App G PDF

S0300-A8-HBK-010
APPENDIX G
ANCHORING SYSTEMS
G-1 INTRODUCTION
This appendix discusses anchoring systems by type, performance, holding capacity, and design, as commonly used in salvage operations. An
anchoring system consists of the anchor itself, the mooring line that transmits forces from moored vessels or pulling systems to the anchor, and
an attachment point or tensioning system on the moored vessel or work platform. The anchor line normally consists of chain, wire rope, or some
combination of the two, but may include fiber line or rigid elements. The anchor provides the majority of the resistance to motion, or holding
capacity, but the contribution of portions of the anchor line buried in or lying on the seafloor may be significant, especially with chain. The
portion of anchoring system outboard of the attachment point or tensioning system, including the anchor, anchor line, and other ancillary devices,
is sometimes called the ground leg.
(a) DRAG-EMBEDMENT
(c) GRAPPLING
(b) DEADWEIGHT
(d) DIRECT-EMBEDMENT
(e) PILE
Figure G-1. Simplified Anchor Types.
Anchors can be roughly divided into five types, as shown in Figure G-1:
Drag-embedment anchors,
Deadweight anchors or clumps,
Grappling devices,
Direct-embedment anchors, and
Pile anchors.
G-1
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Suitability of the five anchor types for various

conditions is given in Table G-1. Advantages and
disadvantages of various anchor types are given in
Table G-2.
Detailed information on anchor
performance, applicability, and use can be
obtained from the Naval Civil Engineering
Laboratory (Code L 42) Port Hueneme, California,
telephone (805) 982-9419 or AUTOVON 3605419. Specialty anchors, such as propellantembedment or large drag-embedment anchors, can
be procured through the Ocean Engineering and
Construction Project Office, Chesapeake Division,
Naval Facilities Command (Code FPO-1), telephone (202) 433-3881 or AUTOVON 288-3881.
Determination of holding power of deadweight,
direct-embedment, and pile anchors require an
understanding of basic soil mechanics. The
discussions of these types of anchors (Paragraphs
G-3, G-5, and G-6) draws heavily on the
information presented in Paragraph 3-7.
The information on direct-embedment and pile
anchors is presented to enable the salvage engineer
to conduct preliminary evaluations of the
feasibility of these anchor types for use in various
salvage situations.
Whenever possible, the
assistance of a marine geotechnical engineer
should be sought if it appears that directembedment or pile anchors may be particularly
suited to a salvage requirement.
Table G-1. Comparison of Anchor Types.
Item
Deadweight Pile
DirectDragGrappling
embedment embedment
Seafloor Material
Soft clay, mud
Soft clay layer (0-20 ft) over hard layer
Stiff clay
Sand
Hard glacial till
Boulders
Soft rock or coral
Hard, massive rock
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
+
++
++
++
++
o
++
+
++
o
++
++
++
o
++
+
++
+
++
++
+
o
+
o
+
++
++
Seafloor Topography
Slope < 10 degrees
Slope > 10 degrees
++
o
++
++
++
++
++
o
Loading Direction
Omnidirectional
Unidirectional
Large uplift
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
++
o
++
o
o
++
++
Lateral Load Range

To 100,000 lbs
100,000 - 1,000,000 lbs
Over 1,000,000 lbs
++
+
o
+
++
++
++
+
o
++
++
o
++
o
o
o
o
o
o
++ Functions well
+ Functions well, but not normally the best choice
o Does not function well
Table G-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Anchor Types.

Drag-embedment Anchors
Deadweight Anchors
Pile Anchors
Advantages
Advantages
Advantages
Advantages
High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) possible.

Broad range of types and sizes
available.
Standard, off-the-shelf equipment.
Broad use experience.
Continuous resistance can be provided
even if maximum capacity is exceeded.
Anchor is recoverable.
Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line

scope.
No setting distance is required.
Anchor is reliable because most holding
force is due to anchor mass.
Simple, on-site construction is feasible.
Size is limited only by load-handling
equipment.
Economical if material is readily available.
Reliable on thin sediment cover over rock.
Mooring line connection is easy to inspect
and service.
High capacity (>100,000 lbs) possible.

scopes.
Anchor setting is not required.
Dragging is eliminated.
Drilled and grouted piles are especially
suited for hard coral or rock seafloors.
Simple, on-site construction is feasible.
Anchor does not protrude above seafloor.
Driven piles are cost-competitive with other
high-capacity anchors when driving
equipment is available.
Comes in a wide range of sizes and
shapes, such as pipe and structural shapes.
Field modifications permit piles to be
tailored to suit particular requirements.
Accurate anchor placement is possible.
Can be driven into layered seafloor.
High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) is possible.

scopes.
Dragging is eliminated.
Has higher holding capacity-to-weight ratio
than any other type.
Easier handling due to relatively light weight.
Can function on moderate slopes and hard
seafloors.1
Easier installation due to possible instant
embedment on seafloor contact.1
Accurate placement is possible.
Anchor does not protrude above seafloor.
Can accommodate layered seafloors or
seafloors with variable resistance.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Anchor cannot resist uplift; large line
scopes are needed to cause near
horizontal loading at seafloor.
Does not function in hard seafloors.
Behavior is erratic in layered seafloors.
Penetrating/dragging anchor can
damage pipelines, cables, etc.
Lateral load resistance is low compared to Taut moorings may aggravate ship
other anchor types.
response to waves (low resilience).1
Usable water depth is reduced;
Drilled and grouted installation is expensive
deadweight can be an undesirable
and requires special skills and equipment.
obstruction.
Costs increase rapidly in deep water or
Requires large-capacity load-handling
exposed locations where special installation
equipment for placement.
vessels are required.
Special equipment (pile extractor) is
required to retrieve or refurbish the
mooring.
More extensive site data are required than
for other anchor types.
Pile-driving equipment must maintain
position during installation.
1
From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
G-2
True for any taut mooring
Direct-embedment Anchors
Disadvantages
Susceptible to cyclic load-strength reduction
when used in taut moorings in loose sand or
coarse silt seafloors.
For critical moorings, knowledge of soil
engineering properties is required.
Anchor typically is not recoverable.
Special consideration is needed for
ordnance.1
Anchor cable is susceptible to abrasion and
fatigue.1
Gun system is not generally recoverable in
deep water (> 1,000 ft)
Surface vessel must maintain position during
installation.
1
Propellent-embedded anchor
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G-2 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
Drag-embedment anchors (or drag anchors) are used for temporary moorings and as anchor points for beach gear, parbuckling rigs, or other
pulling systems. Drag anchors are generally known by manufacturers tradenames.
Drag-embedment anchor performance is discussed in detail in Appendix G and Paragraph 6-3.4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume
1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010); Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of that manual describes and illustrates the six anchorsNAVMOOR, Stato, Eells, LWT, Danforth,
and Stocklesscommonly used for Navy moorings and beach gear. The following paragraphs supplement the Salvage Manual discussion, and
provide performance data for some commercial anchors not described in the manual.
The underwater weight of an anchor is less than dry weight because of the difference in buoyancy, but performance criteria are usually based
on dry weight. Advertised or tabulated anchor weights are nominal and may differ from actual weight by as much as 15 percent; for example,
a 6,000-pound NAVMOOR anchor actually weighs about 7,200 pounds.
G-2.1 Function. A properly functioning drag-embedment anchor is lowered or dropped to the seafloor and pulled along the bottom until it
tripsrotates to a position where the fluke or flukes are forced into the seabedpenetrates the seafloor, and embeds itself to the depth required
to develop its maximum holding capacity. Successful deployment depends on several factors, including anchor geometry, anchor line length,
and soil conditions. Seemingly minor features can affect anchor performance dramatically. The following paragraphs discuss the effects of
various aspects of anchor geometry on anchor performance. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of soil properties.
G-2.1.1 Tripping. In general, anchors with heavy crowns, small or nonexistent tripping palms, or those with the shank/fluke hinge far back
on the fluke exhibit tripping problems. Examples of anchors with these inherent features and attendant lack of tripping reliability include
Stockless, LWT, and Stevfix (see Figure G-8). Tripping problems occur most often in soft soils and are overcome by proper anchor selection
and deployment. Two platforms are required to deploy a ground leg so that there is a high probability of trippingone platform to pay out
the ground leg, and one to handle, lower, and position the anchor for digging in when the anchor line is tensioned. Paragraph G-2.1.1. of the
U.S Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) describes this process in greater detail.
G-2.1.2 Penetration. During penetration,
the flukes dig into the soil under the action
of the anchors weight, horizontal traction
exerted by the anchor line on the shank,
T
and soil reaction on the flukes and other
F
surfaces, as shown in Figure G-2.
W = ANCHOR WEIGHT
Penetration is complete when the when the
F = SOIL REACTION ON FLUKES
W
upper level of the flukes is flush with the
T = GROUND LEG TENSION
seafloor surface. The angle formed by the
flukes and shank when fully opened (fluke
angle, ) is one of the most important
Figure G-2. Forces Affecting Anchor Penetration.
factors governing anchor penetration. For
a given anchor geometry and soil
combination, there is a critical or optimum fluke angle, c. For fluke angles less than the critical angle, penetration is possible, but is hindered
by the formation of a rigid wedge of soil that adheres to the flukes and increases resistance to penetration. The soil is sheared along a line at
the outer edge of the soil wedge on the flukes; the soil failure line forms an angle with the fluke. When the fluke angle varies, the sum
+ remains fairly constant. The practical consequence of this process is the formation of a ball of soil that retards penetration as it is pushed
along ahead of the anchor. When the fluke angle is approximately equal to the critical angle, penetration is accomplished by simple shearing
of the soil along a surface close to and approximately parallel to the fluke surface. The angle is reduced to 0, and the soil wedge to a thin
boundary layer. If the fluke angle is greater than the critical fluke angle, the flukes rotate sharply and the rear of the anchor rises above the
seafloor, and the anchor tends to break out and may overturn and drag on one side. Without stabilizers, the anchor will slide on the side of the
flukes and not reset or penetrate.
For most articulated, reversible anchors, critical fluke angle is approximately:
30 to 35 degrees in granular soils (sand, gravel),
50 degrees in soft soils (mud, silt, soft clay), and
25 to 30 degrees in stiff clays.
G-3
G-2.1.3 Burial. After initial penetration

of a properly functioning anchor, the
tractive force exerted by the anchor line
mobilizes soil forces (drag) on various
surfaces of the anchor:
The anchor will bury itself until it reaches

a depth where the upward forces balance
the downward forces. Resistance forces
increase rapidly with depth, as soil strength
increases and length of embedded anchor
line increases. As burial depth increases,
the anchor rotates because the shank tends
to align itself with the anchor line and the
downward component of the soil forces on
the flukes decreases.
Most reversible
anchors cannot be buried in dense sands or
stiff clays because soil shear strength is too
high to permit penetration of the shank,
anchor line, and stabilizers. Specialized
anchors have been developed that are
capable of burial in stiff soils.
ANCHORS
PENETRATE
0
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
ANCHOR WEIGHT, TONS
100
Figure G-3. Anchor Penetration in Coarse-Grained Soils.
Because of geometry and

angle of attack, the vertical
component of the soil
resistance to horizontal
movement on the flukes is
directed downwards.
The vertical component of
drag forces on the shank,
anchor line, stocks/stabilizers,
palms, etc., is directed
upwards.
ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,

ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
4,000
ANCHORS DO
NOT PENETRATE
SOIL COHESION (LB/FT2)
ANCHORS DO
NOT PENETRATE
3,000
2,000
PE
B NE
U T
T R
N AT
O I
T O
G N
U P
A O
R S
A S
N S
TE IB
ED LE
Anchor penetration is also inhibited by the

presence of large soil elements and the
relative stiffness of cohesive soils. Figures
G-3 and G-4 illustrate the probability of
anchor penetration as functions of anchor
weight and soil features.
8
PE
N
ET
R
AT
O ION
F
LA HA
R M
G P
E ER
EL E
EM D
ENBY
TS PR
ES
EN
C
E
Fluke roughness determines the inclination

(B) of the soil reaction on the fluke. For
rough flukes (cast steel, ribbed flukes, etc.),
the stress inclination is essentially the same
as the soils internal friction angle. For
smooth flukes (rust-free plate), the stress
inclination is much smaller than the friction
angle and seldom greater than 25 degrees.
The smaller stress inclination makes the
fluke more resistant to the formation of the
rigid soil wedge; critical fluke angle is
greater, broadening the range of soils for
which the anchor is suited.
PRESENCE OF ELEMENTS LARGER THAN (IN):
S0300-A8-HBK-010
ANCHORS
PENETRATE
1,000
0
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
ANCHOR WEIGHT (TONS)

Figure G-4. Anchor Penetration in Stiff Soils.
Fluke angle affects burial in much the same way that it affects penetration. Optimum burial angle is generally slightly smaller than critical
penetration angle.
Overall streamlining enhances anchor burial. The crown, palms, shank, and stock or stabilizers especially inhibit burial, especially if they are
located forward on the anchor so as to interfere with the plastic flow of soil over the flukes. Since these features are necessary to the functioning
of the anchor, they cannot be eliminated. In some anchorssuch as the Hookcrown, palms, and stabilizers are placed to the rear of the
anchor, under the fluke, to minimize resistance to burial. Anchors of this type are unilateral, and must be lowered to the seafloor to ensure
tripping and penetration. The bearing area of the underside of the shank is the major surface resisting burial, and the first to come into play
in most anchors. The greater the bearing area of the shank, the greater the resistance to burial. In general, if the ratio of shank bearing area
to fluke area is greater than 0.13, burial is not possible. Minimum shank cross-sectional area is set by design holding capacity; bearing area
is minimized in various anchor designs by using short shanks and/or beveling the edges of the shanks at about 45 degrees.
G-4
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Anchors and/or the anchor line can be fitted

with special burial devices that increase the
area producing downward components of
soil resisting forces.
Typical devices
include auxiliary plates fitted to the forward
part of the shank (making the anchor
unilateral), fluke extenders, and anchor line
depressors. Anchor line depressors are
streamlined steel castings that enhance
burial of the anchor line, with an active
area of about 30 percent of the anchors
fluke area, and weight of about 10 percent
of anchor weight. One manufacturer claims
that three depressors in series can double
the holding power of a Bruce anchor.
RATED
EFFICIENCY
EFFICIENCY e = T/W
Anchor line characteristics affect burial

depth significantly. For equal breaking
strengths, the maximum cross section of
chain is several times more than that of
wire rope; chain will create more drag and
resist burial to a greater degree than wire
rope. Anchors on wire rope will achieve
greater burial depth, and therefore greater
holding capacity than the same anchor on
chain. The increase in holding capacity of
the anchor may be offset by the decrease in
the holding capacity of the buried portion
of the anchor line.
ANCHOR DRAGGING AT
CONSTANT DEPTH
AND TENSION
W
F
T
L
=
=
=
=
ANCHOR WEIGHT
FLUKE LENGTH
ANCHOR LINE TENSION
DISTANCE
DEEP BURIAL
SOFT CLAY
PENETRATION WITHOUT
BURIAL
3
2
INSTABILITY
1
TRIPPING
DEFECT
2
RELATIVE DRAG DISTANCE, L/F

Figure G-5. Holding Capacity Plots for Different Anchor Behavior.
Burial and development of holding capacity

can be monitored with a tensiometer. As the ground leg is tensioned, tension is plotted against drag distance as shown in Figure G-5. If tension
increases steadily (exponentially), the anchor has tripped and is penetrating. If the tension indicator fluctuates or remains static, tripping and/or
burial is incomplete. Dragging should be halted and the anchor reset.
G-2.1.4 Stability. A stable anchor can be pulled over long distances (several times its dimensions) without lying on its site, overturning, or
breaking out of the seabed. After penetration and burial, traction force is essentially constant. There are two types of instability:
Lateral instability rotation about the axis of the shank/anchor line, occurring most often during penetration, but also during
dragging, causing the anchor to move upwards and possibly break out of the seabed.
Vertical instability the anchor moves upward in a vertical plane defined by the shank/anchor line at the end of penetration or
while dragging, either by translation or rotation about a horizontal axis through the shank attachment point.
Lateral instability is usually related to anchor geometry. Anchors with very long and narrow flukes, such as the LWT and Danforth, are basically
unstable, and are fitted with long stabilizers to prevent rotation. Wide fluke spacing gives good stability in homogeneous soils, but anchors with
tapered, closely spaced flukes are more stable in heterogeneous soils because there is greater probability that both flukes will operate in soil
of the same strength and consistency. Closely spaced flukes are a disadvantage if the soil contains coarse elements large enough to jam between
the flukes. Fouling by wire rope or other obstructions, especially over only one fluke, will cause serious instability. Heavy crowns cause
overturning during penetration, especially in heterogeneous soils. Manufacturing defects or damage, especially those causing asymmetry between
flukes, cause rotational moments as the anchor is dragged, due to the difference in soil forces generated on the flukes. Twisted or bent shanks
or stabilizers and asymmetrically attached pendants can also cause instability.
Lateral instability is avoided or overcome by structural arrangement of the anchor, including the addition of specific components. Stocks at the
forward end of the shank, or stabilizers at the rear of the flukes prevent lateral rotation, and are effective if properly dimensioned. Their
effectiveness is reduced in very soft or fluid soils. Stocks or stabilizers add to the bulkiness of the anchor, hamper handling and stowage, and
inhibit burial. Bent, broken, or fouled stabilizers can induce instability by creating laterally unsymmetrical soil forces. Some anchors, such as
the Flipper Delta, Eells, and AC-14 are constructed with plate surfaces in planes different from that of the flukes to provide stability. Certain
nonarticulating anchors, such as the Bruce, are designed to be self-stabilizingwhen the anchor begins to rotate, the change in attitude increases
soil force on the rising side and decreases soil forces on sinking side, returning the anchor to its upright position.
G-5
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Vertical instability is related to the point of

application of the tractive force relative to
the barycenter (center of soil pressure on
the fluke surfaces). In a freely articulating
anchor (fluke-to-traction-line angle not
constrained) the burial path of the anchor is
determined by the relative position of the
articulation axis and the barycenter, as
shown in Figure G-6. Free articulation
achieves maximum burial depth, but is
seldom used because anchor stability is
very sensitive to the location of the
articulation axis. Instead, tractive force is
applied through a rigid shank so that
articulation occurs above the barycenter and
the shank can be blocked to prevent fluke
angle from exceeding the critical
penetration/burial angle. As the shank is
shortened, the articulation axis (anchor line
to shank attachment) moves closer to the
barycenter, and the critical angle increases.
Burial depth increases, but the anchor
becomes more sensitive to the soil type and
local soil heterogeneities.
G-2.2 Holding Capacity. Resistance to
horizontal movement, or anchor holding
capacity, increases with burial depth
because deeper soil is generally denser and
stronger, and provides increased resistance
to the anchor moving through it. Holding
power is primarily determined by the mass
of the displaced soil. Therefore, deeply
embedded anchors with a large fluke area
perform better because they cause the
largest displacement of strongest soil.
Stable anchors provide constant holding
capacity once they reach maximum burial
depth, even if dragged. For an anchor to
develop its maximum holding capacity, it
must penetrate to its optimum depth. If the
anchors burial is halted by a hard layer, it
will drag along the layer, providing
constant resistance (holding capacity) less
than maximum capacity. Until an anchor
reaches its equilibrium depth, burial depth
is a function of drag distance. If drag
distance is to be limited (to avoid fouling
submarine cables, for example), the anchor
cannot be loaded to full capacity.
The Power Law Method is the best
technique to predict holding capacity.
Holding capacity, Hm, is determined by:
W
a
Hm = Hr
10,000
BURIAL DEPTH
2
ATTACHMENT POINT/ARTICULATION AXIS:
1 BEHIND BARYCENTER
2 NEAR BARYCENTER
3 FORWARD OF BARYCENTER
DRAG DISTANCE
Figure G-6. Burial Behavior Versus Articulation.
Table G-3. Power Law Coefficients.

Soft soils, soft clays and silts
Hard soils, sands and stiff clays
Anchor typea
HR (lbs 1,000)
HR (lbs 1,000)
BOSS
BRUCE Cast
BRUCE Twin Shank (TS)
BRUCE Flat-fluke Twin Shank (FFTS)
Danforth
Flipper Delta
G.S. (AC-14)
Hook
Lightweight (LWT)
210
32
189
250
87
139
87
189
87
0.94
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
Moorfast
87
0.92
NAVMOOR
210
0.94
Offdrill II
87
0.92
0.94
0.80
0.94
-b
0.80
-b
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.94
0.80
0.80
STATO
210
0.94
STEVDIG
STEVFIX
STEVIN
STEVMUD
STEVPRIS (straight shank)
139
189
139
250
189
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.92
Stockless (fixed fluke)
46
0.92
Stockless (movable fluke)
24
0.92
270
250
210
-b
126
-b
126
100
126
60
100c
270
60
100c
250d
190g
290
290
165
-e
210
70
44f
70
44f
See Figures G-6 and G-7 for plotted results.

a
b
c
Fluke angles set for 50 degrees in soft soils and according to manufacturers specifications in hard soils, except when otherwise noted
No data available
For 28-degree fluke angle
d
e
f
g
For 30-degree foot angle (STATO)

Anchor not used in this seafloor condition
For 48-degree fluke angle
For dense sand conditions (near shore)
where:
Hr =
Wa =
b =
G-6
holding capacity of a 10,000-pound (dry weight) version of the reference anchor, from Table G-3
anchor weight for which Hm is to be determined, lbs
an exponent depending on the anchor and soil type, from Table G-3
0.94
0.80
0.80
0.80
-e
0.94
0.80
0.80
S0300-A8-HBK-010
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ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY (x 1,000 POUNDS)
FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR MUD AS

PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATION
O
O
R
FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR SAND AS

PER MANUFACTURERS SPECIFICATION
BO
SS
,
1,000
900
800
700
600
6 7 8 9 10
20
30 40 1
6 7 8 9 10
20
ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS)
ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS)
CAPACITY IN SAND
CAPACITY IN MUD
30
40
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-7. Anchor Holding Capacity.
This method produces a straight-line relationship between anchor holding capacity and anchor weight on a log-log plot, as shown in Figure G-7
for various commercial and Navy anchors.
Holding power for a given anchor can also be calculated by multiplying the anchors weight by its efficiency (also called holding power factor).
H = We
where:
H
W
e
=
=
=
holding power, lbs

anchor dry weight, lbs
anchor efficiency, dimensionless
Caution must be applied when determining holding power by anchor efficiency, as holding power is not a linear function of anchor weight.
Anchor efficiencies are valid only for the specified weight. If the efficiency for a given anchor weight is used to predict performance of a larger
anchor of the same type, holding power will be overestimated.
When a single anchor will not develop the required holding capacity, it is common practice to install a second anchor on the same mooring leg
in a piggyback rig. Anchors can be rigged in tandem or doubled. Paragraph 6-3.4.3 of the U.S Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6MAN-010) discusses double and tandem anchor rigs in detail. When properly rigged and deployed, tandem anchors can develop more than twice
the capacity of a single anchor in the same soil. Holding capacity can also be increased by use of large weights, or sinkers, attached to anchor
lines to absorb energy and ensure horizontal loading on the anchor. If the sinker-to-anchor-line connection fails, the sinker will be lost and the
entire mooring may fail. Connections must allow free movement of chain links in order to avoid distortion or failure of links. Sinker shackles,
shown in Figure 7-32, or appropriately dimensioned plate shackles should be used to allow free movement of chain links.
G-7
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table G-4. Anchor Selection.

Soil Type
Soil Type
Sands
Muds
Improved Stockless
++
++
Delta Triple
++
High-performance Stockless
++
Doris mud
++
Stock
++
++
Hook
++
++
Stevin
++
Stevshark
++
++
Stockless
Bruce
++
Flipper Delta
++
++
Anchor
Stiff Clays Heterogeneous
Anchor
Muds
Stiff Clays Heterogeneous
Specific Anchors
Multipurpose Anchors
++
+
o
Sands
Functions well
Functions, but not the best choice
Does not function well
From The Use of Anchors in Offshore Petroleum Operations, A. Puech, 1984
G-2.3 Selection. Anchor selection is a two-step process, in which:
One or more anchor types are chosen for use based on overall performance in the expected soil, availability, and cost.
The selected anchor type is sized to develop the required holding capacity.
To aid the selection process, Table G-4 lists anchor applicability by soil type. Table G-5 rates anchor types subjectively, based on field
experience and test findings with small anchors.
Table G-5. Rating of Drag-embedment Anchor Types.

Reliability
Anchor Type
Cohesionless Soils (sands) a
Cohesive Soils (clays and plastic silts)

Tripping/Dig-in
Stability
Holding Capacity
Tripping/Dig-in
Stability
Holding Capacity
Stocklessb (movable fluke)
Low
Medium
Low
High
Medium
Low
Stocklessb (fixed fluke)
High
Medium
Low
High
High
Low
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
G.S. (AC 14)

Danforth
Medium
Low
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Lightweight (LWT)
Low
Low
Low
High
Medium
Medium
STATO/NAVMOORd
High
Medium
High
High
High
High
Moorfast
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Offdrill II
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Flipper Delta
Medium
Medium
STEVIN
Medium
Medium
STEVFIX
Low
Low
High
High
Medium
High
STEVPRIS
High
High
High
STEVDIG
High
Medium
High
STEVMUD
High
High
BOSS
High
Medium
High
High
High
Hook
High
High
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
BRUCE Cast
High
High
Low
High
High
High
Bruce Twin-shank
High
High
High
High
High
a
b
c
d
e
Fluke angle set at manufacturers recommendation for sand

With stabilizers (ratings not as high without stabilizers)
Insufficient data available for rating
Fluke angle set at 30 degrees for sand
Anchor not normally used in this seafloor
G-8
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-2.4 Drag Anchor Types. Physical

characteristics of an anchor affect its
tripping, penetration, stability, and overall
performance. Anchors can be classed by
general characteristics such as fluke/shank
angle (typical anchors for each class are
shown in Figure G-8); the presence and
geometry of stabilizers, crowns, tripping
palms; and hinge function:
Deeply penetrating anchors of

unique geometry with holding
power roughly proportional to
the third power of penetration
such as Stevshark and Delta
(see Paragraphs G-2.5.1 and
G-2.5.2).
Anchors with elbowed shanks
for deep penetration, such as
Bruce, Hook, and AC-12 (see
Paragraphs G-2.5.3 and G2.5.4).
Anchors with large, hollow
flukes, hinges near the center
of gravity, and relatively
short shanks and stabilizers,
known generically as Stevin
anchors (see Paragraph G2.5.5).
High-performance stockless
anchors with hinge and
stabilizers at the rear and
relatively long shanks and
stabilizers such as Moorfast,
O f f d r i l l , S TAT O ,
NAVMOOR, LWT, etc. (see
Paragraph G-2.5.6 and the
U.S. Naval Ship Salvage
Manual, Volume 1 (S0300A6-MAN-010)).
Improved stockless anchors
with short, thick stabilizers,
hinges at the rear and
relatively short, more or less
square shanks, such as the
AC-14, Stokes, and similar
anchors (see Paragraph G2.5.7).
STEVSHARK
DEEP PENETRATION ANCHORS
BRUCE
BRUCE T.S.
ADMIRALTY
AC-12
HOOK
ELBOWED SHANK ANCHORS

STEVDIG/
STEVIN
STEVMUD
STEVFIX
STEVIN ANCHORS
DANFORTH
L.W.T.
MOORFAST/
STATO/
NAVMOOR
BOSS
HIGH PERFORMANCE STOCKLESS ANCHORS

ADMIRALTY
AC-14
STOKES
SNUGSTOW
WELDHOLD
IMPROVED STOCKLESS ANCHORS

NAVY
STOCKLESS
Standard stockless anchors,

such as the Navy Stockless
and similar commercial patterns (see Paragraph G-2.5.8).
Stocked anchors with small
fluke area and stabilizers at
the front of the shank such as
the Stock (old-fashioned or
Admiralty), Single Fluke
Stock, Dredger, etc. (see
Paragraph G-2.5.9).
FLIPPER
DELTA
DELTA
BEIJERS
HALLS
SPECK
STANDARD STOCKLESS ANCHORS
ADMIRALTY
AM-7
SINGLE-FLUKE
STOCK
DREDGER
MOORING
ANCHOR
STOCKED ANCHORS
Figure G-8. Drag-Embedment Anchors.
G-9
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-2.5 Drag Anchor Notes. The following notes describe features specific to some commonly used drag anchors, such as tripping, penetration,
burial, and effectiveness in various soil types. The NAVMOOR, STATO, LWT, Danforth, Eells, and Navy Stockless anchors, described in
Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010), are not addressed here.
G-2.5.1 Stevshark. The Stevshark is a ballastable anchor with fixed twin-shank fitted with teeth. It is used primarily for temporary and
permanent moorings in stiff clays and heterogeneous sediments, but in practice tripping is generally incomplete in very stiff clays due to teeth
hooking. Burial is impossible in very stiff soils. The anchor breaks out easily.
G-2.5.2 Delta. The Delta is a compact, unilateral, pointed-fluke anchor which exhibits excellent tripping and stability in all soil types. Delta
anchors embed deeply in soft soils and are recommended for temporary moorings in mud and sand seafloors. A variation known as the Delta Triple
consists of three Delta anchors welded together. The Delta Triple penetrates rapidly and deeply, but is very bulky and difficult to handle. Delta
Triple anchors are generally used for permanent moorings in sandy soils. The Flipper Delta is a bilateral anchor with cut-out, pointed flukes in the
shape of right triangles with the right angles against the shank. The crown is open and cage-like with the outboard perimeters formed by angled
plates that act as stabilizing fins. Stability and tripping reliability are excellent in all types of soil; burial is deep in soft soils, but hampered by the
crown in stiff or heterogeneous soils. The anchor is bulky on deck, but resists fouling as there are no projecting parts other than the shank.
G-2.5.3 Bruce. The Bruce is a rugged, nonarticulating, self-stabilizing anchor, usually constructed of cast steel. Penetration is satisfactory
in clays, and good for temporary moorings in sand; stability is very good. A welded steel version, with two cross-stiffened shanks is known
as the Bruce TS (twin-shank).
G-2.5.4 Hook. The Hook anchor is a nonreversible, large-area plate anchor with a curved shank, used primarily for permanent moorings in
sand and mud. The Hook anchor trips satisfactorily, but penetration is difficult, and stability is poor in stiff soils.
G-2.5.5 Stevin. Stevin anchors are distinguished by several features:
Strong streamlined shanks, hinged near the anchors barycenter, to enhance penetration.
Hollow flukes to give maximum fluke area for anchor weight.
Stabilizers protruding from the flukes to overcome instability inherent in hinging the shank near the barycenter.
Fluke-to-shank angle adjustable for different soil conditions.
Crowns specially designed to enhance tripping.
The Stevin anchor family includes the basic Stevin, Stevdig, Stevfix, and Stevmud anchors (the Stevshark is produced by the same manufacturer
as the Stevin anchors, but is a distinct anchor type, as discussed in Paragraph G-2.5.1). Tripping is satisfactory in all soils. Penetration is very
good in sandy and soft seafloors, but difficult in stiff soils. Stability is generally good. Stevin anchors are characterized by reliable holding
power, minimum weight, and easy handling.
The Stevfix is based on the basic Stevin design, with a considerably enlarged fluke area (about 64 percent). Stock stabilizers combined with
the fluke points prevent the anchor from sliding over the bottom on its side. Holding power in mud is about 30 times anchor weight. For very
soft mud, an adapter can be fitted to the anchor to increase fluke area by 80 percent.
The Stevmud has enlarged flukes to increase holding capacity in very soft mud. The fluke area is twice that of the basic Stevin (see Figure
G-8); holding power in mud is about 35 times anchor weight.
G-2.5.6 Moorfast. The Moorfast is a cast version of the Stato anchor, but of heavier construction. The fluke area is half that of the Stato,
and holding power is about 14 times weight. Moorfast anchors are provided with wedges to set fluke angle for 32 degrees in sand and 50
degrees in mud. The Moorfast crown is suitable for use in mud without modification. T-ATF-166 Class tugs carry a large Moorfast anchor
hawsed in the stem. The Offdrill anchor is similar to the Moorfast, but with slightly smaller flukes.
G-2.5.7 Improved Stockless Anchors. Most of the anchors in this class have holding capacities of about 8 times anchor weight in soft soils,
and from 10 to 15 times anchor weight in sand or firm clay. The AC-14 is used as a ships anchor by the Royal Navy and is approved by
Lloyds and ABS. Fluke angle is 34 degrees. Stabilizer fins ensure continuous penetration. The Danforth-Jackson Stokes anchor is similar.
G-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-2.5.8 Standard Stockless. Stockless anchors were designed for use as ships anchors. Consequently, they are more easily recovered but
less efficient than higher performance mooring anchors. Fluke angle is set at 45 to 48 degrees for most stockless types. Holding efficiency
is about 4.5 times the anchor weight for U.S Navy Stockless, and 2 to 3 times the anchor weight for most commercial Stockless anchors.
Performance is enhanced by fitting stabilizers, and by welding or blocking flukes open at the critical angle for the soil.
G-2.5.9 Stock Anchors. With the stabilizing stock forward of, and at right angles to the fluke(s), burial is impossible with stock anchors; the
relative orientation of fluke and stock does ensure reliable tripping and penetration, however. They are capable of significant holding capacity,
often as high as 15 times anchor weight in firm clay or sand. They can resist moderate uplift because the embedded fluke digs in like a pickaxe
when the end of the shank is raised. Because of its grappling ability, the old-fashioned Stock and similar anchors can hold on coral or rocky
ground. The single blade salvage anchor, shown in Figure G-9, is commonly used by commercial salvors and is a modification of the admiralty
pattern AM-7 single fluke anchor. The
enlarged fluke area increases holding
capacity in soft soils.
G-2.5.10 Doris Mud. The Doris Mud
anchor shown in Figure G-9 is a unilateral,
nonarticulating anchor especially designed
for soft soils, and does not readily fit into
any of the anchor classes defined in
Paragraph G-2.4. Stability is good, but
penetration and burial are possible only in
very soft soils where the large area of the
bulldozer-like blade resists forward motion.
The anchor is bulky and difficult to handle
and break out.
SINGLE-BLADE
SALVAGE ANCHOR
DORIS MUD ANCHOR
Figure G-9. Specialized Anchors for Soft (Mud) Seafloors.
G-3 DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS
Any heavy object that can be placed on the seafloor can be used as a deadweight anchor. Steel, concrete, and ferro-cement clumps are
commonly used. Factors to consider in selection of deadweight anchors and their installation include:
Water depth.
Seafloor slope.
Presence and rate of soil erosion.
Degree of sediment consolidation.
Significant characteristics of common deadweight anchors are shown in Figure G-10 (Page G-12).
G-3.1 Holding Capacity. Holding power of a deadweight anchor is the force required to lift or drag the large weight over the sea bottom.
Resistance to uplift or vertical force is simply the submerged weight of the anchor, plus suction effects in soft bottoms. Resistance to dragging
results from friction between the seafloor and the anchor. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of basic soil properties and calculations.
Lateral loads result from several causes:
Mooring line tension,
Down-slope force of gravity on a sloping seafloor,
Current drag, and
Storm-wave or earthquake loading.
G-11
S0300-A8-HBK-010
(a) SINKER
(b) SQUAT CLUMP
(c) RAILROAD RAILS

OR SCRAP IRON
(d) CONCRETE SLAB

WITH SHEAR KEYS
EFFICIENT UPLIFT
EASY TO HANDLE
LOW OVERTURNING
MORE AREA CONTACTING SOIL
LOW BULK, HIGH WEIGHT

LOW COST
HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY

SCOUR CONTROL
(e) OPEN FRAME WITH

WEIGHTED CORNERS
HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY
REDUCED LOWERING
LINE DYNAMIC TENSIONS
SHALLOW BURIAL
(f) MUSHROOM
(g) WEDGE
(h) SLANTED SKIRT
SHALLOW BURIAL
SHALLOW BURIAL
LOW OVERTURNING
UNI-DIRECTIONAL
DEEPER BURIAL
UNI-DIRECTIONAL
H
zs
Df
(i) HIGH LATERAL
CAPACITY, FREE FALL
(j) FREE FALL (DELCO)
FREE-FALL
INSTALLATION
HIGH LATERAL
CAPACITY
FREE FALL
INSTALLATION
EFFICIENT UPLIFT
SHEAR
KEYS
B
(k) DEAD WEIGHT GEOMETRY
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-10. Deadweight Anchors.
G-3.1.1 Static Short-term and Cyclic Loading in Cohesive Soils. Static short-term loading and cyclic lateral loading on cohesive soils are
treated as undrained failure problems. The maximum lateral load capacity (parallel to the seafloor), Qul, for an anchor on cohesive soil is:
Qul = suzA + 2 suaDf B
where:
suz
sua
A
Df
B
G-12
=
=
=
=
=
undrained shear strength of the soil at depth Df , [force/length2]

average undrained shear strength between the seafloor and depth Df, [force/length2]
foundation or anchor base area, [length2]
embedment depth of foundation or anchor (depth of shear key tip below the seafloor), [length]
minimum foundation or anchor base dimension (usually called the foundation width), [length]
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-3.1.2 Static Short- and Long-term Loading in Cohesionless Soils. For cohesionless soils, lateral load failure is a drained soil failure, and
the maximum lateral load capacity in sliding is:
Qul = Wb + b A Df
where:
Wb
Fve
Fh
bADf
b
A
Df
Rp
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Fve cos
coefficient of friction between anchor base and soil or between soil and soil when shear keys cause deep failure (shear keys
are described in Paragraph G-3.1.3)
underwater (buoyant) weight of anchor, [force]
design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the vertical direction (upward is positive), [force]
design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the horizontal direction (down-slope is assumed positive), [force]
buoyant weight of soil trapped in shear keys, [force]
buoyant unit weight of soil, [force/length3] (see Table 3-3, Page 3-18)
base area of the anchor, [length2]
embedment depth of shear keys, below the seafloor surface, [length]
seafloor slope angle
passive soil resistance on leading edge of base, [force]
The coefficient of friction depends on soil type and anchor

roughness. Table G-6 gives coefficients of friction for typical
materials and marine cohesionless soils. In the absence of
better information, the internal coefficient of friction can be
estimated from the soil friction angle :
=
=
Fh sin + Rp
Table G-6. Coefficient of Friction for Deadweight Anchors.

Internal
Friction
Coefficient
Soil
tan ( - 5) degrees for a rough steel or concrete

base without shear keys
tan for a base with shear keys
Friction angle is given for various soils in Table 3-3 on

Page 3-18.
Smooth
Steel
Rough Smooth
Rough Smooth
Steel Concrete Concrete PVC
Quartz Sand
0.67
0.27
0.60
0.60
0.69
0.33
Coralline sand
0.67
0.20
0.63
0.63
0.66
0.20
Oolitic Sand
0.79
0.23
0.56
0.58
0.74
0.26
Foraminiferous Sand-Silt
0.64
0.40
0.66
0.67
---
0.40
When the anchor is embedded deeply or fitted with shear keys, a wedge of soil in passive failure develops in front of the leading foundation
edge and provides resistance to sliding. In some cases, this passive wedge can contribute about 10 percent of the total lateral resistance.
Because the sediment comprising the passive wedge may be removed by current scour or by animal burrowing, the contribution of the passive
wedge to sliding resistance is usually neglected.
To maintain stability against sliding, a factor of safety, Fs, can be applied to the lateral load capacity, Qul, to account for uncertainties in soil
data or failure mechanism:
Fs =
Qul
(Wb b A Df
Fve) sin + Fhcos
For most applications, a factor of safety of 1.5 to 2 is adequate. The minimum underwater (buoyant) weight of the anchor is derived from the
maximum lateral load capacity equation, assuming Rp = 0:
Wb =
(Fs + tan) Fh
Fs tan
+ Fve
b A D f
For level seafloors, is 0 and anchor buoyant weight is:
F F
Wb = s h + Fve

b A D f
Anchors with skirts but without shear keys are more likely to slide along the foundation base rather than at the depth of the skirtthe buoyant
weight of soil in the skirts/keys (bADf) is neglected.
G-13
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-3.1.3 Shear Keys. Shear keys are

vertical plates added to the base of
deadweight anchors to increase lateral load
capacity by forcing the failure surface (the
surface on which the anchor slides), deeper
into the seafloor, where stronger soils resist
higher lateral loads. Three possible failure
modes for shallow foundations fitted with
shear keys are shown in Figure G-11.
Shear keys should be placed close enough
to each other to force sliding failure to
occur at the base of the shear keys, as
shown in Figure G-11(a).
SEAFLOOR
zs
POTENTIAL
FAILURE
PLANES
POTENTIAL
FAILURE
PLANES
(a) SLIDING BASE FAILURE
(b) DEEP PASSIVE FAILURE
B
Fh
POTENTIAL
FAILURE
PLANES
(c) PASSIVE WEDGE FAILURE
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING,

KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-11. Soil Failure Modes for Sliding Deadweights.
The number of shear keys, n, required in

each direction is computed by comparing
the design load parallel to the seafloor to the passive resistance developed per key:
Wb sin
Fs Fhp
Rp
where:
Fhp
Fs
Wb
=
=
=
=
resultant of applied loads in the down-slope direction, [force]

safety factor
buoyant weight of the anchor, [length]
seafloor slope
Minimum shear key spacing should equal the shear key depth for cohesive soils and twice the shear key depth for cohesionless soils. The
passive resistance developed by one shear key, Rp is:
zs
+ 2sua zs B
Rp = b
2
K p b z s B
(cohesive soils)
Rp =
(cohesionless soil)
where:
zs
sua
b
B
Kp
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
shear key depth below base of the anchor, [length]

average undrained soil shear strength between the foundation base and the tip of the key, [force/length2]
soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3]
shear key width, [length]
coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure
tan2(45o + 0.5)
soil internal friction angle (see Table 3-3)
In cohesionless soils, a shear key depth of 0.05B is appropriate for internal shear keys. The shear key around the edge of the foundation, or
the perimeter skirt, prevents undermining of the anchor by scouring and is normally deeper; a depth of 0.1B is recommended. The depth of
shear keys or perimeter skirts is usually limited by the net downward force available to drive the keys. Shear keys should be designed to
penetrate fully under only the submerged weight of the anchor. Penetration is assisted by installing vent holes in the base to allow water and
soft surficial soils trapped by the keys to escape. Sharpening the leading edge of keys will also aid penetration.
G-3.1.4 Overturning Resistance. If subjected to excessive lateral and uplift loading, a deadweight anchor on a horizontal surface may rotate
about a point near the leading edge of its base. On sloping seafloors, the forces are resolved into components parallel and normal to the seafloor
surface. Stability against overturning is achieved by insuring the resisting or stabilizing moment, Ms, is greater than the overturning moment,
Mo. To insure full contact between the base and the supporting soil, the anchor should be designed so that the resultant normal soil reaction,
Rs, acts within the middle one-third of the base. The point where Rs crosses the shear key line is then the assumed point of anchor rotation.
The maximum stabilizing moment is:
(Wb Fve) B
Ms =
6
The soil within the shear keys is assumed to separate from the base during overturning, and does not contribute to the stabilizing moment.
G-14
S0300-A8-HBK-010
The overturning moment is:

Mo = Fh H1 + zs
where:
H1 =
zs =
vertical distance from Fh to the base of the shear key

depth of the shear key tip below the foundation base
To maintain stability, Ms must be greater than Mo:

Wb
Fve B
6
Fh H1 + zs
For preliminary sizing, the minimum width of the anchor can be calculated from:
B =
6Fh H1 + zs
Wb
Fve
To minimize the potential for overturning, the moment arm of the lateral load component (the distance H1 + zs) should be kept as small as
possible. This is most easily done by minimizing height of the deadweight; H1 should be limited to 0.25B, if possible.
G-3.2 Shallow Foundations. Lateral load capacity, uplift resistance, and overturning resistance for foundations are calculated by the same
equations used for deadweight anchors, with two modifications:
Buoyant weight of the anchor, Wb is replaced by buoyant weight of the foundation and supported structure, Wbf + Wbst. Buoyant
weight of surface-piercing structures will vary with tide, swell, and other water level fluctuations.
Significant lateral loads may result from current and/or wind loads on the supported structure.
When evaluating a foundations stability against overturning, using the highest values possible for Wbf and Wbst may not give a realistic estimate
of the stabilizing moment, Ms. If lower values for Wb and Wbst are possible at the same time the maximum values for Fve and Fh occur, the lower
values should be used. Foundation placement should be smooth and continuous to minimize disturbance to the seafloor soil and creation of an
eccentric foundation orientation. Bearing capacity (downward load), Qu is determined by:
Q u = A s uN c K c + b D f K q
where:
A
su
Nc
b
Df
Kc,Kq
=
=
=
=
=
=
effective base area of foundation, [length2]

undrained shear strength of cohesive soilaveraged over the distance B below the foundation base, [force/length2]
bearing capacity factor; for undrained failure Nc = 5.14
buoyant unit weight of soil above the foundation base, [force/length3]
depth of embedment of foundation
correction factors which account for load inclination, foundation shape, embedment depth, and inclination of ground. For a
nearly level surface, a nearly square or round shape, and a vertical load, Kc = 1.2 and Kq = 1.0.
If the load is eccentric, or includes a moment, bearing capacity is based on a reduced foundation base to soil contact area. Effective dimensions
are calculated from the eccentricity, e. For a rectangular footing, effective length (L), breadth (B), and area (A), are:
L = L - 2el
B = B - 2eb
A = B L
where:
el
eb
=
=
distance from center of footing to center of load, measured parallel to the long axis of footing
distance measured parallel to short axis of footing
Foundation settlement due to elastic deformations and soil consolidation may pose a significant problem, even in the absence of a bearing
capacity failure, because such settlements are rarely uniform. The occurrence of differential settlement is greatly enhanced by eccentric loading.
G-15
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-4 GRAPPLING DEVICES

Grappling devices are used to engage and hold against solid massive seafloor features, such as coral heads, rock outcrops, and crevices or ledges
in rock and coral bottoms. Holding power depends on the strength of the grappling device and the seafloor features. Correct pulling angle and
constant tension must be maintained to prevent the anchor from losing its grip and sliding.
G-5 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
Direct-embedment anchors are installed in such a manner that the anchor is buried before the anchor line is loaded, in contrast to dragembedment anchors which bury themselves as they are loaded. Deadmen, clumps, or drag anchors placed in excavated pits and buried are crude
but effective direct-embedment anchors, as are drag anchors settled into the seafloor by diver-jetting or explosive-induced vibration. Purposebuilt direct-embedment anchors are primarily plate-type anchors which are inserted vertically into the seafloor and expanded or re-oriented to
increase pullout resistance. There are five major types of direct embedment anchors:
Propellant-driven,
Vibratory-driven,
Impact-driven,
Jetted-in, and
Augured-in.
Direct-embedment anchors offer significant advantages over other types of anchors, including a very high holding capacity/weight ratio, resistance
to uplift, and the ability to support short ground leg scopes and tight moorings. Advantages and drawbacks of direct-embedment anchors are
given in Table G-7.
Table G-7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct-embedment Anchors.
Anchor Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Vibro-driven
Deep burial.
High values of holding capacity/weight ratio.
Accept vertical/multidirectional forces.
Emplacement cost increases rapidly with

anchor size and water depth.
Propellantembedded
Same as above.
Penetration probable in relatively hard soils (consolidated clays, coral, and
glacial tills).
Rapid installation.
Possibility of misfire.
Shock wave, personnel safety.
Frequent damage to anchor chain.
Jetted-in
Same advantages as for vibro-driven anchors.

Used in sands which are easily liquified.
Sand returns to denser condition, increasing holding power.
Need for dual system (water injection and

sediment extraction of sand by air lift.
Application limited to thick, sandy beds.
Not good in clay.
Slow and uneconomical.
Augured-in
Used for anchoring pipelines to seafloor.

Anchoring in tandem provides torque reaction on each anchor.
500 FSW limit due to difficulty in

supplying hydraulic power to greater
depths.
G-16
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.1 Propellant-embedded Anchors.

Propellant-embedded anchors are fired into
the seafloor by a gun barrel to achieve high
holding capacities.
They have been
developed for both deep and shallow water
use, and have the significant advantage of
near-instantaneous embedment on seafloor
contact.
1. TOUCHDOWN
(FIRING)
2. ANCHOR
PENETRATION
3. ANCHOR
KEYING
4. ANCHORAGE
ESTABLISHED
Propellant-embedded anchors do not require

a support stand during installation, can be
installed without difficulty on moderate
slope, and do not require deployment
vessels to remain on station for an extended
period, as do vibratory or impact-driven
systems.
After firing on touchdown, the anchor
penetrates and comes to rest deep within
the seafloor substrate. When a load is
applied to the mooring line, the anchor
keys, or rotates, into a position of maximum
resistance. The installation sequence is
shown in Figure G-12.
Because of the limited selection of
propellant-embedment anchors, design is a
matter of selecting an adequately sized
anchor and fluke pattern appropriate to the
seabed. The NCEL propellant-embedment
anchor, with various fluke patterns, is
shown in Figure G-13 (Page G-19).
Propellant-embedment anchor performance
and physical characteristics are given in
Tables G-8 and G-9 (Page G-18).
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-12. Installation Sequence for a Propellant-Embedment Anchor.
Table G-8. Propellant-embedded Anchors (PEA).
Measured or Estimated Holding Capacity (kips)

Anchor Type
NCEL, Port Hueneme, CA

Navy 10K
Navy 20K
Navy 100K
SUPSALV 100K
NAVY 300Kg
U.S. Army Mobility Equipment R & D Center,
Fort Belvoir, VA
XM-50
A/S/ Raufoss, Ammunisjonsfabrikker, Norway
REA 250TD
Nominal Capacity (lbs)

x 1,000
Design Operational
Water Depth, ft
10
20
100
100
300
Sand
Claya
Coral
25 - 20,000
50c - 20,000
35 - 20,000
35c - 700c
50 - 20,000
30
60
250
250
600
15
35
150
150
450
35b
35d
110e
105f
50
9c - 150
70h
100
180
70
e
a
b
c
d
Average for soft clays found in ocean basins

Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 4,200 psi
Has been used at this water depth
Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 3,400 psi
Average of 22 tests in coral with an unknown strength

Average of 6 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 1,500 - 2,500
psi
g
Anchor is under developmentcapacities are estimated
h
Average of 2 tests in coral of unknown unconfined strength
f
From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnicial Engineering, 1985
G-17
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table G-9. PEA Characteristics and Performance.

Anchor Type
10K
20K
100K
SUPSALV 100K
300Ka
Length, gun with fluke, ft
6.5
9.0
12.0
13.0
15.0
Diameter or width, ft
2.0
3.5
6.0
8.0
8.0
Nominal weight, in air, lbs
650
2,000
7,000
14,000
18,000
Operating water depth, ft
25-20,000
50-20,000
35-20,000
25-500
50-20,000
10,000
20,000
100,000
100,000
300,000
370-390
360-460
380-500
380-500
380-520
length x width, ft
2x1
3x2
5 x 2.5
5.5 x 2.8
7x4
bearing area, ft2
1.9
5.5
11.0
13.0
24.0
weight in air, lbs
160
290
1,300
4,000
length x width, ft
2x2
3x3
6x4
6.7 x 3.3
8x7
bearing area, ft2
3.7
8.5
28.0
22.0
56.0
weight in air, lbs
185
420
2,100
1,900
6,800
2x1
3 x 1.5
5 x 2 or 6 x 3.2
6.7 x 3.3
25.0
35.0
52.0
64.0
Anchor System Characteristics
Nominal holding capacity, lbs

Fluke velocity, fps
Fluke Dimensions
Sand:
Clay:
Coral:
length x width, ft
Estimated Penetration, ft
Clay Flukes
Soft basin soil (silty clay)
Distal turbidite (low su)
19.0
27.0
43.0
57.0
Distal turbidite, (high su)
19.0
26.0
39.0
49.0
Proximal turbidite
17.0
23.0
33.0
41.0
Calcareous ooze (deep water)
27.0
39.0
60.0
72.0
Coarse calcareous ooze (low su)
25.0
35.0
54.0
63.0
Coarse calcareous ooze (high su)
19.0
27.0
42.0
50.0
Siliceous ooze
30.0
43.0
65.0
79.0
Pelagic clay (low su)
33.0
47.0
68.0
81.0
Pelagic clay (high su)
27.0
37.0
52.0
63.0
12.0
17.0
25.0
30.0
Medium dense sand ( = 35 deg, t = 120 pcf)
11.0
16.0
23.0
27.0
Dense sand ( = 40 deg, t = 130 pcf)c
10.0
15.0
21.0
25.0
Corala
2-7
3-12
10-37
8-35
Sand Flukes
Loose sand ( = 30 deg,t = 110 pcf)c
c
a
b
c
Estimated parameters for anchor under development

No experience
t = Total unit weight
G-18
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.1.1 Holding Capacity in Coral.

Holding capacitythe load required to pull
the anchor fluke out of the seafloor in a
few minutesis thought to result from the
plate-like fluke keying or partially keying
into the coral formation under increasing
anchor line load. Because the failure mode
is not well understood, mechanistic models
to predict holding capacity have not been
developed. Holding capacity has not been
related to coral strength; as coral strength
increases, penetration decreases, but holding
capacity remains approximately constant.
Average holding capacity in coral is given
in Table G-8 for various sizes of
propellant-embedded anchors.
Holding
capacity of anchor flukes embedded by the
NCEL 10K and 20K systems were
evaluated by a simple regression analysis,
yielding an equation for predicting holding
capacity as a function of kinetic energy:
Fc
SAFE-AND-ARM
DEVICE
3.3 FT
GUN ASSEMBLY
FLUKE ASSEMBLY
REACTION
VESSEL
2.0 FT
GUN
BARREL
CLAY
FLUKE
SAND
FLUKE
TOUCHDOWN
PROBE
0.684
m v 2
TOUCHDOWN
PROBE (READY
POSITION)
10K ANCHOR SHOWING SAND
AND CLAY FLUKES
holding capacity, [kips]

anchor fluke and piston
mass, [slugs]
initial fluke velocity, [fps]
This equation is completely empirical and is

not dimensionally stable. Values used for m
and v must be in the units described. The
use of this equation is therefore limited to
the range of input parameters covered by the
data from which it was developed; it is valid
only for anchor fluke shapes similar to the
NCEL plate-like coral fluke and for coral
with unconfined compressive strengths
ranging from 1,500 to 4,200 psi.
1 FT
1 FT
=
=
2 FT
Fc
m
10K CORAL FLUKE USED AT

BARBERS POINT, OAHU, HAWAII
3 FT
where:
EXPERIMENTAL ROCK FLUKE

FOR 20K SYSTEM
Figure G-13. Navy Propellant-Embedded Anchors.
G-5.1.2
Holding Capacity in Rock.
Holding capacity is thought to result from
high compressive stresses between the rock
Table G-10. NCEL 20K Propellent-Embedded Anchor Tests in Rock.
and the conical fluke and from the bonding
of comminuted rock to the fluke surface by
Rock Type
Approximate
Comments
Penetration
Peak Load
the heat generated during penetration.
Compressive Strength
(Vertical)
Model tests indicate that holding capacity
psi
ft
lbs
decreases with rock type in the following
Sandstone
2,000
3
45,000
Could not extract, wire failed
order: granite, basalt, limestone, shale, and
Sandstone
2,000
3.6
42,000
Could not extract
sandstone. The results of six test firings of
Basalt
3,000
3
--Not tested
an NCEl 20K anchor are shown in Table
Basalt
3,000
3
65,000
G-10. In other tests by NCEL, propellantBasalt
3,000
3
65,000
embedded rock flukes have carried vertical
Basalt
3,000
3
75,000
loads greater than 100,000 pounds and
lateral loads approaching 200,000 pounds
without failure. At present, these and similar test results are the only guide to expected performance of the NCEL rock fluke. It is not known
how these results may extrapolate to other rock types or to other size anchors.
To date, efforts to develop a reliable holding-capacity equation for the propellant-embedded anchors in hard rock have not been successful. Local
rock strength variations within the rock types tested are believed to be largely responsible for the lack of consistent holding capacity performance.
Work is continuing in this area to better understand embedment anchor behavior and to allow development of a predictive method. NCEL should
be contacted for the best estimates of holding capacity in rock, and anchors should be proof-loaded to verify adequate capacity.
G-19
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.1.3 Sediment Overburden. The

energy imparted to the anchor fluke by the
firing system is attenuated during
penetration through overlying soil layers,
resulting in shallower penetration into the
rock or coral layer and presumably lower
holding capacity. There is insufficient data
to estimate the influence of different types
or depths of sediment overburden; most
tests have been conducted on bare
formations. NCEL 100K anchors with
coral flukes have been installed through up
10 feet of coralline sands and oozes without
capacity degradation, as judged by proofloading. Smaller anchors that penetrate
about half as far as the 100K anchor presumably would not be affected by similar
sediment layers up to five feet deep. The
effect of sediment overburden on conical
rock flukes is unknown; tentative guidance
is to limit their use to sediment depths of
less than 10 feet of clay or 5 feet of sand.
DRIVING
MANDREL
MUD LINE
ENLARGED
PERSPECTIVE
POSITION
AFTER PULLOUT TEST
DRIVING
POSITION
MARK IV UMBRELLA PILE-ANCHOR
G-5.3 Jetted-in Anchors. Jetted-in anchors

are buried in the seafloor through water-jet
disturbance of the sediment. The anchor
consists of a cylindrical drum equipped with
one or more injection nozzles along its periphery. The system is embedded by the dual
action of pressurized water injection and
pumping of fluidized sediment. Figure G-15
shows typical jetted-in anchors.
FINAL
EMPLACEMENT
POSITION
MENARD ROTATING PLATE ANCHOR
G-5.1.4
Topography.
Seafloor
topography does not affect holding capacity
directly, but may prevent proper
installation.
Flukes may ricochet off
sloping or oblique surfaces. Flukes striking
on top of an outcrop or near the edge of a
ledge may spall the rock or coral without
penetrating deeply. Areas with surfaces
sloping more than 20 degrees or with
vertical or near vertical faces taller than one
fluke length should be avoided.
G-5.2 Impact-driven Anchors. Impact- or
hammer-driven anchors include the Navy
umbrella pile and the Menard rotating plate
anchor, shown in Figure G-14. Water depth
is limited by the available pile-driving and
follower equipment for installation, although
impact-driven anchors have been successfully
installed at depths greater than 1,000 feet.
Impact-driven anchors may be an attractive
anchoring solution for salvage if adequate
pile-driving equipment is available.
IN-SERVICE
POSITION
Figure G-14. Impact-Driven Anchors.
RISER
PRESSURIZED
WATER
AIR
INJECTION
SKIRT
PERIPHERAL
JETS
NOZZLE
HYDROPIN ANCHOR
WATER INLET
BRIDLE LUGS
SEABED
SETTLED SAND
ANCHOR LINE
UNDISTURBED
SAND
WATER JETS
WATER
INLET
BRIDLE
LUGS
SEABED
PLATE
BOLTED TO
ANCHOR
WATER
JETS
CEMENT GROUT
PULLING LINE
UNDISTURBED
CLAY
ROYAL DUTCH SHELL JETTED ANCHOR FOR SAND AND CLAY SEAFLOORS
Figure G-15. Jetted-In Anchors.
G-20
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Jetted-in anchors function best in sands or granular soils that are easily liquified by the jetting process. In hard clays, shell, and cobble soils,
penetration by jetting is slow and uneconomical. Advantages include deep burial, high holding-capacity-to-weight ratio, and the ability to resist
vertical and multi-directional pullout forces. Disadvantages include the size and complexity of the installation apparatus, and the limited number
of seafloor types in which the system can be used effectively. Jetted-in anchors can sometimes be built on site and installed with available highpressure pumps and firehoses.
G-5.4 Vibro-driven Anchors. Vibro-driven anchors are driven vertically into the substrate by cable traction vibro-driving units. Cable traction
is exerted in an off-center direction on the plate to cause it to pivot, mobilizing the passive pressure of the soil.
Hydraulic vibro-driving units are typically limited to 1,000 feet because of the problems associated with loss of hydraulic pressure at depths.
NCEL has developed and successfully tested an experimental, battery powered variation of a vibro-driven anchor for water depths to 6,000 feet.
Further use of this device was discontinued as propellant-driven anchors were developed. The main disadvantage of the vibro-driven anchoring
system is that the installing platform must be maintained in a position directly over the anchor during the period required for proper fluke
deployment, typically 15 to 20 minutes. Costs increase proportionately with anchor size and water depth. Vibro-driven anchors are seldom used
in salvage if adequately sized propellant-embedded or impact-driven anchors are available.
G-5.5 Augured-in Anchors. Auger anchors are screwshaped shafts installed under high torque and some
vertical load. The depth limit is approximately 500 feet
and is imposed primarily by difficulties in supplying
power through hydraulic hoses to the seafloor. Auguredin anchors are used primarily for anchoring pipelines to
the seafloor and are usually installed in pairs opposite
each other. They may be useful for anchoring temporary
pipelines or other equipment to the seafloor during
certain salvage operations.
G-5.6 Site Data. In nonhomogeneous soils, sediment
type and thickness must be determined. The seafloor
type and approximate consistency must be known in
order to select the appropriate anchor fluke type (i.e.,
clay, sand, coral, or rock fluke). Depth of sediment strata
must be known to ensure that the anchor fluke has sufficient sediment thickness to develop the design capacity.
These data are best obtained over a wide area through
acoustic sub-bottom profiling and coring. In areas of
large relief, such as areas of outcropping rock, erosion, or
slumping features, a deep tow profiling system may be
necessary to obtain an accurate picture of seafloor
topography and distribution of sediment in-fill between
the relief features. Geotechnical properties may be
estimated from soil property profiles to make a rough
estimate of capacity in lieu of accurate site-specific data.
For direct-embedment anchors in critical moorings,
where the consequences of a single mooring failure are
severe, data from in-situ tests and good quality soil
cores are required.
Where dynamic loads are
significant, specialized tests using core samples may be
necessary. If sediment consistency or type varies
across the mooring site, cores should be obtained at
each anchor location. Soil cores should be obtained
over the full estimated penetration depth of the anchor.
Small corers, which achieve penetrations of 10 feet in
sands and 30 feet in clays, are often used to obtain the
sediment and define the upper portion of the geotechnical property profile. With the guidance of geophysical
data, sediments below this sampled depth may be assumed to be similar, and the soil property profile would
be extended to the necessary depth. Expendable
penetrometers can provide additional data where longer
coring is not possible.
Table G-11. Conditions Complicating Direct-embedment Anchor Use.

Seafloor Condition
Potential Complication
Hard Strata
Thin soil layer over rock, or thin
soft clay layer over sand.
Soil thickness not sufficient to develop fluke

capacity, but sufficient to consume most of fluke
kinetic energy before it reaches stronger layer.
Glacial erratics or residual

surficial gravel and cobbles.
Damages flukes and limits penetration into

underlying sands and hard clays.
Nodule or pavement formations

(usually manganese) over soil.
Same as above.
Submarine lava flows.
Extremely irregular and complex. Anchors must

be proof-tested to full load to ensure reliability.
Sloping Seafloor
Soil slopes over 10 degrees.
Anchor may affect slope stability, but directembedment anchors have less effect than most
other anchor types.
Hard soil or rock scarps or cliffs.
Improper embedment from deflection or ricochet

of fluke.
Scour
Sand waves can be large and move rapidly,

removing significant overburden from shallow
embedded anchors.
Sensitive, Soft Soils

Cohesive soil with sensitivity of 6 Fluke installation can remold and weaken soil,
or greater.
limiting developed holding capacity.
Deep ocean oozes.
Same as above.
Weak, porous clays (shear

strength to overburden pressure
ratio, su /p0, 0.1 - 0.15).
Long-term capacity may be lower than shortterm.
G-5.6.1 Complicating or Hazardous Conditions. Direct-embedment anchor systems function well in a wide range of seafloor conditions.
They can be adapted to function well where drag anchors and pile anchors are inefficient or nonfunctional. Extreme soil conditions, such as
very hard or very soft seafloors, complicate the use of direct-embedment anchors, making special efforts necessary during site survey, positioning,
design, installation, and proof-loading. Table G-11 lists complicating or hazardous conditions, and describes their impact on direct-embedment
anchor performance. The approach to most of these complications is to avoid them by relocating the anchor or selecting an anchor system less
sensitive to the problem (e.g., using deadweight, pile, or grappling anchors on rock).
G-21
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.6.2 Specialized Survey Tools. Two specialized site survey tools have been developed that can support the siting, design, and installation
of the Navys propellant-embedded anchors. The expendable Doppler penetrometer measures the undrained shear strength of the soil indirectly.
Although strength is not determined to the level of accuracy as it is from in-situ measurement or coring, the device is simply employed and
requires little on-site time. The Pinger probe is a 3.5-kHz battery-powered sound source that can be used with a propellant-embedded anchor
system to assist positioning the anchor in complex seafloor conditions. The probe is attached to the anchor systems lowering line about 100
feet above the anchor, and provides a high quality, real-time image of sub-bottom seabed stratification. The installation vessel then maneuvers
the anchor system over a seabed profile until a location is found that maximizes chances for successful installation. Doppler penetrometers and
Pinger probes can be obtained through the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL).
G-5.7 Fluke penetration and Keying. Estimates of propellant-embedded fluke penetration are taken from Table G-9 and can be refined from existing profiles of undrained soil strength. The penetration depth of jetted-in anchors is limited primarily by hard layers in the soil profile, which stop
or impede the jet erosion process. Penetration depth of driven anchors depends on the capacity of the available pile-driving equipment.
As the anchor fluke moves upward it keys into a horizontal orientationthe position of maximum holding capacity. The keying distance, zk, is a
function of fluke geometry, soil type, soil sensitivity, and duration of time between penetration and keying. Experience has shown that Navy
propellant-embedded anchor flukes key in about 2.0 fluke lengths in cohesive soil and in about 1.5 fluke lengths in cohesionless soils.
Although no recommendation is made for
altering the above estimate for zk, it is
believed that keying distance may be greater in highly sensitive soils. Keying distance in sensitive soils can be shortened by
allowing the anchor to "soak" for 24 hours
or more before tensioning the anchor line.
G-5.8 Static Holding Capacity. Loads on
seafloor anchors are rarely completely static
but often have impulse or repetitive
components. Dynamic holding capacity is
addressed in Paragraph G-6.4.
Holding capacity depends on the soil failure
mode, which in turn is dependent on
relative embedment depth (the ratio of
embedment depth to anchor minimum
dimension, z/B) and on the soil type and
strength. Shallow failure occurs when the
seafloor surface is displaced by the upward
motion of the anchor plate and the soil
failure surface continues up to the seafloor.
Deep failure occurs when the anchor plate
is sufficiently deep within the seabed that
the soil failure surface does not reach the
seafloor. Transition from shallow-to-deep
behavior occurs over a range of relative
embedment depths from 2 to 5 in cohesive
soil and 2 to 10 in cohesionless soil.
Failure modes for direct-embedment
anchors are shown in Figure G-16.
G-5.8.1 Short-term Capacity in Cohesive
Soils. Short-term loading conditions exist
when the anchor-caused soil failure is
governed by a soils undrained shear
strength. Failure occurs immediately after,
or within a few minutes of load application,
before significant drainage of pore water can
take place. Short-term static load capacity in
cohesive soils, Fst, is:
Fst
A su h N cs 0.84
FAILURE
SURFACE
SOIL BEARING
PRESSURE
FLUKE
WIDTH
FLUKE
WIDTH
SHALLOW ANCHOR FAILURE
DEEP ANCHOR FAILURE
Figure G-16. Soil Failure Modes for Direct-Embedment Anchors.
Table G-12. Soil Strength Reduction Factor.

Soil Type
Very soft, moderately sensitive, clayey silt, su 1 psi, St 3
Soft, normally consolidated, silty clay, su 2 psi, St 3
h
0.8-0.9
0.8
Pelagic clay, su 1.2 psi, St 3
0.7
Foraminiferal sand-silt, 77-86% carbonate, su 2.2 psi, St 10
0.25
B
0.16
L
where:
A
su
Ncs =
G-22
projected maximum fluke area perpendicular to

B = plate minimum dimension, usually width, [length]
direction of pullout, [length]
L = plate maximum dimension, usually length, [length]
soil undrained shear strength, [force/length2]
h = soil strength reduction (disturbance correction) factor
(see Paragraph 3-7.1.4)
short-term holding capacity factor in cohesive soil, from Figure G-17.
S0300-A8-HBK-010
The disturbance correction factor, h,

accounts for soil remolding during fluke
penetration and keying. Values for the
factor, h, were determined for the four soil
types listed in Table G-12 by anchor tests.
20
(a) SHORT-TERM
HOLDING
CAPACITY
FACTOR
15
Sensitivity, Stthe ratio of undisturbed to

remolded shear strengthis an important
indicator of the strength reduction resulting
from soil disturbance. For soils with St
values considerably different from those in
Table G-12, an estimate must be made for
the h-value. More sensitive soils will
display greater strength reductions.
Ncs 10
su
su
su
su
The holding capacity factor, Ncs, from

Figure G-17(a), is a function of the soils
undrained shear strength and relative
embedment depth. For the deep failure
mode, Ncs = 16. If drainage vents allow
water to flow rapidly to the underside of
the plate anchor, the suction formed on the
underside of the plate will be relieved; Ncs
should be reduced to the long-term holding
capacity value, Nc, from Figure G-17(b).
G-5.8.2 Long-term Capacity in Cohesive
Soils. Long-term loading exists when a
static load is applied to the anchor over a
time long enough to allow virtually
complete dissipation of excess pore water
pressures. The time duration ranges may
be a day for silts, a week for silty clays, or
considerably longer for clays. In cohesive
soils, the long-term holding capacity is
governed by the effective soil drained
strength parametersthe drained cohesion
intercept, c, and the drained friction angle,
. The long-term static holding capacity,
Flt, is:
B
Flt = A c N c + b z N q 0.84 + 0.16

L
<
<
<
<
0.75 PSI
1 PSI
1.5 PSI
4 PSI
0
0
2
4
6
8
RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B
15
(b) LONG-TERM
HOLDING
CAPACITY
FACTOR
10
Ncs
5
su
su
su
su
0
0
(c) DRAINED SOIL

HOLDING
CAPACITY
<
<
<
<
0.75 PSI
1 PSI
1.5 PSI
4 PSI
2
4
6
8
100
80
60
A
c
Nc
=
=
=
Nq
Flt
Fst
projected maximum fluke area

perpendicular to direction of
pullout, [length]
drained soil cohesion,
[force/length2](from Table 3-3)
long-term holding capacity
factor in cohesive soil (from
Figure G-17(b))
buoyant unit weight of the
soil, [force/length3] (from
Table 3-3)
holding capacity factor for a
drained soil condition (from
Figure G-17(c))
long-term static holding
capacity, [force]
short-term static holding
capacity, [force]
embedment depth [length]
10
= 40 *
40
= 35
20
where:
10
= 30
Nq 10
8
6
= 25
= 20
2
0
0
10
12
14

NOTES: Z = EMBEDMENT DEPTH
B = PLATE MINIMUM DIMENSION (WIDTH)
* = VALUES FOR CAN BE OBTAINED
FROM TABLE 3-3
Figure G-17. Short-term Holding Capacity Factors for Cohesive Soil.
Long-term static holding capacity, Flt, must be less than short-term capacity, Fstthe applied long-term load cannot exceed the short-term load
without initiating failure.
G-23
S0300-A8-HBK-010
For very soft underconsolidated sediments, such as delta mud, the shear failure mode may be different than for normally consolidated sediments.
The reduced holding capacities in these very soft soils can be conservatively predicted by reducing the cohesion, c, and the drained friction angle,
, values before obtaining the holding capacity factors and calculating holding capacity. The reduced values, c and , are determined by:
c =
2
c
3
2
= arctan tan
3
G-5.8.3 Short- and Long-term Capacity in Cohesionless Soils. In sands and gravel, static-loading- induced excess pore water pressure
dissipates rapidly as the load is applied. Soil failure is assumed to be drained for both static short- and long-term loading. Static holding
capacity in cohesionless soils, F, is:
F
A b z Nq 0.84
B
0.16
L
where the holding capacity factor Nq is obtained from Figure G-17(b) using the relative embedment depth and the soil friction angle.
When dealing with very loose sands (i.e., relative density less than 40 percent), the soil friction angle, , should be reduced in the same manner
as for the drained cohesive soil case before entering the plots Figure G-17.
G-5.8.4 Factors of Safety. For applications where little is known about the soil conditions at the site, a safety factor of 3 is recommended
for holding capacity estimates, i.e., limit applied loads to F/3, where F is calculated holding capacity. A safety factor of 2 can be used when
good site data leads to a high level of design confidence.
G-5.9 Dynamic Holding Capacity. Dynamic loads are applied quickly, but for short periods. Dynamic loads are considered to be applied
quickly when the load development takes less than 10 minutes for clays or less than 10 seconds for sand. Dynamic loads are divided into two
categories: (1) cyclic or repetitive loadings and (2) impulse loading (basically a single event). Both types can alter plate anchor holding capacity
by changing the conditions in the soil surrounding the anchor. Cyclic loads typically result from wave forces on moored vessels and attendant
vessel motions. Impulse loads can result from sudden changes in loading of a vessel moored on short scope (heavy lift), vessel collisions, and
similar events. Wind loading is normally quasi-static, but strong gusts may impulse or on near-cyclic loads.
G-5.9.1 Cyclic Loading. For design purposes, cyclic loading is separated into three categories:
Cyclic line loading of the anchor, leading to soil strength loss in the vicinity of the anchor and subsequent failure.
Cyclic line loading that may cause upward anchor movement (creep), possibly moving the anchor into shallower soil; thereby
lowering short-term static holding capacity.
Earthquake-caused cyclic loading of the soil mass resulting in near-complete loss of strength in the entire soil mass and sudden
anchor failure.
Cyclic loads are characterized by a pure cyclic double-amplitude loading component, Pc, superimposed on a static loading component, Ps. Cyclic
and static load magnitudes are expressed as a percentage of static short-term anchor holding capacity. Cyclic loads with a double amplitude
less than 5 percent of the static short-term holding capacity are disregarded. Two additional parameters are required to describe a cyclic loading
condition:
=
=
nt
nc
Total number of load cycles expected in the anchors lifetime to evaluate the potential for anchor creep.
The number of cycles that occur in a limited time period required for dissipation of excess pore pressure, tcd, to evaluate soil
strength loss and potential for liquefaction.
G-5.9.2 Strength Loss. Virtually all soils are subject to some strength loss from extended cyclic loading. The amount of strength loss,
however, varies considerably depending on soil type, state, and the nature of the cyclic loading. The following factors reduce soil susceptibility
to strength loss:
G-24
Denser soil,
More plastic soil,
Lower cyclic loading magnitude,
Smaller number of load cycles, and
Longer time period over which the cycles occur.
G-5.9.3 Factors of Safety. Because the

design approaches for cyclic loading are
quite conservative, lower safety factors can
be used for the cyclic loading aspects of
anchor design. Safety factors of 1.75 for
calculations based on limited soil data, or
1.25 for those based on detailed soil data,
are appropriate.
108
103
107
102
106
101
105
B
104
100
FT
FT
10-1
103
10-2
102
10-3
101
10-4
100
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-5
10-10 10-11
SOIL PERMEABILITY, (k) ft/sec

FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Figure G-18. Time for Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressure.
100
DOUBLE-AMPLITUDE CYCLIC LOAD
(% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY)
For other soils, the susceptibility of a given

plate anchor to cyclic-load-caused strength
reductions can be evaluated by estimating
the maximum cyclic load that can be
sustained by the anchor without pore
pressure dissipation. The plots in Figure
G-18 give the time required to dissipate
excess pore pressure, tcd, as a function of
fluke length, B, and soil permeability, k.
Table 3-6 gives permeabilities for typical
soils, but permeability should be determined by testing undisturbed soil from
the vicinity of the anchors soil mass, if
possible. The maximum number of doubleamplitude cyclic loadings that can occur
within the time period tcd is estimated from
the known or expected loading conditions.
Figure G-19 is then entered to determine
the maximum cyclic load, Pc, that can be
sustained without significant loss of soil
strength.
TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE

PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (sec)
Some low-density cohesionless soils are

susceptible to complete liquefaction.
Sediments of this type (uniform fine sands,
coarse silts, and some clean deep sea oozes)
can experience a near-total strength loss under cyclic loading. Plate anchors are not
recommended for these soils if significant
cyclic loading is expected.
TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE

PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (days)
S0300-A8-HBK-010
90
80
70
60
NOTE: DATA APPLY TO ANCHORS WITH AN

AVERAGE STATIC LOAD LESS THAN
33% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY
HIG
HLY
PL
50
AST
IC
CLA
YS
40
30
20
LOW PLA
STICIT
Y AND M
EDIUM D
ENSITY S
OILS
10
G-5.9.4 Impulse Loading. An impulse

0
load, PI, is a single load applied quickly but
100
102
103
104
105
106
107
101
for a short periodless than 10 minutes for
NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES, nc
clays and less than 10 seconds for sands.
FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
These loads are considered single events
only if enough time elapses between similar
events to allow the soil to return to its
Figure G-19. Direct-Embedment Anchor Cyclic Load Capacity (Without Soil Strength Loss).
normal state without residual effect. In the
absence of other dynamic loads, an anchor
can resist an impulse load higher than its short-term static capacity. The procedures for predicting holding capacity under impulse loading
presented below are appropriate for use with circular, square, or rectangular (L/B 2) anchor flukes only.
G-25
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.9.5 Cohesive Soil. For cohesive soils,

the maximum impulse load that can be
applied to an anchor, FI, is determined by:
Fst =
I
Rc
RI
If
static short-term anchor

holding capacity, [force]
influence factor for adjusting
the soil strength for strain
rate from Figure G-20
reduction factor for cyclic
loading
reduction factor for repeated
impulse loading
inertial factor for capacity
increase under very rapid and
short-duration loading (i.e.,
for impulse duration less than
0.01 second)
The factor I is a strain rate used to adjust

for an increase in the soil undrained shear
strength during impulse loading. The factor
Rc depends on the loading history prior to
the impulse loading and adjusts FI for the
influence of other nonstatic loads that are
occurring at about the same time. If the
impulse load is the first event, then Rc =
1.0. If cyclic loads immediately precede
the impulse event, then:
Rc = Pc Fst
where Pc is the design vertical compressive
load at the foundation pile.
The factor RI adjusts FI for repeated
impulse loadings. If there is only one
impulse load in a four-hour period, RI = 1.
If there is more than one impulse load in a
four-hour period,
RI
1.33 e
1.15f c
SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I
where:
3.2
OVERCONSOLIDATED OR
SENSITIVE CLAYS (St > 5)
3.0
NORMALLLY CONSOLIDATED, MODERATELY

SENSITIVE CLAYS (St = 2 TO 5)
2.8
2.6
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, NONSENSITIVE

CLAYS (St < 2)
2.4
ALL CLAYS WITH LIQUIDITY INDEX > 1
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
LOAD DURATION (sec)

NOTE: WHEN su IS ESTIMATED, USE NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATED, MODERATE SENSITIVITY CURVE
Figure G-20. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesive Soil.
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
INERTIAL FACTOR, If
FI = I Rc RI If Fst
3.4
B = 7 FT
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
B = 2 FT
1.0
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
LOAD DURATION (sec)

where fc is the average frequency, in

impulses per hour, over a four-hour period.
Figure G-21. Inertial Factor (If).
The factor If increases FI for the inertia of the soil mass at very short duration loadings (i.e., where the loading is known to be applied for less
than 0.1 second), and is determined from Figure G-21.
G-26
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-5.9.6 Cohesionless Soils. Impulse holding capacity under impulse loading in cohesionless soils is also derived by applying a series of
influence factors to the calculated short-term static holding capacity:
N
FI qI Rc RI If Fst
N
q
where:
=
=
=
=
=
=
static short-term anchor holding capacity

cohesionless soil holding capacity factor adjusted for impulse loading
cohesionless soil holding capacity factor (from Figure G-17).
reduction factor for cyclic loading
reduction factor for repeated impulse loading
inertial factor for capacity increase under very rapid and short-duration loading (i.e., for impulse duration less than 0.01 second)
The adjusted holding capacity factor (NqI) accounts for the effect of the impulse loading
on the soil friction angle (). Nq from Figure
G-17(b) can be used for NqI by substituting
the adjusted friction angle I for , where:
I sin
I sin 1
1 + (I = 1) sin
where I is the influence factor for adjusting
the soil strength from Figure G-22. The
factor Rc is determined in the same manner
as for cohesive soil.
For repeated impulse loads, RI is dependent
on the frequency of those impulse loads (fs).
If fs is less than or equal to one impulse per
10 minutes, RI is 1.0. If fs is greater than one
impulse per 10 minutes, then RI is obtained
from:
RI
2 e
3.4
3.2
SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I
Fst
NqI
Nq
Rc
RI
If
FINE-SILTY SANDS
MEDIUM-COARSE SANDS
3.0
2.8
I sin
I = sin-1
1 + (I - 1)sin
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
(UNTYPICAL, OVERCONSOLIDATED CONDITION)
1.8
(TYPICAL CONDITION)
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.116 f s
where fs is the average number of impulses

per 10 minutes. The inertial factor If is taken
from Figure G-23.
1.0
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1000.0
LOAD DURATION (sec)

G-5.10
Holding Capacity on Slopes.
Holding capacity of embedded plate anchors
Figure G-22. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesionless Soil.
on slopes is affected by the stability of the
slope under the additional influence of the
embedment anchor, and the influence of the inclined seafloor on the soil resistance mobilized by the loaded anchor. The influence of an anchor
on slope stability is extremely complex, involving the effects of anchor installation and anchor loading on the slope. Table G-13 lists factors that
influence submarine slope stability. All factors lead to a lower resistance to soil mass down-slope sliding and, therefore, greater slope instability.
The influence of plate anchors on slope stability depends to a high degree on the type and sensitivity of the sediment. Slope angle itself is not a
clear indicator of potential problems.
On inclined seafloors, a significant portion of the soil shear
strength is mobilized to support the soil slope against gravitational forces. For down-slope loading, most of the soil shear
stresses developed to resist anchor pullout will be in addition
to those resisting slope failure. The result is that a smaller
amount of the soils shear strength is available to resist anchor
pullout than in a horizontal seafloor. This is less important
when the anchor is loaded in a vertical or up-slope direction.
Holding capacity of a direct-embedment anchor on a specific
slope can be estimated by multiplying the holding capacity
calculated for a horizontal seafloor by a reduction factor, Rs:
Rs
Fs
1
Fs
Table G-13. Direct-embedment Anchor Effects on

Submarine Slope Stability.
Factor
Effects
Impact Loading During Embedment
Effect similar to earthquake loading but with

greater local influence; more critical problem in
loose soils.
Remolding or Disturbance of Soils

During Installation
Effect varies significantly from one soil to another.
Cyclic Loading by Anchor
Effect varies significantly from one soil to another.
Local Instability After Anchor Pullout
Can progress to major slope failure.
Direct Application of Anchor Load to

Slope
Probably not more significant than a local instability problem but can progress into large slide.
where Fs is the factor of safety against a slope failure without the anchor. Rs represents the amount of soil strength remaining, or the amount
not mobilized to maintain slope stability. In computing the anchor holding capacity, anchor depth and the holding capacity factors Nc and Nq
are based on a depth of embedment measured perpendicular to the seafloor.
G-27
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-6 PILE FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS

Piles are secure, deeply embedded
anchoring devices installed by driving or by
drilling and grouting (pile installation
methods are described in Paragraph G-6.6).
High installation costs usually preclude
their use in conditions for which dragembedment, deadweight, or directembedment anchors are suitable. Pile
anchors are particularly suited for use when
short-scope moorings are desired, and on
very hard seafloors. Applications and
characteristics of several types of pile
anchor are listed in Table G-14.
Steel pipe sections and H-piles fitted with
mooring line connections are the most
commonly used pile types, although
specially designed piles have been
developed to increase lateral or uplift
capacity. Typical anchor piles are shown
in Figure G-23. For simple pipe and Hpiles, axial forces are resisted by soil
friction developed along the pile shaft and
by bearing on the pile tip (for downward
loads). Lateral forces and moments are
resisted by the pile shaft bearing on the
near-surface soils. Lateral earth pressure
and skin friction effects on a pile anchor
are shown in Figure G-24.
Table G-14. Pile Anchors.

Characteristics
Chain-in-holea
Approx. Maximum
Capacity
Foundations and anchors Axial: 20,000 kips
Lateral: 1,500 kips
Anchors
300 kips in sand
100 kips in mud
Anchors
550 kips
Rock Boltsa
Anchors
Pipe and H-piles

a
Umbrella Piles
Applications
30 kips
Characteristics
Advantages
Disadvantages
Pipe and H-piles Easy to splice, high
Very high cost
capacity, can penetrate
through light obstructions
Umbrella Piles
High capacity in uplift
Maximum depth limited
by hammer; soils must be
homogenous
Chain-in-hole
High capacity
Installation may be
difficult
Rock Bolt
Very low cost, no heavy Rock must be competent,
mechanical equipment
nonfractured (shallow
necessary
water only); low capacity
a
Axial uplift loads,
Lateral loads,
Soils without boulders

and other obstructions
Rock with overlying
soil strata
Drilled and grouted or Rock
mechanically wedged
Remarks
Pipe piles resist bending in any direction
Drilled and grouted
Resistance developed similar to plateembedment anchor
Diver/hand-installed; much smaller than

normal piles
PADEYE
PIPE PILE
FOR MULTIDIRECTIONAL
LOAD
MOORING-LINE
CONNECTION
FLANGE
WEB
Bending moments, or
LOAD
LOAD
Axial downward
(compression).
Soil and rock
PIPE PILE
loads
A simplified procedure for the design of

uniform cross-section piles in a nonlayered
seafloor consisting of sand, clay, or
calcareous soils is presented in the following
paragraphs. Design is a trial-and-error
procedure; a pile is selected and then
evaluated for its ability to resist applied loads
without excessive movement and without
exceeding the allowable stresses for the pile
material. The pile is assumed to be a beam
on an elastic foundation with an elastic
modulus that increases linearly with depth.
Design calculations for pile anchors and
foundations are identical; lateral and uplift
loads are governing for anchor piles, while
downward loads are usually governing for
foundation piles.
Both anchor and
foundation piles may be subjected to
significant moments, depending on the point
of application of lateral loads; foundation
piles may also be subjected to uplift loads.
G-28
Driven or drilled and

grouted
Driven
Special anchor pile; may be considered a direct-embedment anchor

Adapted from NCEL Handbook for Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
G-6.1 Holding Capacity. Pile anchors or

foundations may be subjected to one or
more of the following loads:
Installation Methods Applicable Soil Type
WIDE-FLANGE
SECTION FOR
UNIDIRECTIONAL
LOAD
WIDE-FLANGE (WF) SECTION
WELD
PADEYE
FINS TO IMPROVE
LATERAL LOAD
CAPACITY
WELD
WELD
BUILT-UP SECTION FOR

MULTIDIRECTIONAL LOAD
BUILT-UP SECTION (COMPOSED OF T-SECTIONS)
Figure G-23. Anchor Piles.
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Soil properties for the installation site should be determined by in-situ or laboratory testing, or both. If site-specific soil data are not available,
it may be possible to extrapolate soil properties from geologic and geophysical data from similar areas. Where soil properties vary significantly
with depth, average properties in the uppermost four pile diameters are used for lateral load analysis, and average properties over the pile length
for axial load analysis.
PILE HEAD
MOORING LINE
AD
LO
LATERAL EARTH
PRESSURE
SKIN
FRICTION
PILE
Figure G-24. Lateral Soil Pressure and Skin Friction on Pile Anchor.
G-6.1.1 Lateral Load Capacity. The lateral load capacity, Ph, is given by:
Ph =
ymax(EI)
Ay T 3 + a By T 2
where:
Pn = lateral load capacity, lbs
ymax = pile head lateral deflection, [in.]
EI = pile stiffness, [lb in2]
E = modulus of elasticity of pile material, [lb in2]
I = moment of inertia of pile cross section, [in 4]
Ay, By = deflection coefficients, functions of the depth coefficient
Lp
T
, Figure G 25 (Page G 30)
a = height of the pile load attachment point above the seafloor surface, [in]
Lp = pile length, [in]
T = pile-soil relative stiffness, [in]
=
EI
0.2
Nh
nh = coefficient of subgrade reaction, from Figure G 25 (Page G 30), [lb in3]

Pile length, Lp, is assumed. A length of Lp = 3T is suggested as a minimum. For anchor piles, the ratio of maximum lateral deflection to pile
diameter or width (ymax/D) should be less than 0.1D. Smaller deflections may be required for foundation piles. If lateral load capacity, Ph, is
equal to or slightly higher than anticipated loads, the trial pile is adequate. If Ph is much greater than anticipated loads, the pile is over-designed.
If cost reduction or material optimization are desired, pile stiffness should be decreased by reducing pile diameter or wall thickness, and/or the
pile length shortened. If Ph is less than anticipated loads, the pile is under-designed. Holding capacity is increased by increasing:
Pile stiffness by increasing diameter and/or thickness,
Pile length, unless already very long, or
Design depth of pile head.
G-29
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Dr = 35%
Dr = 50%
65%
Dr = %
85
Dr =
LOOSE
20
Ay
2
By
MEDIUM DENSE
DENSE
STIFF CLAY
60
Dr = SOIL RELATIVE
DENSITY
D = PILE DIAMETER
OR WIDTH
80
SOFT CLAY
50
kl
nh (lb/in3)
(Ay and By)
40
3
100
100
150
nh =
120
0
3
DEPTH COEFFICIENT
200
0
6
zmax Lp
=
T
T
su kl
D
4
6
ymax
(%)
D
10
10
ymax
(%)
D
15
20
(a) DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT

AT SOIL SURFACE
(b) nh FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
(c) nh FOR COHESIVE SOILS
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING,
KARL ROCKER, 1985
AFTER EVALUATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF

SUBGRADE REACTION, K. TERZAGHI,
GEOTECHNIQUE, 1955
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING,
KARL ROCKER, 1985
Figure G-25. Coefficients Ay, By, nh.
G-6.1.2 Uplift Capacity. Pile uplift

resistance results from skin friction between
the pile and the soil mass. Pile frictional
resistance is:
Qs
=
=
fs
Soil Type
As fs
the surface area of the pile

below the seafloor [L2].
average unit skin friction
resistance
Axial load capacity is increased most

effectively by increasing pile length,
although increasing diameter may be
effective.
For cohesionless soils, average unit skin
friction resistance, fs, is calculated from:
where:
Nq
fs (max)
(ksf)
qp (max)
(ksf)
Sand
35
40
2.0
200
Silty sand
30
20
1.7
100
Sandy silt
25
12
1.4
60
Silt
20
1.0
40
30
20
0.3a
60
2.0
100
Calcareous Soils
Uncemented calcareous sand (easily crushed)
fs = k p vo tan (
(deg)
Noncalcareous Soils
where:
As
Table G-15. Recommended Limiting Values for Unit Skin Friction

and End Bearing for Cohesionless Soils.
5)
Partially cemented calcareous sands with

carbonate content:
0 to 30%
160
30 to 45%
0.64
above 45%
0.56a
140
1.1
140
Highly cemented calcareous soils, i.e., chalk

a
For drilled and grouted piles, the value may approach 2,000 psf, the value for quartz sand: actual value depends
upon installation technique
From NCEL Handbook for marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
k
pvo
=
=
=
=
0.7 for compression

0.5 for uplift.
effective overburden vertical stress in soil, [force/length2]
drained (effective) friction angle from Table G-15 or Figure 3-3
Table G-15 gives limiting values for unit skin friction for cohesionless soils. For piles driven into calcareous soils, the tables limiting values
should be used unless higher values are justified by on-site testing.
For cohesive soils, unit skin friction resistance is calculated differently for normally consolidated and over-consolidated soils. The soil
consolidation state is indicated by the ratio of undrained shear strength and effective overburden pressure, su/pvo. If su/pvo 0.4, the soil is
overconsolidated.
G-30
S0300-A8-HBK-010
For normally consolidated soils, the average unit skin resistance, fs, is equal to:
fs
p vo 0.468 - 0.052 ln p
2.0
where Lp is in feet. The limiting value for skin frictional resistance is the undrained shear strength of the soil, i.e., fs su. For overconsolidated
soils:
fs = su 0.468
s
0.155 ln u
pvo
For 2.0 < Su/pvo < 4.0, fs = 0.351su.

Average effective overburden soil pressure, pvo, at the pile midpoint is:
p vo =
b L p
2
where:
b
Lp
=
=
soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3]

pile length, [length]
If the pile is not fully buried, Lp is the buried length. If the soil unit weight varies with depth, unit weights along the buried length are averaged.
G-6.1.3 Compressive Load Capacity. For foundation piles, resistance to compressive loading comes from frictional resistance along the pile
and from resistance to tip or end penetration. For closed-ended piles, the soil bearing capacity for the pile tip, Qp, is:
Qp = Ap qp
= pvo, tip Nq
for cohesionless soils
= 9 su, tip
for cohesive soils
where:
Qp
Ap
qp
pvo, tip
Nq
su, tip
=
=
=
=
=
=
soil bearing capacity, lbs

gross end area of the closed pile, ft
unit soil bearing capacity at the pile tip, lb-ft
limiting values from Table G-15
effective vertical stress at pile tip, lb-ft
bearing capacity factor from Table G-15
soil undrained shear strength at pile tip, lb-ft
Open-ended piles will develop a soil plug inside the open end when installed. The soil plug limits the value of Qp to the force required to push
a soil plug up into the pile (a thin-walled pipe). This limiting value is approximately equal to the frictional capacity of the pile, Qs. Total pile
capacity in compression, Qc from Paragraph G-6.1.2, is thus:
Qc = Qs
Qp
If pile capacity is less than the design compressive load, capacity can be increased by increasing pile diameter or, preferably, length. Qp of an
open-ended pile is significantly limited by the value of Qs. Qc may be increased by closing the pile end with a concrete plug or steel plate.
G-31
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-6.1.4 Steel Stress Analysis. Maximum stress in the pile under tension (fmaxt) and compression (fmaxc) is calculated by:
fmaxt =
fmaxc =
Pt
Mmax
Aps
Pc
Mmax
Aps
where:
Pt
Pc
Aps
S
Mmax
=
=
=
=
=
vertical uplift at pile head, lbs

horizontal load at pile head, lbs
cross-sectional area of the pile, ft
section modulus of the pile, ft3
maximum moment, ft-lbs
The terms Aps and S and allowable maximum stress in tension and compression are available from steel design manuals or manufacturers
literature. The values for fmaxt and fmaxc are compared with the allowable steel stress in tension and compression for the pile being used. For
most common structural shapes, the allowable maximum stress in tension and in bending is about 60 percent of yield, or about 22,000 psi.
It is also possible to reinforce the pile over the length where high moments exist. While this is a cost-effective alternative, calculation of loads in
piles of variable cross section is beyond the scope of this handbook.
Total maximum moment, Mmax, in the pile is the sum of any applied (design) bending moments, Ma, and moments created by horizontal loads.
Total moment, Mt, at any point along the pile is:
Mt
Am Ph T + Ma Bm
where:
Am
Ph
T
Ma
Bm
=
=
=
=
=
nondimensional moment coefficient a function of the depth coefficient z/T, from Figure G-26
design horizontal load at the foundation pile, lbs
pile-soil relative stiffness = (EI/nh)0.2, in. (see paragraph G-6.1.1)
applied bending moment, in-lb
nondimensional moment coefficient, from Figure G-26
It may be necessary to determine Mt at several locations along the pile in order to find the maximum moment (Mmax).
MOMENT COEFFICIENT
(Am) FOR APPLIED
LATERAL FORCE (P)
DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T
DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T
L P /T = 2
L P /T = 3
3
LP/T = 4
MOMENT
COEFFICIENT (Bm)
FOR APPLIED
MOMENT (M)
L P /T = 2
L P /T = 3
L P /T = 4
4
0.1
L P /T = 5
L P /T = 10
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.1
L P /T = 5
L P /T = 10
0
Am
0.2
0.4
0.6
Bm
AFTER NONDIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR LATERALLY LOADED PILES..., H. MATLOCK AND L.C. REESE,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 8TH TEXAS CONFERENCE ON SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING,
BUREAU OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN, 1956
Figure G-26. Moment Coefficients Am and Bm.
G-32
0.8
1.0
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-6.2 Submerged Anchor Pile Head. For anchor piles driven below the seafloor surface, the mooring line angle at the pile is not the same
as the angle at the seafloor, due to soil bearing resistance against the mooring line. The actual angle at the pile becomes higher and the force
exerted on the pile becomes more of an axial uplift. The seafloor horizontal and vertical (uplift) load components, Ph and Pu, are corrected to
reflect the actual loads on the pile head. The force corrections are based on several simplifying assumptions, including the assumption that the
changes in both vertical and horizontal force components are due to the soil resistance to horizontal anchor line movement.
The correction to the horizontal force Ph (horizontal soil force) is:
fcb = zc db b N q
for cohesionless soils
fcb = 11 su db zc
for cohesive soils
where:
fcb
zc
db
b
Nq
ssu
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
horizontal force exerted on the mooring line by the soil, lbs

depth of pile connection below seafloor, ft
characteristic mooring line size, ft
wire rope diameter or 3 (chain diameter)
soil buoyant weight, lb-ft3
bearing capacity factor, from Table G-16
undrained shear strength, lb-ft2
Table G-16. Bearing Capacity Factors for Chain

Lateral Force in Sand.
The corrected horizontal and uplift load components, Ph and Pu, are:
Ph
= Ph
Pu
fcb
2
Nq
20
25
30
35
40
45
3
5
8
12
22
36
After G.G. Meyerhoff and J. F. Adams, The Ultimate Uplift Capacity of Foundations,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Nov 1968
Pu + 2 Ph fcb
G-6.3 Pile Anchors in Rock Seafloors.

There is no rigorous design procedure for
pile anchors in rock because of the
difficulty in characterizing the material
failure mode. Three principal rock failure
modes are illustrated in Figure G-27:
Soil Friction Angle, degrees
fcb
CRUSHED
ROCK
ROCK
SEAFLOOR
FRACTURED
ROCK
Failure in lateral bearing due

to rock crushing under lateral
load.
Failure in uplift due to failure
of grout-to-rock bonding or
because of a rock-mass
failure in fractured material.
Failure in uplift due to the
piles loosening and loss of
resistance from repeated
lateral loading.
(a) LATERAL BEARING

FAILURE OF ROCK
AND PILE
(b) UPLIFT FAILURE OF

GROUT-TO-ROCK
BONDING
(c) UPLIFT BLOCK FAILURE

OF PILE AND ROCK-MASS
Figure G-27. Pile Anchor Failure Modes in Rock.
The mode of failure is difficult to establish or predict for a specific location. The strength of a cored sample may be misleading when applied
to the prediction of pile anchor holding capacity in jointed, bedded, faulted, or weathered rock masses.
G-6.3.1 Lateral Capacity. In a rock or hard cemented soil seafloor, a soil cover may be present above the rock, or the rock/cemented zone
may be underlain by soil. For layered soil-rock sites, available computer programs should be used to account for the complexities introduced
by these nonuniform conditions.
G-6.3.2 Soil Overlying Rock. For soil overlying rock, pile capacity design approach depends on the relative depth to the rock, zs/T, where
zs is the thickness of the soil layer and T is the pile relative stiffness. If zs/T is greater than 3.0, the pile can be designed to develop all support
from the soil layer.
G-33
S0300-A8-HBK-010
If zs/T is less than 3.0, a conservative

approach is to design the pile as if the soil
were not present. That is, the pile is
considered to be cantilevered out of the
rock surface and to resist all forces without
assistance from the soil layer. Stresses
from the applied lateral load must be less
than the rocks compressive strength:
Ph
D Le
sc
where:
Ph
Le
sc
lateral force applied to the

pile head, lbs
width or diameter of the pile,
in.
effective length of the pile
bearing on the rock strata
equal to the smaller of the
rock layer thickness (zr) or
the pile diameter (D), in.
rock compressive strength
from Table G-17, lb-in2
Table G17. Compressive Strength of Rock.

Compressive Strength, sc , ksi
Buoyant Unit Weight lb/ft3
Shear Strength, Ss , ksi
Dolerite
28.4 49.8
123
3.5 8.5
Gabbro
25.6 42.7
123
Gneiss
7.1 28.4
117
2.1 7.0*
Basalt
21.3 42.7
111
2.8 8.5
Quartzite
21.3 42.7
101
2.8 8.5
Granite
14.2 35.6
98
2.0 6.5
Marble
14.2 35.6
98
3.0 6.1
Slate
14.2 28.4
98
2.0 10.2*
Dolomite
11.4 35.6
92
2.5 7.1
Limestone
4.3 35.6
73
1.4 7.1
Sandstone
2.8 24.1
61
1.1 5.7
Shale
1.4 14.2
61
0.4 4.3
Rock Type
G-6.3.3 Rock Layer Overlying Soil.

Coal
0.7 7.1
5
When or rock or other hard layer overlies

softer soil, the influence of the rock layer
may be ignored and the pile designed to
After I. W. Farmer, Engineering Properties of Rocks, 1968, and Engineering Behavior of Rocks,
develop all support from the underlying
1983; and Richard E. Goodman, Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 1980*
soil, if the rock layer thickness, zr, is less
than 0.2T, where T = (EI/nh)0.2 and nh is the
coefficient of soil reaction of the underlying
soil. For rock layer thickness greater than 0.5T, the influence of the underlying soil may be ignored and the pile designed for the rock
compressive strength. For intermediate values of zr, the designer must judge whether to use the soil or rock procedure; the decision depends
upon pile diameter, knowledge of rock layer strength and fracturing, and the layer thickness.
G-6.3.4 Uplift Capacity. Failure in uplift may occur at the grout-to-pile interface, the grout-to-rock interface, or along a rock fracture zone
outside the grouted area. For failure in a fracture zone, a block of rock containing the pile is assumed to be lifted free of the surrounding rock.
In massive, competent rock, uplift capacity is governed by the strength of the grout bond to the pile, by the grout shear strength, or, more rarely,
by the strength of the grout bond to the drilled shaft wall. Uplift capacity, Ra, of the anchor is given by:
Ra = sb Lr Cp
where:
sb =
Lr =
Cp =
the lesser of the grout-pile bond strength, grout-rock bond strength, or grout shear strength, [force/length]
length of pile embedded in rock, [length]
minimum perimeter transmitting the uplift load, [length]
Unless higher bond strengths are verified by testing, the grout-to-steel bonding strength should be limited to 27 psi. The grout-to-rock bond
strength may vary from 0.3 to 1.0 times the rock shear strength, depending on cleanliness of the drilled hole, type of rock, and grouting
procedure.
In fractured rock, anchor uplift capacity is determined by the weighs of the blocks of rock which move with the anchor and by the frictional
force developed between the attached blocks and adjacent blocks. Because of the difficulty in estimating the normal forces acting on vertical
joints and cracks, this frictional force is normally ignored, and uplift resistance taken as the weight of the rock that would be lifted with the pile.
G-34
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-6.4 Increasing Lateral Load Capacity.

As shown in Figure G-28, there are four
principal means to increase lateral load
capacity of a pile anchor:
TECHNIQUE
LOWERED
ATTACHMENT
POINT
BURIED PILE HEAD
ATTACHING FINS
SHEAR COLLARS
WITH ANCHOR
PLATES
ADVANTAGES
LATERAL LOAD IS
REDUCED.
RESISTANCE IS
HIGHER
LATERAL LOAD
REDUCED.
PROVIDES FOR
SCOUR.
INCREASES
LATERAL
RESISTANCE.
LIMITS PILE HEAD
DEFLECTION AND
BENDING
MOMENT.
INCREASES
LATERAL AND
UPLIFT
RESISTANCE.
DISADVANTAGES
UNIDIRECTIONAL
LOADING.
SOIL IN FRONT OF
PILE MAY BE
WEAKENED.
Lower the anchor line

attachment point along the
pile length.
Lower the pile head beneath
the soil surface into stronger
soils.
Attach fins or shear collars
near the pile head to increase
lateral bearing area.
MORE COSTLY
FABRICATION.
ILLUSTRATION
Increase pile diameter near

the surface.
CROSS
SECTION
COMPLEX
INSTALLATION.
MORE COSTLY
FABRICATION.
LIMITED
EXPERIENCE
WITH SYSTEM.
SHEAR
COLLAR
ANCHOR
SHAFT
ANCHOR
PLATE
SHEAR COLLARS
WITH ANCHORS
PLATES
LOWERED
BURIED
ATTACHMENT
G-6.4.1 Load Applied Below the Pile
ATTACHMENT
PILE HEAD
FINS
Head. When the anchor line is connected
POINT
to the side of an anchor pile at a distance
of more than five pile diameters from the
head, the lateral load analysis becomes very
Figure G-28. Improving Pile Anchor Lateral Capacity.
complex and may require use of a computer
program. When calculations must be made
without access to geotechnical engineering
services, the mooring line attachment should be kept less than five pile diameters. As the connection point is lowered from the pile top to a
point midway down the pile and with the same lateral loads, pile bending moments and deflection are reduced significantly. The mooring line
will approach the pile at a decreasing angle as the connection point is lowered, greatly lowering lateral load and increasing uplift force.
G-6.4.2 Piles with Variable Cross Sections. Increased pile size near the seafloor will increase resistance to lateral loads and bending moments.
Analysis of the response of piles with variable cross sections to lateral loads is complex and, again, best accomplished with the aid of computer
programs. In general, a large increase in pile diameter over a lesser depth is more efficient in reducing deflections at the seafloor than is a small
increase in diameter over a greater depth. When enlarged pile sections at the pile head are used, the length of the enlarged section should be
limited to three times the larger diameter.
G-6.5 Special Seafloor Conditions. Steeply sloping seafloors, rock, cobbles, or cemented zones can make installation of driven piles difficult,
although other installation methods may be successful. Drilled and grouted piles may be the method of choice in these environments. Scour
of sediments from around the pile/seafloor interface, typically in areas with swift bottom currents, weakens resistance to lateral force. Soil type
and size and configuration of pile groups influences scour pattern and rate. Liquefaction of loose granular or sandy sediments by cyclic loading
can effectively remove soil support and cause pile failure. Removal of the surface layers prior to pile installation can significantly improve pile
performance in granular soils. Slump or sub-sea landslide on slopes can subject piles to high lateral force causing failure or breakout of pilings.
G-6.6 Pile Installation. Piles are installed by one or more of the following methods:
Driving,
Drilling and grouting,
Jacking, or
Jetting.
Small piles can be installed with diver-operated equipment. Pile installation equipment and operators can be provided by Navy Underwater
Construction Teams, the Army Corps of Engineers, or contractors retained through the Supervisor of Salvage. The following information is
provided to give the salvage engineer an idea of the relative complexity, expense, and applicability of pile installation by various methods, but
is in general insufficient for planning major pile installations.
G-35
S0300-A8-HBK-010
G-6.6.1 Driven Piles. Piles may be driven by impact hammers operated above the water surface, by underwater impact hammers, or by
vibratory hammers.
Piles for piers, harbor structures, bridges, and many offshore structures in shallow water are driven from above the water surface with
conventional hammers like those used to drive piles on land. The pile is made long enough to extend above the water surface when driven to
its design penetration depth or a pile follower is used. The piles are commonly guided by a template that rests on the seafloor, although floating
templates may be used for small, shallow water installations. The pile-driving operation is conducted from a carefully moored work barge that
supports the necessary cranes and auxiliary equipment.
Submarine pile hammers are scaled-up versions of terrestrial hammers, and may be operated by single-acting steam, compressed air, diesel, or
hydraulic power. The rated energy of these hammers varies from less than 100,000 ft-lb per blow to over 1,500,000 ft-lb per blow. Surfaceoperated pile drivers have been used in water depths in excess of 1,000 feet.
The success of the surface-driven method of pile emplacement in deep water is dependent upon the presence of the template to act as a guide
for the piles. Without the restraint offered by the template, most of the driving energy would be dissipated by lateral deflection of the pile.
For anchor piles driven from the surface without lateral restraint, a reasonable maximum water depth is about 250 feet.
Terrestrial pile hammers may be modified for operation underwater. One manufacturer makes a total of 12 types of steam/compressed air
hammers, with rated energies in air of 8,750 ft-lb to 60,000 ft-lb. These may be operated while submerged with little loss of efficiency. The
modifications consist primarily of providing exhaust hoses that extend to the water surface. Because steam cools too much when the hoses are
underwater, compressed air is usually used to operate the hammers.
Vibratory pile drivers are becoming more common in American practice as experience is gained with their use and as more powerful machines
are developed. The machines usually use counter-rotating eccentric weights powered by electric or hydraulic motors to produce the vibratory
forces. The major depth-limiting factors on present systems are the difficulty in handling long lengths of large-diameter, high-pressure hydraulic
lines and the large friction losses in the line. These factors limit the maximum practical water depth of a surface-powered, hydraulic vibratory
drive to about 1,000 feet.
G-6.6.2 Drilling and Grouting. Drilling and grouting is essentially identical to the method used to set a casing for an oil well. A hole of
somewhat larger diameter than the pile is drilled to the proper depth using rotary drilling tools and is cleaned out by pumping seawater through
the drill string. The pile is placed over the drill string and lowered into the hole. Portland cement grout is pumped down the drill string and
forced up outside of the pile to fill the annular void and bond the pile to the soil. The interior of the pile is filled with grout as the drill string
is withdrawn. Piles up to 8 feet in diameter have been placed in water depths in excess of 600 feet by drilling and grouting.
For small piles set in rock, either cement or epoxy grout can be used. Diver-operated hydraulic tools capable of drilling 3-inch diameter holes
to a depth of 20 feet, along with diver-operated grout dispensers, are used by Navy Underwater Construction Teams (UCT) and NCEL. Piles
fitting such holes may have capacities in the 10- to 60-ton range, depending on rock strength.
G-6.6.3 Jack-in Piles. Piles may be pushed or jacked into the seafloor if an adequate reaction force can be applied. For a satisfactory degree
of safety against failure in bearing of foundation piles, jacking loads must be two to three times the design load. The actual jacking of the piles
can be accomplished by a number of systems. A rack-and-pinion system may be used, with the rack being an integral part of the pile and
running its entire length. A chain acted on by a chain jack or a cable acted on by a hydraulic cable puller may be used, with the chain or cable
applying load to the top of the pile. A short-stroke hydraulic jack equipped with a means of gripping the wall of a pile may also be used.
G-6.6.4 Jetted Piles. Jetting is used to place piles primarily in cohesionless soils. The piles are pushed or lowered into the soil area, which
has been greatly weakened by jetting. The jetting action is generally confined to the inside of a pile or to portions of the outside of the pile
several diameters above its tip. Jetting can also be used in a form of reverse circulation in which both air and water are forced down a pipe
inside or outside the pile. The air-water mixture helps to lift the displaced soil materials to the surface of the soil.
G-36

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S0300-A8-HBK-010

Figure G-1. Simplified Anchor Types.

Deadweight anchors or clumps,

Direct-embedment anchors, and

Suitability of the five anchor types for various

Table G-1. Comparison of Anchor Types.

Lateral Load Range

Table G-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Anchor Types.

High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) possible.

Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line

High capacity (>100,000 lbs) possible.

High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) is possible.

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

True for any taut mooring

G-2 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS

30 to 35 degrees in granular soils (sand, gravel),

50 degrees in soft soils (mud, silt, soft clay), and

25 to 30 degrees in stiff clays.

G-2.1.3 Burial. After initial penetration

The anchor will bury itself until it reaches

Figure G-3. Anchor Penetration in Coarse-Grained Soils.

Because of geometry and

ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,

SOIL COHESION (LB/FT2)

Anchor penetration is also inhibited by the

Fluke roughness determines the inclination

PRESENCE OF ELEMENTS LARGER THAN (IN):

ANCHOR WEIGHT (TONS)

Figure G-4. Anchor Penetration in Stiff Soils.

Anchors and/or the anchor line can be fitted

Anchor line characteristics affect burial

RELATIVE DRAG DISTANCE, L/F

Figure G-5. Holding Capacity Plots for Different Anchor Behavior.

Burial and development of holding capacity

Vertical instability is related to the point of

Figure G-6. Burial Behavior Versus Articulation.

Table G-3. Power Law Coefficients.

Hard soils, sands and stiff clays

Stockless (fixed fluke)

Stockless (movable fluke)

See Figures G-6 and G-7 for plotted results.

For 30-degree foot angle (STATO)

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY (x 1,000 POUNDS)

FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR MUD AS

FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR SAND AS

ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS)

ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS)

Figure G-7. Anchor Holding Capacity.

holding power, lbs

Table G-4. Anchor Selection.

Stiff Clays Heterogeneous

Stiff Clays Heterogeneous

From The Use of Anchors in Offshore Petroleum Operations, A. Puech, 1984

G-2.3 Selection. Anchor selection is a two-step process, in which:

Table G-5. Rating of Drag-embedment Anchor Types.

Cohesionless Soils (sands) a

Cohesive Soils (clays and plastic silts)

Stocklessb (movable fluke)

Stocklessb (fixed fluke)

G.S. (AC 14)

Fluke angle set at manufacturers recommendation for sand

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985