dilution
capacity, biocompatible, good biopharmaceutical properties and non hygroscopic.
A single substance cannot fulfil all these requirements so different substance have gained use as diluents mainly carbohydrates and
inorganic salts sometimes. The most common diluent is lactose because it possess a sires of good properties like dissolves readily
in water, has a pleasant taste, non hygroscopic is fairly non reactive and shows good compact ability. Its main limitation is that some
people have intolerance to lactose. Basically lactose exists in two forms crystalline and amorphous. Other sugar and sugar alcohols
such as glucose, sucrose, and mannitol have been used as alternative fillers, mostly in chewable tablets or lozenges because of
their pleasant taste. Other important example of the filler is an inorganic substance, dicalcium phosphate dehydrate. It is insoluble in
water and also non hygroscopic but have hydrophilic property i.e. easily wetted by water. It also has good flow ability and therefore it
is used mostly in direct compaction. [Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. - Edinburgh :
Churchill Livingstone, 2007.] [ Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of
industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303.]
Disintegrants:
According to Michael, 2007, a disintegrant is added in formulation of tablet, which promotes drug dissolution and provide an
effective surface area, when comes in contact to liquid and breaks down in small fragments. The process of disintegration for tablet
occurs in main two steps
[1] Tablet wets by sold and pores it
[2] Breaks down of tablet into small fragments which include aggregation of primary particles into small drug particles. Disintegrant
suggested in some mechanism such as swelling of particles, wetting reaction, repulsion of particle and particle recovery.
Most common types of disintegrants in tablets are maize, potato and corn starch. the concentration of starch is up to 10% required
but today normally modified starch or modified cellulose are used which are very high swelling disintegrants. So it's requires typically
1-5% by weight which facilitate particle-particle repulsion.
However, disintegrants can be mixed with other ingredients such as granules to increase effective disintegration of the tablet into
smaller fragments.
Leon Lachman et al, 1991, suggested that other group of disintegrants may function by producing gas, normally carbon dioxide, in
contact with water. This types of disintegrants used in effervescent tablets and normally not in tablets that should be swallowed as a
solid. The liberation of carbon dioxide is achieved by the decomposition of carbonate salts or bicarbonate in contact with acidic
water. The acidic pH is obtained by adding citric acid and tartaric acid. [ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of
medicines.- 3rd ed. - Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991).
the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303]
Binder
Binder is added to the tablet or filler mixture to ensure that tablets and granules have sufficient mechanical strength. There are
several ways to add it in powderMixed with powder before wet granulation which completely or partially dissolves during agglomeration process by agglomeration
liquid.
Mixed with other ingredient as a dry powder solution before compaction process
As a solution used as agglomeration liquid during wet granulation.
Typically 2-10% of binders or dry binders are used in formulation. Most tradition common binders are starch, sucrose and gelatine
but now most common are polyvinylpyrrolidone and cellulose derivatives which have improved adhesive properties. Examples of dry
binders are microcrystalline cellulose and crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone. Solution binders are most effective therefore it is
incorporated in granules.
Glidant
The role of the Glidant is to improve the flow ability of the powder. Glidants are used in formulation for direct compaction but they are
also used in granulation process before tabletting which ensure flow ability of tablet mass for high speed production. Traditionally
talc has been used as glidant about 1-2% concentration in formulation but nowadays the most commonly used glidant is colloidal
silica added in very low proportion about 0.2% by weight.[ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd
ed. - Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and
practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303]
Lubricant
The function of lubrication is to ensure low lubrication between solid and the die wall during tablet formation and ejection. High
friction during tabletting can cause a series of problems such as inadequate tablet quality and may even stop production. Lubrication
is most important which included in most of production.
Lubrication can get by mainly two mechanism, fluid lubrication and boundary lubrication. In fluid lubrication, liquid is achieved
between die surface and tablet surface which separates the moving surfaces of the solids from each other and reduces the friction.
While in boundary lubrication, it is considered as a surface phenomenon, as here moving surface is separated by a very thin layer of
lubricants. Such boundary lubricants are Stearic acid salts, primarily Magnesium Stearate which is most widely use due to its
superior lubrication properties. Besides reducing friction, lubricants may also causes undesirable changes such as reducing tablet
strength with bonding between the particles during compaction. Because of hydrophobic properties of lubricants, tablet
disintegration and dissolution are often retarded by the addition of lubricants. Thus, minimum amount of lubricants are used, i.e.
concentrations of 1% or below, often 0.25-0.5%.in order to avoid these negative effects, more hydrophilic substances have been
suggested as alternatives to the hydrophobic lubricants. For example, surface active agents and polyethylene glycols and
sometimes a combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances might also be used. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science
of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412]
Antiadherent
Antiadherent are substance which reduce adhesion between powder and punch faces which prevent sticking of particles to
punches. The sticking is mainly affected by moisture content of the powder. Such adherence especially prone to happen if the tablet
punches have marking or symbols which lead to a build of thin layer of powder on the punches which in turn will lead to an uneven
and matt tablet surface with unclear markings or symbols. Some lubricants such as Magnesium Stearate have also antiadherent
properties. However, other substances with limited ability to reduce friction can also act as antiadherent such as talc and starch. [M.
E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412]
Sorbents
Sorbents are substances which has capacity to sorbing some quantities of fluid into dry state. So oil and oil-drug solutions can be
incorporated into mixture of powder and compacted into tablets. Most commonly used sorbents are Microcrystalline Cellulose and
Silica. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412]
Flavouring agents
Flavouring agents are incorporated into a formulation to remove unpleasant taste of bitter drug or to make tablet more pleasant or
mask. This can be achieved by coating or by adding some drug particles. Most of Flavouring agents are thermolabile so it cannot be
added in process which involve heating. They are mixed with granules as alcoholic solution.
Colouring agents
The aim to add colourant is to aid identification of tablet, improve looks of tablet and patient compliance. Mostly, colourant are added
during coating of tablet but some of colourant may be added in formulation prior to compaction. Colourant may be added as an
insoluble powder or dissolved in granulation liquid and the latter procedure may produce colour variation by migration of soluble dye
during drying stage.
Wet granulation
Granulation is process in which primary powder particles are made to form large and these types of multi particle called granules. In
pharmaceutical industry, granules are useful in production of tablets and capsules in ranges of particle size between0.2 to 0.5mm.
Granulation prevents segregation of constituents of powder, improve flow ability of powder, improve compaction characteristics of
mixture and reduce toxic dust.
Wet granulation is widely used method for production of compressed tablets which include flowing steps-
The Dump Mass is pressed through 6 or 8 mesh size to prepare granules. This process may be done by hand or by special
equipment which prepares granules by extrusion process. The final product are spread on large piece of paper in trays and dried.
Dry granulation
In this method, powder mixer is compressed in large pieces and subsequently broken down or sized into granules. In this method,
either active ingredient or diluent must have cohesive properties. This method is basically applied to materials which cannot be
prepared by wet granulation because of moisture degradation properties or thermo-mobile properties of granules. It is carried out by
two steps:
Slugging:
After weighing and the mixing of ingredients, the powder mixture is slugged or compressed into large flat tablets about one inch in
diameter. Slugs are than broken up hand or mill and passed through a screen of desired mess for sizing and sometimes lubricant
are added and prepared by compression.
Roller compaction:
Instead of slugging, powder compactors may be used to increase the density of a powder by pressing it between rollers at 1 ton to 6
tons of pressure. The compact material is broken up, sized, and lubricated, and tablets are prepared by compression. Commonly
used binding agents are methyl cellulose or hydroxylmethyl cellulose (6-12%) which produces good hardness and friability of tablet.
Figure (C) Tablet compression by Dry Granulation [Pharmaceutics - I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE,
June 2008, pp-14-7, 21]
Tableting of granulation:
There are different types of tabletting machines which are used in the productivity but similar in basic function and operation. They
all compress tablet formulation within steel die cavity by the pressure exerted by the movement of two steel punches, lower punch
and an upper punch.
Weight variation:
This is very important in process control measurement. If anything that can alter the die filling process can alter tablet weight, it
causes weight variation because the weight of the tablet being compressed is determined by the amount of the granulation in the die
prior to compression. Some causes of variation are large granules, poor mixing of granules with lubricants and glidants, poor
granulation flow from hopper, double impression and punch variation.
Picking
Picking is the term used to describe the surface material from tablet that is sticking to being removed from the tablet's surface by a
punch. It concerns when punching tips have engraving or embossing
Sticking
Sticking is usually referred to adhesion of tablet material to die wall. Because of that, lower punch cannot move freely and additional
force is required to overcome friction between die wall and the tablet. These problems can be solved by design large lettering,
adding polishing agent such as colloidal silica or additional lubricants. Some low melting point substances such as polyethylene
glycol may also cause sticking at the heat of compression. Such Remedies are addition of high melting point materials and
consequently increasing size of tablet.
Mottling:
Mottling is term used unequal distribution of colour on a tablet with light and dark areas. It's due to colour difference of drug with
excipients or drugs whose degradation product is coloured. Such problems might be solved by using colorants but it can cause
mottling on the top of surface when granulation undergoes drying. To overcome difficulties, it require to change solvent system,
binder system and by reducing temperature.
Tablet coating
Tablet coating is application of coating of material to the exterior of tablet with some intentional benefits. It is also intended for
modified release applications.
Main three types of coating areFilm coating
Sugar coating
Press coating
Coating of tablets are for following purposes[1] Protection from environment, light and moisture
[2] To remove bitter taste of some tablets and for easy swallowing of tablets
[3] Colour coating mask differences in appearance which effect on patient compliance
[4] Rapid identification by manufacturer, pharmacist and patient
[5] Functional films can enable sustained and enteric protection
[6] Improve looks (elegance), masks and minor difference in raw material appereance
[7] Enhance strength, reduce dust and cross contamination
Film coating
This is more modern and widely used for tablet coating. Most of newly launched coated products are film coated rather than sugar
coating.
Film coating involves covering of tablet by thin film layer of coating liquid (polymer). Coating liquid is sprayed in a rotating tablet bed
or bed fluidised tablet which contains plasticizer, polymer, colourant and solvent. The drying condition permits removal of solvent
and leaves a thin layer around each tablet. Sometimes aqueous solution or organic solutions are used to reduce elimination of
volatile organic compound, health and safety and cost reduction purposes. Film coating polymer should have following properties[1] Optimum solubility to facilitate dissolution of final product. High soluble for immediate release and low soluble for controlled
release.
[2] Optimum viscosity to permit and trouble free spraying of solution.
[3] Optimum permeability to optimize shelf life of tablet preparation and some tuned to provide an effective barrier oxygen and water
vapour.
[4] Good mechanical strength to withstand the impact and abrasion encountered in normal handling which avoids cracks and
imperfections.
Cellulose derivatives like Hydroxypropylmethylcellulosa (HPMC), methylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) and Methacrylate
amino ester copolymer are available polymer for film coating.
Sugar coating
Sugar coating involves the successive application of sucrose based solutions to tablet cores in suitable equipment. Some stages in
production of sugar coated tablets are[1] Sealing of tablet core- provide water proofing core from coating process and shellac, cellulose acetate phthalate are normally
used in sealing process.
[2] Sub coating- it is the actual start of sugar coating which provides necessary build-up to roundup the tablet edge. Bulking agents
such as calcium carbonate or talc added in sucrose solution with gum.
[3] Smoothing - it increases tablet size to predetermined dimension by syrup solution. This solution contains pigments, starch,
gelatine, acacia or opacifier.
[4] Colouring- dyes or pigments
[5] Polishing- tablets need to be polished to achieve final elegance by waxes like beeswax, carnubawax or hard paraffin.
[6] Printing
Enteric coating
According to Biju et al 2004, [BIJU, S. S.; SAISIVAM, S.; RAJAN, M. G.; MISHRA, P. R. Dual coated erodible microcapsules for
modified release of Diclofenac sodium. Eur. J. Pharm Biopharm., v.58, n.1, p.61-67, 2004. ] enteric polymer technique is safe and
widely used in drug products. Enteric coating prefers small intestine so it prevents the disintegration of tablet in the acidic
environment of stomach and release into small intestine for some reasons such as
Prevention of acid attack on active constituents at low pH
Protect stomach from irritation from drug
Facilitate absorption of drug which is preferentially absorbed distal to stomach.
Most commonly used enteric coating polymers are Cellulose acetate phthalate, Polyvinyl acetate phthalate, suitable acrylic
derivatives and Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose phthalate because they are free from carboxylic acid group and different pH
solubility profile. They are almost insoluble at low pH and increases solubility at specific pH such as pH 5.2 for cellulose acetate
phthalate. Enteric coating is possible for both sugar and film coating.
Peters et al, 1993[PEETERS, R.; KINGET, R. Film-forming polymers for colonic drug delivery: I Synthesis and physical and
chemical properties of methyl derivatives of Eudragit S. Int. J. Pharm., v.94, n.1-3, p.125-134, 1993. ] stated that there are number
of polymers are available which are insoluble at low pH but dissolve at pH around or below 7. Shellac ia natural enteric polymer
which is gastric resistance. Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose was first polymer in contract to ethyl cellulose which is used a novel
enteric coating agents for acid protection because it is water soluble and leach of film coating which diffuses drug more rapidly than
ethyl cellulose.[ Kokubo et al, 1997, Gunder, Lippold, 1995].[ KOKUBO, H.; OBARA, S.; MINEMURA, K.; TANAKA, T. Development
of cellulose derivatives as novel enteric coating agents soluble at pH 3.5-4.5 and higher. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo), v.45, n.8,
p.1350-1353, 1997., GUNDER, W.; LIPPOLD, B. H.; LIPPOLD, B. C. Release of drugs from ethyl cellulose microcapsules (diffusion
pellets) with pore formers and pore fusion. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci., v.3, n.12, p.203-214, 1995.] A continuous technology coating is use
to water instead of organic solvents to minimize environmental and safety hazards so Baudoux et al 1990, [BAUDOUX, M.;
DECHESNE, J. P.; DELATTRE L. Film Coating with Enteric Polymers from Aqueous Dispersions. Pharm. Tech. Int., v.12, n.11, p.1826, 1990.] stated that water based technology is being widely used instead of organic system.
Evolution of tablets
After production, tablets must be evaluated to check qualitative and quantitative analysis and chemical, physical and bioavailability
properties. For that reason, evaluation is classified in three different categories.
General appearance:
Size and shape
Unique identification markings
Organoleptic properties such as colour, odour and taste.
Mechanical strength:
Hardness test
Friability test
Tensile test
Brittle fracture index