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Chan - Thermodynamic Cycles Using Carbon Dioxide As Working Fluid PDF
Chan - Thermodynamic Cycles Using Carbon Dioxide As Working Fluid PDF
CarbonDioxideasWorking
Fluid
CO2transcriticalpowercyclestudy
DoctoralThesis
by
YangChen
Stockholm,October,2011
SchoolofIndustrialEngineeringandManagement
DepartmentofEnergyTechnology
DivisionofAppliedThermodynamicsandRefrigeration
TritaREFRReport11/03
ISSN11020245
ISRNKTH/REFR/11/03SE
ISBN9789175011875
DoctoralThesisbyYangChen
SchoolofIndustrialEngineeringandManagement
DepartmentofEnergyTechnology
DivisionofAppliedThermodynamicsandRefrigeration
PrintedbyUniversitetsserviceUSAB
Stockholm,2011
YangChen,2011
ii
Abstract
Carbondioxide(CO2)hasbeenwidelyinvestigatedforuseasa
working fluid in refrigeration cycles, because it has no ozone
depleting potential (ODP) and low global warming potential
(GWP). It is also inexpensive, nonexplosive, nonflammable
andabundantinnature.Atthesametime,CO2hasadvantages
in use as a working fluid in lowgrade heat resource recovery
and energyconversion from wasteheat, mainly because it can
createabettermatchingtotheheatsourcetemperatureprofile
in the supercritical region to reduce the irreversibility during
the heating process. Nevertheless, the research in such
applicationsisverylimited.
Thisstudyinvestigatesthepotentialofusingcarbondioxideas
a working fluid in power cycles for lowgrade heat
source/wasteheatrecovery.
Atthebeginningofthisstudy,basicCO2powercycles,namely
carbon dioxide transcritical power cycle, carbon dioxide
Braytoncycleandcarbondioxidecoolingandpowercombined
cycle were simulated and studied to see their potential in
different applications (e.g. lowgrade heat source applications,
automobile applications and heat and power cogeneration
applications).Fortheapplicationsinautomobileindustries,low
pressuredropontheenginesexhaustgassideiscrucialtonot
iii
reducingtheenginesperformance.Therefore,aheatexchanger
withlowpressuredroponthesecondaryside(i.e.thegasside)
wasalsodesigned,simulatedandtestedwithwaterandengine
exhaustgasesattheearlystageofthestudy(Appendix2).
EngineeringEquationSolver:http://www.fchart.com/ees/ees.shtml
Refprop7.0:http://www.nist.gov/srd/nist23.htm
http://www.comsol.se/
iv
Publications
Thisthesisisbasedonthefollowingpapers,whichareenclosed
attheend.Ashortsummaryofeachpapercanalsobefoundin
Appendix3.
I. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,P.Platell
Theoretical Research of Carbon Dioxide Power Cycle
Application in Automobile Industry to Reduce Vehicles
FuelConsumption
PaperpublishedinAppliedThermalEngineering25(2005),
pp20412053
II. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,A.Johansson,P.Platell
A comparative study of the Carbon Dioxide Transcritical
PowerCyclecomparedwithanOrganicRankineCyclewith
R123asworkingfluidinWasteHeatRecovery
PaperpublishedinAppliedThermalEngineering26(2006),
pp21422147
III. Y.Chen,W.Pridasawas,P.Lundqvist
Dynamic Simulation of a SolarDriven Carbon Dioxide
TranscriticalPowerSystemforSmallScaleCombinedHeat
andPowerProduction
PaperpublishedinSolarEnergy84(2010),pp11031110
IV. Y.Chen,A.B.Workie,P.Lundqvist
Second Law Analysis of a Carbon Dioxide Transcritical
PowerSysteminLowgradeHeatSourceRecovery
PapersubmittedtoAppliedThermalEngineering
V.
Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist
Carbon dioxide cooling and power combined cycle for
mobileapplications.
Paperpublishedandpresentedat7thIIRGustavLorentzen
Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Trondheim,
Norway,May2831,2006
VI. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist
Analysisofsupercriticalcarbondioxideheatexchangersin
coolingprocess
Paper published and presented at International
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue,
USA,July1720,2006.
VII. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist
LowgradeHeatSourceUtilizationbyCarbonDioxide
TranscriticalPowerCycle
PaperpublishedandpresentedatASMEJSMEThermal
EngineeringSummerHeatTransferConference,
Vancouver,BritishColumbia,Canada,July913,2007
VIII. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist
Theoreticalstudyofcarbondioxidedoubleloopsystem
PaperpublishedandpresentedatIIRinternalrefrigeration
congress,Beijing,China,August2126,2007.
Thispaperhasbeenselectedasakeynotespeechinone
parallelsectionintheconference
IX.
vi
Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,B.Palm
Anovelgaswaterheatexchangerwithminichannels
PaperpublishedandpresentedatASMESummerHeat
TransferConference,Jacksonville,FloridaUSA,August10
14,2008
X.
Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist
TheCO2transcriticalpowercycleforlowgradeheat
recoverydiscussionontemperatureprofilesinsystemheat
exchangers
PaperpublishedandpresentedatASMEPowerandICOPE
Conference,Denver,USA,July1214,2011
Otherreviewedreports
I. Y.Chen
CarbonDioxideTranscriticalPowerCycleDiscussion
Trita REFR Report 2005, No. 05/49, ISSN 11020245, ISRN
KTH/REFR/R05/49SE.
II. Y.Chen
Novelcyclesusingcarbondioxideasworkingfluid
Licentiate Thesis in Energy Technology, Royal Institute of
Technology,ISSN:11020245,ISRN:KTH/REFR/R06/50SE,
ISBN:9171784101,2006
XI. Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,A.Alves,L.Brachert
CO2 heat pumps for the Swedish market Test and
analysisoftheSANYOECOCUTEheatpumpmodifiedfor
Swedishconditions
Effsys2projectreport2009(http://www.effsys2.se/P3.htm)
XII. Y.Chen,A.B.Workie,P.Lundqvist
InvestigationonhighpressurepumpsforCO2transcritical
powercycleinlowgradeheatsourceutilization
CREATIVprojectreport2010
vii
viii
Acknowledgements
TherearesomanypeoplethatIshould liketothank.Without
all your assistance, support and encouragement, I would not
haveachievedthismuch.
Firstofall,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomy
supervisor, Professor Per Lundqvist. You opened the door for
metothisscientificworldandguidedmeallthewaythrough
with your wise ideas, enormous patience, good humor and
constantencouragement.
Thanksarealsodueto:
Peter Platell and his father Ove Platell, for initiating the
interesting idea, which was the original motivation of this
thesis.
Prof. Bjrn Palm, for your support and help whenever I have
had questions. You never said no to me when I needed help
andyourhardworkhasalwaysinspiredme.
My CO2 colleague, Dr. Samer Sawalha, for all the nice and
interesting discussions, no matter if they were CO2 related or
justwild.
xi
xii
Preface
Ihavebeenthinkingofthismomentforlonguntiltoday,when
Iamreallysittinghereandfinalizingthelastpartofmythesis.
At this moment, I am starting to realize how much the time
flies.
Almosteverykidhasbeenaskedthesamequestion:Whatdo
you want to be when you grown up? The answers were
alwaysverysimilarinChinawhenIwasachild:Iwanttobea
scientist!andIwasnoexception.
However,duringthetimewhenIgrewup,myrealanswerhas
changedmanytimes,sinceIlearnedmoreandmoreaboutthe
worldandsomanythingshavecaughtmyinterest.
Apartfromthoseminorwishes,myfirstdreamwastobecome
apilot.AfterIpassedthefirstselectionexam aftergraduating
fromhighschool,thedreamalmostcametrue,untilmyparents
thought I should still continue to the engineering college, so
thatIcouldfollowmyfatherscareerpathandbecomeahotel
manager.
wasinApril.Itriedoption2andthatbroughtmetotheEnergy
Department of the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden.
Here,IspentoneandhalfyearsfinishingmyMastersdegree.
I was then planning to use the still valid scores from the GRE
testtoapplyforaschoolintheU.S.againinthelastpartofmy
study in Sweden, until I met Prof. Lundqvist and Peter Platell
for this interesting topic of using CO2 to recover energy from
lowgradeheatsourcesandwasteheat.IfeelveryluckythatI
decidedtopursuethistopicandtheyopenedthedoorformeto
thisreallyinterestingscientificresearchworld!
Now,afterthislong,mythesisisfinallysubmittedforaPh.D.
degree.
YangChen,20111030
LatenightinStockholm
xiv
TableofContents
ABSTRACT....................................................................................III
PUBLICATIONS.............................................................................V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................IX
PREFACE......................................................................................XIII
TABLEOFCONTENTS..............................................................XV
LISTOFTABLES......................................................................XVII
LISTOFFIGURES......................................................................XIX
1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................1
1.1
1.2
MOTIVATION .................................................................................. 1
OBJECTIVES AND APPROACH .......................................................... 4
BACKGROUND.......................................................................7
2.1
WORKING FLUID COMPARISON ...................................................... 7
2.2
HISTORY OF CO2 POWER CYCLE .................................................. 11
2.3
SYSTEM ILLUSTRATION AND CORRESPONDING CYCLE
DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................. 12
2.3.1 The CO2 bottoming system and corresponding cycles ............. 12
2.3.2 The CO2 cooling and power combined system and the
corresponding cycle .............................................................................. 15
3 CO2TRANSCRITICALCYCLEAPPLICATIONSAND
PERFORMANCESIMULATIONS.............................................19
3.1
BASIC CYCLES AND THE PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE THE
CYCLE PERFORMANCES ............................................................................. 19
3.1.1 Carbon dioxide transcritical power cycle ............................... 21
3.1.2 The influences of the cycle working parameters on the CO2
transcritical power cycle performance ................................................. 22
3.1.3 Carbon dioxide Brayton cycle ................................................. 26
3.1.4 The influence of the cycle working parameters on the CO2
Brayton cycle performance ................................................................... 26
3.1.5 Carbon dioxide cooling and power combined cycle ................ 30
3.1.6 The influence of cycle working parameters on the CO2 cooling
and power combined cycle performance .............................................. 31
xv
3.2
CO2 POWER CYCLE APPLICATIONS AND PERFORMANCE
SIMULATIONS ............................................................................................ 33
3.2.1 CO2 double loop system ........................................................... 33
3.2.2 Solar driven CO2 transcritical power system .......................... 39
3.3
SUMMARY .................................................................................... 48
4 TEMPERATUREPROFILESINCO2POWERSYSTEM
HEATEXCHANGERS..................................................................51
4.1
CP VARIATION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE CO2 POWER CYCLE
TEMPERATURE PROFILES IN THE HEAT EXCHANGERS ............................... 51
4.2
COMPARISON BETWEEN A TYPICAL CO2 POWER AND A TYPICAL
ORC CYCLE............................................................................................... 58
4.3
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TEMPERATURE PROFILE MATCHING .... 59
4.4
SUMMARY .................................................................................... 61
SECONDLAWTHERMODYNAMICANALYSIS.........63
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6 CONCLUSIONANDSUGGESTIONSFORFURTHER
WORK..............................................................................................77
6.1
6.2
CONCLUSION ................................................................................ 77
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK ............................................. 80
NOMENCLATURE................................................................83
REFERENCES..........................................................................87
APPENDIX..............................................................................95
9.1
APPENDIX 1 SAFETY GROUP CLASSIFICATIONS (FROM IIR)...... 95
9.1.1 Toxicity classification .............................................................. 95
9.1.2 Flammability classification ..................................................... 95
9.2
APPENDIX 2 HEAT EXCHANGER PROPOSED FOR HEAT
RECOVERY IN ENGINE EXHAUST GASES .................................................... 97
9.2.1 Description of the heat exchanger ........................................... 97
9.2.2 Counter flow compact heat exchanger with laminar flow at the
airside 98
9.2.3 Superiority of laminar flow.................................................... 100
9.2.4 Description of the heat exchanger calculation model ........... 102
9.2.5 Basic correlations .................................................................. 104
9.2.6 Program description .............................................................. 109
9.2.7 Example of program operation window ................................ 114
9.2.8 Results ................................................................................... 118
9.3
APPENDIX 3 SUMMARY OF ATTACHED PAPERS ...................... 121
xvi
ListofTables
xvii
xviii
ListofFigures
xix
FIGURE 3-10 THE COP OF COOLING PART OF THE COMBINED CYCLE VS.
DIFFERENT GAS COOLER PRESSURE ........................................................ 31
FIGURE 3-11 THE COP OF COOLING PART OF THE COMBINED CYCLE VS.
DIFFERENT GAS HEATER PRESSURE ........................................................ 32
FIGURE 3-12 DOUBLE LOOP SYSTEM SCHEMATIC SYSTEM LAYOUT ................ 34
FIGURE 3-13 DOUBLE LOOP SYSTEM T-S CHART (EES) ................................. 35
FIGURE 3-14 BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS COP AND DOUBLE LOOP
SYSTEMS COP VS. DIFFERENT GAS COOLER PRESSURES AT DIFFERENT
GAS HEATER PRESSURES ........................................................................ 37
FIGURE 3-15 DOUBLE LOOP SYSTEMS COP AGAINST DIFFERENT GAS HEATER
PRESSURES AT DIFFERENT GAS COOLER PRESSURES AND DIFFERENT
EXPANSION INLET TEMPERATURES ........................................................ 38
FIGURE 3-16 DOUBLE LOOP SYSTEMS COP AGAINST DIFFERENT
COMPONENTS EFFICIENCIES.................................................................. 39
FIGURE 3-17 SOLAR-POWERED TRANSCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE POWER
SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 40
FIGURE 3-18 DAILY PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR-DRIVEN CARBON DIOXIDE
POWER SYSTEM DURING A SUMMER DAY IN STOCKHOLM (AT 120 BAR
GAS HEATING PRESSURE) ....................................................................... 42
FIGURE 3-19 DAILY PERFORMANCE OF THE SOLAR- DRIVEN CARBON DIOXIDE
POWER SYSTEM DURING A SUMMER DAY IN STOCKHOLM (AT 120 BAR
GAS HEATER PRESSURE)......................................................................... 43
FIGURE 3-20 DAILY NET POWER PRODUCTION (KWH/DAY) OF A SOLAR DRIVEN
CARBON DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM IN ONE YEAR (AT 120 BAR GAS
HEATING PRESSURE) .............................................................................. 44
FIGURE 3-21 MONTHLY NET POWER PRODUCTION (KWHS) OF THE SOLARDRIVEN CARBON DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM IN ONE YEAR (AT 120 BAR GAS
HEATING PRESSURE) .............................................................................. 44
FIGURE 3-22 DAILY HEAT PRODUCTION (KWHS) OF THE SOLAR-DRIVEN
CARBON DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM IN ONE YEAR (AT 120 BAR GAS
HEATING PRESSURE) .............................................................................. 45
FIGURE 3-23 MONTHLY HEAT (KWHS) OF THE SOLAR-DRIVEN CARBON
DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM IN ONE YEAR (AT 120 BAR GAS HEATING
PRESSURE) ............................................................................................. 45
FIGURE 3-24 DAILY AVERAGE POWER PRODUCTION OF SOLAR-DRIVEN CARBON
DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM AT DIFFERENT EXPANSION ISENTROPIC
EFFICIENCIES ......................................................................................... 46
FIGURE 3-25 DAILY AVERAGE POWER PRODUCTION OF SOLAR-DRIVEN CARBON
DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM AT DIFFERENT GAS HEATING PRESSURES ........ 47
FIGURE 3-26 SOLAR-DRIVEN CARBON DIOXIDE POWER SYSTEM POWER OUTPUT
AND THERMAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT VS. IHX EFFECTIVENESS
(RESULTS CALCULATED FOR THE SAME DAY THAT CHOSEN FOR FIGURE
3-18) ..................................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 4-1 SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUPERCRITICAL CO2 VS. TEMPERATURE AT
DIFFERENT PRESSURES ........................................................................... 52
FIGURE 4-2 SPECIFIC HEAT OF AIR VS. TEMPERATURE AT DIFFERENT
PRESSURES (NOTE THE SCALE DIFFERENCE FROM FIGURE 4-1) .............. 52
xx
FIGURE 4-3 SPECIFIC HEAT OF EXHAUST GAS AND EXPANSION OUTLET CARBON
DIOXIDE (NOTE THE SCALE DIFFERENCE FROM FIGURE 4-1) .................. 53
FIGURE 4-4 SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF A BASIC CARBON DIOXIDE CO2 POWER
SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 54
FIGURE 4-5 CPH CHART FOR SUPERCRITICAL CO2, EXPANSION OUTLET
CARBON DIOXIDE AND HEAT SOURCE FOR THE INTEGRATED TOTAL HEAT
EXCHANGER LENGTH ............................................................................. 55
FIGURE 4-6 INTEGRATED HEAT EXCHANGERS T--H CHART OF CARBON
DIOXIDE TRANSCRITICAL POWER CYCLE WITH DIFFERENT MASS FLOW
RATES OF SUPERCRITICAL CO2 (A): MCO2=0.1 KG/S, M EXHAUST GAS=0.4 KG/S,
IHX EFFECTIVENESS=0.9, MHX EFFECTIVENESS =0.9 (B): MCO2=0.2
KG/S, M EXHAUST GAS=0.4 KG/S, IHX EFFECTIVENESS=0.9, MHX
EFFECTIVENESS =0.9 ............................................................................. 57
FIGURE 4-7 INTEGRATED HEAT EXCHANGER T-H CHART OF R123 ORC.
MR123=0.15 KG/S, M EXHAUST GAS=0.4 KG/S, IHX EFFECTIVENESS =0.9, MHX
EFFECTIVENESS =0.9 (THE PROCESS IN THE FIGURE DOES NOT INCLUDE
THE SUPERHEATING OF VAPOR) ............................................................. 58
FIGURE 4-8 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A TYPICAL CYCLE CARNOT
CYCLE .................................................................................................... 59
FIGURE 4-9 CYCLE EFFICIENCY WITH VARYING HEAT SOURCE TEMPERATURES
AND A CONSTANT HEAT SINK TEMPERATURE (293 K) FOR DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES IN THE TWO HEAT EXCHANGERS (GAS
HEATER AND CONDENSER) ..................................................................... 60
FIGURE 5-1 SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF THE BASIC CARBON DIOXIDE POWER
SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 63
FIGURE 5-2 EXERGY DESTRUCTION VS. CO2 MASS FLOW RATE ...................... 67
FIGURE 5-3 ENTROPY GENERATION VS. CO2 MASS FLOW RATE ...................... 67
FIGURE 5-4 DISTRIBUTION OF ENTROPY GENERATION VS. CO2 MASS FLOW
RATE ...................................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 5-5 EXERGY DESTRUCTION VS. SYSTEM HIGH PRESSURE SIDE PRESSURE
.............................................................................................................. 69
FIGURE 5-6 ENTROPY GENERATION VS. SYSTEM HIGH PRESSURE SIDE
PRESSURE .............................................................................................. 69
FIGURE 5-7 DISTRIBUTION OF ENTROPY GENERATION VS. SYSTEM HIGH
PRESSURE SIDE PRESSURE ...................................................................... 70
FIGURE 5-8 EXERGY DESTRUCTION VS. HEAT SOURCE TEMPERATURE AT THE
GAS HEATER INLET ................................................................................ 71
FIGURE 5-9 ENTROPY GENERATION VS. HEAT SOURCE TEMPERATURE AT THE
GAS HEATER INLET ................................................................................ 71
FIGURE 5-10 DISTRIBUTION OF ENTROPY GENERATION VS. HEAT SOURCE
TEMPERATURE AT THE GAS HEATER INLET............................................. 72
FIGURE 5-11 CO2 POWER CYCLE EXERGY EFFICIENCY AND THE HEAT
EXCHANGERS MIN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES VS. CO2 MASS FLOW
RATE ...................................................................................................... 73
FIGURE 5-12 CO2 POWER CYCLE EXERGY EFFICIENCY AND THE HEAT
EXCHANGERS MIN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES VS. SYSTEM HIGH
PRESSURE SIDE PRESSURE ...................................................................... 73
xxi
FIGURE 5-13 CO2 POWER CYCLE EXERGY EFFICIENCY AND THE HEAT
EXCHANGERS MIN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES VS. HEAT SOURCE
TEMPERATURE AT GAS HEATER INLET ................................................... 73
FIGURE 9-1 RANOTOR HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................. 97
FIGURE 9-2 RANOTOR HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................. 98
FIGURE 9-3 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF A RANOTOR COMPACT HEAT
EXCHANGER ........................................................................................ 100
FIGURE 9-4 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE FLOW SCHEME FOR A
RANOTOR COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGER ........................................... 100
FIGURE 9-5 SUPERIORITY OF LAMINAR FLOW HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT VS.
TUBE DIAMETER (SHAH, 1991) ............................................................ 102
FIGURE 9-6 HEAT EXCHANGER CALCULATION MODULE, SCHEMATIC 1 ........ 103
FIGURE 9-7 ILLUSTRATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER OUTSIDE GAS FLOW (SIDE
VIEW) .................................................................................................. 104
FIGURE 9-8 PROGRAM FLOW CHART EVAPORATOR .................................. 110
FIGURE 9-9 PROGRAM FLOW CHART GAS COOLER .................................... 112
FIGURE 9-10 PROGRAM FLOW CHART GAS HEATER .................................. 114
FIGURE 9-11 PROGRAM OPERATION WINDOWCO2 TRANSCRITICAL POWER
CYCLE .................................................................................................. 115
FIGURE 9-12 PROGRAM OPERATION WINDOWCO2 COOLING AND POWER
COMBINED CYCLE ................................................................................ 117
FIGURE 9-13 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSCRITICAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE HEAT
EXCHANGER ........................................................................................ 118
FIGURE 9-14 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSCRITICAL POWER CYCLE HEAT
EXCHANGERS ....................................................................................... 119
FIGURE 9-15 CARBON DIOXIDE REFRIGERATION AND POWER COMBINED CYCLE
HEAT EXCHANGER ............................................................................... 120
xxii
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Energy security, economic development and environment
protectionarenotwellbalancedtodayandtheenergydemand
is still closely connected to the economic growth. At the same
time,fossilfuelsstillplaythedominantroleinenergyresources
worldwide, accounting for 77% of the increasing energy
demand 20072030 (IEA, 2009). Therefore, the global economic
growthhasledtodramaticenvironmentalproblems,suchasair
pollutionandclimatechange.
Improvingtheenergyefficiencybyutilizingtheenergyinlow
gradeheatsource/wasteheatoffersagreatopportunityfora
sustainable energy future and fewer environmental problems.
Figure11showssomeexamplesofthemosttypicallowgrade
andwasteheatsources.
Figure11Typicaltemperaturerangeofdifferentheatsourcesforheat
recovery4
PicturesaretakenfromtheInternetandonlytosymbolizedifferent
heatsources
Pinchingisthesmallesttemperaturedifferenceintheheatexchanger
syntheticrefrigerantsinrefrigerationfields(Gustav,1992,Peter,
1998, Armin, 2000, ManHoe et al., 2004, Tomoichiro, 2005,
Samer,2008,Silvia,2011).
Figure12Illustrationofcyclereversibility
Due to the low critical temperature of CO2 (31.1 C), the CO2
heatingprocessinareversedcarbondioxiderefrigerationcycle
islikelybelocatedinthesupercriticalregionandthecyclewill
then be called a carbon dioxide transcritical power cycle or a
supercritical power cycle respectively, depending upon where
thecoolingprocessofCO2islocated.
OneofthemainadvantagesrevealedwhenaCO2refrigeration
cycleisrunreverselyasapowercycleisthetemperatureprofile
intheheatingprocessofsupercriticalCO2.Figure13illustrates
the temperature profiles of the lowgrade heat source and
differentworkingfluidsintheheatexchangerfortheworking
fluid heating process. As shown in the figure, the carbon
dioxide temperature profile in the supercritical region can
provide a better match to the heat source temperature glide
thanworkingfluidsusedinORCsandKalinacycles.Thus,the
socalled pinching, which commonly occurs for other
workingfluids,canbeavoidedinsidetheCO2counterflowheat
exchanger. This is crucial to reducing the irreversibility of the
3
Figure13Schematicrepresentationchartoftheheattransferbetweenthe
lowgradeheatsourceandworkingfluidinthemainheatexchanger:(1a)
purefluid;(1b)zeotropicfluidmixtures;(1c)carbondioxide
1.2 ObjectivesandApproach
Themainobjectiveofthisprojectistoinvestigatethepotential
oftheproposedCO2cyclesandsystemsinutilizingtheenergy
fromlowgradeheatsourcesandwasteheat.Theresearchwork
isperformedmainlybycomputeraidedsimulations.
To achieve the goal of the study, this work covers mainly the
followingaspects:
Generalcomputeraidedinvestigationonthepossibility
and potential of the proposed cycles in exploiting the
energyfromlowgradeheatsourcesandwasteheat.
Cycleandsystemmodelsandcomputersimulationsaremainly
performed with Engineer Equation Solver (EES). TRNSYS is
adopted to provide the boundary conditions for dynamic
simulations.Thepropertiesoftheworkingfluidunderdifferent
conditions are calculated by Refprop 7.0. Commercial CFD
software (COMSOL) has also been used to simulate relevant
heat transfer problems and to analyze the air flows in heat
exchangerdesigns.
2 Background
2.1 WorkingFluidComparison
There are many thermophysical properties that should be
consideredwhenselectingaproperworkingfluidforutilizing
the energy in lowgrade heat sources and waste heat. For
instance, the critical temperature and critical pressure will
indicatewhetherthecyclewillberunasatranscriticalcycleor
asubcriticalcycle,thepossibilityforcondensingandthesystem
working pressure respectively; the Cp value will influence the
shape of the temperature profiles in the system heat
exchangers;thespecificvolumeandspecificpowerdensitywill
predict the sizes of the system components for certain
applications; the value of / will indicate the possibility of
moisture content at the turbine outlet (i.e. the need for
superheating),etc.
8
Table21Propertiesofdifferentfluids
Fluidname
ASHRAE
Critical
No.
temp.(C)
Critical
press.
(Bar)
ASHRAE
Levelfor
safety7
ODP
GWP
100yr8
dS/dT9
Trifluoromethane
R23
26.29
48.3
A1
11700
6.49
Difluoromethane
R32
78.26
57.8
A2
580
4.33
2.2Dichloro1.1.1
trifluoroethane
R123
183.83
36.6
B1
0.02
93
0.26
Pentafluoroethane
R125
66.17
36.2
A1
2800
1.08
Hydroflorocarbon
R134a
101.1
40.7
A1
1300
0.39
1.1.1Trifluoroethane
R143a
72.86
37.6
A2
3900
1.49
1.1Difluoroethane
R152a
113.41
45.2
A2
140
1.14
Octafluoropropane
R218
72.02
26.4
A1
7000
0.45
Propane
R290
369.8
42.47
A3
<10
0.79
Zeotropicmixture
R407C
87.3
48.2
A1
1525
Azeotropicmixture
R500
102.1
41.7
A1
0,74
6310
InANSI/ASHRAEStandard15,refrigerantsareclassifiedaccordingtothehazardinvolvedintheiruse.GroupA1
refrigerantsaretheleasthazardous,GroupB3themosthazardous.DetailscanbefoundinAppendix1
8GWP100yrisameasureofhowmuchagivenmassofagascontributestoglobalwarmingover100years.GWP
isarelativescalewhichcomparesthegreenhousegastocarbondioxidewhereGWPbydefinitionis1.
9 Chen H.j., Goswami D. Y., Stefanakos E. K., A review of thermodynamic cycles and working fluids for the
conversionoflowgradeheat,renewableandsustainableenergyreviews14(2919)30593067.
7
Butane
R600
152
37.9
A3
<10
1.03
Isobutane
R600a
134.7
36.4
A3
<10
1.03
Ammonia
R717
132.89
112.8
B2
10.48
Water
R718
373.89
22.1
A1
17.78
Carbondioxide
R744
30.98
73.8
A1
8.27
Propylene
R1270
92.57
46.6
A3
1.77
If one considers toxicity and flammability, working fluid of
ASHRAE level A1 should be the safest one to use. Therefore,
workingfluidslikeammoniaandisobutenearenotpreferred.If
one considers the environmental impacts, working fluid with
the lowest ozone depleting potential (ODP) and global
warming potential (GWP) should be selected. Consequently,
workingfluidslikeTrifluoromethane(R23),Octafluoropropane
(R218) and Azeotropic mixture (R500) can then be neglected. If
oneconsidersmoisturesattheexpansionoutlet,workingfluids
that have negative values of dS/dT (e.g. Difluoromethane, R32
and Pentafluoroethane, R125) may lead to moisture creation at
theturbineoutletwithoutapropersuperheatingandtherefore
theyarenotdesired.Moreover,althoughitisreportedthatthe
Kalina cycle canachieve better performance than conventional
ORCs (fluids such as 2.2Dichloro1.1.1trifluoroethane, R123),
fluid mixtures often show poorer heat transfer performance
than pure working fluids. Because of this, fluid mixtures are
less desirable, if a transcritical power cycle can be realized.
Meanwhile,workingfluidsthathavehighcriticaltemperatures
willhavedifficultybeingutilizedintranscriticalpowercyclesif
lowgradeheatsourcesaretobeutilized.Aftertakingallthese
aspects into account, carbon dioxide proved to be a promising
workingfluidforutilizingtheenergyinlowgradeheatsources
and waste heat in transcritical power cycles with good
temperaturematching.
pressure(31.1C/87.98Fand7.38MPa/1070.38psi).Thanks
to the low critical temperature, even a lowgrade heat source
can give a transcritical cycle whose gliding temperature
profile can provide a better match to the heat source
temperature glide than other working fluids (as mentioned
above). Moreover, since the heating process takes place in the
supercritical region, some complexity involved in a phase
changing process (e.g. flow maldistribution) can be avoided.
Althoughthehighpressuremayhavecreatedsomechallenges
in system component design in the past, this field has fast
developed in recent years with faster and faster technical
improvements.Furthermore,duetoitshighspecificpower,the
CO2systemismorecompactthansystemsusingotherworking
fluids. Moreover, the energy in the expansion outlet carbon
dioxide can be recovered within the cycle through a
regenerative heat exchanger (i.e. a regenerator); thus, the high
working pressure is helpful in reducing the regenerator size
and the excellent heat transfer characteristics of CO2 help to
minimizetheinfluenceofpressuredroponthecycleefficiency.
2.2 HistoryofCO2PowerCycle
ResearchontheCO2powercyclewasfirstproposedbySulzer
Bros in 1948 and later several countries, such as the Soviet
Union, Italy and the United States, became involved in the
research on such a cycle (Feher, 1962 and 1967, Dekhtiarev,
1962;Angelino,1966).However,afterthegreatinterestduring
the 60ties, research on such cycles dwindled for many years
until the 1990s, mainly due to the limited amount of suitable
heat sources e.g. nuclear) and limited knowledge of suitable
compact heat exchangers and expansion machines (Dostal,
2004). After the 1990s and the development of compact heat
exchangers and materials, renewed interest was shown in
carbon dioxide power cycles and much research has been
carried out (Dostal, 2004; Chang, 2002). Nevertheless, most
investigations have focused on a carbon dioxide power cycle
with a nuclear reactor as a heat source, thus a cycle working
11
withahighgradeheatsource(upto800C)andhighpressures
in both the gas heater and gas cooler (CO2 Brayton cycle).
Researchonemployingsuchacycleforlowgradeheatsource
recoveryhasbeenrelativelylimited.
Inrecentyears,moreandmoreinteresthasbeenshowninCO2
transcriticalpowercyclesforutilizingtheenergyinlowgrade
heat sources. For instance, Zhang and his colleagues
investigatedthepotentialofCO2powercycleinutilizingsolar
energyboththeoreticallyandexperimentally(Zhangetal.,2006
and 2007). The author and his colleagues investigated the
performanceofthecarbondioxidepowercycleinutilizinglow
grade heat sources and compared its performance with ORCs
(Chen et al., 2005, 2006 and 2010). Moreover, Cayer and his
colleagues studied CO2 power system under fixed system
workingconditionsanddiscussedsystemoptimizations(Cayer
et al., 2009). Wang et al. tried to optimize the working
parametersofsupercriticalCO2powercycleunderafixedheat
source condition by using a genetic algorithm and artificial
neural network with an assumption that the system heat
exchangers will provide sufficient heating /cooling to the
desired cycle working conditions (Wang et al., 2010).
Furthermore, Baik et al. compared the power based
performance between CO2 and R124 transcritical power cycle
(Baiketal.2011)
2.3 SystemIllustrationandCorrespondingCycle
Description
There are two systems proposed in this study: the carbon
dioxide bottoming system and the carbon dioxide cooling and
powercombinedsystem.
2.3.1 TheCO2bottomingsystemandcorrespondingcycles
TheCO2bottomingsystemconsistsoffourmainparts,namely:
a gas heater, a turbine, a condenser (gas cooler), and a pump
12
(Figure21).Inthissystem,thecarbondioxideisfirstpumped
to a supercritical pressure, and then heated in the gas heater.
The heated supercritical carbon dioxide will expand in an
expansionmachine(e.g.aturbine).Thevapordischargedfrom
the expansion machine outlet will then be cooled and
condensed in a condenser (gas cooler). An Internal Heat
Exchanger(IHX,regenerator)canbeaddedtothebasicsystem
to optimize the system performance. The importance of
utilizing a regenerator in a carbon dioxide transcritical power
cyclewillbeshowninthelatterpartofthisthesis.
Figure21Schematicofthecarbondioxidepowersystem(forbothBrayton
cycleandtranscriticalcycle)
related to supercritical cycles in the literature. Both cycles are
illustratedintheTSchartsasfollows(Figure22&Figure23).
180
Carbon Dioxide Transcritical Powe r Cycle
140
0.01
0.0017
160 bar
e
f
60
c
100 bar
20
60 bar
0.019m3/kg
T [C]
220 bar
0.0057
340 bar
100
40 bar
0.4
0.2
-20
-1.75
-1.50
0.8
0.6
-1.25
-1.00
s [kJ/kg-K]
-0.75
-0.50
Figure22CarbondioxidetranscriticalcycleTSchart
T [C]
0,001
7
160
57
0,00
200
120
40
0
0,01
a
0,2
-1.5
0,4
0,6
0,8
-1.25
-1
s [kJ/kg-K]
-0.75
Figure23CarbondioxideBraytoncycleTSchart
14
0,034
0,063
80
200 bar
150 bar
100 bar
m3/kg
300 bar
-0.5
Itisworthnoticingfromthefiguresthatcarbondioxideatthe
expansionoutletstillholdsaveryhighenergycontent(i.e.high
temperature).Atthesametime,thecycleheatrejectionprocess
has an obvious temperature glide, which enables the carbon
dioxide power system to produce heat (e.g. hot water) and
power (e.g. electrical energy) at the same time. For the cases
where power is most sought, the regenerator will be very
beneficialforthecycleefficiency.
2.3.2 TheCO2coolingandpowercombinedsystemandthe
correspondingcycle
The carbon dioxide cooling and power combined system is
mainly composed of six parts, namely: an evaporator, a
compressor, a gas heater, an expander, a gas cooler, and a
throttlingvalve.ThesystemschematiclayoutandtheTSchart
ofthecorrespondingcycleareshownrespectivelyinFigure24
andFigure25.
Figure24Carbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedsystemschematic
layout
15
400
Carbon Dioxide Cooling and Power Combined Cycle T-S Chart
350
300
0,2
0,4
100 bar
k
a
40 bar
0,6
0,8
-1.25
-1.00
0,063
m
50
3/kg
250 bar
0,019
0,034
350 bar
100
0, 0 1
150
e
0,00
5
200
0,001
7
T [C]
250
-50
-1.50
-0.75
-0.50
-0.25
s [kJ/kg-K]
Figure25CarbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedcycleTSchart
Afterabsorbingheatintheevaporator(ab),thecarbondioxide
will be further heated in the IHX I until it becomes slightly
superheated (bc). The superheated carbon dioxide vapor will
thenbecompressedbyacompressortoasupercriticalpressure
(cd),wheresupercriticalcarbondioxideabsorbstheheatfirstly
from the expansion outlet carbon dioxide in IHX II (de) and
then from the heat source in a gas heater (ef). After that, the
supercriticalcarbondioxidewillbeexpandedinanexpander(f
g)andthencooledbyIHXII(gh),agascooler(hj)andIHXI
(jk) in turn. Finally, it flows though a throttling valve and
enterstheevaporator(ka).Inthepowerpartofthecombined
cycle(dfgi),carbondioxidewillabsorbtheheatfromthelow
16
Thecombinedcycleisdesignedtobeemployedinautomobile
applications (i.e. trucks), for which the power part of the
combined cycle will utilize the energy in the engine exhaust
gasestoproducepowerforthecompressorofthecoolingpart.
17
18
3 CO2TranscriticalCycle
Applicationsand
PerformanceSimulations
3.1 BasicCyclesandtheParametersthat
InfluencetheCyclePerformances
As mentioned in the previous chapter, there are three cycles,
namelycarbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycle,carbondioxide
Braytoncycle,andcarbondioxidecoolingandpowercombined
cycle, which have been proposed in the current study for
utilizingtheenergyinlowgradeheatsourcesandwasteheat.
and waste heat utilization. The cycle thermal efficiency of
carbondioxidepowercyclescanbedefinedby Equation31:
th
Equation31
Qinput
Qinput
(hd hc )
whereQinputistheheatinputtothesystemandWnetisthepower
productionbythesystem.
COP
Qcooling
Wbasic
Equation32
20
COPnew
Qcooling
Wbasic Woutput
Qcooling
Wnew
10
Equation33
3.1.1 Carbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycle
For carbon dioxide transcritical power cycles, the gas heater
pressure can be selected arbitrarily. An optimum pressure can
be found as a function of other cycle parameters, such as the
condensing pressure and the heat source temperature. If an
InternalHeatExchanger(IHX)ispartofthesystem,anoptimal
gas heater pressure around 120 bar appears likely for an
expansioninlettemperatureof100C,forinstance(Figure33).
Atthesametime,theselectionofthegasheaterpressureneeds
to consider the practical issues, such as the material durability
durance and safety. Most of the calculations for transcritical
power cycles in the current study have chosen 120 bar for the
initialcalculationandtheinfluenceofthegasheaterpressureis
analyzed afterwards. The expansion inlet temperature is, of
course, related to the heat source temperature. Furthermore,
perspectivesincetheCOPmaygotoinfinityifWbasicWoutput=0.
21
considering the availability of the low temperature water in
realityandthelimitationofthecyclescriticaltemperature(31.1
C),thecondenserpressureissetto60bar,whichcorresponds
to approximately 22 C condensing temperature. The pump
efficiencyisassumedtobe0.8,basedonTadanoetal.sresearch
on CO2 hermetic compressors (Tadano etal., 2000), due to the
factthatresearchonCO2pumpsisrelativelylimitedcompared
totheresearchonCO2compressors.Atthesametime,itiswell
known that a pumps efficiency is normally higher than a
compressors,mainlyduetothesmallervolumechangeduring
the pumping process than during the compressing process,
and,moreover,Tadanoetal.sresearchwasdoneundersimilar
working conditions. Different expansion efficiencies ranging
from70%(conservativevalveusedintheearlierstudies)to85%
(inthelateststudies)havebeenusedinthisstudy.Sincethereis
very limited research on CO2 expanders in the lowgrade heat
source utilization field, the efficiency values are chosen based
on the research on carbon dioxide expansion machines in
transcriticalrefrigerationcycles,wheretheyareusedtoreplace
thethrottlingvalveinordertoincreasethecycleCOP(Nicklet
al.,2003;Zhaetal.,2003;Huffetal.,2003).Inaddition,theIHXs
effectiveness is assumed to be 90% according to Boewe et al.
(Boeweetal.2001).
3.1.2 TheinfluencesofthecycleworkingparametersontheCO2
transcriticalpowercycleperformance
There are many factors that may influence the performance of
CO2 transcritical power cycles, such as the effectiveness of the
IHX, the heat source temperature, as well as the compressor
andexpandersspecifications.
Byplottingtheexpansioninlettemperaturevs.cycleefficiency
foragivenpumpefficiencywithvariousexpansionefficiencies,
and by plotting the expansion inlet temperature vs. cycle
efficiency for a given expansion efficiency with various pump
efficiencies (Figure 31 & Figure 32), it is found that the cycle
22
0.12
0.11
0.1
0.09
eff.
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
120 bar gas heater pressure
0.02
100
150
200
250
eff.
eff.
eff.
eff.
300
Figure31Carbondioxidetranscriticalcycleefficiencyvs.expansioninlet
temperatureagainstvariousexpansionefficiencies(fromEES,basiccycle
withoutIHX)
Thisresultisbasedonthegivengasheaterpressure,whichisinthe
lower pressure region compared with the carbon dioxide Brayton
cycle.Inthecurrentresearchinutilizingthelowgradeheatsourceby
transcritical power cycle, only relatively lower gas pressure is
considered,fortheconsiderationofsystemsafety,etc.
11
23
0.1
th
0.09
0.08
90% pump eff. 80% expan. eff.
0.07
0.06
100
140
180
220
260
300
Figure32Carbondioxidetranscriticalcycleefficiencyvs.expansioninlet
temperatureagainstvariouspumpefficiencies(fromEES,basiccyclewithout
IHX)
Effectiveness( )
12
24
Tc, o Tc, i
Th.i Tc.i
0.16
0.14
0.1
th
0.12
0.08
0.06
0.04
Condensing pressure 60 bar; Condensing temperature 22 C
0.02
75
110
145
180
215
250
Figure33Optimumgasheaterpressureofacarbondioxidetranscritical
cycle(fromEES,withoutIHXandwitha90%effectivenessIHX)
0.12
th,HX
0.11
0.08
0.07
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
IHX effectiveness
0.8
Figure34TheIHXeffectivenessinfluenceoncarbondioxidetranscritical
cycleefficiency(fromEES)
25
3.1.3 CarbondioxideBraytoncycle
When the cycle works as a Brayton cycle, the heat rejection
process will take place in the supercritical region and the
condenser will, therefore, be called a gas cooler. The same
efficiencies as those chosen for the pump and the expansion
machine for carbon dioxide transcritical power cycles are
adopted for the compressor and the expansion machine for
carbondioxideBraytoncyclesasinitialanalysisconditions(i.e.
75%forthecompressorand7585%fortheexpansionmachine).
Thegasheaterpressureandgascoolerpressureareassumedto
be200barand100barrespectivelyfortheinitialcycleanalysis
and the influences of different gas cooler and gas heater
pressuresarealsoanalyzedseparately.
3.1.4 TheinfluenceofthecycleworkingparametersontheCO2
Braytoncycleperformance
Unlikethecarbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycle,thecarbon
dioxideBraytoncycleliescompletelyinthesupercriticalregion.
Forthisreason,boththegasheaterpressureandthegascooler
pressure will influence the cycle performance besides the
influence by the effectiveness of the IHX, the heat source
temperatureandthecompressorandexpandersspecifications,
etc.
Byplottingtheexpansioninlettemperaturevs.cycleefficiency
foragivenpumpefficiencywithvariousexpansionefficiencies,
and by plotting the expansion inlet temperature vs. cycle
efficiency for a given expansion efficiency with various pump
efficiencies (Figure 35 & Figure 36), it is found that the cycle
efficiency will be improved by increasing the expansion inlet
temperature.Moreover,theimprovementsofthecyclethermal
efficiencyarelessobviousinthehighertemperatureregions.In
general, the Brayton cycle achieves lower thermal efficiency
than the transcritical power cycle at the same expansion inlet
temperature.Furthermore,itcanbenoticedthattheefficiencies
26
0.07
0.06
th
0.05
0.04
0.03
80% pump eff. 60% expan. eff.
0.02
0.01
0
100
140
180
220
260
300
Figure35CarbondioxideBraytoncycleefficiencyvs.expansioninlet
temperatureagainstvariousexpansionefficiencies(fromEES,basiccycle
withoutIHX)
0.07
0.06
th
0.05
0.04
0.03
60% pump
70% pump
80% pump
90% pump
0.02
0.01
80% expan.
80% expan.
80% expan.
80% expan.
eff.
eff.
eff.
eff.
0
100
eff.
eff.
eff.
eff.
140
180
220
260
300
Figure36CarbondioxideBraytoncycleefficiencyvs.expansioninlet
temperatureagainstvariouspumpefficiencies(fromEES,basiccyclewithout
IHX)
27
Furthermore, the influence of the cycle gas heater pressure on
the cycle efficiency of a carbon dioxide Brayton cycle without
IHXandwitha90%effectivenessIHXrespectivelyareplotted
for different expansion inlet temperatures (Figure 37). It is
shown that there is an optimum gas heater pressure for a
certain cycle working condition. Moreover, the cycle with an
IHX has a lower optimum gas heater pressure than a cycle
withoutIHXunderthesameworkingconditions.
0.16
0.14
th
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
100
120
140
160
180
temp. IHX
temp. IHX
temp. IHX
temp. IHX
225 C expansion inlet temp.
200 C expansion inlet temp.
200
220
240
260
280
Figure37OptimumgasheaterpressureofacarbondioxideBraytoncycle
(fromEES,withoutIHXandwitha90%effectivenessIHX)
Besidestheoptimumgasheaterpressure,theBraytoncyclealso
hasanoptimumgascoolerpressureforacertaincycleworking
conditionwhichisshowninFigure38.
28
0.14
Gas cooler pressure 80bar, gas cooler outlet temp. 35 C
150
175
200
225
0.12
inlet
inlet
inlet
inlet
temp.
temp.
temp.
temp.
IHX
IHX
IHX
IHX
th
0.1
C expansion
C expansion
C expansion
C expansion
0.08
0.06
0.04
225 C expansion inlet temp.
200 C expansion inlet temp.
0.02
75
80
85
90
95
100
Figure38OptimumgascoolerpressureofacarbondioxideBraytoncycle
(fromEES,withoutIHXandwitha90%effectivenessIHX)
Furthermore,theinfluenceoftheIHX(regenerator)onthecycle
thermalefficiencyhasalsobeenplottedinFigure39.Asshown
inthefigure,theeffectivenessoftheIHXhascritical influence
onthecyclethermalefficiencyaswell.
0.13
0.12
0.11
th,HX
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
IHX effectiveness
Figure39TheinfluenceofIHXeffectivenessoncarbondioxidetranscritical
cycleefficiency(fromEES)
29
3.1.5 Carbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedcycle
The author is not aware of any similar cycle suggested in the
literature. Therefore, there is no reference cycle operating
condition available for carbon dioxide cooling and power
combinedcycle.
Fortheheatrejectionpressure,Liaoandhiscolleagues(Liaoet
al.,2000) proposed a correlation to predict the optimum heat
rejectionpressureintermsofevaporationtemperatureandthe
gascoolersoutlettemperature,whichisexpressedbyEquation
34
30
For the power part, the gas heater pressure is selected to 200
bar.Thegascoolerpressure(85bars)andthegascooleroutlet
temperature (35 C) are the same as for the cooling part.
Furthermore, the compression and expansion efficiencies are
assumed according to the cycle operating conditions listed
above. Moreover, the combined cycle is designed mainly for
automobile (i.e. truck) applications, and thus the expansion
inlettemperatureisassumedtobe350C,basedonthefactthat
engine exhaust gas can have a temperature of 500C at the
exhaustgasmanifold.
3.1.6 TheinfluenceofcycleworkingparametersontheCO2
coolingandpowercombinedcycleperformance
The cooling part COP of the combined cycle is plotted against
different gas cooler pressures, while keeping other cycle
workingconditionsconstant(Figure310).
5
4.5
4
COP
3.5
3
2.5
COP basic (without power part)
COPnew (250bar gas heater pressure)
COPnew (200 bar gas heater pressure)
COPnew (140bar gas heater pressure)
2
1.5
1
70
80
90
100
Pgascooler (bar)
110
120
Figure310TheCOPofcoolingpartofthecombinedcyclevs.differentgas
coolerpressure
From the figure, one can see that at the optimum gas cooler
pressure, the improvement of the cooling cycles COP is
31
tremendous (e.g. around 40% as mentioned above in the basic
cycle analysis) and the enhancement of COP is different for
differentgasheaterpressures.
Keepingtheoptimumgascoolerpressureconstant,theCOPof
the combined cycles cooling part is plotted against different
gasheaterpressuresfordifferentexpansioninlettemperatures
5
4.8
4.6
4.4
COP
4.2
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
100
120
140
160
Pgasheater
180
200
220
Figure311TheCOPofcoolingpartofthecombinedcyclevs.differentgas
heaterpressure
Theresultsshowthatthereisanoptimumgasheaterpressure
for the combined cycles new COP for certain expansion inlet
temperatures (i.e. the gas heater pressure for combined cycle
powerparttoachievethehighestWoutputforacertainexpansion
inlet temp.). Furthermore, the optimum gas heater pressure
increaseswithincreasingexpansioninlettemperature.
32
3.2 CO2PowerCycleApplicationsand
PerformanceSimulations
3.2.1 CO2doubleloopsystem
One of the CO2 power cycle applications being studied in the
current work is what the author calls the CO2 double loop
system.TheschematicsystemlayoutandthecorrespondingTS
chartareshownasfollows(Figure312andFigure313).
33
Figure312Doubleloopsystemschematicsystemlayout
34
150
Carbon Dioxide
-25
-1.75
0.2
a'
0.4
-1.50
40 bar
0.6
-1.25
c'
0.8
b'
-1.00
m3/k
g
e'
60 bar
0.019
25
d'
0 . 034
b
a
f'
f
120 bar
50
140 bar
0.01
80 bar
75
0.001
T [C]
100
0.00
57
125
-0.75
-0.50
s [kJ/kg-K]
Figure313DoubleloopsystemTSchart(EES)
Table31Carbondioxidedoubleloopsystembasicoperatingconditions
SimulationParameters
Evaporatorpressure
Evaporationtemperature
Refrigerantmassflow
Superheatafterevaporator
Gascoolerpressure
Gascooleroutlettemperature
Value
40
5.3
0.08
5(fixedvalue)
83
3513
Unit
bar
C
Kg/s
K
bar
C
This temperature is the temperature before the IHX. The real gas
cooler outlet temperature is the temperature after providing 5C
superheatatevaporatoroutlet(I.e.33Cinthecurrentcase).
13
35
Gasheaterpressure
Expansioninlettemperature
Compressionefficiency
Expansionefficiency
Pumpefficiency
PowerpartIHXeffectiveness
Cooling
water
inlet
temperature
Coolingwatermassflowrate
120
120
75%
85%
80%
0.9
15
bar
C
0.15
Kg/s
Table32Carbondioxidedoubleloopsystemsperformanceunderthebasic
operatingconditions
PerformanceParameters
Double loop power part thermal
efficiency(withoutIHX)
Double loop power part thermal
efficiency(withIHX)
BasicrefrigerationsystemCOP
DoubleloopsystemCOP14double
Wateroutlettemperature
Systemcoolingcapacity
Powerofhotwaterproduction
Value
4.8%
Unit
7.5%
3.1
4.1
60.8
9.8
25.1
C
kW
kW
Theinfluenceofthegascoolerpressureinthepowerpartofthe
doubleloopsystemontheCOPofthedoubleloopsystemhas
alsobeeninvestigatedandthesimulationresultsareshownin
Figure314.
COPdouble=COPnewandisdefinedasEquation33
14
36
4.4
COP
4
3.6
3.2
Basic COP
COPdouble at
COPdouble at
COPdouble at
COPdouble at
2.8
2.4
75
80
85
90
95
100
Figure314BasicrefrigerationsystemsCOPanddoubleloopsystemsCOP
vs.differentgascoolerpressuresatdifferentgasheaterpressures
Itmaybenoticedthatwiththecontributionfromthesystems
power part, the proposed double loop system can achieve a
much higher COP than the basic carbon dioxide refrigeration
system. For a certain system working condition, there is an
optimumpowersubsystemgascoolerpressure,whichenables
amaximumCOPforthedoubleloopsystem.
37
At 100 C expansion inle temperature
5
80 bar gas cooler pressure
82 bar gas cooler pressure
84 bar gas cooler pressure
86 bar gas cooler pressure
4.5
C OP d o u b le
C OP
do u ble
4.5
3.5
3
2.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
90
d ou b le
C OP
150
170
190
210
4.5
130
3.5
110
2.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
Figure315DoubleloopsystemsCOPagainstdifferentgasheaterpressures
atdifferentgascoolerpressuresanddifferentexpansioninlettemperatures
Itcanbeseenfromthefigurethatforacertainexpansioninlet
temperature and a certain gas cooler pressure, there is an
optimum gas heater pressure, which enables the maximum
COP.
38
5.5
5
4.5
4
COP
3.5
3
2.5
COP_double with diff. pump eff.
COP with diff. pump eff.
COP_double with diff. compressor eff.
COP with diff. compressor eff.
COP_double with diff. expansion eff.
COP with diff. expansion eff.
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.55
0.65
0.75
0.85
Isentropic efficiency
0.95
Figure316DoubleloopsystemsCOPagainstdifferentcomponents
efficiencies
3.2.2 SolardrivenCO2transcriticalpowersystem
AnotherinterestingapplicationofCO2powercycleistoutilize
solarenergyforheatandpowercoproduction(i.e.asocalled
solardrivenCO2Rankinecycle).
39
Figure317Solarpoweredtranscriticalcarbondioxidepowersystem
AcontrollerthatsensesthetemperatureoftheCO2atthesolar
collectoroutletisalsoaddedtothesystemtocontrolthesystem
work under three modes, depending upon the temperature of
CO2atthesolarcollectoroutlet:
40
Table33SimulationParameters
Simulation
Parameters
ClimaticData
Descriptions
Location:Stockholm,Sweden
SolarCollectorSubsystem
Collector
externalmodelwhichisbuiltinEES.
WorkingMedium:Carbondioxide
CO2massflow:180kg/h
Cooling water mass flow: 360kg/h
(under power mode). 180kg/h (under
heatingmode).Inlettemperature:15C
Pumpefficiency:0.8
Turbineefficiency:0.85
The basic system gas heater pressure
(solar collector pressure) is selected as
120bar
Condenser pressure is 60 bar,
corresponding to the temperature of 22
C,andwith80%efficiency
Pump
Turbine
Gasheater
Condenser
2.5
180.0
160.0
140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Power(kW)
2.0
1.5
1.0
W_exp
W_pump
0.5
0.0
11
Time
13
15
Temperature(C)
17
Figure318Dailyperformanceofsolardrivencarbondioxidepowersystem
duringasummerdayinStockholm(at120bargasheatingpressure)
42
180.0
12.0
160.0
140.0
10.0
120.0
8.0
100.0
6.0
Q_water
T_w_in
4.0
T_w_out
T_co2
80.0
60.0
40.0
2.0
Temperature(C)
Q_water(kW)
14.0
20.0
0.0
0.0
5
11
Time
13
15
17
Figure319Dailyperformanceofthesolardrivencarbondioxidepower
systemduringasummerdayinStockholm(at120bargasheaterpressure)
43
Netpowerprodution
(kWh/day)
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
Figure320Dailynetpowerproduction(kWh/day)ofasolardrivencarbon
dioxidepowersysteminoneyear(at120bargasheatingpressure)
Netpowerproduction
(kWh/month)
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
Figure321Monthlynetpowerproduction(kWhs)ofthesolardriven
carbondioxidepowersysteminoneyear(at120bargasheatingpressure)
44
Netheatprodution
(kWh/day)
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Figure322Dailyheatproduction(kWhs)ofthesolardrivencarbondioxide
powersysteminoneyear(at120bargasheatingpressure)
Netheatproduction
(kWh/month)
2500.00
2000.00
1500.00
1000.00
500.00
0.00
Figure323Monthlyheat(kWhs)ofthesolardrivencarbondioxidepower
systeminoneyear(at120bargasheatingpressure)
OnecanseethatforSwedishclimateconditions,theproposed
system can work from March to September and reaches both
the maximum power and maximum hot water production in
June. Over the whole year, the maximum daily power
productionisabout12kWhandthemaximummonthlypower
45
productionisabout215kWh.Furthermore,theannualaverage
thermal efficiency for power production is 8%. For the hot
water production, the maximum daily thermal energy
production is about 112 kWh and the maximum monthly
thermalenergyproductionisabout2320kWh.
Figure 324 and Figure 325 show the influences of the
expansion machines isentropic efficiency and gas heating
pressure on the power production system performance. It can
be seen from the figures that the efficiency of the expansion
machine will have a great influence on the power production
systemperformance.Furthermore,foracertainexpansioninlet
temperature, there is an optimum gas heating pressure.
However,theselectionofthegasheatingpressureshouldalso
consider the material of the solar collector and the annual
temperaturechangeofsupercriticalCO2attheexpansioninlet.
AvaragePowerProduction(kW)
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
75%
IsentropicExpansionefficiency
80%
85%
Figure324Dailyaveragepowerproductionofsolardrivencarbondioxide
powersystematdifferentexpansionisentropicefficiencies
46
2
1.8
Power(kW)
1.6
1.4
80bargasheatingpressure
100bargasheatingpressure
120bargasheatingpressure
140bargasheatingpressure
160bargasheatingpressure
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
W_pump
W_exp.
W_net
Figure325Dailyaveragepowerproductionofsolardrivencarbondioxide
powersystematdifferentgasheatingpressures
Bydefiningtherelativethermalefficiencyimprovementforthe
systembyEquation35,theinfluenceofIHXseffectivenesson
system power output and the relative thermal efficiency
improvementscanbeplotted(Figure326).Theresultsindicate
thatthesystemthermalefficiencycanbeincreasedbyinserting
anIHX,andthemaximumincreaseofthermalefficiencywitha
thermodynamicallyidealIHXcanreachabout50%.
IHX withoutIHX
withoutIHX
Equation35
47
1.34
Average power output
50.00%
1.32
1.30
1.28
40.00%
1.26
30.00%
1.24
1.22
20.00%
1.20
1.18
10.00%
1.16
0.00%
60.00%
1.14
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
IHX effectiveness
Figure326Solardrivencarbondioxidepowersystempoweroutputand
thermalefficiencyimprovementvs.IHXeffectiveness(resultscalculatedfor
thesamedaythatchosenforFigure318)
3.3 Summary
In this chapter, the basic working conditions of the three
proposedcarbondioxidepowercycles,namelycarbondioxide
transcritical power cycle, carbon dioxide Brayton cycle and
carbon dioxide cooling and power combined cycle, are
specified.
Toutilizetheenergyinlowgradeheatsources(i.e.heatsource
withlowavailabletemperatures),acarbondioxidetranscritical
power cycle will be more preferable due to its higher thermal
48
efficiencythanthecarbondioxideBraytoncyclewiththesame
heat sink condition. When utilizing the energy in waste heat
(e.g.engineexhaustgasses),acarbondioxideBraytoncycleand
carbon dioxide cooling and power combined cycle will be of
interest.
For the carbon dioxide Brayton cycle and the power part of
carbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedcycle,thereisboth
an optimum gas heater pressure and an optimum gas cooler
pressureforacertaincycleworkingcondition.
Fortheapplicationsofcarbondioxidepowersystems:
Fortheproposedcarbondioxidecoolingandpowercombined
systems, the COP of the basic carbon dioxide cooling system
canbeimprovedby40%byutilizingtheenergyintheexhaust
gasoftruckengines.
Theperformanceofasolardrivencarbondioxidepowersystem
intheSwedishclimatehasbeensimulatedindetailbydynamic
simulations.
49
ThedailysimulationresultsforatypicalSwedishsummerday
(15th of July) show that the system can achieve 8% average
thermal efficiency and 1.2 kW average power productions
during the system working period. At the same time, the
system can produce heat (hot water) with an average capacity
of about 10kW. Theaverage temperature of the produced hot
water is about 40 C, which can be further increased by
decreasing the water flow rate or by system modification.
Annually, the system achieves both maximum power
production and maximum thermal energy production in June.
The maximum daily power production is about 12 kWh and
maximum monthly power production is about 215 kWh. The
maximum daily thermal energy production is about 110 kWh
andthemaximummonthlythermalenergyproductionisabout
2300kWh.
50
4 TemperatureProfilesin
CO2PowerSystemHeat
Exchangers
4.1 CpVariationandItsInfluenceontheCO2
PowerCycleTemperatureProfilesinthe
HeatExchangers
As mentioned in previous chapters, carbon dioxide has a low
criticaltemperature(31.1C),whichallowsthecarbondioxide
power cycle to work either as a transcritical power cycle or a
Braytoncycledependingupontheheatsinktemperature.This
means that at least part of the cycle will be located in the
supercriticalregion.
51
Figure41SpecificheatofsupercriticalCO2vs.temperatureatdifferent
pressures
1.15
1.13
@ 10 bar
@ 5 bar
Cp
1.11
@ 1 bar
1.09
1.07
1.05
1.03
1.01
100
150
200 250
300
T (C)
350 400
450
500
Figure42Specificheatofairvs.temperatureatdifferentpressures(notethe
scaledifferencefromFigure41)
52
Figure43Specificheatofexhaustgasandexpansionoutletcarbondioxide
(notethescaledifferencefromFigure41)
Abasiccarbondioxidetranscriticalpowersystemisemployed
toshowtheinfluenceoftheCpvariationofsupercriticalCO2on
the temperature profiles of CO2 system heat exchangers. The
schematic layout of the basic carbon dioxide power system is
shown in Figure 44 and the assumptions of system working
conditions and heat source conditions are listed in Table 41
andTable42respectively.
53
Figure44SchematiclayoutofabasiccarbondioxideCO2powersystem
Table41Carbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycleoperatingconditions
Items
Gasheaterpressure
Condenserpressure
Expansioninlet
temperature
Condensing
temperature
Pumpefficiency
Expansionefficiency
Gasheatereffectiveness
IHXeffectiveness
Value
100
60
Relatedtotheheatsource
temp.
22
Unit
bar
bar
C
0.8
0.7
0,9
0,9
Table42Heatsource(exhaustgas)data
Items
Exhaustgasmassflow
Exhaustgasinlettemperature
54
Value
0,4
150
Unit
kg/s
C
Figure45CphchartforsupercriticalCO2,expansionoutletcarbon
dioxideandheatsourcefortheintegratedtotalheatexchangerlength
For the gas heater part, a reverse trend is shown. After being
preheated in the IHX, supercritical CO2 enters the gas heater
(pointc)withamuchhigherCpthantheoutgoingheatsource
15
All the heat exchangers analyzed in this chapter refer to
counterflowheatexchangers.
LabeledasMainHeatExchanger(MHX)inthediagrams
16
55
(exhaust gas, point h), then the difference decreases rapidly
along the gas heater until it reaches a very small value on the
other end of the gas heater, where the inlet of the heat source
(exhaust gas, point g) and the outlet of the supercritical CO2
(pointd)arelocated.
DuetothedifferenceinCpvariations,thetemperateprofilesin
both MHX and IHX will be influenced. Th charts for the
integrated total heat exchanger length (MHX and IHX) with
different CO2 mass flow rates are plotted in the following
figures to show this influence (Figure 46 a and b)17. From the
figures, one can see that except for a short increase when
supercriticalCO2firstenterstheIHX(pointb),thetemperature
profile of supercritical CO2 in the IHX is fairly flat due to the
sharpincreaseofitsCp(pointbpointc).Whenitflowsfurther
through the gas heater (point c point d), the temperature of
supercriticalCO2willincreaserapidlyduetothesharpdecrease
ofitsCpvalue(seeFigure45).
17
Thestatepointscorrespondtopointsinfigure2
56
(a)
(b)
Figure46IntegratedheatexchangersTHchartofcarbondioxide
transcriticalpowercyclewithdifferentmassflowratesofsupercriticalCO2
(a):mCO2=0.1kg/s,mexhaustgas=0.4kg/s,IHXeffectiveness=0.9,MHX
effectiveness=0.9(b):mCO2=0.2kg/s,mexhaustgas=0.4kg/s,IHX
effectiveness=0.9,MHXeffectiveness=0.9
57
4.2 ComparisonbetweenaTypicalCO2Power
andaTypicalORCCycle
The benefit of Cp variation in supercritical CO2 for the carbon
dioxide transcritical power cycle in lowgrade heat source
recovery(i.e.bettertemperaturematching)canbeshowedmore
obviously, if a comparison is made with other working fluids.
AThchartoftheintegratedtotalheatexchangerlengthforan
ORC (without superheating) using R123 as a working fluid is
plottedforthesameheatsourceconditionasthatusedforthe
CO2power cycleanalysis(Figure47).FortheR123ORC,part
of the working fluid heating process takes place in the
subcriticalregionasboiling(i.e.constanttemperature)anddoes
not have Cp variation during the heating process as
supercriticalCO2does.ItcanbeseenfromthefigurethatR123
will have more temperature lift in the IHX than supercritical
CO2,duetoitsrelativelylinearCpchange.Furthermore,dueto
its boiling process, pinching will also appear in the MHX,
whichleadstotheconsequencethatonlyaverylimitedamount
ofenergyintheheatsourcecanbeutilized.
Figure47IntegratedheatexchangerThchartofR123ORC.mR123=0.15
kg/s,mexhaustgas=0.4kg/s,IHXeffectiveness=0.9,MHXeffectiveness=0.9(the
processinthefiguredoesnotincludethesuperheatingofvapor)
58
4.3 TheImportanceoftheTemperatureProfile
Matching
The reason that the matching between the heat source
temperature profile and the working fluid temperature profile
is so important when utilizing the energy in lowgrade heat
source or waste heat can be further explained by a simple
example. A typical cycle (Carnot cycle) with a varying heat
sourcetemperatureandaconstantheatsinktemperatureof293
Kisemployedforthisexample,whichisschematicallyshown
inFigure48
Figure48SchematicillustrationofatypicalcycleCarnotcycle
atob:Isentropiccompression
btoc:Isothermalheatsupply
ctod:Isentropicexpansion
dtoa:Isothermalheatrejection
Thethermalefficiencyofthecyclewillthenbe:
59
Woutput
Qinput
Tda
Equation41
Tbc
butsinceTbc=TsourceTandTda=Tsink+Tweget:
Tsink T
Tsource T
Equation42
ThecalculatedcycleefficiencyisillustratedinFigure49,from
which one can see that the cycle with the smaller temperature
differences, T, in the heat exchangers will achieve a higher
efficiency. Furthermore, the temperature difference plays a
more important role at low heat source temperatures than at
high heat source temperatures. For example, at a heat source
temperature of 360 K, the cycle with T = 10 K in both heat
exchangersachievesalmosttwotimeshigherefficiencythanthe
cycle with T = 20 K. By contrast, at 440 K heat source
temperature,thecyclewithT=10Kinbothheatexchangers
onlyachievesanefficiencyof1.2timesthatofthecyclewithT
= 20 K. Therefore, the better heat source matching
characteristics of CO2 make this cycle more interesting for the
utilizationofenergyinlowgradeheatsources.
Figure49Cycleefficiencywithvaryingheatsourcetemperaturesanda
constantheatsinktemperature(293K)fordifferenttemperaturedifferences
inthetwoheatexchangers(gasheaterandcondenser)
60
4.4 Summary
In this chapter, the Cp variation of supercritical CO2 and its
influenceonthetemperatureprofilesinCO2powersystemheat
exchangershavebeenanalyzed.
Duetotheshapeofitstemperatureprofile,theCO2gasheater
can achieve its minimum temperature difference at the end of
the heat exchanger to avoid pinching. At the same time, the
driving force for heat transfer to take place (i.e. the
temperature difference) can still be maintained inside the heat
exchanger. For the CO2 system with internal heat exchangers,
thetemperatureprofilealsoenablessupercriticalCO2torecover
energy in the expansion outlet CO2 substantially without an
obvioustemperatureincrease,beforeitentersthegasheaterto
furtherrecovertheenergyinlowgradeheatsourceeffectively.
61
62
5 SecondLaw
ThermodynamicAnalysis
Figure51schematiclayoutofthebasiccarbondioxidepowersystem
63
5.1 ExergyandEntropyCalculations
The exergy concept as one of the main interests in second law
systemanalysiscanhelptolocatethesystemnonidealitiesby
showing the significance of system components in system
exergy destruction. The exergy destruction of each system
component can be calculated by the following equation
generally:
Equation51
where
T s s
Equation52
h h
Equation53
Equation54
Equation55
Equation56
Equation57
64
theirreversibilitygeneratedbyeachcomponentthatinfluences
thesystemperformance.
Equation58
inwhich
Equation59
, ,
, ,
Equation510
Equation511
273
Equation512
inwhich
, ,
, ,
273
Equation513
Equation514
Equation515
Equation516
Equation517
Equation518
,
,
Equation519
65
Equation520
Equation521
,
,
Equation522
5.2 SimulationAssumptions
The following general assumptions are made for the
thermodynamic analysis of the carbon dioxide transcritical
powersystem:
66
Thecycleisconsideredtoworkatsteadystate
Pressuredropsintheheatexchangersareneglected
Thepinchinginthecondenserisassumedtobe5oC
Thesetvalueforthewateroutlettemperaturefromthe
gascooleris50oC
5.3 SimulationResultsandDiscussion
Maintaining other simulation assumptions constant, while
changing heat source mass flow rate, the exergy destruction,
entropygenerationaswellasthemeantemperaturedifference
and pinch temperature in the gas heater and gas cooler
respectivelyareplottedagainstCO2massflowrate(Figure51
andFigure52).
Figure52Exergydestructionvs.CO2massflowrate
Figure53Entropygenerationvs.CO2massflowrate
67
Itcanbeseenfromthefiguresthattheexergydestructionsand
entropy generations are almost constant in the pump and the
expander.Atthesametime,theyincreaseinthegasheater,but
decreaseinthegascooler&condenserwithanincreasingCO2
massflowrate.Meanwhile,itcanalsobeseenfromthefigures
thatthe changes in exergy and entropy in theheatexchangers
have close relations with the temperature matching as well.
With an increasing mean temperature difference in the gas
heaterandadecreasingpinchtemperatureinthegascooler&
condenser, the exergy destruction and entropy generation
increaseinthegasheater,whiledecreasinginthegascooler&
condenserrespectively.
Figure54Distributionofentropygenerationvs.CO2massflowrate
Figure55Exergydestructionvs.systemhighpressuresidepressure
Figure56Entropygenerationvs.systemhighpressuresidepressure
69
Figure 57 shows the change in the distribution of entropy
generation with an increasing system high pressure side
pressure.Duetothedramaticdecreaseinentropygenerationin
thegasheater,thedistributionofentropygenerationinthegas
heaterdecreases,whileitincreasesinothersystemcomponents.
Figure57Distributionofentropygenerationvs.systemhighpressureside
pressure
Figure58andFigure59showtheexergydestructionandthe
entropy generation in different system components against an
increasing heat source temperature, while keeping other
simulation assumptions constant. It can be seen from the
figures that the exergy destruction and the entropy generation
are almost constant in the pump and the expander, while
increasing in the gas heater as well as in the gas cooler &
condenser with the increasing heat source temperature at the
gas cooler inlet. Furthermore, it can be noted from the figure
thatboththemeantemperaturedifferenceinthegasheaterand
the pinch temperature in the gas cooler & condenser increase,
while the increment is more obvious in the gas cooler &
condenser. As a consequence, although the exergy destruction
andtheentropygenerationincreaseinbothgasheaterandthe
gascooler&condenser,theincrementsaremoreobviousinthe
gascooler&condenserthaninthegasheater.
70
Figure58Exergydestructionvs.heatsourcetemperatureatthegasheater
inlet
Figure59Entropygenerationvs.heatsourcetemperatureatthegasheater
inlet
gas heater inlet. As shown in the figure, with the increasing
heatsourcetemperatureatthegasheaterinlet,thedistribution
of entropy generation increases in the gas cooler & condenser,
while decreasing in the gas heater and almost constant in the
pumpandtheexpander.
Figure510Distributionofentropygenerationvs.heatsourcetemperature
atthegasheaterinlet
Figure 511 to Figure 513 show the CO2 power system exergy
efficienciesandthemeantemperaturedifferencesinthesystem
heat exchangers against different system operating parameters
and the results show that the system exergy efficiency will
decrease with an increasing CO2 mass flow rate, while it
increaseswithanincreasingsystemhighpressuresidepressure
oranincreasingheatsourcetemperatureatthegasheaterinlet.
Furthermore, the simulation results also indicate that the
matching of the temperature profiles in the system gas heater
mayhaveacrucialinfluenceonthesystemexergyefficiency.
72
Figure511CO2powercycleexergyefficiencyandtheheatexchangersmin
temperaturedifferencesvs.CO2massflowrate
Figure512CO2powercycleexergyefficiencyandtheheatexchangersmin
temperaturedifferencesvs.systemhighpressuresidepressure
Figure513CO2powercycleexergyefficiencyandtheheatexchangersmin
temperaturedifferencesvs.heatsourcetemperatureatgasheaterinlet
73
5.4 Summary
In this chapter, second law analyses have been performed for
the carbon dioxide transcritical power system to show the
possible system lossesand the potential for improvement.The
exergydestructionandtheentropygenerationarecalculatedby
varying one system operating factor at a time, while keeping
otherassumedsystemoperatingconditionsconstant.
WithanincreasingCO2massflowrate,theexergydestruction
and entropy generation are almost constant in the pump and
theexpander.Atthesametime,theyincreaseinthegasheater,
butdecreaseinthegascooler&condenser,duetothechanges
of the temperature profile matching in the heat exchangers.
Meanwhile, the distribution of entropy generation increases in
thegasheater,whiledecreasinginthegascooler&condenser
andalmostconstantinthepumpandtheexpander.
Ifothersystemoperatingparametersarekeptconstant,butthe
system high pressure side pressure is increased, the exergy
destruction and entropy generation will increase in the pump
and the expander. Furthermore, due to the better matching of
the temperature profiles in the system heat exchangers at
higher system high pressure side pressures, their exergy
destruction and entropy generation decrease. For the whole
74
system,thedistributionofentropygenerationdecreasesinthe
gasheater,whileincreasinginothercomponents.
Thesimulationresultswithincreasingheatsourcetemperatures
show that the increasing heat source temperature will have a
minor influence on the exergy destruction and the entropy
generationinthepumpandtheexpander.However,theexergy
destructionandentropygenerationinthegasheateraswellas
inthegascooler&condenserwillincreasewiththeincreasing
heat source temperature. At the same time, the increment will
be less obvious in the gas heater, but more obvious in the gas
cooler & condenser due to the influence of their temperature
profile matching. For the distribution of entropy generation in
thesystem,itwillincreaseinthegascooler&condenser,while
decreasing in the gas heater and remaining almost constant in
thepumpandtheexpander.
75
76
6 Conclusionand
SuggestionsforFurther
Work
6.1 Conclusion
In the current study, the potential of utilizing carbon dioxide
power cycles in recovering energy in lowgrade heat sources
andwasteheathasbeeninvestigated.
Twobasicsystemsascarbondioxidepowersystemandcarbon
dioxidecoolingandpowercombinedsystemareproposed.The
performance of the corresponding cycles as carbon dioxide
transcritical power cycle, carbon dioxide Brayton cycle and
carbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedcyclearestudied.
The influence of different cycle working parameters on the
cycle performance is simulated by computer simulations. The
simulation results show that there will be an optimum gas
heaterpressureforcarbondioxidepowercyclesatcertaincycle
working conditions. The optimum gas heater pressure will
increasewithincreasingheatsourcetemperature.Furthermore,
theefficiencyoftheexpansionmachinewillhavemorecrucial
influence on the cycle thermal efficiency than the pump
efficiencydoes.ForcarbondioxideBraytoncycles,thereisalso
an optimum gas cooler pressure besides the optimum gas
heater pressure for a certain cycle working condition.
Moreover, the simulation results show that thecarbon dioxide
power cycle is highly regenerative, which makes the internal
heat exchanger (regenerator) very important for the cycle if
powerproductionissought.
77
For the applications of the carbon dioxide power system, a
carbon dioxide double loop system and a solardriven carbon
dioxidepowersystemarestudiedanddiscussedasexamples.
Secondlawthermodynamicanalyseshavealsobeenconducted
forthecarbondioxidetranscritical powersysteminthestudy.
The influences of different system working parameters on the
systemirreversibilitiesandthesystemexergyefficiencieshave
been studied. The simulation results with an increasing CO2
mass flow rate show that the exergy destruction and the
entropy generation are almost constant in the pump and the
expander.Atthesametime,theyincreaseinthegasheater,but
decrease in the gas cooler & condenser, due to the change of
temperature profile matching in the system heat exchangers.
Meanwhile, the distribution of entropy generation increases in
thegasheater,whiledecreasinginthegascooler&condenser
andremainingalmostconstantinthepumpandtheexpander.
Furthermore, if one keeps other system working parameters
constant,butincreasesthesystemhighpressuresidepressure,
the exergy destruction and entropy generation will increase in
the pump and expander, but decrease in the system heat
exchangers,duetotheirbettertemperatureprofilematchingat
highersystemhighpressuresidepressures.Forthedistribution
of entropy generation, it decreases in the gas heater, while
increasing in other system components. Moreover, the
79
simulation results with an increasing heat source temperature
at the gas heater inlet show that the increasing heat source
temperature will have minor influence on the exergy
destruction and the entropy generation in the pump and the
expander, but it will increase the exergy destruction and
entropy generation in the system heat exchangers. With the
increasing heat source temperature at the gas heater inlet, the
distributionofentropygenerationincreasesinthegascooler&
condenser, while decreasing in gas heater and remaining
almostconstantinthepumpandtheexpander.
6.2 SuggestionsforFurtherWork
In the last year of this study, more detailed studies of the
systemcomponentssuchasthepumpandtheexpandershave
started.ACO2testrighasbeenbuiltinthelabtotesttheCO2
heat exchanger performance as well. Preliminary results have
beenobtainedfrombothofthesestudies
Moreover,whenthesystemcomponentsareallaccessibleinthe
future, the system performance should also be experimentally
tested.
81
82
7 Nomenclature
Roman
A
Asc
Heattransferarea
Solarcollectorarea
m2
m2
b
C
Themeanwidthofheatexchangerplate
Contributionofentropygeneration
mm
%
Thehotairflowlengthalongtheheatexchanger
CO2
Carbondioxide
COP
CoefficientofPerformance
Cp
Specificheat
Heatexchangertubediameter
mm
dh
Hydraulicdiameter
mm
Di
EES
Diameterofthegaspipe
EngineerEquationSolver
cm
Eff.
ETC
Efficiency/Heatexchangereffectiveness
Evacuatedtubesolarcollector
FR
Collectorheatremovalfactor
FR()e
Averageblisscoefficient
FRUL
Heatlosscoefficient
Incidentsolarradiation
GC
GasCooler
GH
GasHeater
GWP
GlobalWarmingPotential
Gz
Graetznumber
heattransfercoefficient
Enthalpy
IHX
InternalHeatExchanger
Thermalconductivity
kJ/kgk
W/m2
W/m2K
kJ/kg
W/mK
83
L
LMTD
Flowlength
LogarithmicMeanTemperatureDifference
Massflowrate
MHX
MainHeatExchanger
Nu
Nusseltnumber
ODP
OzoneDepletingPotential
ORC
ORC
OrganicRankineCycle
OrganicRankineCycle
ORC
OrganicRankineCycle
Power
Pcross
Wetparameterofthecrosssection
Pr
Prandtlnumber
Energy
kW
Qcooling
Coolingcapacity
kW
Qinput
Qu
Heatinput
Usefulenergygainedfromthesolarcollector
kW
Re
Reynoldsnumber
s
SCCO2
distancebetweenheatexchangerplates
Supercriticalcarbondioxide
Temp.
Temperature
Overallheattransfercoefficient
Velocity
m/s
Vhx
Heatexchangervolume
m3
W
Wexp
Work/power
Workfromtheexpansionprocess
kW
Wnet
NetworkfromtheSCCO2cycle
kW
Wp
WorksupplytothePump
kW
x,fd,h
Fullydevelopedhydrauliclength
Greek
Volumeflowrate
Cycleefficiency
84
m
K
kgs1
kW
kW
mm
C
W/m2K
kW
m
m3/s
exg
Exergyefficiency
IHX
sc
th
Thermalefficiency
withoutIHX
()e
h
Enthalpydifference
Specificexergy
Exergy
Effectiveness
Pressureratio
%
%
%
kJ/kgK
kJ/kg
kW
%
Tubethickness
Entropygeneration
mm
Temperaturedifference
Kinematicviscosity
m2/s
Dynamicviscosity
kg/ms
Aspectratio
kJ/kgK
K
Subscript
a
Ambient/average
ak
Cycleworkingpoints
af
Refrigerationcycleroutepoint
basic
c
Basicrefrigerationsystem
Condenser/Cold
comp
Compression
cooling
Combinedcyclecoolingpart
double Doubleloopsystem
e
evh
Evaporator
Equivalentheating
exp
gas
Expansion/expander
Heatsource
85
gc
Gascooling
gco
gh
Gascooleroutlet
Gasheater
gh Pointsforairproperties
gj
Pointsofheatsourceandheatsinkcondition
h
Hot
hh
Coolingmediaconditionpoints
hs
Heatsource
hx
i
Heatexchanger
Inlet/In/inside
in
Heatexchangerinlet
in
is
Inlet
Isentropic
Mechanical
net
Netpower
new
o
ThenewcoolingCOPofthecombinedcycle
Out
Outside
opt
Optimum
out
Outlet
output
p
Thepoweroutputthecombinedcyclepowerpart
Pump
power
T
Combinedcyclepowerpart
Turbine
th
Thermal
Water
86
8 References
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93
94
9 Appendix
9.1 Appendix1SafetyGroupClassifications
(fromIIR)
Thisclassificationconsistsoftwoalphanumericcharacters(e.g.
A2); the capital letter corresponds to toxicity and the digit to
flammability.
9.1.1 Toxicityclassification
Refrigerantsaredividedintotwogroupsaccordingtotoxicity:
9.1.2 Flammabilityclassification
96
Class3indicatesrefrigerantsthatarehighlyflammable
asdefinedbyalowerflammabilitylimitoflessthanor
equal to 0.10 kg/m3 at 21C and 101 kPa or a heat of
combustiongreaterthanorequalto19kJ/kg.
9.2 Appendix2HeatExchangerProposedfor
HeatRecoveryinEngineExhaustGases
9.2.1 Descriptionoftheheatexchanger
Oneoftheproposedcarbondioxidepowersystemapplications
in this study is to utilize the energy in the exhaust gases of
automobile engines (i.e. truck engines) to produce power to
reducethefuelconsumption.Insuchapplications,thepressure
dropintheenginesexhaustgaspipeisveryimportantandwill
havecrucialinfluenceontheengineperformance.Tobeableto
utilize the energy in the engines exhaust gas, a special heat
exchangerwithlowpressuredroponitsairsideasproposedby
one of the project partners (i.e. Ranotor AB) is designed and
studiedinthisproject.
Figure91RANOTORheatexchangers
97
Figure92RANOTORheatexchangers
AsillustratedinFigure91andFigure92,theheatexchangeris
composed of a number of concentric conical plates, which are
madeupofseveralheatexchangertubes,arrangedinparallel.
The distance between the heat exchanger plates is 1 mm. For
eachplate,therearethreesmalldiameter(1mm)tubesplaced
one after another and bent to the concentric conical shape.
Therefore,eachheatexchangerplatehasthreeinlets,whichare
placedonthefrontside.Carbondioxidecomesfromamanifold
andgoesintotheheatexchangerviathethreeinletsatthesame
time.Afterbeingheateduporcooleddown,theexitingcarbon
dioxidewillbecollectedatthebacksideoftheheatexchanger
by the other manifold. The heat source fluid (e.g. exhaust gas,
steam, etc.) will flow through the center of the heat exchanger
plateandspreadoutevenlythroughtheaperturebetweeneach
pairofheatexchangerplates.
9.2.2 Counterflowcompactheatexchangerwithlaminarflowat
theairside
According to the surface area density value, the heat
exchangers can be divided mainly into three categories:
98
compactheatexchangers(surfaceareadensityabove700m2/m3
onatleastonefluidside,whichusuallyhasgasflow),laminar
flow heat exchangers (surface area density above 3000 m2/m3)
andmicroheatexchangers(surfaceareadensityisaboveabout
10000 m2/m3). The configurations of a compact heat exchanger
arenormallyplatefin,tubefinandprimesurfacerecuperators
andcompactregenerators.Basicflowarrangementsofthetwo
fluids are singlepass cross flow, counter flow and multipass
crosscounterflow(R.K.Shah,1991).
99
Figure93SchematicillustrationofaRANOTORcompactheatexchanger
Figure94SchematicillustrationoftheflowschemeforaRANOTOR
compactheatexchanger
9.2.3 Superiorityoflaminarflow
Traditionally, turbulent flow is desired in heat exchangers to
achieve high heat transfer coefficients. However, for compact
heat exchangers, a turbulent flow will require extremely high
fan power and normally achieve lower heat transfer than
laminarflow.Thus,laminarflowismoredesirableforcompact
heat exchangers due to the fact that it achieves a higher heat
transfer coefficient with a smaller heat exchanger volume and
lowerfanpowercomparedwiththeturbulentflow.Thereason
100
thatlaminarflowcanachieveahigherheattransfercoefficient
incompactheatexchangerscanbeexplainedasfollows:
Nu k
Lc
Equation91
where
hHeattransfercoefficient
NuNusseltnumber
kThermalconductivity
LcHydraulicdiameter
Re 104 isthesameasa1mmdiametertubeinlaminarflow.
4
h is also the same for a 20 mm diameter tube at Re 5 10
anda0.3mmdiametertubeinlaminarflow.
101
Figure95Superiorityoflaminarflowheattransfercoefficientvs.tube
diameter(Shah,1991)
9.2.4 Descriptionoftheheatexchangercalculationmodel
The concentric conical shape of the heat exchanger introduces
more complexities for the inside (CO2 side) heat transfer
calculation.Duetothespecificgeometryoftheheatexchanger,
existing heat transfer correlations are not suitable to calculate
the tube inside heat transfer for the current heat exchanger,
except by employing very complicated numerical solutions.
However, the overall objective of the current thesis is system
design and validation instead of a detailed heat exchanger
design; building up a complicated numerical model is,
therefore, beyond the scope of the current work. Furthermore,
considering the fact that compared with the CO2 side heat
transfer, the heat exchanger outside heat transfer is the
dominating factor for the heat exchangers heat transfer
performance, only the dominant side (outside) heat transfer is
calculated as a guideline for the preliminary heat exchanger
designatthecurrentstage.
Accordingtothedesign,eachheatexchangerplateiscomposed
of three tubes. The flow of the outside fluid crosses the first
102
section of all three tubes at the same time, when reaching the
first round of heat exchanger tubes. After passing the first
roundoftubes,theworkingfluidwillflowfurtherandpassthe
continued section of the three tubes in the same way.
Consequently,theworkingfluidflowwillpassallthesections
of the three tubes until it passes the last round of heat
exchanger tubes. For the outside heat transfer calculation, the
module can be simplified by spreading the conically shaped
heatexchangerplateintoatrapezoidshapeasshowninFigure
96.Theairflowisindicatedinthefigureasanexampleofheat
exchanger outside fluid flow and different colors symbolize
different heat exchanger tubes. As shown in the figure, the
incomingairwillpassthefirstsectionofthethreetubesatthe
sametime,whenitflowsoverthefirstroundofheatexchanger
tubes.Afterthat,theairflowwillthenpassthesecondsection
of three tubes in the same way, when it crosses the second
round of heat exchanger tubes. The air will keep flowing and
cross the different loops of heat exchanger tubes continually,
untilitreachesthelastsectionoftubes.Foreveryloop,theCO2
ineachsectionofheatexchangertubesisassumedtohavethe
same conditions (i.e. the same temperature, the same heat
transfercharacteristicsandpressuredrop,etc.).
Figure96Heatexchangercalculationmodule,schematic1
103
When calculating the heat transfer on the outside, due to the
characteristicsoftheheatexchangergeometry,thefluidflowin
the rectangular channel, with the channel width being much
bigger than the channel height (b>>s), has been assumed as a
simplified model for the heat exchanger preliminary design
stage. The scheme is illustrated in the following figure (Figure
97):
Figure97Illustrationofheatexchangeroutsidegasflow(sideview)
9.2.5 Basiccorrelations
The air mass flow can be calculated by the energy balance as
shownbelow:
Q power m o Cp o t o
Equation92
Q power m CO2 h
Equation93
outsidefluidflowisneededanditisobtainedbythefollowing
equations:
m o oVo
Equation94
Vo u o Across
Equation95
o denotesthemassflowoftheoutsideworking
workingfluid, m
fluid and
Furthermore,Acrossdenotesthecrosssectionalareaoftheoutside
working fluids flow channel (the cross section area between
everytwoplates).
Re
uo d h
Equation96
BycheckingtheReynoldsnumber,onecanverifythattheheat
exchanger outside flow is laminar. Furthermore, judging by
Equation97andEquation98,itisfoundthattheflowisboth
in the hydrodynamic entry region and in the thermal entry
region (i.e. socalled combined entry length) due to the
geometryoftheheatexchanger.
105
x
Re
d h 20
Equation97
Gz 1
1
dh
Re Pr 20
Equation98
Intheaboveequations,GzistheGraetznumber,xdenotesthe
length of the working fluid flow and dhdenotes the hydraulic
diameter.
Re Pr
Nu o 1 .86
Ld
h
0 .14
Equation99
inwhich
Pr
Cp
k
Equation910
dh
4 Across
Pcross
Equation911
Intheaboveequations,Listheheatexchangeroutsideworking
fluid flow length, d h denotes the hydraulic diameter of the
outsidefluidsflowchannelandPristhePrandtlnumber.Across
denotes the area of the flow channels cross section and Pcross
denotes the wet parameter of the cross section. The dynamic
viscosity () of the heat exchanger outside working fluid is
taken at its mean temperature and s is the dynamic viscosity
of the outside working fluid at the heat exchangers surface
temperature.
106
WithknowledgeoftheNusseltnumber,thelocalheattransfer
coefficientforeachdividedcalculationsectioncanbecalculated
by the relationship of the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt
number.
ho
Nu k
dh
Equation912
Finally,thetemperatureoftheworkingfluidafterpassingone
loopoftheheatexchangertubescanbeobtainedbytheenergy
balanceasshownbelow:
ho tinfinite t s Ao m o Cpo to
Equation913
Theheatexchangeroutsidefluidpressuredropwilldecidethe
fan power, which is also very important for heat exchanger
design.ThepressuredropiscalculatedbyEquation914.
P f
L
u2
dh 2
Equation914
wherefisthefrictioncoefficient,Listhepipelength,dhisthe
pipehydraulicdiameteranduistheflowvelocity.Thedensity
iscalculatedatthefluidmeantemperature.
between (b>>s), 96 (V.H. Hahnemann and L. Ehret, 1941) can
Re
beusedforcalculatingthefrictioncoefficient,whichisbasedon
HagenPoiseuilles solution for laminar flow between parallel
plates(
Equation915).
96
1 1.3553 1.9467 2 1.7012 3 0.9564 4 0.2537 5
Re
Equation915
whereReisReynoldsnumberandistheaspectratio,whichis
definedastheratioofthechannelheighttothechannelwidth.
12 L m
Equation916
P
s3 b
R p
Equation917
9.2.6 Programdescription
9.2.6.1
Evaporator
outside flow in the laminar region. The program flow chart is
showninFigure98.
Figure98Programflowchartevaporator
9.2.6.2
Gascooler
111
approximateheatexchangersize,etc.Theprogramflowchartis
showninFigure99.
Figure99Programflowchartgascooler
9.2.6.3
Gasheater
In the gas heater calculation, the inputs are still fluid inlet
temperature, preset fluid outlet temperature, heat exchanger
tube inner diameter, the tubes wall thickness, the tubes first
loop diameter, number of heat exchanger plates, and the
distancebetweeneverytwoplates.FirsttheReynoldssnumber
112
113
Figure910Programflowchartgasheater
9.2.7 Exampleofprogramoperationwindow
The program operation windows are shown in the following
figuresfordifferentcyclesanddifferentheatexchangerdesign
calculations:
114
Carbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycle
Gas Heat Exchanger Input
Cycle Data
t,11 = 200 [C]
n inlet,cond = 3
d inner,cond = 0.002 m
qsource = 236.6
isen,ex = 0.7
w w ork = 1.668
Expansion Machine
w w ork = 1.668
qheat,total = 15.65 Kw
tc,o = 74.26
Dround,cond = 0.2
M
Kw
stength,cond = 200
tcond,in = 10 C
tcond,out = 20 C
n plates,gc = 10
Qgas,cooler = 3.137
Kw
n inlet,cond = 3
stength,gc = 200 m
d inner,gc = 0.002 m Dround,gc = 0.2
sdistancebetweenpile,cond = 0.001
P,13 = 60 [bar]
n plates,cond = 50
sdistancebetweenpile,c = 0.001 m
h,13 = 35.68
3
h ,2 = -222
t,2 = 43.42 [C]
QIHX = 0.191
T ,1 = 21.98 [C]
w compressor = 1.098
Kw
isen = 0.8
kg/s
Vcond,air = 0.5771
m /s
Vgc,cond = 0.8499
mgc,cond = 1.01
Condenser Output
approxheatexchanger,length,gh = 0.108
at,idealHX = 0.253
approxheatexchanger,height,gh = 0.2352 m
m
lper,tube,gh = 3.608
lper,tube,gc = 0.4231
nplates,gh,minimum = 9.689
nround,gc = 17
nround,cond = 17
nplates,gc,minimum = 20.73
nplates,cond,minimum = 39.14
Teqmax,HX = 399.4
Teqmin,HX = 298.3
at = 0.1066
at,ideal = 0.184
at,II = 0.5792
Teqmax = 380.6
Teqmin = 310.5
nround,gh = 26
tairout,gh = 78.43
p,gh = 152.4
Pa
Mgh = 5.255
Kg
at,HX = 0.141
at,II,HX = 0.5573
approxheatexchanger,length,gc = 0.05
approxheatexchanger,height,gc = 0.336
m
m
m
lper,tube,cond = 3.854
tairout,gc = 25.82
tairout,cond = 20.02
p,gc = 148.4
Pa
p,cond = 141.5
Pa
Mgc = 0.9411
Kg
Mcond = 42.87
Kg
Figure911ProgramoperationwindowCO2transcriticalpowercycle
115
mair,cond = 0.6978
m tairout,gh,preset = 80 C
sdistancebetweenpile,gh = 0.001
Qcooling = 7.024 Kw
h,22 = -103.5
h ,1 = -243.9
Efficiency Output
stength,gh = 200
n inlet,gh = 3
P,1 = 60 [bar]
Control Panel
Airflow Condenser
th,o = 48.42
116
Carbondioxidecoolingandpowercombinedcycle
Efficiency
Cycle Data
Power part
tafter,condenser = 35 [c]
h,41 = -198.5
QGas,cooler = 24.81 Kw
P-7
<
t,23 = 269.8
Gas cooler
H,23 = 210.5
E-8
Pbasic = 85
Bar
hign,cycle = 0.0461
hign,cycle,HX = 0.126
Cooling Part
V-1
Throttling Valve
isen,ex = 0.8
Expander
P-11
Pcompressor = 8.481 Kw
P-2
P-3
E-5
t,2 = 5.3
P-4
E-6
isen = 0.75
plow = 40
E-1
Bar
E-14
W output = 0.9734 Kw
COP2d = 3.18
Com pressors
P-1
h,1 = -198.5
HX = 0.9
COP2t,new = 3.918
COP2d,new = 4.452
Qpow er,ev ap = 10 Kw
t,1 = 5.3
COP2t = 2.798
E-7
P-10
T,11 = 10.3
P-5 = 350
t,22
h,22 = 282.5
t,13 = 159.2
P,13 = 200
P-8
Bar
E-15 = 7.727 Kw
Qpow er,gh
h,13 = 31.24
h,11 = -69.68
TSUPERHEAT = 5 [c]
Figure912ProgramoperationwindowCO2coolingandpowercombinedcycle
117
9.2.8 Results
The results will vary according to different designs and
differentapplicationpurposes;thusitishardtogiveageneral
resulthere.
Somesketchesaccordingtoseveraldesigncalculationsarealso
shown below to give a general idea of the heat exchanger
geometry.
Figure913Carbondioxidetranscriticalrefrigerationcycleheatexchanger
118
Figure914Carbondioxidetranscriticalpowercycleheatexchangers
119
Figure915Carbondioxiderefrigerationandpowercombinedcycleheat
exchanger
120
9.3 Appendix3SummaryofAttachedPapers
investigatedformanyyears.TheCO2transcriticalpowercycle,
ontheotherhand,isscarcelytreatedintheavailableliterature.
A CO2 transcritical power cycle (CO2 TPC) shows a higher
potentialthananORCwhentakingintoaccountthebehaviorof
the heat source and the heat transfer between heat source and
workingfluidinthemainheatexchanger.Thisismainlydueto
a better temperature glide match between heat source and
workingfluid.TheCO2cyclealsoshowsnopinchlimitationin
theexchanger.ThisstudylooksattheperformanceoftheCO2
transcritical power cycle in utilizing energy from lowgrade
waste heat to produce useful work in comparison to an ORC
usingR123asworkingfluid.
Due to the temperature gradients for the heat source and heat
sink,thethermodynamicmeantemperaturehasbeenusedasa
reference temperature when comparing both cycles. The
thermodynamic models have been developed in EES. The
relative efficiencies have been calculated for both cycles. The
resultsobtainedshowthatwhenutilizingthelowgradewaste
heat with the same thermodynamic mean heat rejection
temperature,atranscriticalcarbondioxidepowersystemgives
aslightlyhigherpoweroutputthantheorganicRankinecycle.
Thispaperdiscussesthepossibilityofusingcarbondioxideasa
working medium for a solardriven power system. In this
study, the dynamic performance of a small scale solardriven
carbon dioxide power system is analyzed by dynamic
simulation tool TRNSYS 16 and Engineering Equation Solver
(EES)usingcosolvingtechnique.
performance have been discussed. Under Swedish climatic
conditions, the maximum daily power production is about 12
kWhandthemaximummonthlypowerproductionisabout215
kWhwiththeworkingconditionsoftheproposedsystem.
Besidesthepowerbeingproduced,thesystemcanalsoproduce
about10timesasmuchthermalenergy,whichcanbeusedfor
spaceheating,domestichotwatersupplyordrivingabsorption
chillers.Thesimulationresultsshowthattheproposedsystem
is a promising and environmentally benign alternative for
conventionallowgradeheatsourceutilizationsystem.
Y.Chen,A.B.Workie,P.Lundqvist,SecondLawAnalysisof
a Carbon Dioxide Transcritical Power System in Lowgrade
Heat Source Recovery, submitted to Applied Thermal
Engineering
Inthiswork,theperformanceofaCO2powercycleinutilizing
the lowgrade heat sources is simulated and the results are
analyzed with a focus on second law thermodynamics (i.e.
exergy and entropy). Different system parameters influencing
thesystemexergyandentropychangearediscussed.
the energy in automobile exhaust gases to produce electricity
for the A/C compressor, and thus both increases the cooling
COPanddecreasesthevehiclesfuelconsumptionbyreducing
the compressors energy demand. Moreover, different factors
thatinfluencethecyclesoptimumworkingconditionsarealso
discussed.
Abasiccarbondioxidetranscriticalrefrigerationcyclehasbeen
adopted for the study. The results calculated in EES and
Refprop 7 show that due to the sharp variation in the specific
heat of supercritical carbon dioxide, thetemperature profile in
the gas cooler will show a concave shape. Due to the shape of
the temperature profile, the temperature difference, which is
thedrivingforceforheattransfertotakeplace,willbemuch
smallerinsidethegascoolerthanatitsends.Therefore,
The logarithmic mean temperature difference, which is
calculated by the measured temperature difference at
the heat exchanger ends, will overpredict the real
temperature difference for the heat exchanger (gas
cooler).
The UA value, which is calculated by the measured
logarithmicmeantemperaturedifference,willbeunder
estimated.
Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,TheoreticalStudyofCarbonDioxide
Double Loop System IIR Internal Refrigeration Congress,
Beijing,China,August2126,2007
Inthispaper,acarbondioxidedoubleloopsystemisproposed.
Thesystemconsistsoftwosubsystems:aCO2powersubsystem
and a CO2 refrigeration subsystem. The power subsystem is
able to utilize the energy from the lowgrade heat source to
produce power. The power is then transferred to the
refrigeration subsystem, partly or totally covering the power
consumption of the compressor. Furthermore, it is possible to
take advantage of the temperature glides of the heat rejection
processesofbothsubsystemstoproducehotwater.
The heat exchanger was tested with water and hot air on its
tubeside and shellside respectively. All the necessary
parameterslikeinletandoutlettemperaturesontubesideand
shellside as well as the pressure drop, flow rate of fluids, etc.
126
were measured. Different existing correlations were used to
calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient and the results
werecomparedwiththemeasuredvalue.Themeasuredresults
showthatthenewdesignedheatexchangercanachieveagood
heat transfer performance and also maintain a low pressure
dropontheshellside(gasside).
Y.Chen,P.Lundqvist,TheCO2TranscriticalPowerCyclefor
LowGrade Heat RecoveryDiscussion on Temperature
Profiles in System Heat Exchangers, ASME Power and
ICOPEConference,Denver,USA,July1214,2011
ThesharpCpvariationofsupercriticalCO2intheregionclose
to its critical point is examined. The influence of this variation
ontheperformanceoftheheatexchangersthatareusedinlow
grade heat source utilization is studied and discussed.
Moreover, the effect of inserting an internal heat exchange on
thecycleperformanceisalsoinvestigated
127
128