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10 1 1 112 4355-1 PDF
10 1 1 112 4355-1 PDF
For
Precision Forging Dies
By
Sailesh Babu,
Dilmar Ribeiro
Rajiv Shivpuri
The Ohio State University
Prepared for
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is prepared for the Precision Forging Consortium as a deliverable under
contract from the Ohio Aerospace Institute and the National Center for Manufacturing
Sciences. The master project, supported by the Department of Energy, is entitled:
Energy and Waste Minimization through Precision Forging for the Manufacture of
Complex Shapes.
contract by the team at Laval University. The focus of the latter report is on innovative
and advanced die material systems.
This report provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-knowledge of die
materials and surface engineering for forging dies. Since hundreds of materials exist
that may have applications for forging dies, the authors have tried to select those
materials, which in their opinion, have direct relevance to precision forging.
The
authors have been selective on materials types but comprehensive on the issues that
must be addressed before these materials can be used optimally in a precision forging
environment.
This report provides information on the following topics:
Advanced Die Materials and Surface Engineering: properties and wear behavior.
Failure Mechanisms and Models that can be used for predicting wear behavior of
die materials in a forging environment. Details of the models provided in
Appendices.
Manual for SAMS: the smart die material selector software, which has been
developed in the ACCESS environment.
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYii
LIST OF FIGURES...v
LIST OF TABLES..x
1.
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 11
1.1.
1.2.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SURFACE TREATMENTS............................................................................................................... 63
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
6.
7.
CARBURIZING ................................................................................................................................ 64
NITRIDING ..................................................................................................................................... 65
CARBONITRIDING AND NITROCARBURIZING .................................................................................. 68
BORIDING ...................................................................................................................................... 69
THERMO-REACTIVE DIFFUSION (TRD) .......................................................................................... 70
OXIDE COATINGS .......................................................................................................................... 70
WEAR ............................................................................................................................................ 89
III
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
8.
CLOSURE........................................................................................................................................... 95
9.
10.
11.
IV
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1-1. (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993) ..................................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 2-1. FREQUENCY AND LOCATION OF TYPICAL DIE FAILURES IN FORGING (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993)
.............................................................................................................................................................. 14
FIGURE 2-2. COMPLEX INTERACTION OF FORGING PARAMETERS AND WEAR ARTINGER, (CSER, GEIGER ET AL.
1993)..................................................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 2-3. SOME ASPECTS OF FORGING AND PROCESS DESIGN THAT AFFECT WEAR AND FRACTURE LANGE,
K IN (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993) ......................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 3-1. (A) VARIATION OF HARDNESS OF DIE STEEL OF H-12 AND 6F2 WITH TEMPERING TIMES. H-12
USED WAS AUSTENETIZED FROM 1040 C WITH AS QUENCHED HARDNESS OF 584 VPN, 6F2 WAS
AUSTENETIZED FROM 850 C WITH AS QUENCHED HARDNESS OF 601 VPN (B) VARIATION YIELD
STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT TOOL STEELS WITH TEMPERATURES. (NAGPAL 1976).................................... 20
FIGURE 3-2. YIELD STRENGTH AND HARDNESS VERSUS TEMPERATURE FOR SEVERAL TOOL STEELS
(NORSTROM, JOHANSSON ET AL. 1981)................................................................................................. 21
FIGURE 3-3. VARIATION OF YIELD STRENGTH WITH TEMPERATURE (SEMIATIN AND LAHOTI 1981).............. 21
FIGURE 3-4. MECHANICAL RESISTANCE VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE EXPRESSED IN TWO FORMS FOR THE H13
AND A NEW HOT WORK TOOL STEEL (QRO90) (ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987)................................. 22
FIGURE 3-5 YIELD STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE (A5) ELONGATION (Z) AREA
REDUCTION. A) H13 AND B) QRO90 (UDDEHOLM ).............................................................................. 22
FIGURE 3-6 TENSILE STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE FOR STEELS FROM H13 GROUP
(H12, H11, H10), PLUS AND HIGH ALLOY, H21, AND A LOW ALLOY GROUP 6F3 (THYSSEN ). .............. 23
FIGURE 3-7. VARIATION OF CHARPY TOUGHNESS WITH DIFFERENT HARDNESS LEVELS AND TESTING
TEMPERATURES ON OF HOT WORK DIE STEELS (VALUES IN PARENTHESES INDICATE HARDNESS AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE) (NAGPAL 1976)............................................................................................................ 24
FIGURE 3-8 VARIATION OF TOUGHNESS FOR SEVERAL TOOL STEELS IN FUNCTION OF HARDNESS AND YIELD
STRENGTH (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993)................................................................................................ 24
FIGURE 3-9. VARIATION OF TOUGHNESS FOR SEVERAL TOOL STEELS IN FUNCTION OF HARDNESS AND YIELD
STRENGTH (SHIVPURI AND SEMIATIN 1988) .......................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 3-10 COMPARISON OF TOUGHNESS PROPERTIES FOR H13, H21 AND A NEW HOT WORK TOOL STEEL
QRO80M VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE (JOHANSSON, JONSSON ET AL. 1985)....................................... 25
FIGURE 3-11 COMPARISON OF TOUGHNESS KIC AND CHARPY V-NOTCH FOR SEVERAL TOOL STEELS. A) KIC
FOR THREE BAR SIZE, LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION, THE SMALL DIAMETERS REPRESENT REDUCTION FROM
THE BIGGER DIAMETER; B) CHARPY V-NOTCH LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSAL C) KIC FOR H13 IN
FUNCTION OF THE HARDNESS, AUSTENITIZED AT 1024C, TIME 25 MIN, AIR COOLED (HEMPHILL AND
WERT 1987). ......................................................................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 3-12 TOUGHNESS VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE FOR A) H13 AND B) QRO90 (UDDEHOLM )............. 26
FIGURE 3-13.(A) VARIATION OF HARDNESS WITH TEMPERATURE FOR H-11, H-12, H-13, H-14 AND
PYROVAN. MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE AFTER HOLDING SAMPLES FOR 30 MINUTES FOR
HOMOGENIZATION (B) RESISTANCE OF HOT WORK DIES STEELS TO THERMAL SOFTENING AS MEASURED
BY THE ROOM TEMPERATURE HARDNESS (NAGPAL 1976) ..................................................................... 27
FIGURE 3-14 COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES FOR H13 AND A NEW HOT WORK TOOL STEEL QRO80M VERSUS
TEST TEMPERATURE (A) STANDARD TEMPERING CURVE (JOHANSSON, JONSSON ET AL. 1985). (B)
MASTER TEMPERING CURVE FOR PREMIUM H13 WERE: P= LARSOM-MILLER PARAMETER, T IS
TEMPERATURE (F), T IS TIME IN HOURS (CARPENTER )......................................................................... 27
FIGURE 3-15 THERMAL EXPANSION FOR SEVERAL TOOL STEELS VERSUS TEMPERATURE (ROBERTS, KRAUSS
ET AL. 1998).......................................................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 3-16. DUCTILITY OF VARIOUS DIE STEELS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES (NAGPAL 1976) ....................... 29
FIGURE 3-17 COMPARISON OF DUCTILITY FOR H13, H21 AND A NEW HOT WORK TOOL STEEL QRO80M
VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE (JOHANSSON, JONSSON ET AL. 1985). ...................................................... 29
FIGURE 3-18 (A) MASTER TEMPERING CURVE, T IS TEMPERATURE IN KELVIN, T IS TIME IN HOURS (B) HOT
HARDNESS OF HWM COMPARED TO H- 13 (KASAK AND STEVEN 1970) (C) AGING CURVES................. 32
FIGURE 3-19 PROPERTIES VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE OF MARAGINS STEELS COMPARED WITH H13 (A)
HARDNESS (B) YIELD STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY (BAYER 1984) .......................................................... 32
FIGURE 3-20 PROPERTIES ON A MARAGING STEELS 18 NI 300 AND H13. (A) HOT-HARDNESS OF MEASURED
AFTER HOLDING AT THE TESTING TEMPERATURES FOR 30 MIN. (B) TENSILE PROPERTIES VERSUS TESTING
TEMPERATURES C) TOUGHNESS OF VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE (BARRY, WILLS ET AL. 1968) ............ 33
FIGURE 3-21 PROPERTIES OF A HOT WORK MARAGING STEEL COMPARED WITH H13 GROUP AND THERMAL
FATIGUE RESULTS: A) FIELDS OF AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE IN FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE SHOWING
THE EFFECT OF NI% (BRANDIS AND HABERLING 1987) (B) AGING CURVES FOR 18%NI AND 12%NI C)
THERMAL FATIGUE RESISTANCE FOR H13 GROUP AND A MARAGING STEEL (D) HOT YIELD STRENGTH
(GEHRICKE 1993; GEHRICKE, KLARENFJORK ET AL. 1995) .................................................................. 34
FIGURE 3-22 COMPARISON OF TOUGHNESS CHARPY V-NOTCHED FOR A H13 STEEL AND A MARAGING STEEL
(MARLOCK) AT TWO TEST TEMPERATURES (DORSCH 1991).................................................................. 34
FIGURE 3-23. DUCTILITY AND TOUGHNESS VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE (SEMIATIN AND LAHOTI 1981) ..... 35
FIGURE 3-24. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES EXPRESSED AS HARDNESS AND YIELD STRENGTH VERSUS TEST
TEMPERATURE (SEMIATIN AND LAHOTI 1981) ...................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 3-25. COMPILATION OF SEVERAL PROPERTIES VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE FOR SUPERALLOYS FROM
OHUCHI (OHUCHI 1990). A) HARDNESS B) THERMAL EXPANSION C-D) ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
AND Y IELD STRESS. ............................................................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 4-1. SCHEMATIC COMPARISON OF DUCTILITY (CHARPY UNNOTCHED) AND TOUGHNESS (CHARPY V
NOTCH) VERSUS TEMPERATURE, ROOM TEMPERATURE (RT) (NORSTROM 1989) .................................. 39
FIGURE 4-2. EFFECT OF SULFUR CONTENT ON THE TRANSVERSE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF H-13 DIE STEEL
(ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987). ........................................................................................................ 40
FIGURE 4-3. EFFECT OF COARSE GRAIN BOUNDARY CARBIDES FROM ANNEALED TOOL STEEL ON THE
TOUGHNESS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE AFTER QUENCHING AND
TEMPERING (BECKER, FUCHS ET AL. 1989) B) COMBINED INFLUENCE OF CLEAN PROCESSING AND
EXTRA FINE STRUCTURE (EFS) ON TOUGHNESS (BECKER 1984). .......................................................... 40
FIGURE 4-4 (A) EFFECT OF CARBIDES ON DUCTILITY OF STANDARD H-13 (B) EFFECT OF CARBIDES AND
INCLUSIONS ON DUCTILITY. (ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987) ............................................................. 41
FIGURE 4-5 RELATION BETWEEN SAMPLES ORIENTATION, DUCTILITY AND THERMAL FATIGUE A5
ELONGATION, Z AREA REDUCTION, VW UNNOTCHED EUROPEAN SAMPLE FOR IMPACT TEST A,B,C
(ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987) ......................................................................................................... 42
FIGURE 4-6. EFFECT OF EDM PROCESS IN DIE SURFACE; REFROZEN LAYER AND THERMAL CRACKS (CSER,
GEIGER ET AL. 1993)............................................................................................................................. 43
FIGURE 4-7. SURFACE OF DIES AFTER EDM, H13 AND MARAGING STEEL (MARLOCK) (DORSCH 1991). ...... 44
FIGURE 4-8. HEAT TREATMENT CYCLE OF HOT WORKING STEELS (KRAUSS 1995). ....................................... 46
FIGURE 4-9. INFLUENCE OF AUSTENITIZING TEMPERATURE IN PROPERTIES VERSUS TEMPERING
TEMPERATURE; TENSILE STRENGTH, DUCTILITY AND TOUGHNESS ARE REPRESENTED FOR H13 AND DIM
2367 HOT WORK STEEL (BECKER, FUCHS ET AL. 1989). ........................................................................ 48
FIGURE 4-10. EFFECT OF AUSTENITIZING TEMPERATURES ON ASTM GRAIN SIZE AND AS-QUENCHED
VICKERS HARDNESS OF H-13 (STUHL AND BREITLER 1987). ................................................................ 49
FIGURE 4-11 EFFECT OF AUSTENITIZING TEMPERATURES ON AS QUENCHED HARDNESS, GRAIN SIZE AND
RETAINED AUSTENITE A) H13. B) H13 AND H11 (PICKERING 1987) ..................................................... 50
FIGURE 4-12. CCT DIAGRAMS FOR TWO AUSTENITIZING TEMPERATURES , B) EFFECT OF CARBON ON MS
(ROBERTS AND ROBERT 1980) .............................................................................................................. 50
FIGURE 4-13. A) EFFECT OF BAR SIZE ON THE QUENCH RATE AND THE RESULTING PHASE STARTING WITH AN
AUSTENITIZING TEMPERATURE OF A)1000 C AND B) 1050 C (SCHMITD 1987) B) VARIATION OF
TEMPERATURES ACROSS A SECTION OF H-13 DURING QUENCHING AND THE RESULTING PHASES
(BIERMANN 1984) ................................................................................................................................. 51
FIGURE 4-14 A-B) COOLING RATES USED ILLUSTRATING THE CORRESPONDING STRUCTURES IN THE CCT
DIAGRAM; B) TABLE WITH THE CONDITIONS AND THE RESULTING PROPERTIES FOR THE CORRESPONDING
COOLING RATES (WALLACE 1989). ....................................................................................................... 52
FIGURE 4-15. EFFECT OF COOLING RATES ON THE PHASE CONTENT AND THE RESULTING TOUGHNESS. STEELS
WAS AUSTENITIZED AT 1020 C FOR 30 MINS AND OIL QUENCHED AT DIFFERENT RATES. (OKUNO 1987)
.............................................................................................................................................................. 53
FIGURE 4-16. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT COOLING RATES RESULTING FROM THE QUENCHING PRESSURES FOR A
11X20X30 BLOCK (ROCHE, BEATON ET AL. 1997)........................................................................... 55
VI
FIGURE 4-17. A)EFFECT OF COOLING RATE ON THE LONGITUDINAL TOUGHNESS; B) EFFECT OF VARIOUS
QUENCHING MEDIUMS ON THE DUCTILITY OF SAMPLES TAKEN IN THE THREE DIRECTIONS (1,3,4
PRODUCE COARSE BAINITE AND HIGH GBC PRECIPITATION) (ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987) ........... 56
FIGURE 4-18. DROP IN TOUGHNESS OF H-13 WITH SECONDARY HARDENING. A) REPRESENTS TOUGHNESS IN
CHARPY V-NOTCH ENERGY, B) REPRESENTS TOUGHNESS IN KIC (PICKERING 1987) .............................. 57
FIGURE 4-19 SOFTENING RETARDATION EFFECTS IN RELATION FOR SEVERAL ELEMENTS IN RELATION TO A
FE-C CARBON STEEL AT TEMPERING TEMPERATURE OF 540C (KRAUSS 1995) .................................... 58
FIGURE 4-20. EFFECTS OF TEMPERING TEMPERATURE IN TOOL STEELS DIMENSION INCLUDING CONTRACTION
AND EXPANSION (PICKERING 1987)....................................................................................................... 58
FIGURE 5-1. THICKNESS OF VARIOUS COATINGS AND SURFACE TREATMENTS (SUBRAMANIAN 1996)........... 63
FIGURE 5-2.A. COMPARISON OF WEAR AMOUNTS OF SURFACE TREATED UPSETTING TOOLS AFTER 1000
FORGING CYCLES WITH LUBRICANT (DELTAFORGE-31) (DOEGE, SEIDEL ET AL. 1996)......................... 64
FIGURE 5-3. RESULTS FOR HOT WORK TOOL STEELS IN THE H13 GROUP PRESENTED BY KRISHNADEV
(KRISHNADEV 1997) (A) COMPOSITION (B) TOUGHNESS (C) HOT HARDNESS (D) SOFTENING OF THE
ALLOYS 2-3 WITH AND WITHOUT NITRIDING E) HARDNESS ACHIEVABLE WITH DIFFERENT COATINGS AND
THE ALLOYS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION F) CHARPY IMPACT TOUGHNESS OF H-13 AND TREATED ALLOY
NO. 3..................................................................................................................................................... 67
FIGURE 5-4. RELATIVE WEAR RATES OF NITRIDED AND NON-NITRIDED TOOL STEELS USED IN EXTRUSION
FORGING (DEAN 1987) .......................................................................................................................... 68
FIGURE 6-1.COMPILATION OF SEVERAL PROPERTIES VERSUS TEST TEMPERATURE FOR CERAMICS FROM
OHUCHI (OHUCHI 1990). A) HARDNESS B) THERMAL EXPANSION C) YIELD STRESS.............................. 72
FIGURE 6-2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES A) COMPRESSIVE YIELD STRENGTH FOR NI ALLOY 718 AND NICKEL
ALUMINIDE 221M-T (AL 7.6-8.2; CR 7.5-8.2; MO 1.3-1.55; Z 1.4-2.0; B 0.003-0.01 NI BALANCE) B)
TENSILE AND YIELD STRENGTH FOR 221M-T ALLOY (MADDOX AND ORTH 1997)................................ 74
FIGURE 6-3 YIELD STRENGTH OF VARIOUS GRADES OF NICKEL ALUMINIDES (BLAU 1992) ........................... 74
FIGURE 6-4. COMPARISON OF CRACK GROWTH DATA FOR NICKEL ALUMINIDE COMPARED TO OTHER HIGH
TEMPERATURE ALLOYS. (FUCHS, KURUVILLA ET AL. ).......................................................................... 75
FIGURE 6-5 COMPARISON OF YIELD STRENGTH OF IC-15 TO THOSE OF OTHER HIGH TEMPERATURE ALLOYS.
(HORTON, LIU ET AL. ) .......................................................................................................................... 76
FIGURE 6-6. RESULTS OF WEAR TESTS ON VARIOUS WELDING CONSUMABLES (KOHOPAA, HAKONEN ET AL.
1989)..................................................................................................................................................... 78
FIGURE 6-7. WEAR RATE VARIATION FOR DIES WITH SHARP RADII AND FILLETS, FOR DIFFERENT COATINGS.
M11, M12 AND M-14 ARE CO-MO COATINGS, W2 AND W3 ARE CO-W COATINGS (STILL AND DENNIS
1977)..................................................................................................................................................... 82
FIGURE 6-8. RESULTS OF SIMULATED HOT FORGING TESTS WITH DIFFERENT COATINGS (DENNIS AND JONES
1981)..................................................................................................................................................... 84
FIGURE 6-9. VARIATIONS OF WEAR AREA WITH NUMBER OF FORGINGS. THE DIES USED WERE FLAT DIES WITH
DIES HAVING SHARP RADII AND FILLETS (DENNIS AND STILL 1975) ...................................................... 84
FIGURE 6-10. RATIO OF CRACKED AREA OF COATED CORNERS TO AN UNCOATED CORNER FOR VARIOUS
MATERIALS (MIRTICH, NIEH ET AL. 1981) ............................................................................................ 85
FIGURE 6-11 WEAR OF DIFFERENT THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS (MONIKA 1981) ...................................... 86
FIGURE 6-12 THE BURNISHED COATING DID NOT PRESENTED CRACKS. SAMPLES 45MM DIAMETER BY 40MM
HIGH, INDUCTION HEATED DURING ~ 18S AND COOLED BY 10S BETWEEN TEMPERATURES OF 20-700C.
(MONIKA 1981)..................................................................................................................................... 87
FIGURE 6-13. EFFECT OF LASER SURFACE MODIFICATION ON WEAR PERFORMANCE OF HOT WORK DIES
COMPARED WITH NITRIDED DIES (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993) .............................................................. 87
FIGURE 7-1 S-N CURVE WITH PROBABILITY LINES OR S-N-P (DIETER 1986) ............................................... 91
FIGURE 7-2. ILLUSTRATION OF THE METHODS FOR ESTIMATING FATIGUE BASED IN STATIC PROPERTIES
(MANSON 1972) .................................................................................................................................... 92
FIGURE 9-1. APPEARANCE OF PLOUGH MARKS CAUSED BY ABRASIVE WEAR (STACHOWIAK 1993) ............. 98
FIGURE 9-2. DIFFERENT MECHANISMS OF WEAR IN ABRASION (STACHOWIAK 1993) .................................... 99
FIGURE 9-3 .A) A TYPICAL METALLURGICAL WELD. B) A TYPICAL ADHESION JOINT (RABINOWICZ 1995). 100
FIGURE 9-4. A): HOT FORGING TOP BLOCKER PUNCH MADE FORM H13. B) CROSS SECTION OF THE PUNCH C)
MOTTLED INTERFACE D) OXIDATION INSIDE OF THERMAL FATIGUE CRACK......................................... 101
FIGURE 9-5. ILLUSTRATES PHYSICAL CHANGES ON THE DIE SURFACE THAT RESULTS IN HEAT CHECKING
(NORSTROM 1991) .............................................................................................................................. 103
VII
FIGURE 9-6. ILLUSTRATION OF GEOMETRY EFFECT ON NORMAL UNI-AXIAL STRESSES REQUIRED TO INDENT A
SLAB (SCHEY 1987)............................................................................................................................. 106
FIGURE 9-7. EXAMPLES OF SEVERE PLASTIC DEFORMATION AT THE DIE SURFACE (SUMMERVILLE,
VENKATESAN ET AL. 1995) ................................................................................................................. 107
FIGURE 9-8. EXAMPLE OF SURFACE PLASTIC DEFORMATION (SUMMERVILLE, VENKATESAN ET AL. 1995). 107
FIGURE 9-9. EXAMPLE OF SURFACE PLASTIC DEFORMATION (SUMMERVILLE, VENKATESAN ET AL. 1995). 108
FIGURE 9-10 SCHEMATIC INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PARAMETER IN HOT FORGING AND THE CRACKING
(KNORR 1993)..................................................................................................................................... 109
FIGURE 9-11 ILLUSTRATION OF A CRITICAL REGION IN EXTRUSION DIES, WHERE THE FILLET RADIUS IS
SUBJECT TO TENSILE STRESS (CSER, GEIGER ET AL. 1993) .................................................................. 109
FIGURE 9-12. REPRESENTATION OF THE FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION (DIETER 1986)............................. 110
FIGURE 9-13 TULSAN (TULSYAN, SHIVPURI ET AL. 1993) PRESENTS A CURVE FORM STOREN AND OTHERS
FOR DIFFERENT TOOL STEELS AND HEAT TREATMENT. A) FRACTURE TOUGHNESS PROPERTIES AS
FUNCTION OF THE WORKING TEMPERATURES AND THE HEAT TREATMENTS B) MATERIALS AND HEAT
TREATMENT LIST ................................................................................................................................. 110
FIGURE 9-14 RESULTS IN AIR AND VACUUM ATMOSPHERES, SHOWING THE AMBIENT EFFECT AT THE FATIGUE
RESISTANCE IN HIGH TEMPERATURES (SALOMON 1972)...................................................................... 111
FIGURE 9-15 CORRELATION OF HIGH AND LOW CYCLE FATIGUE DATA FOR SOLUTION TREATED TYPE 304
STAINLESS STEEL AS A FUNCTION OF ALTERNATING STRESS (SOO 1972). ............................................ 112
FIGURE 9-16 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FATIGUE-CRACK-GROWTH BEHAVIOR OF 2 1/4 CR-1MO STEEL
(VISWNATHAN 1989). ......................................................................................................................... 113
FIGURE 9-17 VARIATION OF FATIGUE-CRACK-GROWTH RATES AS FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AT K =
30MPA (M)1/2 (VISWNATHAN 1989)..................................................................................................... 114
FIGURE 9-18 SERIES OF CASES WITH STRESS CONCENTRATION IN FORGING DIES PRESENTED BY KNORR
(KNORR 1993). A) B) FROM ERLMANN AT AL.; C) -D) FROM MARECZEK ......................................... 117
FIGURE 10-1. ABRASION RESISTANCE OF SEVERAL TOOL STEELS VERSUS STRUCTURAL PARAMETER (WEAR
INDEX) (BLAU 1992) ........................................................................................................................... 118
FIGURE 10-2. VARIATION OF WEAR INDEX WITH DIE HARDNESS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE (KANNAPAN 1969;
KANNAPAN 1970)................................................................................................................................ 119
FIGURE 10-3. WEAR RESISTANCE OF .55% C DIE STEEL WITH HARDNESS, % CR AND HEAT TREATMENT. 1
INDICATES (KANNAPAN 1969; KANNAPAN 1970).............................................................................. 120
FIGURE 10-4. WEAR TEST RESULTS USING DIFFERENT DIE MATERIALS (BRAMLEY, LORD ET AL. 1989) ..... 121
FIGURE 10-5. WEAR TEST RESULTS USING DIFFERENT DIE MATERIALS (BRAMLEY, LORD ET AL. 1989) ..... 122
FIGURE 10-6. VARIATION OF WEAR INDEX WITH DIFFERENT DIE STEELS. THE GRAPHS ALSO ILLUSTRATE THE
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FORGING STEEL (THOMAS 1970) ...................................................................... 122
FIGURE 11-1. EFFECT OF MAXIMUM CAVITY DEPTH ON DIE LIFE (HEINEMEYER 1976)................................ 124
FIGURE 11-2. EFFECT OF NOMINAL LOAD AND ENERGY ON AVERAGE DIE LIVES (HEINEMEYER 1976)........ 124
FIGURE 11-3. EFFECT OF FORGING WEIGHT ON DIE DAMAGE (ASTON 1969) ............................................... 125
FIGURE 11-4. VARIATION OF DIE DAMAGE WITH SIZE OF FORGING (ASTON AND BARRY 1972) .................. 126
FIGURE 11-5. EFFECT OF FORGING WEIGHT, FILLET RADII, DRAFT ANGLES AND CONTACT AREA ON WEAR OF
FORGING DIES (ASTON 1969)............................................................................................................... 127
FIGURE 11-6. EFFECT OF VARIOUS TOOL STEEL ON DIE WEAR (THOMAS 1970) ........................................... 127
FIGURE 11-7. EFFECT OF BULK TEMPERATURE AND STOCK TEMPERATURE ON WEAR OF HAMMER DIES
(THOMAS 1971)................................................................................................................................... 128
FIGURE 11-8. RELATIVE DIE DAMAGE OF FIVE DIFFERENT PART FAMILIES WHEN FORGED IN A HAMMER AND A
PRESS (ASTON 1969) ........................................................................................................................... 129
FIGURE 11-9. EFFECT OF DWELL TIME ON THE WEAR VOLUMES OBSERVED (ROOKS 1974) ......................... 130
FIGURE 11-10. DIE WEAR FOR THREE DIFFERENT DWELL TIMES FOR A) H.50 DIES AND B) NO. 5 TOOL STEEL
DIES (ROOKS 1974) ............................................................................................................................. 131
FIGURE 11-11. EFFECT OF SCALING TIME ON ADHESIVE WEAR CHARACTERISTICS (THOMAS 1971) ............ 132
FIGURE 11-12: OXIDE FORMATION ON 080M40 (EN8) STEEL BILLETS HEATED TO 1100C (DEAN 1974)... 133
FIGURE 11-13. SCALE FORMATION AND ADHERENCE AS FUNCTION OF HEATING TIME AND FURNACE
ATMOSPHERE (THOMAS 1971)............................................................................................................. 133
FIGURE 11-14. EFFECT OF FURNACE SELECTION ON DIE WEAR OF EXTRUSION DIES (DOEGE, SEIDEL ET AL.
1996)................................................................................................................................................... 134
VIII
FIGURE 11-15. EFFECT OF SCALE THICKNESS ON THE DIE SURFACE TEMPERATURE (KELLOW, BRAMLEY ET
AL. 1969) ............................................................................................................................................ 135
FIGURE 11-16. EFFECT OF FORGING TEMPERATURE ON THE WEAR DEPTH AFTER FORGING 4000 PIECES
(NETTHOFEL 1965).............................................................................................................................. 136
FIGURE 11-17. VARIATION OF WEAR PATTERN OF THE TOP AND BOTTOM DIES WITH LUBRICATION (SINGH,
ROOKS ET AL. 1973)............................................................................................................................ 137
FIGURE 11-18. VARIATION OF WEAR RATE WITH LUBRICATION (SINGH, ROOKS ET AL. 1973).................... 137
FIGURE 11-19. VARIATION OF WEAR VOLUME WITH DIE BULK TEMPERATURE FOR LUBRICATED AND DRY
FORGING (SINGH, ROOKS ET AL. 1973) ............................................................................................... 138
IX
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 3-1. AISI CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF TOOL STEELS (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998) .. 17
TABLE 3-2 LIST OF HOT WORK TOOL STEELS AND OTHER MATERIALS COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE IN US... 18
TABLE 3-3. COMPOSITIONS OF SOME COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE HOT WORK STEELS ................................. 19
TABLE 3-4 LIST OF HOT WORK TOOL STEELS AND OTHER MATERIALS COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE IN US
TYPE...................................................................................................................................................... 19
TABLE 3-5. CLASS 510. CHROMIUM DIE STEEL (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998). ...................................... 19
TABLE 3-6. CLASS 520. CHROMIUM MOLYBDENUM DIE STEELS (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998). ........ 19
TABLE 3-7. CLASS 530. CHROMIUM TUNGSTEN DIE STEELS (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998)................ 19
TABLE 3-8. CLASS 540. TUNGSTEN DIE STEELS (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998)........................................ 19
TABLE 3-9. CLASS 540. TUNGSTEN DIE STEELS (ROBERTS, KRAUSS ET AL. 1998)........................................ 19
TABLE 3-10 TABLES WITH A COMPILATION OF CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION FOR SEVERAL
SUPERALLOYS AND AGING ALLOYS; A-B (SEMIATIN AND LAHOTI 1981). .............................................. 38
TABLE 4-1. CLEANLINESS OF STEELS USED BY ROBERTS AND NOSTRUM (ROBERTS AND NORSTROM 1987) 41
TABLE 4-2. A, B HARDENING AND TEMPERING TEMPERATURES AND PROCEDURES FOR TOOL STEELS
(ROBERTS AND ROBERT 1980). ............................................................................................................. 60
TABLE 5-1. RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT TOOL STEELS TO SEVERAL SURFACE ENGINEERING TOWARDS
ENHANCEMENT OF TOUGHNESS, HOT HARDNESS, HEAT CHECKING, TEMPER RESISTANCE (KRISHNADEV
1997)..................................................................................................................................................... 66
TABLE 5-2. AVERAGE MAXIMUM WEAR DEPTHS (M) ON SURFACE ENGINEERED DIES AFTER UPSETTING 500
AISI 1040 STEEL BILLETS AT 1070 C (VENKATESAN, SUMMERVILLE ET AL. 1998) ............................ 69
TABLE 6-1. COMPOSITIONS OF VARIOUS GRADES OF NICKEL ALUMINIDES (BLAU 1992).............................. 73
TABLE 6-2. WEAR CONSTANTS OBTAINED THROUGH PIN-ON-DISC TYPE TESTS FOR VARIOUS GRADES OF
NICKEL ALUMINIDES (BLAU 1992) ....................................................................................................... 75
TABLE 6-3. SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF IC-50 (OAK ) ........................................................................... 76
TABLE 6-4 VARIATION OF YIELD STRENGTH, ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF IC50 WITH
TEMPERATURE (OAK ) ........................................................................................................................... 77
TABLE 6-5. VARIATION OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF IC50 WITH TEMPERATURE (OAK ) ......................... 77
TABLE 6-6. WEAR VOLUME OBTAINED AFTER 100 FORGINGS USING FLAT DIES ELECTRO-DEPOSITED WITH
SOME WEAR RESISTANT COATINGS (STILL AND DENNIS 1977) .............................................................. 81
TABLE 6-7. RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL TRIALS OF USE OF COATINGS. 17A REPRESENTS NON-ROUND SHALLOW
DIES, 17B YOKE-TYPE DIES AND 17C GEAR BLANK DIES (STILL AND DENNIS 1977)............................... 82
TABLE 6-8. RESULTS OF INDUSTRIAL TRIALS ON HOT FORGING DIES BRUSH PLATED WITH CO-MO ALLOY
COATINGS (DENNIS AND JONES 1981) ................................................................................................... 83
TABLE 6-9 RESULTS OF PRODUCTION TESTING OF VARIOUS SURFACE TREATMENTS (MONIKA 1981) ........... 86
TABLE 7-1. TABLE SUMMARIZING DIFFERENT WEAR MODELS FOUND IN LITERATURE ................................... 90
TABLE 9-1. RESULTS FOR CRACK PROPAGATION TYPO PARIS DA/DN FOR THE CONSTANTS C, N. B)
MATERIALS COMPOSITIONS FOR THE HOT TOOL STEELS USED (SCHUCHTAR 1988). ............................ 115
1. INTRODUCTION
Near net shape manufacturing processes are processes that produces product shapes
close to final desired shape. Closed-die forgings have traditionally had liberal stock
allowances and high tolerances.
With steady demands placed on the forging
community to make forgings with lower stock allowances and higher quality, demands
placed on die and the die material to last longer have become intense. Flashless
forgings with less than .03 machining stock, spur gears, spiral bevel gears and splines
with near net tooth with as little as .005 grinding stock and net toothed bevel gears
have become part of many forgers product line.
These precision forged parts, apart from reducing material usage, reduces machining
times and provides better mechanical properties. With such small machining
allowances and tolerances, there is very little room for forging process variations. The
forgers have to reduce the process variations as much as possible so that the parts they
make meet or exceed the customers expectations.
Awareness of the importance of process control, well understood by aerospace material
forgers, is creeping into other steel forgers also. There is a strong need in the forging
industry to reduce process variations and improve quality at the same time reduce cost
of forgings. This is essential to the survival of forging plants in the long run as well as
viability of the new generation of precision forged parts.
One of the most important ingredients in cost of forgings is the cost of tooling involved.
Die costs range from 10 to 15% of the cost of a forging. This is illustrated in Figure 1.1
(Doege, Seidel et al. 1996). This includes cost of die material, machining the dies and
subsequent heat treatment, if necessary. The indirect cost of dies is however, far more
significant.
If tooling wears out or become unusable, the production has to be stopped to change
dies. Setup times can range anywhere from under 10 minutes to over 3 hours,
depending on the complexity of the setup, skill and practices used by the setup crew.
This results in additional direct wages in material handling, tool rework and other
overhead costs. Also, this may result in additional overtime premiums in the die shop
and the forge shop, low resource utilization and in an extreme case, result in missed
delivery to customers. If quality and inspection systems breakdown, if dies are not
changed at the appropriate time, additional loss occurs due to scrap. The effect of
tooling failure on setup costs is shown in (Figure 1.1). Though tooling cost is only 10 15% of a forging cost, the indirect cost of tooling could be as high as 70%. Life of a forge
tooling, hence, has great ramifications on the economic competitiveness of a forging
company. Identifying different modes of die failure and understanding dominant
mechanisms are essential first steps in the path to increasing die life.
11
12
13
Of these, wear (abrasive and adhesive) and mechanical failures are the most common
forms of failure (Figure 2.1). Of the two mode of wear, abrasive wear is the more
common form of wear. Adhesive wear is not very common in hot and warm forging of
steels because of the presence of lubricant film and/or scales and oxide layer. It does
become a mode of die wear when the lubricant film is non-existent either because there
is no lubricant application or when excessive sliding and deformation thins the
lubricant film. Good tooling design and material selection can overcome gross cracking
and mechanical fatigue. Thermal fatigue, in almost all cases, serves as a catalyst to
accelerate abrasive wear.
The main physical phenomenon that control the abrasive wear in a metallic surface
sliding past another surface are relative sliding distance, normal pressure and hardness
of the surface. Design of forging dies, choice of forging and heating equipment, die
material selection and surface treatments used have a tremendous effect on the wear
characteristics as these factors affect one or more of the controlling fundamental
physical phenomena. This relationship is illustrated in Figures 2.2 and 2.3.
Figure 2-1. Frequency and location of typical die failures in forging (Cser, Geiger et al.
1993)
14
Figure 2-2. Complex interaction of forging parameters and wear Artinger, (Cser,
Geiger et al. 1993)
Figure 2-3. Some aspects of forging and process design that affect wear and fracture
Lange, K in (Cser, Geiger et al. 1993)
15
From the above illustrations, the factors affecting die failure can be subdivided into
Tooling Issues Die material selection, heat treatment, surface engineering, die
manufacture and design
Billet Issues Billet preparation, steel type
Process Issues Forging temperature, lubricant type and application, forging cycle
times and other forging practices
Effects of various process parameters and billet materials are described in Appendix A.
The team felt that these, by careful choice of physical constants like heat transfer
coefficients, friction factors and yield strengths obtained either through past work or
new but well understood testing, one can model and recreate the process using Finite
Element Method (FEM). FEM would provide forging designers stress-strain cycling,
temperature history at a die location and sliding velocities factors that cause die
failure. The relationship between these factors and rate of die failure are discussed in
section 7. Section 3,4, 5 and 6 discuss material properties, heat treatment and surface
engineering necessary to evaluate a materials capability to resist failure.
16
Table 3-1. AISI classification and composition of tool steels (Roberts, Krauss et al.
1998)
17
COMMERTIAL NAME
Cr
Mo
AISI
0.38
1.0
5.3
0.4
1.3
0.40
1.0
5.3
1.0
1.4
0.36
1.0
5.0
0.3
1.85
Mn0.75
FIN SHELLEX
0.36
0.9
5.0
0.25
2.85
Mn0.6
H10
0.32
3.0
0.5
2.8
0.37
5.0
0.6
3.0
4.25
4.25
2.1
0.45
8.5
2.6
0.4
1.3
1.3
5.0
5.3
0.35
0.3
1.3
1.5
Ni
Si
Co
H19
0.4
H21
0.30
H12
H12
0.35
0.36
THYROTHERM 2713
6F2
0.55
1.7
0.7
0.1
0.3
THYROTHERM 2714
6F3
0.56
1.7
1.1
0.1
0.5
FINK DURODI
(VI.F3) 0.55
1.55
0.5
1.00
0.8
Mn0.6
FIN FX-XTRA
(VI.F2) 0.5
0.9
0.25
1.15
0.5
Mn0.85
THYROTHERM 2307
CRU 4340
THYROTHERM 2742
~4340 0.31
4340 0.4
0.56
1.85
0.5
1.0
2.4
0.8
1.0
0.2
0.1
1.1
0.1
4.25
OTHER
CARTECH 879
CRU HALCOM 425
THYROTHERM 2581
CRU PEERLESS A
CRU CHRO-MOW
THYROTHERM 2606 EFS
THYROTHERM 2744
0.3
Mn0.4
0.2
0.25
0.4
0.57
1.7
FIN PRESS-DIE
0.2
3.25
CRU MARLOK
0.01
18.0
5.0
11.0
0.3Ti
0.02
12.0
8.0
8.0
0.5Ti
3.0
2.0
THYROTHERM 2799
THYROTHERM 2885 EFS
CRU WR95
THYRODUR
2379
CARTECH 610
UDD SVERKER 21 PM
CARTECH 880
CRU CRUCIBLE A9
CARTECH EXTENDO-DIE
H10A 0.3
H10M 0.35
D2
1.55
CARTECH PYROTOUGH
0.25
0.8
3.35
Mn0.7
3.0
3.5
12.0
0.5
0.6
1.0
2.8
2.5
0.7
1.0
5.0
1.0
1.4
Mn0.3
1.0
6.0
0.8
1.9
Mn0.45
4.45
0.8
2.05
Mn0.45
1.4
4.0
1.5
2.5
Mn0.5
0.25
14.5
0.2
1.25
Mn0.25
Ti 3.0
3.0
1.2
1.0
~D2
A9
0.5
0.44
0.4
CARTECH DURA-FORM
0.65
CARTECH PYROTOOL V
0.04
27.0
CARTECH AERMET
0.23
11.1
CRU CPM V3
0.8
7.5
2.75
1.3
CRU CPM 9V
1.78
5.25
1.3
UDD VANADIS 4
1.54
0.09
0.91
8.03
3.9
1.53
Mn0.32
FIN WF-XTRA
0.42
0.8
0.5
2.5
0.08
1.00
Mn075
0.39
0.3
2.6
0.8
2.3
Mn0.75
1.5
13.4
Table 3-2 List of hot work tool steels and other materials commercially available in US
18
AISI
S7
C
.95
.95
.60
.50
.50
Mn
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.70
0.30
Si
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.90
Cr
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.25
3.25
Mo
0.50
0.75
0.50
0.50
1.40
1.40
0.25
Table 3-5. Class 510. Chromium die steel (Roberts, Krauss et al. 1998).
Type
520
521
522
523
524
525
AISI
H-11
H-13
H-12
H-10
C
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.40
0.40
0.35
Mn
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.60
0.55
0.30
Si
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Cr
5.00
5.00
5.00
3.50
3.25
5.00
Ni
V
0.40
1.00
0.40
1.00
0.40
Mo
1.50
1.50
1.50
1.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.25
Table 3-6. Class 520. Chromium Molybdenum die steels (Roberts, Krauss et al.
1998).
Type
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
AISI
H14
H19
H16
H23
C
0.40
0.40
0.45
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.30
Mn
0.30
0.30
0.75
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.30
Si
1.00
0.30
1.00
1.50
1.50
0.90
0.50
Cr
5.00
4.25
5.00
7.25
7.25
7.00
12.00
V
0.25
2.00
0.50
1.00
W
5.00
4.25
3.75
7.25
7.25
7.00
12.00
Mo
0.25
0.40
1.00
Co
0.50
4.25
0.50
Table 3-7. Class 530. Chromium Tungsten die steels (Roberts, Krauss et al. 1998).
Type
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
AISI
H21
H20
H22
H25
H24
H26
C
0.35
0.35
0.30
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.40
0.45
0.35
0.50
Mn
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
Si
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
Cr
3.50
2.00
2.75
2.00
2.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
4.00
4.00
Ni
1.75
V
0.50
0.50
0.30
0.40
0.40
1.00
0.40
0.50
Co
3.60
2.50
1.00
W
9.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
15.00
14.00
15.00
14.00
18.00
Mo
0.25
2.00
Table 3-8. Class 540. Tungsten die steels (Roberts, Krauss et al. 1998).
Type
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
AISI
H15
H15
H43
H42
H41
C
0.35
0.40
0.55
0.65
0.65
0.30
0.10
Mn
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.50
0.30
Si
0.40
0.50
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.30
Cr
3.75
5.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
Ni
V
0.75
0.75
2.00
2.00
1.00
W
1.00
1.00
0.50
4.00
6.40
1.50
3.00
3.50
Mo
6.00
5.00
8.00
5.00
8.00
3.00
5.00
Table 3-9. Class 540. Tungsten die steels (Roberts, Krauss et al. 1998).
19
Co
25.00
3.2.1 RESISTANCE TO
TEMPERATURES
DEFORMATION
(a)
AT
HIGH
(b)
Figure 3-1. (a) Variation of hardness of die steel of H-12 and 6F2 with tempering
times. H-12 used was austenetized from 1040 C with as quenched hardness of 584
VPN, 6F2 was austenetized from 850 C with as quenched hardness of 601 VPN (b)
Variation yield strength of different tool steels with temperatures. (Nagpal 1976)
20
a)
b)
Figure 3-2. Yield strength and hardness versus temperature for several tool steels
(Norstrom, Johansson et al. 1981)
Figure 3-3. Variation of yield strength with temperature (Semiatin and Lahoti 1981)
21
Figure 3-4. Mechanical resistance versus test temperature expressed in two forms for
the H13 and a new hot work tool steel (QRO90) (Roberts and Norstrom 1987)
a)
b)
Figure 3-5 Yield strength and ductility versus test temperature (A5) elongation (Z)
area reduction. a) H13 and b) QRO90 (Uddeholm )
22
H12
H11
H10
H21
6F3
Figure 3-6 Tensile strength and ductility versus test temperature for steels from H13
group (H12, H11, H10), plus and high alloy, H21, and a low alloy group 6F3 (Thyssen
).
23
3.2.2 RESISTANCE
FATIGUE
TO
MECHANICAL
SHOCK
AND
Figure 3-7. Variation of Charpy toughness with different hardness levels and testing
temperatures on of hot work die steels (values in parentheses indicate hardness at
room temperature) (Nagpal 1976)
Figure 3-8 Variation of toughness for several tool steels in function of hardness and
yield strength (Cser, Geiger et al. 1993)
24
Figure 3-9. Variation of toughness for several tool steels in function of hardness and
yield strength (Shivpuri and Semiatin 1988)
Figure 3-10 Comparison of toughness properties for H13, H21 and a new hot work
tool steel QRO80M versus test temperature (Johansson, Jonsson et al. 1985).
25
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3-11 Comparison of toughness KIC and Charpy V-notch for several tool steels.
a) KIC for three bar size, longitudinal direction, the small diameters represent
reduction from the bigger diameter; b) Charpy V-notch longitudinal and transversal c)
KIC for H13 in function of the hardness, austenitized at 1024C, time 25 min, air
cooled (Hemphill and Wert 1987).
a)
b)
Figure 3-12 Toughness versus test temperature for a) H13 and b) QRO90 (Uddeholm )
26
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-13.(a) Variation of hardness with temperature for H-11, H-12, H-13, H-14
and Pyrovan. Measurements were made after holding samples for 30 minutes for
homogenization (b) Resistance of hot work dies steels to thermal softening as
measured by the room temperature hardness (Nagpal 1976)
a)
b)
Figure 3-14 Comparison of properties for H13 and a new hot work tool steel QRO80M
versus test temperature (a) standard tempering curve (Johansson, Jonsson et al.
1985). (b) Master tempering curve for premium H13 were: P= Larsom-Miller
parameter, T is temperature (F), t is time in hours (Carpenter )
27
Figure 3-15 Thermal expansion for several tool steels versus temperature (Roberts,
Krauss et al. 1998)
28
3.2.4 DUCTILITY
Figure 3-16. Ductility of various die steels at high temperatures (Nagpal 1976)
Figure 3-17 Comparison of ductility for H13, H21 and a new hot work tool steel
QRO80M versus test temperature (Johansson, Jonsson et al. 1985).
Apart from these, because of practical reasons, they need to possess good machinability
and resistance to warping during heat treatment. Die materials resistance to plastic
deformation depends on how well it retains its hardness with temperature. It also
depends on its yield strength. Resistance to mechanical shock relies on the material
having good fracture toughness commonly measured in Charpy V-notch testing units.
29
30
3.3.1 COMPOSITION
Type
I-VascoMax C-200
II- VascoMax C-250
III-VascoMax C-300
IV-VascoMax C-350
HWM (+)
X2NiCoMoTi 12 8 8
Thyrotherm 2799
Marlock(Cr0.2)
Ni
18.5
18.5
18.5
18
2
12
Co
8.5
7.5
9
11.8
11
8
Mo
3.25
4.8
4.8
4.6
7.5
8
Ti
0.2
0.4
.6
1.35
.5
18.0
11.0
5.0
0.3
Al
.1
.1
.1
.1
.5
C*
.03
.03
.03
.03
.05
.03
0.01
Si*
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
Mn*
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
.10
S*
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
P*
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
0.1
0.01
0.01
3.3.2 PROPERTIES
a)
b)
(contd.)
31
c)
Figure 3-18 (a) Master tempering curve, T is temperature in Kelvin, t is time in hours
(b) hot hardness of HWM compared to H- 13 (Kasak and Steven 1970) (c) aging curves
a)
b)
Figure 3-19 Properties versus test temperature of maragins steels compared with H13
(a) hardness (b) Yield strength and ductility (Bayer 1984)
32
a)
b)
c)
Figure 3-20 Properties on a maraging steels 18 Ni 300 and H13. (a) Hot-hardness of
measured after holding at the testing temperatures for 30 min. (b) tensile properties
versus testing temperatures c) toughness of versus test temperature (Barry, Wills et
al. 1968)
33
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3-21 Properties of a hot work maraging steel compared with H13 group and
thermal fatigue results: a) fields of austenite and martensite in function of
temperature showing the effect of Ni% (Brandis and Haberling 1987) (b) aging curves
for 18%Ni and 12%Ni c) thermal fatigue resistance for H13 group and a maraging
steel (d) Hot yield strength (Gehricke 1993; Gehricke, Klarenfjork et al. 1995)
Figure 3-22 Comparison of toughness Charpy V-notched for a H13 steel and a
maraging steel (Marlock) at two test temperatures (Dorsch 1991)
34
3.4. SUPERALLOYS
Nickel, cobalt and iron based superalloys are another group of die materials that has
excellent potential in hot precision forging. This group of materials have extremely high
temperature strength and thermal softening. Like maraging steels, this group of
materials gets its strength from precipitation strengthening of intermetallic compounds
like Ni3Al. Tables 3.8 provide a comprehensive list of superalloys and its composition.
There are 4 primary group of superalloys. They are:
Iron-based alloys. This group comprise of die steels like H-46 and Inconel 706 and
contain over 12% of Chromium. Small amounts of Molybdenum and Tungsten provide
the matrix with high temperature strength. Iron based superalloys also include
austenitic steels with high chromium and nickel content. This group can be used in
applications where dies could heat up to 1200F.
Nickel-Iron based alloys. This group of alloy contains 24-27% nickel, 10-15%
chromium and 50-60% iron along with small quantities of Molybdenum, Titanium and
Vanadium. The carbon content in these alloys is very small, typically less than .1%.
Nickel based alloys. This group of alloys contains virtually no iron. The primary
constituent of these alloys are nickel (50-80%), chromium(20%) and combination of
molybdenum, aluminum, tungsten, cobalt and columbium. These grades again, get
their strength from solid solution strengthening and can be put to service at
temperatures up to 2200 F. Example of nickel-based superalloys are Waspalloy,
Udimet 500 and Inconel 718.
Cobalt based alloys. This group of alloys are more ductile than the other groups.
Again, these are age hardenable alloys whose primary constituents are Nickel, Iron,
Chromium, Tungsten and Cobalt. These can be used in applications where it could
reach 1900 F.
a)
b)
Figure 3-23. Ductility and toughness versus test temperature (Semiatin and Lahoti
1981)
35
Figure 3-24. Mechanical properties expressed as hardness and Yield strength versus
test temperature (Semiatin and Lahoti 1981)
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3-25. Compilation of several properties versus test temperature for superalloys
from Ohuchi (Ohuchi 1990). a) hardness b) thermal expansion c-d) Ultimate tensile
strength and Yield stress.
36
a)
37
b)
Table 3-10 Tables with a compilation of classification and composition for several
superalloys and aging alloys; a-b (Semiatin and Lahoti 1981).
38
There are several tool steel making processes used currently like conventional or
electric arc, vacuum arc remelting (VAR) and electro-slag remelting (ESR) processes.
These processes are capable of producing at different levels of cleanliness. In general,
oxides and sulfides are detrimental to the toughness and ductility of tool steel
produced. Figure 4.2 illustrates the effect of sulfur content on the transverse fracture
toughness of H-13 dies. Low levels of oxygen are achieved using vacuum degassing and
advanced deoxidization methods.
Any resulting oxides are reduced in size by
subsequent electro slag remelting process. Smaller inclusions are less detrimental to
the ensuing mechanical properties. Low levels of sulfur are achieved via ladle-refining
techniques and / or electro-slag remelting (ESR);
39
Figure 4-2. Effect of sulfur content on the transverse fracture toughness of H-13 die
steel (Roberts and Norstrom 1987).
Primary or eutectic carbides can reduce the transversal ductility if present in sufficient
size and amount. This carbide forms in the last stages of solidification an elongate
during the hot work reducing the ductility and toughness, specially in the transverse
section. Figure 4.3a shows the effect of coarse grain boundary carbides in annealed tool
steel on the toughness of H-13 after it is heat-treated. Here, it shows that the carbide
inclusions were too large to be dissolved during the austenitizing phase. Figure 4.13b
shows the dramatic effect of cleanliness of die steel and mechanical processing
performed on the ingot, on the final toughness of H-13 and H-11 hot work tool steel.
The figure 4.4a illustrate how the amount of carbides reduce the ductility in the
standard H13; notice that the compositions are similar and the standard H13 has low
level of oxygen and sulfur. Figure 4.4 (b) illustrates the effect of inclusions and carbides
for two premium H13 grades (OMS1,2) and a standard H13.
The annealed
microstructure of all three grades (inclusion content provided in Table 4.1) were
considered acceptable by standards established by various organizations like Chrysler
(Chrysler-NP 2080) and German tool steel specification(VDG Datasheet M82). It is again
noted that the ductility was greatly reduced by the inclusions in the transversal
direction.
a)
b)
Figure 4-3. Effect of coarse grain boundary carbides from annealed tool steel on the
toughness at elevated temperatures. Measurements were made after quenching and
tempering (Becker, Fuchs et al. 1989) b) Combined influence of clean processing and
extra fine structure (EFS) on toughness (Becker 1984).
40
a)
b)
Figure 4-4 (a) Effect of carbides on ductility of standard H-13 (b) Effect of carbides
and inclusions on ductility. (Roberts and Norstrom 1987)
OMS1
OMS2
H13
Sulphides
0
0
0.5
Alumina
0
1
2.5
Silicates
0
0
0
Globular
oxides
1
1
1.5
Number of
carbides
11
8
99
Table 4-1. Cleanliness of steels used by Roberts and Nostrum (Roberts and Norstrom
1987)
Microbanding and segregation are features found in annealed die steel under an optical
microscope that indicates segregation of alloying elements. Annealed structures were
classified by European and American associations in tables that define what is
acceptable and what is not. These classifications base the criterion for rejection on
presence of acicular structure, grain size and banding. However, Roberts and Norstrom
(Roberts and Norstrom 1987) and Kogler and Schindler (Kogler, Breitler et al. 1989)
showed that these classifications can be inaccurate. They concluded that the acicular
appearance is due to the carbide distribution resulting from a bainitic structure prior to
annealing. They also concluded that banding that reflect segregation of the principal
alloying elements Cr, Mo, and V, do not necessarily translate into poor ductility after
heat treatment. However, if eutectic carbides line up along the bands, it will reduce the
toughness and the ductility of the tool steel. Becker (Becker, Fuchs et al. 1989) shows
the effect of long-term diffusion annealing on reduction of micro-segregation. He found
that by improving the isotropy he could achieve better toughness and ductility in the
transverse direction.
The crack initiation by thermal or mechanical stress-strain loading is directly
dependent on the ductility. The crack growth depends of the toughness, however better
ductility also reduces the crack growth. Details of the mechanism are provided in the
section on thermal fatigue. Figure 4.5 clearly shows the relationship between ductility
and thermal fatigue. Both the grades A and B have the same chemical composition.
Samples were taken in three orthogonal directions (transverse, longitudinal and second
transverse). The table clearly shows that the lower the ductility, lower is the thermal
fatigue resistance.
41
a)
b)
Tensile in S direction
center
Bar
Absorbed energy VW
Center (ft.lbs) ductility
A5
Rp0.2(
Ksi)
174
6.6
16
169
102
52
180
10
40
216
213
212
orienta
tion
L
T
S
L
T
S
Heat
checki
ng rate
N0/in
8
10
15
5
6
8
355
635
480
230
355
330
amax
103in
18
23
30
11
19
17
61
89
83
31
65
49
c)
Figure 4-5 Relation between samples orientation, ductility and thermal fatigue A5
elongation, Z area reduction, VW unnotched European sample for impact test a,b,c
(Roberts and Norstrom 1987)
42
Figure 4-6. Effect of EDM process in die surface; refrozen layer and thermal cracks
(Cser, Geiger et al. 1993)
43
Although literature is poor in quantifying this effect, as EDM surface weakens with the
surface defects, it reduces the dies wear resistance (Wallbank and Phadke 1982). It
has also been proven that the EDM layer (refrozen, over-tempered, brittle) reduces the
thermal fatigue resistance (Kim and Wallace 1994). As the thermal fatigue cracks form,
the die surface layer becomes more prone to wear. The Figure 4-7 exemplifies damaged
layer (cracks and refrozen) caused by EDM process.
Dorsch (Dorsch 1991) showed that for the H13 and H10-A the layers under the white
layer is softer due to over-tempering. Rough EDM process forms a overtempered layer
that is approximately 0.003in thick. This becomes thinner with finishing EDM. The
author shows hardness loss in a range of 2-10HRC in the over-tempered layer.
Figure 4-7. Surface of dies after EDM, H13 and maraging steel (Marlock) (Dorsch
1991).
When a maraging steel (Marlock) is aged before EDM, its subsurface also loses some
hardness (about 10 HRc). However, when a maraging steel die is aged after EDM, the
loss in the hardness of the subsurface is only 2 Rc. Its white layer is soft and ductile
because it is in a solution condition. The surface cracks are fewer in number. When
the dies are aged after EDM, the subsurface and the white layer reach harnesses within
2-3 HRc of the parent material. The surface of EDMed maraging steel dies are lot
cleaner compared to a EDMed H-13 or H-10 die, Figure 4.7.
Walbank (Wallbank and Phadke 1982) shows results from fatigue tests that
demonstrate the reduced fatigue resistance of EDM specimen. The use of multiple steps
of decreasing EDM energy, tempering, and mechanical grinding to remove the affected
recast layer are different ways to avoid the loss in thermal fatigue resistance of EDMed
dies.
High performance machining is another alternative to EDM. Traditional machining
technology is not capable of machining die steel hardened to 445 Rc or above. With
newer cutting tools available in the market, it is now possible, to machine pre-hardened
die blocks. By machining pre-hardened die blocks, one can avoid heat-treat distortions
of the die cavity. Also, this reduces the lead times involved in die making.
44
45
Figure 4-8. Heat treatment cycle of hot working steels (Krauss 1995).
HP = T ( 24 + log t )
Equation 4-1
46
47
Vacuum Furnaces
48
Atmosphere-sealed furnaces
Fluidized bed
Salt bath
Vacuum furnaces can lead to uneven heating and distortion, but decarburization and
oxidation is very well controlled. Because of the uneven heating rates, if one requires
the dies to be uniform, the heat treater must employ multiple thermocouples to track
temperatures of core and surface. Atmosphere-sealed gas furnaces uses nitrogen
and/or endothermic gas to rapidly heat the dies. Because heat is transferred by
convection, heat transfer is uniform. Fluidized bed furnaces heat the dies by
suspending them in a bed of fluidized gas. Heating is uniform and fast, but the surface
could become carburized. Salt bath furnaces suspend the dies in molten salt. Again,
this process provides uniform heating but could corrode, oxidize or decarburize the
surface.
Figure 4-10. Effect of austenitizing temperatures on ASTM grain size and as-quenched
Vickers hardness of H-13 (Stuhl and Breitler 1987).
49
b)
a)
Figure 4-12. CCT diagrams for two austenitizing temperatures , b) Effect of carbon on
Ms (Roberts and Robert 1980)
50
4.3.2 QUENCHING
Once dies are austenitized and held at an austenitized temperature, dies are quenched
using a quenching medium in a quenching furnace. The rate of quenching and the
uniformity of temperature in the block has a large effect on the resulting microstructure
and mechanical properties. The uniformity of temperatures from the surface to the core
has a profound effect on the distortion experienced by the dies. The following section
will discuss various issues in quenching that affect the properties of dies and its
performance in the field.
In an ideal case, quenching a small sample of tool steel will result in the structure
transforming to martensite. Martensite is the most desirable form of microstructure
that one can aspire for in a as-quenched die. A martensitic as-quenched structure
could be tempered to give the best combination of toughness and wear resistance in a
die. One could obtain a martensitic structure if the cooling rate is fast enough to avoid
less desirable phases like lower bainite, pearlite and ferrite. The different paths
resulting from different cooling rates resulting in different phases, are represented in
Figure 4.13. However, because of various reasons, this becomes both impractical and
undesirable.
Figure 4-13. a) Effect of bar size on the quench rate and the resulting phase starting
with an austenitizing temperature of a)1000 C and b) 1050 C (Schmitd 1987) b)
Variation of temperatures across a section of H-13 during quenching and the
resulting phases (Biermann 1984)
During quenching, the center of the dies experiences the slowest cooling rates. These
rates are slow enough to produce non-martensitic structure at the center of the
workpiece. Figure 4.14a-b clearly shows the differences in cooling rates experienced by
the surface and the center of a bar. At these slow cooling rates, it is not possible to
obtain a completely martensitic structure. One can increase the cooling rates at the
core to higher values using other techniques. But this is not practical without creating
extreme thermal gradients across the cross-section of dies. Large thermal gradients
51
c)
Figure 4-14 a-b) Cooling rates used illustrating the corresponding structures in the
CCT diagram; b) Table with the conditions and the resulting properties for the
corresponding cooling rates (Wallace 1989).
The extremely high hardness of martensitic structures is due to its high resistance to
the slip and dislocation motion. This resistance is primarily due to the trapped carbon
atoms in the martensitic matrix. During an actual quenching process, because of the
slower cooling rates found in certain sections, several transformations can occur before
the material reach the room temperature. As the cooling rate experienced by a section of
die falls, the first non-martensitic phase to form is bainite. Bainite forms in quenching
speeds intermediate to pearlite and martensite. Its structure, subsequently, has
characteristics similar to both ferrite and martensite. Bainite that forms at lower cooling
rates close to pearlite field in a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram is
called upper bainite. Bainite in the region close to martensite line is lower bainite.
52
Upper bainite contains elongated carbides that are also bigger than in lower bainite. As
hot forging dies needs ductility and toughness the lower bainite structure with fine
carbides distribution and fine structure will perform better. These transformations are
time-temperature dependent and are well understood using a CCT diagram. Typical
effect of cooling rate on the microstructure and hence, the mechanical properties of hot
forging die is illustrated in Figure 14.a-b and the attached table c). From this
illustration, it is also clear that with slower cooling rates, grain boundary carbide
precipitation increases. This results in a lower Charpy V-notch value as well as a
smaller yield strength. These tests were performed on small samples under laboratory
conditions. However, the underlying mechanism of transformation and microstructuremechanical property correlation are universally true. Similar trend has been
demonstrated by Okuno (Okuno 1987) who examined the effect of quenching rates on
toughness of H-13. Again, we see that with increased time for quenching, the toughness
drops because of grain boundary carbides and increased pearlite and lower bainite
content, figure 4.15.
Figure 4-15. Effect of cooling rates on the phase content and the resulting toughness.
Steels was austenitized at 1020 C for 30 mins and oil quenched at different rates.
(Okuno 1987)
A typical hot forging tool steel (H13) transforms into martensite completely if it is
quenched to 300C in 1000 seconds. When the die block is too big, this is not
achievable uniformly across all sections. In these instances, interrupted cooling is an
alternative. There are two interrupted cooling techniques common to heat treaters:
martempering and austempering.
In martempering, the dies are quenched to a temperature just above Ms and kept there
until the temperature becomes homogeneous. It is then quenched crossing the Ms
curve. In austempering, the final quenching step forms upper bainite. It is important
53
that the cooling rates used to reach the first stage homogenizing temperature is high
enough to miss the grain boundary carbide precipitation line. Austempering reduced
dies distortion because the temperature is equalized before transformation and
subsequent cooling is slow. The resulting bainitic structure does not need tempering
operation (Krauss 1995).
Several quenching medium are available for use in tool steels. Tool steels are quenched
using oil, air, non oxidative gas or molten salt. Each option we have, will result in
differences in cooling process that will affect the resulting microstructure, surface
properties and distortion. Quenching techniques available to heat treaters are
In vacuum furnaces, where the austenitization is done by heating the die steel by
radiation, quenching is done either by cooling in vacuum or using nitrogen. Lower
cooling rate may result in carbide precipitation. In the multiple-chamber vacuum
furnaces a quenching chamber permits higher cooling rates. Higher cooling rates are
achieved by using nitrogen at higher pressures. Figure 4.16 shows the effect of nitrogen
pressure on cooling rates achievable in a gas quench process. Also, the figure illustrates
the effect of cooling rates on the microstructure and phases present.
If oil is used as medium in sealed quench furnaces, higher cooling rates are achieved.
However, because there are no controls in place to affect the temperatures, there is a
risk of distortion. Oil should be used as a quench medium only for small, simple dies.
To reduce distortion, isothermal quench chambers that use salt baths should be
employed. These equalize temperatures around 1000 F. Again, 2-step quenching gives
small distortion than 1-step quenching. Fluidized beds also provide good control over
temperatures and distortion. Fluidized beds and oil quenching provide cooling rates
that are most desirable from a toughness point of view. In these cases, the grain
boundary carbide precipitation is kept to the minimum. Figure 4.17a-b illustrates some
of the properties we can expect. This should be used only as a reference to compare
different quenching processes relative to one another.
54
Figure 4-16. Effect of different cooling rates resulting from the quenching pressures
for a 11x20x30 block (Roche, Beaton et al. 1997)
55
a)
b)
Figure 4-17. a)Effect of cooling rate on the longitudinal toughness; b) effect of various
quenching mediums on the ductility of samples taken in the three directions (1,3,4
produce coarse bainite and high GBC precipitation) (Roberts and Norstrom 1987)
4.3.3 TEMPERING
Quenched structure usually is a combination of untempered martensite, retained
austenite and carbides retained from austenitization. The goal of tempering is to
improve the strength and toughness of the quenched die steel by stress relieving and
atomic rearrangement. It does this in the following ways
Transformation of all retained austenite into martensite and bainite.
Diffusion of carbon atoms to create stronger and tougher tempered martensite
Precipitation and dispersal of alloy carbides in the matrix so that they do not
coarsen during hot working. This phenomena causes hardening and is termed
secondary hardening.
The most important parameters that affect these changes during tempering are
1. Number of tempers
2. Duration of temper
3. Tempering temperatures
Heat treaters use at least 2 draws to convert retained austenite to martensite and
other stable and tough phases. The first tempering cycle transforms the retained
austenite in cementite and ferrite or martensite. The second tempering will temper the
untempered martensite produced in first temper. The second tempering cycle also
spheroidizes interlath carbides formed by the transformation of the retained austenite.
The 3rd and subsequent cycles are directed at obtaining secondary hardness gains
56
through precipitation of metallic carbides. Low alloy steels like L6 used in hammers
does not need the second tempering. H-13 requires 2 draws or tempering cycles to
obtain necessary toughness. Higher alloy tool steels like H-10A requires at least 3
draws. If the die block goes through fewer draws than recommended, it could result in
the following.
Retained austenite and untempered martensite resulting in low toughness and
strength
Absence of metallic carbide precipitates resulting in low secondary hardening
Interlath carbides resulting in reduced toughness and higher chance of
catastrophic failure of dies
Tempering time and temperatures have similar effects on the microstructure. Usually
the tempering curves from steel producers provide variation of hardness with tempering
temperatures for a fixed time of one or two hours. Another approach to specify effect of
tempering is using charts and functions that track hardness with a combination of
time and temperature. Figure 3.7 and 3.12a shows the master tempering curves for H19 and H-13 respectively. Using these curves, we can predict what the resulting
hardness will be if we temper a H-13 block for a specific duration at a specified
temperature. Although this approach is better suited to evaluate softening of hot
working dies during the service, not many curves are present in the literature.
Since these processes are diffusion dependent, each draw should be at least 1 hour at
the tempering temperature. This ensures that all retained austenite converts to
martensite. Typically heat treaters use at least 2 draws of at least 2 hours each to even
out the effects of inhomogeneous heat chemistry, hardening temperatures and
quenching conditions. Again, since these transformations rely on carbon diffusing out
of the matrix, these transformations increase in speed at higher temperatures. In
general, the tempering temperature for hot forging applications range from 500-600 C.
Table 4.2 shows typical hardening and tempering temperatures for tool steels. Because
of precipitation of metallic carbides, there is a accentuated reduction in toughness in
the region of secondary hardness peak. Toughness reduction is represented by both the
Charpy and KIC tests in figure 4.18. This critical temperature is characteristic of the
alloy composition and the level of carbide dissolution during the austenitizing phase.
For hot forging dies, it is important to temper at a temperature that exceeds this critical
point. Tempering at temperatures just above the secondary peak gives the maximum
hardness, desirable for good performance in thermal fatigue and wear. However, if the
dies experience extreme mechanical loads, an increase in tempering temperature
increases the toughness.
57
Alloying elements have a strong effect on the dies resistance to thermal softening. Tool
steels for hot work applications depends on strong carbide formers, like V, Mo, T, Cr,
etc. to provide resistance to thermal softening. These effects are illustrated in Figure
4.20. For example, .13% Vanadium has the ability to flatten the slope of a tempering
curve by 50%. This means that after 2 hours of tempering (after quenching or during
hot working), a tool steel with .13% V will result in a drop of hardness of half the value
compared to a pure iron-carbon structure. However, in order for this to happen, these
elements have to be dissolved in the austenite during austenitization. On the other
hand, the dissolution of primary carbides decreases wear resistance. There is hence, a
trade-off between resistance to thermal softening and wear that needs to be understood
by the forging designers. When specifying the heat treat specification, the forger should
also ensure that the specified mechanical properties can be achieved without undue
distortion. Figure 4.20 shows typical distortion associated with different alloys due to
non-uniformity in transformation and internal stresses due to heat treatment.
Figure 4-19 Softening retardation effects in relation for several elements in relation to
a Fe-C carbon steel at tempering temperature of 540C (Krauss 1995)
58
a)
59
b)
Table 4-2. a, b Hardening and tempering temperatures and procedures for tool steels
(Roberts and Robert 1980).
60
Composition should meet ASTM A-681-76 criterion. This ensures low levels of sulfur
and phosphorous.
Annealed hardness should be less than 241 BHN. This ensures the annealing is
complete
Annealed microstructure should consist of ferritic matrix with spherodized carbides
Untempered hardness of air-cooled 1 slab heated to 1850 F for hour should be
atleast 50 HRc. This ensures the steel is hardenable.
Untempered grain size at the surface should be finer than No. 6 after hardening.
This indirectly specifies impact and fatigue strength of the steel.
Nonmetallic inclusions should be within limits of commercial quality electric furnace
melted steel. This ensures the dies have good ductility on heat treatment.
This criterion however, does not stipulate the steel making process. Other criteria used
address segregation and structural uniformity in different ways. Other specifications
may specify different criterion for heat treaters with die casting issues and modes of
failure in the forefront. However, in forging industry, not enough care is exercised in
specifying die steels and heat treatment.
Before specification of die material, hardness, toughness and microstructure, forgers
need to understand the modes of failure in their process. Knowledge of modes of failure
and the critical forging process parameters that affect the failure rate is essential for
proper specification of steels and heat treating.
As we discussed earlier, the high hardness of the martensitic structures is beneficial to
dies resistance to plastic deformation, fatigue and wear. Dies resistance to plastic
deformation is well represented by its yield strength and its variation with typical
operating temperatures. Its resistance to wear can be correlated to variation of hardness
with temperatures and times. This information is available in the form of Larson-Miller
generalized tempering curves. Wear constants also exist in literature that characterizes
materials resistance to wear.
At some point, increasing hardness starts to decrease other essential properties like
toughness and ductility. Toughness, ductility and ductile-brittle temperature (DBTT) are
interrelated properties. Low values of these properties reduce a dies ability to support
shock. Also, low values of ductility reduces dies ability to plastically deform and
dissipate the energy internally without breaking catastrophically. Toughness,
represented by Charpy V-Notch or KIC fracture toughness, measures the ability of a die
61
to resist crack growth. Ductility is characterized by charpy unnotched tests and tensile
tests performed in laboratory conditions.
Once the process has been characterized either by experimental data or simulation,
using knowledge of materials and expected batch size they need to specify the following.
Die material grade and purity
Austenitization temperatures and time
Number of tempers, tempering time and temperature
In precision forging, for instance, if the mode of failure is abrasive wear, the
specification of die steel and heat treatment should focus on improving thermal
softening resistance and hardness. It is important to ensure that the dies are designed
with appropriate shrink fits and the forging process ensures there is no unnecessary
thermal or mechanical loads. Process optimization and optimal die design complement
die steel selection and heat treat specification. It is necessary to specify material and
heat treatment after optimizing design and process.
This idea has been incorporated in SAMS, a computer program being developed at the
Ohio State University. The program, once completed, would be capable of using thermomechanical history and stress-strain information from FEM program, user entered
material specification, properties and charts from a database and built-in failure models
to estimate failure rate for different precision forging applications. This will serve as an
aid to precision forgers in selecting steels and specify heat treatment after a process is
designed and optimized.
62
5. SURFACE TREATMENTS
Surface-engineering of dies are techniques and processes used to induce, modify and
enhance the surfaces properties giving it more wear, corrosion and fatigue resistance.
These techniques do not modify the soft and tough interior of dies. Figure 5.1 shows the
typical surface depths of various surface treatments. Die coatings and surface
treatments, used in forging industry, primarily increase the abrasive wear resistance of
dies by increasing the hardness of the surface layers of the die. Figure 5.2a shows some
results from forging experiments that clearly illustrate the efficacy of surface
treatments. These results were obtained from forging trials performed eccentric crank
press. This section lists different surface treatments applicable to precision forging
applications and issues one need to be aware of that may affect the die performance.
Most surface treatments used in dies and tools are diffusionbased. These processes
rely on diffusion of chemicals into the surface, modifying the surface chemistry and the
mechanical properties of the surface layer. The thickness of the surface treated layer in
these types of diffusion processes rely on the time and temperature at which the
hardening is performed. The time-temperature dependence is of the form shown in
equation 5.1.
D=K T
Equation 5-1
63
Figure 5-2.a. Comparison of wear amounts of surface treated upsetting tools after
1000 forging cycles with lubricant (Deltaforge-31) (Doege, Seidel et al. 1996)
Different diffusion based surface hardening techniques which may be applicable to
forging dies are
5.1. CARBURIZING
Carburizing is the process of adding carbon to low carbon steels. Not typically used for
forging dies, the process relies on heating the parts to high austenetizing temperatures
of over 1500 F and exposing the surface to a carbon rich atmosphere. Carbon diffuses
into the austenitic surface of the parts, which are then quenched to provide a
martensitic structure on the surface. As discussed before, martensite has excellent
wear resistance. Coupled with the soft and tough core, this surface treatment gives the
parts good resistance to mechanical shock as well as wear.
Case depths and hardness levels achievable are dependent on the time of exposure and
the richness of carbon at the surface. Prolonged exposure to carbon-rich atmosphere
results in a deep case. However, the surface may have excessive retained austenite and
free carbides, which in turn will result in excessive residual stresses.
Based on the medium used, carburizing can be any of the following.
Gas carburizing
Vacuum carburizing
Plasma carburizing
Salt bath carburizing
64
Pack carburizing
Of these gas carburizing is the most commonly used process because of ease of process
control and low equipment costs. Pack carburizing, the uses a solid carburizing pack, is
also widely used. Carburizing has limited application if precision forging dies because,
dies materials used are medium to high alloy steels. The process has advantages of
flexibility and low cost for low production. However, labor cost for cleaning and
environmental restrictions make the gas or liquid process cheaper. The gas and plasma
carburizing process are also more controllable.
5.2. NITRIDING
Nitriding, similar to carburizing, is a process of hardening the surface by diffusing
nitrogen into the surface. Nitriding processes are performed at temperatures between
925 and 1050 F (500 to 550 C) (ASM 1964) where the structure is still ferritic. The
process results in formation of and outer case of Fe3N and a inner layer that is
strengthened by a solid solution of N. In some cases, a white layer of Fe4N is formed.
This layer, also called the white layer, may easily spall during use and has to be
avoided.
Steels nitrided are typically medium carbon steels with strong nitride-forming elements
like aluminum, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. It is important that tempering
of the die steel be performed at a temperature exceeding the nitriding temperature prior
to nitriding in order to optimize the property combination of the core and the surface of
the dies. Also, because of the low nitriding temperatures, there is generally little
distortion from this heat treating process.
Although the depth and hardness of the nitride case depends a great deal on the
nitriding time, these properties (particularly the hardness) are sharply dependent on the
composition of the steel as well. Die steels containing large amounts of strong nitride
formers such as chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum form shallow, very hard
surface layers. On the other hand, low-alloy chromium-containing die steels (such as
6G, 6F2) form deeper surface layers which are tougher, but not as hard.
There are many techniques for nitriding: gas-nitriding, liquid-bath nitriding, ionnitriding, etc. Each of these will be discussed separately.
Gas Nitriding. Gas nitriding is a surface hardening process in which nitrogen is
introduced into the surface layers of ferrous materials by holding them in contact with a
nitrogen-containing gas, which is usually, ammonia. Because a brittle, nitrogen-rich
layer (the "white nitride layer") is produced by this process, the depth of the nitrided
case is usually kept small. Sometimes, a special two-stage gas-nitriding process, which
minimizes the depth of this layer, is employed (Weist 1986).
Liquid nitriding. Nitriding in a liquid salt bath, or liquid nitriding, is performed at the
same temperatures as gas nitriding, approximately 925 to 1050 F (496 to 566 C), but
typically requires less time than conventional single-stage gas nitriding. The salt baths
consist primarily of mixtures (in varying proportions) of sodium and potassium cyanide
(from which the nitrogen is released during nitriding) and sodium carbonate, potassium
carbonate, and potassium chloride. These baths result in cases containing both
nitrogen and carbon compounds. Modifications of this heat treating procedure include
a process involving aeration. (ASM 1964) This leads to a less brittle case of Fe3N
compared to gas nitriding process which develops cases containing very brittle iron
compounds richer in nitrogen (e.g., Fe2N).
Commercially, liquid bath nitriding
processes such as Tufftriding and the Berry-Wear process have been used on
metalworking tooling. Employing special salts containing sulfur compounds, the BerryWear process appears to have the advantage of producing an outer skin which serves as
a dry lubricant as well as a very hard wear-resistant surface (Brochures ). This latter
process has been very successful in cold forming applications, but its usefulness
appears not to have been documented in hot forging yet.
65
Table 5-1. Response of different tool steels to several surface engineering towards
enhancement of toughness, hot hardness, heat checking, temper resistance
(Krishnadev 1997)
66
Efficacy of nitrided tools were tested by Dean and others (Dean 1987) using extrusion
type testing. Relative wear rates of nitrided and non-nitrided tool steels in extrusion
they obtained are shown in figure 5.4. Dean indicates that nitriding reduces wear as
much as 50%.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Figure 5-3. Results for hot work tool steels in the H13 group presented by Krishnadev
(Krishnadev 1997) (a) Composition (b) toughness (c) hot hardness (d) softening of the
alloys 2-3 with and without nitriding e) Hardness achievable with different coatings
and the alloys chemical composition f) Charpy impact toughness of H-13 and treated
alloy No. 3
67
Figure 5-4. Relative wear rates of nitrided and non-nitrided tool steels used in
extrusion forging (Dean 1987)
68
blasting with fine abrasives may be necessary steps to achieve the most out of ferritic
nitrocarburizing process. Various processes exist like Nitemper process, Alnat-N
process and black nitrocarburizing that rely on controlling the composition of white
layer formed. For details on this processes, refer to ASM handbook (ASM 1964).
Venkatesan and others (Venkatesan, Summerville et al. 1998) have evaluated nitrocarburized dies and compared its performance with quench and tempered H-13 and
ASM 6F3, Nitrided H-13, Borided and Vanadised (TD) H-13. Results obtained from their
tests are provided in Table 5.2. They found that nitrocarburized dies performed very
well compared to untreated H-13. Details of the process they used is unknown.
Treatments
Q&T
Nitro-carburized
Nitrided
Borided
Vanadised
H13
Top
46
4
10
5
0
Dies
Bottom
110
5
12
6
0
6F3
Top
156
5
11
0
0
Dies
Bottom
236
37
9
0
0
Table 5-2. Average maximum wear depths (m) on surface engineered dies after
upsetting 500 AISI 1040 steel billets at 1070 C (Venkatesan, Summerville et al. 1998)
5.4. BORIDING
Boriding or boronizing process relies on diffusion and subsequent absorption of boron
atoms in the metallic lattice and formation of interstitial boron compounds to harden
the structure. Diffusion treatment can be carried out in either a gas, molten salt, or
pack media at a temperature between 700 C to 1000 C, depending upon the process
and the material to be borided. Extremely hard-surface layers ranging from 11450 to
5000 HV that has a low coefficient of friction are formed if the base metal forms borides.
The process does not require quenching. If the base material has to be heat treated, the
heat treatment can be done after boriding, although care is required to reduce
quenching stresses to prevent spalling of the borided layer. Borided layers resist
thermal softening better than nitrided layers. They also exhibit moderate to high
resistance to oxidation. However, boriding provides marginal increase in fatigue
endurance limits.
Boriding of steels is also done electrolytically. Boron atoms are electro-deposited onto
the metal from a bath of molten salt containing fluorides of lithium, sodium, potassium
and boron. The dies are borided in the 1470 F (800 C) to 1650 F (900 C) temperature
range in an atmosphere of argon or a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen. Thickness of
coating is from 0.0005 to 0.002 in (0.013 to 0.05 mm), and treatment lasts 15 minutes
to 5 hours (Fiedler 1972).
It has been stated that boriding results in undesirable interaction with alloying
elements of hot-work die steels (H series) and develops a soft layer (Burgreev 1972).
Porosity in the borided layer can develop for steels, which require post-boriding heat
treatment. For this reason, it is preferred to limit boriding to those alloys that do not
require further high-temperature treatment. For example, A6 (075 C, 20.0 Mn, 0.3 Si,
1.0 Cr, 1.35 Mo) air-hardening steel can be hardened from the boriding temperature by
cooling in air, and only requires tempering. This steel, therefore, can be safely borided.
69
Boriding process is also known to improve the wear resistance by forming borides with
the subsurface die steel. Shivpuri and Semiatin (Shivpuri and Semiatin 1988) report
work by Vincze who borided dies at 900 C for 3 hours followed by quench and temper.
Vincze reported an increase in wear resistance of borided dies by 70% compared to
untreated dies. Burgreev and Dobnar (Burgreev 1972) also report large increase in
hammer die forging die life when boriding is used.
As reported earlier, Venkatesan and others (Venkatesan, Summerville et al. 1998) also
report enhanced wear resistance of borided tools compared to untreated dies. Boriding
low alloy steels result in a jagged boride layer that are deeper than boride layers formed
in high alloy steels. This is because, alloying elements reduce the diffusion of boron into
the substrate. This may explain results obtained by Venkatesan who found that
performance levels of borided H-13 are comparable to nitrocarburizing. However, they
found that the efficacy of boriding was higher with low alloy die steels like 6F3.
70
5m thick and is very adherent (Roberts, Krauss et al. 1998). Quinn and co-works
showed, in a series of studies in fundamental wear and oxidation mechanism, that
under hot conditions a layer of oxide prevents the occurrence of adhesive wear (Quinn,
Sullivan et al. 1980; Sullivan 1981; Quinn 1983).
71
a)
b)
c)
Figure 6-1.Compilation of several properties versus test temperature for ceramics
from Ohuchi (Ohuchi 1990). a) hardness b) thermal expansion c) Yield stress.
72
Hot pressed Silicon Nitride is a ceramic that has extremely high hardness, high
toughness and wear resistance. Currently it is used in applications like nozzle rings,
bearings, rotors and cam followers in internal combustion engines. It also has good
thermal shock resistance and good hot hardness and maintains its temperature and
oxidation resistance at 1200 C. Applications of Silicon Nitride as a coating, is however,
limited because of its poor adhesion with the substrate.
Silicon Aluminum Oxynitride (Sialon) is a new group of solid solution compositions that
also possesses excellent thermal shock resistance. Sialons have similar properties as
Silicon Nitride but Sialons have a superior resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.
Silicon Carbide with extremely high hardness is normally used in grinding wheels as
well as various internal combustion engine parts like valve seats and flame cans. Data
comparing
There has been some interest shown on this type of material primarily for automotive
applications. Miyoshi plasma-deposited amorphous silicon nitride films at both low and
high frequency applications. The author found that high frequency deposited layer has
better resistance to the shear (better adherence to the substrate). The coating also
resulted in low adhesion (soldering) and low friction in pin-disc type tests until 700C.
There are several ceramics available with comparable harnesses, thermal expansion
and yield strength of these 3 compounds are shown in figure 6-1 a-c. Several ceramics
and carbides exist that have application in precision forging either as inserts or as
coatings. It should be realized that these compounds typically lack tensile strength and
needs to be constrained in a shrink ring. Also, they may not be applicable as coatings
because of their lack of adhesion to the substrate and their dissimilar thermal
expansion coefficients that may lead to cracking.
73
a)
b)
Figure 6-2. Mechanical properties a) compressive Yield strength for Ni alloy 718 and
Nickel aluminide 221M-T (Al 7.6-8.2; Cr 7.5-8.2; Mo 1.3-1.55; Z 1.4-2.0; B 0.003-0.01
Ni balance) b) Tensile and yield strength for 221M-T alloy (Maddox and Orth 1997)
The relatively high hot hardness gives these intermetallics, very high wear coefficients.
Table 6.2 shows the results of pin-on-disc type tests on Ni3Al. Although these are
conducted at room temperatures, these numbers give us some idea of its wear
resistance compared to conventional hot work steels. Tests that have been done
industries show up to 10X life increase for preforming dies. The high yield strength also
gives nickel aluminide relatively late crack initiation as indicated in Figure 6.4. Figure
6.5 compares the variation of yield strength of this class of materials with hastealloy
and stainless steel. Table 6.3-6.5 show some physical properties available.
1
Figure 6-3 Yield strength of various grades of nickel aluminides (Blau 1992)
74
8
Table 6-2. Wear constants obtained through pin-on-disc type tests for various grades
of Nickel Aluminides (Blau 1992)
Figure 6-4. Comparison of crack growth data for Nickel Aluminide compared to other
high temperature alloys. (Fuchs, Kuruvilla et al. )
75
Figure 6-5 Comparison of yield strength of IC-15 to those of other high temperature
alloys. (Horton, Liu et al. )
76
Table 6-4 Variation of yield strength, ultimate strength and ductility of IC50 with
temperature (Oak )
77
108
100
83
75
43
29
56
40
5
O 35
K
93
O 25
K
93
06
60
6
1
55
50
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
H
O 13
K
85
O 38
K
85
O 58
K
85
O 65
K
83
28
Wear
78
After welding, the die block must be cooled to room temperature to prevent cracking of
the welded deposit. The die impression is then finished, machined and ground. Heat
treatment (austenitizing, quenching, and tempering) of the die block is performed last.
Once again, differences in thermal properties between the base metal and surface
deposit are critical insofar as thermal cracking is concerned.
Hardfacing Alloys: For hardfacing, welding alloys are generally base on iron, cobalt
and nickel metals. Hard phases are formed by addition of carbon (in Fe) or boron (in Ni).
The preferred application methods for various alloys are: iron alloys deposited by
surface weld methods, cobalt alloys by welding and powder surfacing and hard nickel
alloys ing the form of powder. The volume fraction for hard phase is very important for
the wear resistance in the weld deposit. Often there is no proportional dependence and
the best wear resistance is not achieved by the highest hard phase concentration.
Various ferrous alloys are used to repair steel dies or to lay down deposits of better wear
and heat resistance in the welded deposit. Often there is no proportional dependence
and the best wear resistance in not achieved by the highest hard phase concentration.
Different microstructural combinations are used to increase wear resistance of tool
steel, these include transformation behavior (bainite, eutectic) and the use of carbide
forming elements where chromium is used as alloying element. Austenitic and
austenitic-ferritic material are preferred for wear resistance under higher loads.
Hard-faced tool steels have to be heat treated before use. However, hyper-eutectic cast
or carbide sinter alloys are not suitable for heat treatment and the weldment from
carbide filler rods exhibit the required material properties directly after welding. In
respect of the economic importance, hard facing with iron base alloys predominates in
comparison with nickel and chromium alloys (Farmer 1979; Knotek 1979). This is more
relevant with the increasing automation of hard surfacing and the use of robots in
welding systems.
Nickel- and cobalt-base alloys are the usual choices for hard-facing of dies. Questions
concerning the transformation or primary phase instability during hard surfacing
process can be considered of secondary importance in hard cobalt or nickel alloys. The
material properties are present after solidification from melt. Use of these alloys in
hardfacing offers a considerable saving over die blocks of these alloys. In a typical
hardfacing operation, one or two layer of alloy, each about 0.010 to 0.050 in. (0.25 to
1.27 mm) thick are deposited in the die. If a very large amount of buildup is desired or
require, however, it is advisable to apply layers of stainless steel, high nickel alloy, or
low-alloy filler metal first rather than many layers of hardfacing material (Haynes )
(Acros )
Hard nickel alloys are processed generally as metal powders (P/M) and to a lesser
extent as cast rod and electrode. Some nickel base alloys are applied as layers. With
several alloys, the hardening during loading is used to increase the wear strength, e.g.
for cladding cutting tools and die blocks for hot working.
Evaluation of hardfacing alloys: The properties of the cobalt alloys with chromium,
tungsten and carbon have been investigated by researchers at the University of Aachen,
West Germany (Knotek 1978; Knotek 1979). The influence of the cobalt matrix
composition and the carbide content on the impact strength, thermal shock resistance,
coefficient of linear expansion, tensile strength, ductility and hardness, as a function of
temperature are used for evaluating the wear behavior of the coating. Hard cobalt alloys
are processed as cast rods, electrodes, filler rods and metal powder. Another recent
laboratory investigation into the elevated temperature properties of cobalt based
hardfacing alloys (Crook 1983) concluded that for the STELLITE group of cobalt alloys,
79
the higher the cobalt content, the better the resistance to metal-to-metal wear in the
temperature range 0 to 1382F (0 to 750C). For this group of alloys, wear rate decreases
with increasing temperatures, in the range 1562 to 1832F (850 to 1000C). Figure 3.23
(Semiatin and Lahoti 1981) shows the effect of temperature and heat treatment in some
hard facing alloys.
For a given matrix chemistry, increased hard phase volume friction may be of some
benefit in resisting metal-to-metal wear The cobalt-chromium and cobalt-ironchromium alloys exhibit a maximum metal-to-metal wear rate around 482F (250C.).
This study also reported that the high nickel alloys have relatively poor self-mated antigalling properties at room temperature, yet exhibit low wear rates under low load/high
speed conditions, versus case hardened 4620 steel in air at room temperature. The low
wear rates of nickel-rich hardfacing alloys have been attributed to their oxidation
kinetics and the nature of their oxide scales. Low wear rates and the formation of very
shiny oxide scales, termed glazes, characterize the high temperature behavior of some
nickel-chromium alloys.
Electro-spark deposition. Electro-spark deposition (ESD) a variation of hard-surface
welding, has been used extensively in Europe for improving the galling resistance of
material (Sheldon 1985). Electrodes of WC, TIC and Cr3 C2 materials have been used
for deposit on 316 stainless steel and other substrata. ESD has been found to be
effective in fusing metallurgically bonded coatings to the substrate at low heat with the
substrata remaining near the ambient temperature.
80
(Dennis and Still 1975; Dennis and Jones 1981; Dennis and Mahmoud 1987; Dennis
and Sagoo 1991; Dennis, Turner et al. 1991; Dennis and Such 1993) have done a series
of studies in characterizing electro-deposited cobalt coatings. They attempted to
evaluate cobalt coated forged dies with dies coated with other techniques. They forged
cylindrical test specimens similar to ones used by Thomas (Thomas 1970),
Table 6-6. Wear volume obtained after 100 forgings using flat dies electro-deposited
with some wear resistant coatings (Still and Dennis 1977)
Rooks (Rooks 1974) and others between flat coated dies and measured wear using
surface roughness measurements. Using this setup, they evaluated cobalt-nickel,
cobalt-molybdenum, cobalt-tungsten and chromium coatings. They found that cobaltmolybdenum and cobalt-tungsten coatings provide the least wear. Table 6.2 provides a
comparison of wear resistance of different coatings obtained forging cylindrical mild
steel billets using a flat No.5 die. To get a more realistic comparison, after the
preliminary cylindrical specimen testing, Stills and Dennis used a more complicated
forging with flash, to measure wear resistance of the different Cobalt coatings. Wear
measurements were made near the flashland, where the wear was highest. Figure .12
shows the variation of resulting wear area with number of forgings made. These dies
were made from No. 5 die steels or Chromium steels. Table 4.3 shows the result of use
of Cobalt based coatings on industrial dies. Table 4.4 provides some results of brush
81
plating coatings on simulated testing. The results of industrial trials on hot forging dies
brush plated with Co-Mo alloy coatings [Dennis, 1981 #201 is given in
Figure 6-7. Wear rate variation for dies with sharp radii and fillets, for different
coatings. M11, M12 and M-14 are Co-Mo coatings, W2 and W3 are Co-W coatings
(Still and Dennis 1977)
Alloy
Die tipe
W2
A
W2
B
M 12
B
W2
C
W2
C
a) results related to nitried dies
% Increase in
die life
~ 24
~ 100
~ 100
~ 100
~ 100
b) It was estimed that about a further 1000 forgings could have been produced from
these dies but the production run of billets.
Table 6-7. Results of industrial trials of use of coatings. 17a represents non-round
shallow dies, 17b yoke-type dies and 17c gear blank dies (Still and Dennis 1977)
Die Type
No
Die Type
82
No
Gear
selector
sets
Plated
01
sets
plated
01
Round
01
01
Couple
flange
03
01
T Piece
01
Link pin
01
01
Gear blank 01
(nitrided)
Slack
adjuster
01
Rocker arm 01
insert
01
01
Large
universal
joint
02
Large
universal
joint dies
Bolster
chisel
04
01
Extrusion
19
inserts 2
in
diameter
Table 6-8. Results of industrial trials on hot forging dies brush plated with Co-Mo
alloy coatings (Dennis and Jones 1981)
83
Figure 6-8. Results of simulated hot forging tests with different coatings (Dennis and
Jones 1981)
Figure 6-9. Variations of wear area with number of forgings. The dies used were flat
dies with dies having sharp radii and fillets (Dennis and Still 1975)
84
Subsequently, Lodge and others (Lodge, Still et al. 1979) brush-plated cobalt alloy
electro-deposits on to 24 different dies making parts ranging from coupling flanges,
turbine blades, gear selectors, track rod pins to steering links. The dies ranged from 4
kg to 500 kg. Results showed increase in die life ranging from 20 to 100%. They report
that the coatings did not peel off or crack under forging conditions.
Figure 6-10. Ratio of cracked area of coated corners to an uncoated corner for
various materials (Mirtich, Nieh et al. 1981)
Krishnadev also reports hardness and toughness of several specimen that have been
PVD coated with TiN (Figure 5.3). The figure presents the hardness achievable with
different coatings. However, no wear test results are available for these coatings.
85
Table 6-9 Results of production testing of various surface treatments (Monika 1981)
86
Figure 6-12 The burnished coating did not presented cracks. Samples 45mm
diameter by 40mm high, induction heated during ~ 18s and cooled by 10s between
temperatures of 20-700C. (Monika 1981)
Figure 6-13. Effect of laser surface modification on wear performance of hot work dies
compared with nitrided dies (Cser, Geiger et al. 1993)
87
88
7.1. WEAR
Several work exists in the literature that tries to characterize and model wear in hot
forging. Some are based on process variables like forging area, weights and energy while
some have taken a more fundamental approach to modeling. These models are provided
in Table 7.1. With advances in finite element models and computing, it is possible to
use fundamental material properties and process variables derived from FEM softwares
to model wear more universally. With the technological capabilities in mind, and with
available data, it is possible to use Archards model provided in equation 7.1 to model
wear as a function of thermo-mechanical history of dies during a forging process and
the working hardness of the die material.
wear = k
pi Vi
dt
Hi
Equation 7-1
89
Aston
and
Barry, 1972
Aston
and
Barry, 1972
Aston
and
Barry, 1972
Aston
and
Barry, 1972
Aston
and
Barry, 1972
Hammer
Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.00686 x forging area + 0.0272 hammer energy - 0.1855 x forging
wt1/3 + 0.335 x spread - 0.011 x flash land area + 0.129 x flash metal escape 0.557
(84%)
Hammer
Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.000261 x forging area + 0.000763 hammer energy - 0.00265 x
forging wt1/3 + 0.012 x spread ration - 0.000694 x flash land area 0.00266
(82%)
Press
Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.0284 x forging weight 0.062 x die material - + 0.141 (83%)
No. 5 steel = 1; 3Ni, 3Mo, 0.5Cr steel = 2; En40 not nitrided = 3
Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.000164 forging area + 0.000712 x flash land/gap - 0.00431
(70%)
Hammer and press
Mean damage (x10-3) = 0.00405 x forging area + 0.226 x forging wt1/3 - 0.019 x flash land
area + 0.00287 x flash weight (%) + 0.0184 x flash land/gap + 0.0666 (m/c factor: hammer =
1, press =2) 0.42
(72%)
Archards
model
wear = k
pi Vi
dt
Hi
Wear = k pd/H
for volume
for depth
k = constant,
p = normal pressure
V = velocity
H = hardness
d = sliding distance
Budinski
Wear control
handbook
Thomas
1969
A = Structure parameter for a given tool steel (carbide size (m) x volume fraction x carbide
hardness (kg/mm2))
R = 204 - (70 (%C) - 4 ( %Si) - 15 (%Cr)1/2 - 80 (Mo*)1/3
Mo* = %Mo + 0.5%V + 2%V + %Nb
R is the wear rate relative to H13 steel
(*) Model used by Bariani, 1996, Batit 1983, includes an exponent to the hardness Hm, Eriksen 1997, Painter
1996. (Archard model). Use of computer simulation (Tulsyan, Shivpuri et al. 1993; Painter, Shivpuri et al.
1994)
90
Storen and others (Tulsyan, Shivpuri et al. 1993) provide a good criterion, given in
equation 2.1, to avoid plastic deformation in forging dies. They say that one can avoid
deformation related die failure if we follow the following criterion.
Z p 0.75 H B
Equation 7-2
Figure 7-1 S-N curve with probability lines or S-N-P (Dieter 1986)
The first model for strain controlled fatigue is known as Coffin-Manson law:
91
Were
C
N
2
1 / 2
f
p = = N f
or
Equation 7-3
material constants.
Manson found later a graphic method to evaluate fatigue based on static tensile tests. A
method called universal slopes was also presented by Manson, and it also included a
model that as following:
p =
3.5 u
1 / 2
0 .6
Nf
+ D 0 .6 N f
E
Equation 7-4
were the first term is the elastic strain and the second term is the plastic strain.
u is conventional ultimate strength
E is the elastic modulus
Nf is the number of cycles to failure
f (represented by D) is conventional logarithmic ductility
The graphical representation of this equation is shown in figure 7.2, and it is a very
useful way to evaluate fatigue using static tensile test data.
Figure 7-2. Illustration of the methods for estimating fatigue based in static properties
(Manson 1972)
To
92
1 1
1 + 2
2
T _T > 2
2 1
E
E
1
2
Equation 7-5
N n p = C
F
f
Equation 7-6
1
1
da = a q = a T T 1 1
2 2 ]
p
2
E
E
dN
1
2
Equation 7-7
where
a is the crack length
N is the number of cycles
and q are positive constants dependent on material.
Any physical or process factors that impact the strain difference, impacts heat
checking.
To
93
94
8. CLOSURE
The yield strength of the die material at the surface, exposed to the high contact
temperatures, is one fundamental property influencing die failure. It affects the
occurrence of the following failures:
Plastic deformation
Wear
As the hot and warm forging dies reach high temperature during the working cycles, it
is necessary that the hot yield strength stays stable during the hot work. The yield
strength is the property that directly resists the working pressure, and keeps the dies
working in the elastic field macroscopically. This working condition will provide forged
pieces inside the geometrical tolerance range. However, critical regions of dies can be
subjected to high stresses that can lead to plastic deformation. The thermal stressstrain, or the mechanical stress-strain state can cause thermal fatigue or mechanical
fatigue, respectively. As the amount of plastic strain is the driven cause for fatigue
crack initiation, high yield strength will reduce the amount of plastic strain, retarding
or avoiding the crack initiation. The wear resistance is direct proportional to the yield
strength, represented in the models by the hardness.
The ductility or plasticity of the hot work tool steel is other important property.
Although the dies should work in the elastic regime, localized plastic deformations can
occur. The plastic deformations from thermal origin are difficult to avoid, especially in
regions of high thermal load. In this case, the number of cycle to crack initiation will be
direct proportional to the ductility limit (area reduction in tensile test). Also, crack
propagation is believed to be controlled by plastic deformation in the low cycle fatigue
regimes typical in warm and hot forging.
The toughness or fracture toughness is the materials ability to resist crack growth. This
property will allow the dies to work at a higher stress-crack size without reach the
condition for fragile fracture that will leads to the die catastrophic failure. Low
toughness also increases the crack growth rate.
From the fundamentals of wear, we can safely say that apart from hardness and
subsequent softening of die materials, pressures and the amount of sliding also affect
the failure rates. As discussed in previous chapters, pressure is primarily dictated by
forging material, forging temperature, lubricant used and the geometry of the dies. It
also depends on the die closure, flash and the type of forging equipment used. The
preform shape, lubricant and flash, control sliding distances dies experience during
forging.
Surface hardness depends on, apart from the alloy composition and
microstructure, coating or surface treatments used, lubricant, thermal cycling and to
an extent, preheating.
Unfortunately, the interaction of the forging parameters and the wear and failure rates
is too complex to draw any direct correlation. For instance, forging temperature reduces
the wear resistance of the surface. Also, higher temperatures typically produce thicker,
but not necessarily more adherent, scale. Scales, if adherent, increases wear. However,
the loads felt by the die is lower because of the lower flow stress of the material at high
temperatures. Wear rates, here, would be controlled the relative magnitudes of these
effects and can be predicted only by analyzing all these factors together.
95
It is also important to note that dwell times, heating times and cycle times also have
contrasting effects on wear of dies. Increased heating time would increase scale
formation. In a 2 or 3-step operation involving descaling, this would not be a big factor.
But process designs that employ single blows should pay special attention to heating
times and heating atmosphere. On a side note, thicker scales act as insulators and
keep the billet hotter. Sometimes, scales also act as lubricant, reducing loads. By
increasing dwell time, when the die is in contact with the billet, the lower dies
experience substantial softening. But this also cools the billet in contact with the lower
die, reducing sliding.
Preheating, though effective in reducing the chance of
catastrophic failure and thermal fatigue, increases wear by reducing the hardness and
wear resistance.
As we see, there are many controlling factors that affect wear and die failure. It is
important to evaluate wear as a cumulative result of all these process variables. There
are several models proposed in the literature that try to capture some of these
relationships.
There are several interrelated parameters that affect the performance of forging dies. In
working to improve hot and warm forging dies performance the fundamental step is to
identify what is the dominant failure mechanism. Only with this information, it is
possible to improve the correct properties, and optimize the correct process parameters
that will result in better die performance. During this process, it should be noted that
solutions to reduce wear are different from those that reduce thermal fatigue and
mechanical fatigue. Use of computer simulations (Tulsyan, Shivpuri et al. 1993;
Painter, Shivpuri et al. 1994) could be a necessary first step to evaluate the conditions
at the die-billet interface before a good solution can be obtained.
Although there are several modes of die and tooling failure, because of safety reasons,
the main concern of a tool designer is catastrophic failure of dies. In very few cases,
designers employ predictive model to design tooling to avoid catastrophic failure. The
tendency, in forging industry, is to use material with low hardness and high toughness.
However, beyond a point, toughness does not bring any benefit to the die life. Because
of lock of good understanding of fatigue failure, the design and material choice is done
very conservatively.
Low hardness, because of lower alloying content, reduces the wear resistance. The wear
resistance is function of the tool steel hot hardness, and the carbides in the matrix
(amount, size, and hot hardness). However, generally these carbides reduce the ductility
and toughness. Carbides, necessary to resist wear, can be detrimental to resist die
fracture (toughness) and fatigue (ductility). The wear resistance needs the material to
possess hot yield strength. Thermal fatigue resistance is improved by both critical
ductility is at room temperature and hot hardness. The alloying contents command
both hot hardness and ductility. By carefully tailoring the microstructure and alloy
content to the application, it is possible to balance the different failure mechanisms
such that the tool life is highest. The alloying content in the matrix can be modified by
the heat treatment that controls the dissolved alloys in carbide form. However, higher
the undissolved carbides, higher is the wear resistance. But the thermal fatigue
resistance reduces with higher amounts of undissolved carbide. As can be seen, there is
a complex inter-relation between failures mechanisms and properties that need to be
understood and applied correctly to improve the life of the dies for hot and warm
forging.
We understand that the wear needs a more detailed evaluation under the conditions
usually found in hot and warm forging, and the same is valid for the interactions
between wear and the thermal fatigue. Based in these needs we developed a new test for
96
applications to die forging at high temperature that can evaluate simultaneously the
wear-thermal fatigue failure mechanisms.
It is essential to understand the mechanisms of die failure completely before we can
attempt to increase die lives. As mentioned before, die wear is the major mechanism of
die failure in high temperature forging, followed by mechanical fatigue. We emphasize
that the wear failure initiation can caused or increased by thermal fatigue, as indicated
by: micro observation of the die cavity, and the higher wear rate in dies with more
severe temperature cycle. However, in most cases, several modes of failure act in
conjunction. In this section, we summarize the effect of various criterions on die failure.
97
Figure 9-1. Appearance of plough marks caused by abrasive wear (Stachowiak 1993)
98
Adhesive Wear
The tendency of contacting surfaces to adhere arises from the attractive forces that exist
between the surface atoms of the two materials. If two surfaces are brought together
and then separated, either normally or tangentially, these attractive forces act in such a
way as to attempt to pull material from one surface onto the other. Whenever material
is removed from its original surface in this way, an adhesive wear fragment is created
(Rabinowicz 1995).
Adhesive wear occurs between two sliding surfaces, and the material is transferred from
one surface to another due to a process of solid-phase welding. The early experiments
on adhesive wear were carried out with metals, were the process of adhesion was
referred to as welding. By contrast, it is preferable in all cases to use the term
adhesive wear rather than wear by welding. Figure 9.3 illustrates the welding and
adhesion phenomenon.
99
Figure 9-3 .a) A typical metallurgical weld. b) A typical adhesion joint (Rabinowicz
1995).
Adhesive wear in hot forging can be very similar to welding since the interface
temperatures can be as high as 1200C. This phenomena is generally manifested in the
die picking up portions of the billet material and is accelerated when nascent metallic
die surface comes into contact with the hot billet. This may occur after the following
sequence of events:
The lubricant layers and oxidation layers in the both die surface and billet surface
have been removed by abrasive wear
The base metal of the billet makes contact with the base die steel
The reduced sliding of the billet material with respect to the die material is minimal
but the pressure is very high.
The part is ejected form the die. Either a portion of the die material is removed with
the billet or a portion of the billet material adheres to the die. This second possibility
is more common since the die material is generally several times stronger than the
billet material.
Oxidation Wear
Research about wear in forging suggest that the main wear mechanisms in forging are
abrasion and adhesion. Both mechanisms are classified as mechanical-sliding.
Oxidation can affect wear in hot forging dies because the following reasons.
The oxide film can influence the tool-workpiece interface, especially critical in adhesion
- the thermal fatigue cracks can start in oxidized points, and the cracks are
filled with oxides
- The dies can lose material by oxidation, due to the temperature range at
which the dies surface operates
Summerville and Subramanian (Summerville, Venkatesan et al. 1995) shows (Figure
9.4 a) an example of a hot forging punch with severe wear. The punch central region,
100
that has low sliding, is more affected by oxidation and thermal fatigue. Figure 9.4 (b)
and 11.4 (c) shows how critical the temperatures at the dies surface can be in
determining plastic deformation, phase transformation, oxidation and melting. While
the bulk dies temperature is usually around 350F. The dies sub-surface temperature
usually reaches 1100F, although the peak temperature at surface can reach as high as
1650F in certain applications. The Figure 9.4(d) shows thermal fatigue cracks filled
with oxides (Ribeiro 1998).
a) (Summerville,
1995)
Venkatesan
et
al.
c) (Summerville,
1995)
Venkatesan
et
al.
b)
(Doege 1994)
d) (Ribeiro 1998)
Figure 9-4. a): Hot forging top blocker punch made form H13. b) Cross section of the
punch c) mottled interface d) Oxidation inside of thermal fatigue crack
Corrosive and oxidative wear occurs in a wide variety of situations both lubricated and
unlubricated. Oxidative wear is the wear of dry unlubricated, or even lubricated, metals
101
in the presence of air or oxygen. When thick oxide films are in the worn surfaces, low
wear prevails. When oxide films are absent or broken down, severe wear occurs, and
adhesive wear might be the dominant wear mechanism. The fundamental cause of
these forms of wear is a chemical reaction between the worn material and a corroding
medium that can be a chemical reagent, reactive lubricant or air (Holmes 1972),
(Quinn, Sullivan et al. 1980; Quinn 1983; Quinn 1991)
In the hot forging temperature range the oxide films form very quickly, and the surface
oxidation of the hot forging die can be detected even visually, as the die is submitted to
work. Considering that an oxide film exists on the surface of the die cavity, it could be
beneficial or detrimental to the wear:
The detrimental results will occur when this oxide layer forms and is removed in each
forging operation, causing oxidative wear. The oxide layer detachment could also permit
adhesion, although the thick interlayer die-oxide-billet is still present. The beneficial
results will occur when the oxide acts as an insulation layer between the billet and the
die, preventing adhesive wear
The general result of pin disc test shows that the oxide film formation reduces the wear
rate, it agrees with the expectation because the oxide film layer does not permit
adhesion to occur. Note that in the pin-disc test the oxide layer before wear has only a
few nanometers (Stachowiak 1993), and even during the tests it grows only a few
micrometers (Quinn 1991); resulting in reduction of the wear rate. In the hot forging
process the die-billet interlayer is bigger than in the wear tests, is because it includes: a
relatively thick billet-oxide layer, a relatively thick lubricant layer, an oxide layer in the
surface, due to its exposure to high temperatures.
The thickness of the hot forging inter-layer far exceeds the few atoms thick layer
necessary to prevent adhesion, in basic pin-disc test; although the hot forging interlayer is submitted to severe conditions (high pressure, velocities, and temperatures)
that can brake and take way the oxide layer. What the pin-disc testes show is that an
oxide layer reduce the wear, consequently we have to look for conditions that permit to
form and keep some oxide layer in the hot forging dies surface. The lubricant-oxide
layers that separate the billet and the die can be considered thicker than 50 m.
Remember that the usual oxide thickness that provides wear reduction in pin-disc
tests, is less then 5 m thick (Quinn 1991)
Colombier (Columbier 1965) presents many oxidation rates for allowing elements like
Cr, Al and Si. They are presented in function of the allowing contents, and or
temperature. The behavior' analysis can help to project the surface modification by
coating or heat treatments. Chromium is per excellence the element to be used to
obtain high scaling resistance; its effects begin to appear at around 5%. These 5% Cr
steels are resistant to temperatures of to order of 600C-650C. The addition of 2% Al to
a 6% Cr steel virtually suppresses scaling at 800C over a test period of 100 hours.
Thermal Fatigue
The appearance of a fine network of cracks in the hot and warm forging dies is known
as heat checking. The hot and warm forging processes have a typical cycle that causes
heating and cooling of the dies surfaces. The billet at high temperature is compressed
into the die cavity causing a drastic increase in the surface temperature. The
temperature increase at the surface of the die causes its expansion. At the same time,
the lower temperature of the die block constrains the expansion, generating
compressive stress. Next, the part is ejected from the die and the dies are lubricated.
During the cooling or lubrication, the process is reversed causing tensile stress. The
usual thermal cycle in hot and warm forging can result in thermal expansion that
results in strain reaching plastic limits. When cracks are formed by repetitive change in
102
temperatures the
phenomenon.
phenomenon
is
thermal
fatigue.
Figure
9.5
illustrates
this
(-)
Y
I
E
L
S
T
R
E
N
G
T
H
(+)
STRAIN
Figure 9-5. Illustrates physical changes on the die surface that results in heat
checking (Norstrom 1991)
When the die surface start heating up, the parent metal that is still cold restricts the
thermal expansion resulting in a compressive stress and hence a compressive strain.
This compressive tress is initially in the elastic regime(A). If the temperature
differential is high, the stresses become plastic. This results in permanent
compressive strain on the surface. This state is indicated as state B in Figure 9.5.
After the forging process, the dies are lubricated. Because of the coolant, the surface
cools faster than the bulk resulting in State C where the surface stresses become
tensile and the strains reach elastic limit. Beyond C , all the induced thermal strain is
plastic. The next part made continues to thermally cycle the surface resulting in slow
deterioration of the surface.
The main factors that affect thermal fatigue are forging temperature, heating-cooling
rates, time-temperature history, hot resistance of the die steel, temper resistance of die
steel, ductility and initial hardness of die steel, toughness, cleanliness and homogeneity
of die steel and its heat treatment.
Temperature is the main parameter that controls thermal fatigue. There are different
ways temperature influences thermal fatigues. It not only increases the thermal
103
gradient that causes thermal expansion and stress but also reduces the material
strength by causing metallurgical transformations. High temperature decreases the hot
yield strength, and causes softening by tempering effects. The Larson-Miller curve, used
extensively to evaluate, represents the hardness variation as function of time and
temperature. High temperature also makes the surface weaker and more prone to
oxidation. A drastic cooling rate in intricate dies can also lead to an excessive stressstrain state and result in gross crack by thermal shock.
The yield strength at maximum cycle temperature is directly proportional to the amount
of plastic strain in the die surface during the thermal cycles, and the plastic strain is
the cause of the heat checking. If the material suffers softening by temper effect, the
plastic strain will increase in the same proportion. A correct die prediction has to
consider the softening and use the instantaneous material properties along the thermal
cycles.
Higher values of yield strength or hot hardness will reduce the percentage of plastic
deformation that is ultimate cause of damage. Consequently high hot yield strength can
reduce or even avoid thermal fatigue. However, for practical application in hot die
casting dies the increase in hot yield strength is limited if it is accompanied by:
decrease in ductility, toughness or thermal shock resistance. When those properties are
low, they bring a risk of catastrophic failure or gross cracking by thermal shock.
The dies material needs to be able to resist the pre-heating temperature and the cycles
temperature without excessive lost of hardness. The effect of the cycle temperature is
the sum of the times cycle in the range of the maximum temperature. This property is
represented by the temper curve, especially Larson-Miller type, and by the creep curves.
The thermal fatigue tests confirm that the materials more temperature resistant present
better resistance when the other properties are similar.
The crack initiation is directly proportional to the ductility; as can be seen in the item
with the mathematical models, and It also influences the crack growth. Other aspect is
that if ductility became too low it can cause crack growth rapidly leading to failure with
few cycles, more like and thermal shock or gross cracking. Experimental results shows
that tool materials with low ductility (less than 30% area reduction) presented more
thermal fatigue, and even thermal shock, either when the other properties where in the
same range (Malm and Tidlund 1979), (Rostoker 1969), (Roberts and Norstrom 1987),
The Charpy-V notch impact test is a more common way to measure toughness. Due to
its simplicity, there are many results available. The other test is the fracture toughness
or Kie that has fewer results available because is more difficult to perform and more
expansive. Although, kic has the advantage of to be used in a quantitative way to
evaluate catastrophic failure. The knowledge of Kic for a working condition permits to
calculate the admissible combination of stress and crack depth that do not cause
catastrophic failure. The toughness and the thermal shock resistance seem to be much
related, because both express resistance to crack growing. The first case the mechanical
effort drives the stress and in the second case temperature drives the stress (Norstrom,
Johansson et al. 1981). The thought material permits a die to work with high level of
heat checking without the risk of fragile fracture or gross crack. The toughness it self
(Kic or Charpy-V notch) is not included in the models for crack initiation or crack
growth. The experimental results also do not show direct relation between toughness
and heat checking resistance.
The cleanness, homogeneity and chemical composition are the most commons points
related with property improvement and better performance in process. The properties in
transversal direction tend to be lower, and as the dies suffer efforts in all directions, the
improvement in transversal properties will produce direct effects in dies performance.
The ductility limit is the critical property for thermal fatigue resistance that is improved
by cleanness and homogeneity. The other property that improves is the toughness;
104
related with gross crack and thermal shock. Several authors showed that ductility
improves by cleanness and homogeneity, and that it also results in better thermal
fatigue performance (Johnson and Hamaker 1968; Beck and Santhanam 1976; Okuno
1987; Roberts and Norstrom 1987; Schmitd 1987; Nichols 1988).
The focus of this discussion about dies heat treatment is directed to its effects in
thermal fatigue resistance. The yield strength, or hardness, and the ductility limits are
the controlling variables for thermal fatigue resistance, considering the material a
constant. As a lack in toughness can cause dies failure by gross cracking, the influence
of heat treatment in toughness is also considered. Nostrom (Norstrom 1989) considers
the ductility is influenced primarily by steel manufacturing quality (metallurgical
treatments, etc.) while toughness is influenced chiefly by the final heat treatment of the
die itself (cooling rate in hardening, etc.).
The low quenching rate is the most critical parameter that we found to cause low
toughness or low ductility. The low cooling rates can be result of operational features of
the largely used vacuum furnaces or can precaution against the risk of thermal shock
crack in intricate dies. There are two problems associated with low cooling rates, as
following:
Grain boundary precipitation
Bainite formation
Becker (Becker, Fuchs et al. 1989) shows an example of reduction in toughness due to
carbides precipitation in grain boundary. Wallace, Roberts, and Norstrom (Wallace
1989) (Roberts and Norstrom 1987) made a systematic evaluation of the toughness in
function of martensite, bainite, and grain boundary precipitation. The conclusions are
clear and important and shows the following:
The pure upper bainite has the same toughness range as martensite.
The grain boundary precipitation reduces both martensite and bainite toughness.
The use of 300 F preheating for dies will not increase the toughness of the poorly
treated steels.
To have a high hot yield strength (to avoid or reduce the plastic deformation)
To have a high tempering resistance (to keep the hardness along the work)
Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation is a die failure mechanism that occurs at regions of the die that is
subjected to extreme pressure and temperatures. This occurs when the local stresses
result in die stresses exceeding the local yield strength of the die material. Typical areas
of the die that are prone to plastic deformation are sharp corners of the dies and thin
protuberances that trap a lot of heat during the forging process.
Since extreme pressures and temperatures cause this mode of failure, increased local
forging stresses will increase the chance of plastic deformation. Consequently, all design
and process criterion that impact stresses and die temperatures have an effect on the
plastic deformation of dies. Of these, the forging temperature, size and geometry of the
forging, lubricant used, forging cycle times, type of equipment used and the type of
forging (whether it is conventional or flashless) are the most important factors. These
105
parameters either increase local stresses or reduce the strength of the die by thermal
softening or a combination of both.
From basic metal forming theory, it is well known that the hardness of the material is
about 3 times the yield stress of the material. However, when the thickness of the plate
reduces, the measured hardness measured drops to less than 3 times yield stress. For
these sections, the hardness measured could be as low as 1.15 times the local yield
stress. Figure (6) by Schey (Schey 1987) illustrates this phenomena. Similarly, in metal
forming, features like sharp corners and projections that geometrically thin and
possess less rigidity tend to deform plastically first. Also, these features tend to heat up
quickly because of high exposed surface area, resulting in reduced local hardness.
Simulation of the forging process and analyzing the die stresses and comparing it to the
hot strength of the die material may be the most accurate way to predict plastic
deformation.
106
Figure 9-7. Examples of severe plastic deformation at the die surface (Summerville,
Venkatesan et al. 1995)
107
Crack growth
Catastrophic failure
The forging dies are subjected to high pressures in order to fill the die cavity. In high
volume batch production like a forging operation, dies are subjected to repeated loading
and unloading (Figure 9.11). Similar to thermal fatigue, mechanical fatigue is caused
by alternating stresses that cause strains at crack tips regions exceed the plastic limit.
Repeated loading of the crack results in the advancement or propagation of cracks
resulting in gross cracking.
There are several models that are present in the literature that model the fracture
behavior of materials. Appendix D details these models and provides different ways of
modeling fatigue crack initiation, propagation and catastrophic failure. Figure 9.12
(Dieter 1986) represents the different phases of crack growth in a fatigue failure. These
models have enabled researchers to quantify objectively, the fatigue resistance of
materials at low and high stress levels. These models try to identify the number of
cycles necessary to initiate a crack or necessary to propagate a crack by a given
amount.
108
Figure 9-10 Schematic interaction between the parameter in hot forging and the
cracking (Knorr 1993)
Figure 9-11 Illustration of a critical region in extrusion dies, where the fillet radius is
subject to tensile stress (Cser, Geiger et al. 1993)
109
Figure 9-13 Tulsan (Tulsyan, Shivpuri et al. 1993) presents a curve form Storen and
others for different tool steels and heat treatment. a) fracture toughness properties as
function of the working temperatures and the heat treatments b) materials and heat
treatment list
Using these models, there has been a lot of testing done to characterize high and low
cycle mechanical fatigue. However, most of the testing have been performed on alloys
that are not commonly used in high temperature forging. Most of the testing have been
done at room temperature. The hot and warm forging dies works in temperatures higher
than room temperature. Dies are preheated to improve toughness. Also, the die surfaces
110
heat up due to the contact with the hot billet. It is necessary to consider the working
condition when looking at the fatigue curves.
The fatigue test at high temperature showed that environment effects the fatigue
resistance. The tests involving air and vacuum atmospheres showed that the
phenomena in dependent of the temperature and the frequency (Figure 9.13) (Tulsyan,
Shivpuri et al. 1993). Studies by Storen have indicated that oxidation also increases the
fatigue damage. In hot and warming forging operations the dies are also in contact with
spray that contains water and lubricant, and that could cause also affect fatigue.
Fatigue data that could be applied towards metal forming applications should consider
the following
Tool steel, heat treatment, surface treatment, and coatings applicable to hot and
warm forging
The following figures (Figure 9.14, Figure 9.15, Figure 9.16, Table 11.1.) illustrates the
temperature influence.
Figure 9-14 Results in air and vacuum atmospheres, showing the ambient effect at
the fatigue resistance in high temperatures (Salomon 1972)
111
Figure 9-15 Correlation of high and low cycle fatigue data for solution treated type
304 stainless steel as a function of alternating stress (Soo 1972).
112
113
1/4
Cr-1Mo
114
Table 9-1. Results for crack propagation typo Paris da/dN for the constants C, n. b)
Materials compositions for the hot tool steels used (Schuchtar 1988).
From the models, we see that toughness is essential in avoiding gross cracking.
Toughness is the ability of the material to withstand large plastic strains. While
increasing yield strain increases the fatigue resistance of dies, it frequently reduces the
hardness of the dies and its wear resistance. To avoid catastrophic failure, one must
reduce the mechanical stress, increase the material toughness and avoid diemanufacturing processes that induce stress cracks. Geometrical features of the part
and die, that increase stresses also reduce the fatigue life of the tooling. These could be
Forged material
115
the dies, with analytic or FEM methods. Finally, a more precise evaluation should
consider the strains due to mechanical stress and due to thermal stress. Using the
stress and strain variations and the appropriate constants, the fatigue life needs to be
calculated.
The final goal when design the forging process is to obtain a sound forged piece without
dies catastrophic failure. However, it is also necessary to keep a good die life by
avoiding excessive die wear and thermal fatigue. Some examples of actions to reduce
mechanical fatigue are:
Increase corner radii, if possible
Use inserts and prestress dies in rings
Use correct die block heat treatment (low quenching rates tends to cause carbide
precipitation in grain boundary that reduces the toughness). The inserts can also
help to have small sections to quench.
Use surface heat treatments, coatings or surfacing that allow to have high block
toughness combined with higher properties at the cavity surface
Use die preheating that increase the toughness
Avoid die overloading due to process variations
Several die geometry effect in the stress state were presented by Knorr and Shivpuri
(Knorr 1993), from Mareczek and Stute-Schlamme, Erlmann et al., and some are
presented in the figures 11.16 presents examples of this effects.
116
Figure 9-18 series of cases with stress concentration in forging dies presented by
Knorr (Knorr 1993). a) b) From Erlmann at al.; c) -d) From Mareczek
117
Figure 10-1. Abrasion resistance of several tool steels versus structural parameter
(wear index) (Blau 1992)
118
Figure 10-2. Variation of wear index with die hardness at room temperature
(Kannapan 1969; Kannapan 1970)
119
Figure 10-3. Wear resistance of .55% C die steel with hardness, % Cr and heat
treatment. 1 indicates (Kannapan 1969; Kannapan 1970)
120
Figure 10-4. Wear test results using different die materials (Bramley, Lord et al. 1989)
121
Figure 10-5. Wear test results using different die materials (Bramley, Lord et al. 1989)
Figure 10-6. Variation of wear index with different die steels. The graphs also
illustrate the effect of different forging steel (Thomas 1970)
122
Preform design
Prime cause of die wear is sliding and high normal stresses on the die. As a result, any
aspect of die design that impacts these will affect die failure. Aspects of the die cavity
that impact the die pressures are the cavity depth, size of the part, flash thickness, size
of flash gutter, part geometry and the preform or blocker design.
Heinemeyer
(Heinemeyer 1976) studied the relationship between the die life and the cavity depth
using 160 part geometries and 2300 production runs. The trend he obtained from his
studies is shown in Figure 13.1. Heinemeyer also reports the effect of energy and load
on die wear (Figure 11.2). However, Heinemeyers deduction that nominal load increase
die life may be inaccurate. It is well known fact that higher the loads, higher are the
normal pressures on the dies and higher is the ensuing wear.
Aston and Muir (Aston 1969) and later, Aston and Barry (Aston, Hopkins et al. 1972)
did a series of analysis of data from forge shops in England. They derived empirical
relationships between damage and a series of design and process variables. From their
study, they found that damage increases with the forging weight (Figure 11.3). It is
possible, there were other factors that changed the nature of relationship between the
nominal load and wear. Also, the damage increases with the size of forging (Figure
11.4). Aston and others also noted that damage increased with weight, draft angle, and
dropped with increasing radius and increasing contact area (Figure 11.5). Again, this is
fallacious because, it is well known that, if all other factors are kept constant, the
tonnage required is directly related to the size of the forging.
123
Figure 11-1. Effect of maximum cavity depth on die life (Heinemeyer 1976)
Figure 11-2. Effect of nominal load and energy on average die lives (Heinemeyer 1976)
124
125
Figure 11-4. Variation of die damage with size of forging (Aston and Barry 1972)
126
Figure 11-5. Effect of forging weight, fillet radii, draft angles and contact area on wear
of forging dies (Aston 1969)
Flash design is extremely important in defining the loads in a forging process.
Consequently, flash design becomes a factor that affects the die life also. A higher
nominal load on the press directly translates into higher stress on the die. This could
damage the die in many ways. High stress cycling could result in mechanical fatigue
and cracking. Also, higher normal pressures on the die surface will result in higher
abrasive wear. However, restricting flash size is essential to ensure good fill.
Billet alloy
The forging pressure is directly proportional to the wear damage. Billet materials that
have high yield strengths at high temperatures, will result in high die pressures that
will result in more wear. Figure 11.6 by Thomas illustrates this effect. He reports that
as the carbon content increases, the die stress and the die wear increases. High carbon
also forms more carbides that results in higher abrasion of dies.
Alloy steels like stainless steels also result in high wear because they form very
destructive oxide layers that are very adherent. These oxide layers can not be broken
easily and increase the wear. However, no quantitative results exist in this area. Other
examples of material with high yield stress that causes accentuated wear are alloys for
turbine blades and engine valves (Tulsyan, Shivpuri et al. 1993; Painter, Shivpuri et al.
1994).
Figure 11-6. Effect of various tool steel on die wear (Thomas 1970)
127
Billet Temperature
Loosely speaking, forging at a lower billet temperature has the same effect as using a
higher carbon alloy. Forging at lower temperatures increases the flow stress of the steel
and the load required to forge a part. It also decreases the formability of the steel.
However, forging at lower temperature reduces the tempering the die steel experiences
by reducing the surface temperature of the dies. Increase in billet temperatures can
also dramatically increase the friction (Ribeiro 1993). For a specified flow,, friction
increases die wear by increasing the loads or normal pressures on the die surface.
Thomas (Thomas 1971) shows that the increase in bulk die temperature increases the
wear (Figure 11.7). The results presented by Thomas (Thomas 1971) illustrate very well
the variation of wear in function of temperature. Thomas also found that increasing the
stock temperature reduces the wear after a critical point. The effect of stock
temperature on wear is complicated. It is the combination of competing effects of
friction, load and die tempering. Figure 11.8 illustrates this very well.
Doege (Doege 1994) found wear reduction when reducing the forging temperature form
1373 K (1100 C) to 1173 K (900 C). This is in agreement with findings of Thomas.
Figure 11-7. Effect of bulk temperature and stock temperature on wear of hammer
dies (Thomas 1971)
Choice of forging equipment plays a decisive role in determining life of a die. Forging
equipment hammer, mechanical press or hydraulic press determines the strain rates
and loads experienced material flow, forging duration and the incidental die tempering
effects. Astons (Aston 1969) findings presented in Figure 4.25 illustrates this effect.
Aston found that the average life of dies in hammer forging of 5 different part families
he studied, is much higher the die lives in press forged parts.
Figure 11-8. Relative die damage of five different part families when forged in a
hammer and a press (Aston 1969)
129
a)
b)
Figure 11-9. Effect of dwell time on the wear volumes observed (Rooks 1974)
130
Figure 11-10. Die wear for three different dwell times for a) H.50 dies and b) No. 5 tool
steel dies (Rooks 1974)
Presses have higher dwell times compared to hammer because of the forging speeds.
Rooks (Rooks 1974) studies also illustrate the effect of dwell times on the wear depths.
Rooks found that at lower dwell times, the wear depths were higher for lubricated dies
and lower for non-lubricated dies (Figures 13.10). Note that the trends are different for
the lubricated dies and non-lubricated dies.
By the same analogy, because of tremendous die tempering that is found in hydraulic
press forgings, die wear would be most severe when these presses are used. However, in
some applications like forging extrusions, where low speeds and long strokes are
essential to the viability of the process, hydraulic presses become a necessity.
The wear of dies on the press was about three times as great as on the hammer for the
same number of identical forgings [Blau, 1992] (Bishop 1957). However, it should be
noted that the high contact time that usually causes severe hardness loss in
martensitic steels could increase hardness in precipitation hardening steels (Nagpal
1976).
Press or forging speed also increases the velocity or forging strain rates. In hot forming,
this increases the die stresses as well as the sliding velocities. Also, as the sliding
velocity increase, the heat generation at the interface increases. Dwell time is defined as
the time that the dies and the billet are in contact under pressure.
131
Figure 11-11. Effect of scaling time on adhesive wear characteristics (Thomas 1971)
Selection of heating equipment also affects the die life in a subtle manner. Heating
duration and the presence of inert atmosphere affects the type and amount of scales
formed. Thomas found that the percentage of adherent scale drops with increase in
heating times (Figure 11.11). Figure 11.11 also shows that a heating atmosphere which
is richer in oxygen reduces the adherent scale because of higher oxidation found. This
has the same effect as increased heating times. Adherent scale increases wear by
making the descaling process less effective. Box furnace and slot furnaces increase the
heating duration, thus helping reduce the adherent scale and reducing wear. Induction
heaters, on the other hand, heat the billets fast and may produce a very thin adherent
layer of oxide that may be detrimental to the life of dies. This could however be reduced
by the use of inert atmosphere. The use of controlled atmosphere in the heating furnace
can have practical applications in hot-warm forging to reduce the oxidation rate.
The effect of furnace selection on die wear of extrusion dies is presented in Figure 11.13
(Doege, Seidel et al. 1996). It should be noted that, in extrusion, there is no de-scaling
process that results in more scales acting as abrasives. It should also be noted that
scales act as a thermal barrier between the dies and the work piece. Figure 4.31 shows
the variation of oxide thickness on the die temperature (Kellow, Bramley et al. 1969).
132
Figure 11-12: Oxide formation on 080M40 (En8) steel billets heated to 1100C (Dean
1974).
Figure 11-13. Scale formation and adherence as function of heating time and furnace
atmosphere (Thomas 1971)
133
Figure 11-14. Effect of furnace selection on die wear of extrusion dies (Doege, Seidel
et al. 1996)
134
Figure 11-15. Effect of scale thickness on the die surface temperature (Kellow,
Bramley et al. 1969)
Die Preheating
Preheating dies help reduce the chance of gross cracking by increasing the toughness of
dies. Appendix B provides toughness information on several die steels at different
temperatures. Preheating also reduces thermal fatigue by reducing the thermal gradient
between the surface layers and the bulk of the die steel. However, by increasing the
bulk die temperature, the bulk hardness and the surface hardness of the die drops.
This results in increased die wear. Netthofel (Netthofel 1965) shows this effect in Figure
11.16. Netthofels results obtained from wear testing experiments explained, also
provides some insights into the effect of forging temperature on wear.
135
Figure 11-16. Effect of forging temperature on the wear depth after forging 4000
pieces (Netthofel 1965)
Die preheating also affects phase transformation at die surface. The phase transforms
from martensite-austenite during the heating followed by the transformation back to
untempered martensite (Okell and Wolstencroft 1968). The dies surface micrographs
shows white layer, micro cracks, and micro plastic deformation (Summerville,
Venkatesan et al. 1995; Doege, Seidel et al. 1996).
Lubrication
Graphite-water and graphite-oil are the most effective lubricants in hot die forging.
Graphite-free lubricants cause die life reduction when compared with graphite base
lubricants, specially for high sliding distances. (Doege, Seidel et al. 1996) Lubrication
decreases the friction and hence pressure as well as increases sliding. For a given
metal flow, lubrication decreases pressures and die wear. Thomas (Thomas 1971) found
that the wear in three times less for lubricated conditions. However, there are studies in
the literature that show the contrary. This is because, decreasing the friction increase
sliding, if unrestricted, thus increasing wear (Singh, Rooks et al. 1973). This
phenomena is clear from figures 13.17, 13.18 and 13.19.
136
Figure 11-17. Variation of wear pattern of the top and bottom dies with lubrication
(Singh, Rooks et al. 1973)
Figure 11-18. Variation of wear rate with lubrication (Singh, Rooks et al. 1973)
137
Figure 11-19. Variation of wear volume with die bulk temperature for lubricated and
dry forging (Singh, Rooks et al. 1973)
138
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