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APPENDIX G

ANCHORING SYSTEMS

G-1 INTRODUCTION

This appendix discusses anchoring systems by type, performance, holding capacity, and design, as commonly used in salvage operations. An
anchoring system consists of the anchor itself, the mooring line that transmits forces from moored vessels or pulling systems to the anchor, and
an attachment point or tensioning system on the moored vessel or work platform. The anchor line normally consists of chain, wire rope, or some
combination of the two, but may include fiber line or rigid elements. The anchor provides the majority of the resistance to motion, or holding
capacity, but the contribution of portions of the anchor line buried in or lying on the seafloor may be significant, especially with chain. The
portion of anchoring system outboard of the attachment point or tensioning system, including the anchor, anchor line, and other ancillary devices,
is sometimes called the ground leg.

(a) DRAG-EMBEDMENT (c) GRAPPLING

(b) DEADWEIGHT (d) DIRECT-EMBEDMENT (e) PILE

Figure G-1. Simplified Anchor Types.

Anchors can be roughly divided into five types, as shown in Figure G-1:

• Drag-embedment anchors,

• Deadweight anchors or clumps,

• Grappling devices,

• Direct-embedment anchors, and

• Pile anchors.

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Suitability of the five anchor types for various

conditions is given in Table G-1. Advantages and Table G-1. Comparison of Anchor Types.
disadvantages of various anchor types are given in
Table G-2. Detailed information on anchor
performance, applicability, and use can be Item Deadweight Pile Direct- Drag- Grappling
obtained from the Naval Civil Engineering embedment embedment
Laboratory (Code L 42) Port Hueneme, California, Seafloor Material
telephone (805) 982-9419 or AUTOVON 360- Soft clay, mud ++ + ++ ++ o
Soft clay layer (0-20 ft) over hard layer ++ ++ o + o
5419. Specialty anchors, such as propellant- Stiff clay ++ ++ ++ ++ o
embedment or large drag-embedment anchors, can Sand ++ ++ ++ ++ o
be procured through the Ocean Engineering and Hard glacial till ++ ++ ++ +
Construction Project Office, Chesapeake Division, Boulders ++ o o o +
Naval Facilities Command (Code FPO-1), tele- Soft rock or coral ++ ++ ++ + ++
phone (202) 433-3881 or AUTOVON 288-3881. Hard, massive rock ++ + + o ++

Seafloor Topography
Determination of holding power of deadweight, Slope < 10 degrees ++ ++ ++ ++ —
direct-embedment, and pile anchors require an Slope > 10 degrees o ++ ++ o —
understanding of basic soil mechanics. The
discussions of these types of anchors (Paragraphs Loading Direction
G-3, G-5, and G-6) draws heavily on the Omnidirectional ++ ++ ++ o o
Unidirectional ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
information presented in Paragraph 3-7.
Large uplift ++ ++ ++ o ++

The information on direct-embedment and pile Lateral Load Range

anchors is presented to enable the salvage engineer To 100,000 lbs ++ + ++ ++ ++
to conduct preliminary evaluations of the 100,000 - 1,000,000 lbs + ++ + ++ o
feasibility of these anchor types for use in various Over 1,000,000 lbs o ++ o o o
salvage situations. Whenever possible, the
++ Functions well
assistance of a marine geotechnical engineer + Functions well, but not normally the best choice
should be sought if it appears that direct- o Does not function well
embedment or pile anchors may be particularly
suited to a salvage requirement.

Table G-2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Anchor Types.

Drag-embedment Anchors Deadweight Anchors Pile Anchors Direct-embedment Anchors

Advantages
High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) possible.
Broad range of types and sizes
available.
Standard, off-the-shelf equipment.
Broad use experience.
Continuous resistance can be provided
even if maximum capacity is exceeded.
Anchor is recoverable.
Advantages
Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line
scope.
No setting distance is required.
Anchor is reliable because most holding
force is due to anchor mass.
Simple, on-site construction is feasible.
Size is limited only by load-handling
equipment.
Economical if material is readily available.
Reliable on thin sediment cover over rock.
Mooring line connection is easy to inspect
and service.
Advantages
High capacity (>100,000 lbs) possible.
Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line
scopes.
Anchor setting is not required.
Dragging is eliminated.
Drilled and grouted piles are especially
suited for hard coral or rock seafloors.
Simple, on-site construction is feasible.
Anchor does not protrude above seafloor.
Driven piles are cost-competitive with other
high-capacity anchors when driving
equipment is available.
Comes in a wide range of sizes and
shapes, such as pipe and structural shapes.
Field modifications permit piles to be
tailored to suit particular requirements.
Accurate anchor placement is possible.
Can be driven into layered seafloor.
Advantages
High capacity (> 100,000 lbs) is possible.
Resists uplift, allowing short mooring line
scopes.
Dragging is eliminated.
Has higher holding capacity-to-weight ratio
than any other type.
Easier handling due to relatively light weight.
Can function on moderate slopes and hard
seafloors.1
Easier installation due to possible instant
embedment on seafloor contact.1
Accurate placement is possible.
Anchor does not protrude above seafloor.
Can accommodate layered seafloors or
seafloors with variable resistance.

Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages Disadvantages

Anchor cannot resist uplift; large line
scopes are needed to cause near
horizontal loading at seafloor.
Does not function in hard seafloors.
Behavior is erratic in layered seafloors.
Penetrating/dragging anchor can
damage pipelines, cables, etc.
Lateral load resistance is low compared to Taut moorings may aggravate ship
other anchor types.
Usable water depth is reduced;
deadweight can be an undesirable
obstruction.
Requires large-capacity load-handling
equipment for placement.
response to waves (low resilience).1
Drilled and grouted installation is expensive
and requires special skills and equipment.
Costs increase rapidly in deep water or
exposed locations where special installation
vessels are required.
Special equipment (pile extractor) is
required to retrieve or refurbish the
mooring.
More extensive site data are required than
for other anchor types.
Pile-driving equipment must maintain
position during installation.
1 1
True for any taut mooring
Susceptible to cyclic load-strength reduction
when used in taut moorings in loose sand or
coarse silt seafloors.
For critical moorings, knowledge of soil
engineering properties is required.
Anchor typically is not recoverable.
Special consideration is needed for
ordnance.1
Anchor cable is susceptible to abrasion and
fatigue.1
Gun system is not generally recoverable in
deep water (> 1,000 ft)
Surface vessel must maintain position during
installation.
Propellent-embedded anchor

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

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G-2 DRAG-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS

Drag-embedment anchors (or drag anchors) are used for temporary moorings and as anchor points for beach gear, parbuckling rigs, or other
pulling systems. Drag anchors are generally known by manufacturers’ tradenames.

Drag-embedment anchor performance is discussed in detail in Appendix G and Paragraph 6-3.4 of the U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume
1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010); Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of that manual describes and illustrates the six anchors—NAVMOOR, Stato, Eells, LWT, Danforth,
and Stockless—commonly used for Navy moorings and beach gear. The following paragraphs supplement the Salvage Manual discussion, and
provide performance data for some commercial anchors not described in the manual.

The underwater weight of an anchor is less than dry weight because of the difference in buoyancy, but performance criteria are usually based
on dry weight. Advertised or tabulated anchor weights are nominal and may differ from actual weight by as much as 15 percent; for example,
a 6,000-pound NAVMOOR anchor actually weighs about 7,200 pounds.

G-2.1 Function. A properly functioning drag-embedment anchor is lowered or dropped to the seafloor and pulled along the bottom until it
trips—rotates to a position where the fluke or flukes are forced into the seabed—penetrates the seafloor, and embeds itself to the depth required
to develop its maximum holding capacity. Successful deployment depends on several factors, including anchor geometry, anchor line length,
and soil conditions. Seemingly minor features can affect anchor performance dramatically. The following paragraphs discuss the effects of
various aspects of anchor geometry on anchor performance. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of soil properties.

G-2.1.1 Tripping. In general, anchors with heavy crowns, small or nonexistent tripping palms, or those with the shank/fluke hinge far back
on the fluke exhibit tripping problems. Examples of anchors with these inherent features and attendant lack of tripping reliability include
Stockless, LWT, and Stevfix (see Figure G-8). Tripping problems occur most often in soft soils and are overcome by proper anchor selection
and deployment. Two platforms are required to deploy a ground leg so that there is a high probability of tripping—one platform to pay out
the ground leg, and one to handle, lower, and position the anchor for digging in when the anchor line is tensioned. Paragraph G-2.1.1. of the
U.S Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010) describes this process in greater detail.

G-2.1.2 Penetration. During penetration,

the flukes dig into the soil under the action
of the anchor’s weight, horizontal traction
exerted by the anchor line on the shank,
T
and soil reaction on the flukes and other α
β F
surfaces, as shown in Figure G-2.
Penetration is complete when the when the W = ANCHOR WEIGHT
upper level of the flukes is flush with the W F = SOIL REACTION ON FLUKES
seafloor surface. The angle formed by the T = GROUND LEG TENSION
flukes and shank when fully opened (fluke
angle, α) is one of the most important Figure G-2. Forces Affecting Anchor Penetration.
factors governing anchor penetration. For
a given anchor geometry and soil
combination, there is a critical or optimum fluke angle, αc. For fluke angles less than the critical angle, penetration is possible, but is hindered
by the formation of a rigid wedge of soil that adheres to the flukes and increases resistance to penetration. The soil is sheared along a line at
the outer edge of the soil wedge on the flukes; the soil failure line forms an angle θ with the fluke. When the fluke angle α varies, the sum
α + θ remains fairly constant. The practical consequence of this process is the formation of a ball of soil that retards penetration as it is pushed
along ahead of the anchor. When the fluke angle is approximately equal to the critical angle, penetration is accomplished by simple shearing
of the soil along a surface close to and approximately parallel to the fluke surface. The angle θ is reduced to 0, and the soil wedge to a thin
boundary layer. If the fluke angle is greater than the critical fluke angle, the flukes rotate sharply and the rear of the anchor rises above the
seafloor, and the anchor tends to break out and may overturn and drag on one side. Without stabilizers, the anchor will slide on the side of the
flukes and not reset or penetrate.

For most articulated, reversible anchors, critical fluke angle is approximately:

• 30 to 35 degrees in granular soils (sand, gravel),

• 50 degrees in soft soils (mud, silt, soft clay), and

• 25 to 30 degrees in stiff clays.

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Fluke roughness determines the inclination

(B) of the soil reaction on the fluke. For 8

PRESENCE OF ELEMENTS LARGER THAN (IN):

rough flukes (cast steel, ribbed flukes, etc.),
the stress inclination is essentially the same ANCHORS DO

E
NOT PENETRATE

C
EN
as the soil’s internal friction angle. For

ES
smooth flukes (rust-free plate), the stress

TS PR
6
inclination is much smaller than the friction

ENBY
angle and seldom greater than 25 degrees.

EM D
EL E
E ER
The smaller stress inclination makes the

G P
R M
fluke more resistant to the formation of the

LA HA
4

O ION
rigid soil wedge; critical fluke angle is

AT
F
greater, broadening the range of soils for

R
ET
which the anchor is suited. ANCHORS

N
PE
PENETRATE
Anchor penetration is also inhibited by the 2
presence of large soil elements and the
relative stiffness of cohesive soils. Figures
G-3 and G-4 illustrate the probability of
anchor penetration as functions of anchor 0
weight and soil features. 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
ANCHOR WEIGHT, TONS
G-2.1.3 Burial. After initial penetration
of a properly functioning anchor, the ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,
ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
tractive force exerted by the anchor line
mobilizes soil forces (drag) on various
surfaces of the anchor: Figure G-3. Anchor Penetration in Coarse-Grained Soils.

• Because of geometry and

angle of attack, the vertical
component of the soil 4,000
resistance to horizontal
ANCHORS DO
movement on the flukes is NOT PENETRATE
directed downwards.

ED LE
SOIL COHESION (LB/FT2)

3,000
• The vertical component of TE IB
N S
A S
R S
A O

drag forces on the shank,

U P
G N

anchor line, stocks/stabilizers,

T O
O I
N AT

palms, etc., is directed

T R

2,000
U T
B NE

upwards.
PE

The anchor will bury itself until it reaches ANCHORS

PENETRATE
a depth where the upward forces balance
the downward forces. Resistance forces 1,000
increase rapidly with depth, as soil strength
increases and length of embedded anchor
line increases. As burial depth increases,
the anchor rotates because the shank tends 0
to align itself with the anchor line and the 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
downward component of the soil forces on ANCHOR WEIGHT (TONS)
the flukes decreases. Most reversible
ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,
anchors cannot be buried in dense sands or ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
stiff clays because soil shear strength is too
high to permit penetration of the shank,
anchor line, and stabilizers. Specialized Figure G-4. Anchor Penetration in Stiff Soils.
anchors have been developed that are
capable of burial in stiff soils.

Fluke angle affects burial in much the same way that it affects penetration. Optimum burial angle is generally slightly smaller than critical
penetration angle.

Overall streamlining enhances anchor burial. The crown, palms, shank, and stock or stabilizers especially inhibit burial, especially if they are
located forward on the anchor so as to interfere with the plastic flow of soil over the flukes. Since these features are necessary to the functioning
of the anchor, they cannot be eliminated. In some anchors—such as the Hook—crown, palms, and stabilizers are placed to the rear of the
anchor, under the fluke, to minimize resistance to burial. Anchors of this type are unilateral, and must be lowered to the seafloor to ensure
tripping and penetration. The bearing area of the underside of the shank is the major surface resisting burial, and the first to come into play
in most anchors. The greater the bearing area of the shank, the greater the resistance to burial. In general, if the ratio of shank bearing area
to fluke area is greater than 0.13, burial is not possible. Minimum shank cross-sectional area is set by design holding capacity; bearing area
is minimized in various anchor designs by using short shanks and/or beveling the edges of the shanks at about 45 degrees.

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Anchor line characteristics affect burial

depth significantly. For equal breaking
strengths, the maximum cross section of
chain is several times more than that of ANCHOR DRAGGING AT
CONSTANT DEPTH
wire rope; chain will create more drag and RATED AND TENSION
resist burial to a greater degree than wire EFFICIENCY
rope. Anchors on wire rope will achieve W = ANCHOR WEIGHT
F = FLUKE LENGTH DEEP BURIAL
greater burial depth, and therefore greater T = ANCHOR LINE TENSION
holding capacity than the same anchor on L = DISTANCE

EFFICIENCY e = T/W
chain. The increase in holding capacity of
the anchor may be offset by the decrease in 5
SOFT CLAY
the holding capacity of the buried portion
of the anchor line. 4
PENETRATION WITHOUT
BURIAL
Anchors and/or the anchor line can be fitted
with special burial devices that increase the 3
area producing downward components of
soil resisting forces. Typical devices 2
include auxiliary plates fitted to the forward INSTABILITY
part of the shank (making the anchor
unilateral), fluke extenders, and anchor line 1
TRIPPING
depressors. Anchor line depressors are DEFECT
streamlined steel castings that enhance
burial of the anchor line, with an active 2 4 6 8
area of about 30 percent of the anchor’s RELATIVE DRAG DISTANCE, L/F
fluke area, and weight of about 10 percent ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,
of anchor weight. One manufacturer claims ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
that three depressors in series can double
the holding power of a Bruce anchor. Figure G-5. Holding Capacity Plots for Different Anchor Behavior.

Burial and development of holding capacity

can be monitored with a tensiometer. As the ground leg is tensioned, tension is plotted against drag distance as shown in Figure G-5. If tension
increases steadily (exponentially), the anchor has tripped and is penetrating. If the tension indicator fluctuates or remains static, tripping and/or
burial is incomplete. Dragging should be halted and the anchor reset.

G-2.1.4 Stability. A stable anchor can be pulled over long distances (several times its dimensions) without lying on its site, overturning, or
breaking out of the seabed. After penetration and burial, traction force is essentially constant. There are two types of instability:

• Lateral instability – rotation about the axis of the shank/anchor line, occurring most often during penetration, but also during
dragging, causing the anchor to move upwards and possibly break out of the seabed.

• Vertical instability – the anchor moves upward in a vertical plane defined by the shank/anchor line at the end of penetration or
while dragging, either by translation or rotation about a horizontal axis through the shank attachment point.

Lateral instability is usually related to anchor geometry. Anchors with very long and narrow flukes, such as the LWT and Danforth, are basically
unstable, and are fitted with long stabilizers to prevent rotation. Wide fluke spacing gives good stability in homogeneous soils, but anchors with
tapered, closely spaced flukes are more stable in heterogeneous soils because there is greater probability that both flukes will operate in soil
of the same strength and consistency. Closely spaced flukes are a disadvantage if the soil contains coarse elements large enough to jam between
the flukes. Fouling by wire rope or other obstructions, especially over only one fluke, will cause serious instability. Heavy crowns cause
overturning during penetration, especially in heterogeneous soils. Manufacturing defects or damage, especially those causing asymmetry between
flukes, cause rotational moments as the anchor is dragged, due to the difference in soil forces generated on the flukes. Twisted or bent shanks
or stabilizers and asymmetrically attached pendants can also cause instability.

Lateral instability is avoided or overcome by structural arrangement of the anchor, including the addition of specific components. Stocks at the
forward end of the shank, or stabilizers at the rear of the flukes prevent lateral rotation, and are effective if properly dimensioned. Their
effectiveness is reduced in very soft or fluid soils. Stocks or stabilizers add to the bulkiness of the anchor, hamper handling and stowage, and
inhibit burial. Bent, broken, or fouled stabilizers can induce instability by creating laterally unsymmetrical soil forces. Some anchors, such as
the Flipper Delta, Eells, and AC-14 are constructed with plate surfaces in planes different from that of the flukes to provide stability. Certain
nonarticulating anchors, such as the Bruce, are designed to be self-stabilizing—when the anchor begins to rotate, the change in attitude increases
soil force on the rising side and decreases soil forces on sinking side, returning the anchor to its upright position.

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Vertical instability is related to the point of

application of the tractive force relative to
the barycenter (center of soil pressure on 1
the fluke surfaces). In a freely articulating 3
anchor (fluke-to-traction-line angle not
constrained) the burial path of the anchor is

BURIAL DEPTH
determined by the relative position of the
articulation axis and the barycenter, as
shown in Figure G-6. Free articulation 2
achieves maximum burial depth, but is ATTACHMENT POINT/ARTICULATION AXIS:
seldom used because anchor stability is 1 BEHIND BARYCENTER
very sensitive to the location of the 2 NEAR BARYCENTER
articulation axis. Instead, tractive force is 3 FORWARD OF BARYCENTER
applied through a rigid shank so that
articulation occurs above the barycenter and
the shank can be blocked to prevent fluke
DRAG DISTANCE
angle from exceeding the critical
penetration/burial angle. As the shank is ADAPTED FROM THE USE OF ANCHORS IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS,
ALAIN PUECH, GULF PUBLISHING CO., 1984
shortened, the articulation axis (anchor line
to shank attachment) moves closer to the
barycenter, and the critical angle increases. Figure G-6. Burial Behavior Versus Articulation.
Burial depth increases, but the anchor
becomes more sensitive to the soil type and
local soil heterogeneities. Table G-3. Power Law Coefficients.

G-2.2 Holding Capacity. Resistance to Soft soils, soft clays and silts Hard soils, sands and stiff clays
horizontal movement, or anchor holding
Anchor typea HR (lbs × 1,000) b HR (lbs × 1,000) b
capacity, increases with burial depth
because deeper soil is generally denser and
BOSS 210 0.94 270 0.94
stronger, and provides increased resistance
BRUCE Cast 32 0.92 250 0.80
to the anchor moving through it. Holding
BRUCE Twin Shank (TS) 189 0.92 210 0.94
power is primarily determined by the mass
BRUCE Flat-fluke Twin Shank (FFTS) 250 0.92 -b -b
of the displaced soil. Therefore, deeply Danforth 87 0.92 126 0.80
embedded anchors with a large fluke area Flipper Delta 139 0.92 -b -b
perform better because they cause the G.S. (AC-14) 87 0.92 126 0.80
largest displacement of strongest soil. Hook 189 0.92 100 0.80
Stable anchors provide constant holding Lightweight (LWT) 87 0.92 126 0.80
capacity once they reach maximum burial 60 0.80
Moorfast 87 0.92
depth, even if dragged. For an anchor to 100c 0.80
develop its maximum holding capacity, it NAVMOOR 210 0.94 270 0.94
must penetrate to its optimum depth. If the 60 0.80
Offdrill II 87 0.92
100c 0.80
anchor’s burial is halted by a hard layer, it
250d
will drag along the layer, providing STATO 210 0.94
190g
0.94
constant resistance (holding capacity) less STEVDIG 139 0.92 290 0.80
than maximum capacity. Until an anchor STEVFIX 189 0.92 290 0.80
reaches its equilibrium depth, burial depth STEVIN 139 0.92 165 0.80
is a function of drag distance. If drag STEVMUD 250 0.92 -e -e
distance is to be limited (to avoid fouling STEVPRIS (straight shank) 189 0.92 210 0.94
submarine cables, for example), the anchor Stockless (fixed fluke) 46 0.92
70
0.80
cannot be loaded to full capacity. 44f
70
Stockless (movable fluke) 24 0.92 0.80
44f
The Power Law Method is the best
technique to predict holding capacity. See Figures G-6 and G-7 for plotted results.
Holding capacity, Hm, is determined by: a d
Fluke angles set for 50 degrees in soft soils and according to manu- For 30-degree foot angle (STATO)
e
facturer’s specifications in hard soils, except when otherwise noted Anchor not used in this seafloor condition
 W  b b
No data available f
For 48-degree fluke angle
Hm = Hr   c g
a For 28-degree fluke angle For dense sand conditions (near shore)

 10,000 
From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
where:

Hr = holding capacity of a 10,000-pound (dry weight) version of the reference anchor, from Table G-3
Wa = anchor weight for which Hm is to be determined, lbs
b = an exponent depending on the anchor and soil type, from Table G-3

G-6
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1,000
900
800 FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR SAND AS FLUKE ANGLES SET FOR MUD AS

R
PER MANUFACTURER’S SPECIFICATION PER MANUFACTURER’S SPECIFICATION

O
700

O
VM
600

, NA
500

SS
BO
ANCHOR HOLDING CAPACITY (x 1,000 POUNDS)

400

300 T

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EE
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E

VA
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SS
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R
LE
B
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C
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ST
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40
ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS) ANCHOR AIR WEIGHT (x 1,000 POUNDS)
CAPACITY IN SAND CAPACITY IN MUD
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985

Figure G-7. Anchor Holding Capacity.

This method produces a straight-line relationship between anchor holding capacity and anchor weight on a log-log plot, as shown in Figure G-7
for various commercial and Navy anchors.

Holding power for a given anchor can also be calculated by multiplying the anchor’s weight by its efficiency (also called holding power factor).

H = We

where:

H = holding power, lbs

W = anchor dry weight, lbs
e = anchor efficiency, dimensionless

Caution must be applied when determining holding power by anchor efficiency, as holding power is not a linear function of anchor weight.
Anchor efficiencies are valid only for the specified weight. If the efficiency for a given anchor weight is used to predict performance of a larger
anchor of the same type, holding power will be overestimated.

When a single anchor will not develop the required holding capacity, it is common practice to install a second anchor on the same mooring leg
in a piggyback rig. Anchors can be rigged in tandem or doubled. Paragraph 6-3.4.3 of the U.S Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-
MAN-010) discusses double and tandem anchor rigs in detail. When properly rigged and deployed, tandem anchors can develop more than twice
the capacity of a single anchor in the same soil. Holding capacity can also be increased by use of large weights, or sinkers, attached to anchor
lines to absorb energy and ensure horizontal loading on the anchor. If the sinker-to-anchor-line connection fails, the sinker will be lost and the
entire mooring may fail. Connections must allow free movement of chain links in order to avoid distortion or failure of links. Sinker shackles,
shown in Figure 7-32, or appropriately dimensioned plate shackles should be used to allow free movement of chain links.

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Table G-4. Anchor Selection.

Soil Type Soil Type

Sands Muds Stiff Clays Heterogeneous Sands Muds Stiff Clays Heterogeneous
Anchor Anchor

Multipurpose Anchors Specific Anchors

Improved Stockless + o ++ ++ Delta Triple ++ o + +
High-performance Stockless ++ + + + Doris mud o ++ o o
Stock ++ o + ++ Hook ++ ++ o o
Stevin ++ + o o Stevshark + o ++ ++
Stockless + o + + Bruce ++ o + +
Flipper Delta ++ ++ o o

++ Functions well
+ Functions, but not the best choice
o Does not function well

From The Use of Anchors in Offshore Petroleum Operations, A. Puech, 1984

G-2.3 Selection. Anchor selection is a two-step process, in which:

• One or more anchor types are chosen for use based on overall performance in the expected soil, availability, and cost.

• The selected anchor type is sized to develop the required holding capacity.

To aid the selection process, Table G-4 lists anchor applicability by soil type. Table G-5 rates anchor types subjectively, based on field
experience and test findings with small anchors.

Table G-5. Rating of Drag-embedment Anchor Types.

Reliability

Anchor Type Cohesive Soils (clays and plastic silts) Cohesionless Soils (sands) a
Tripping/Dig-in Stability Holding Capacity Tripping/Dig-in Stability Holding Capacity
Stocklessb (movable fluke) Low Medium Low High Medium Low
Stocklessb (fixed fluke) High Medium Low High High Low
G.S. (AC 14) —c —c Medium High Medium Medium
Danforth Medium Low Medium High Medium Medium
Lightweight (LWT) Low Low Low High Medium Medium
STATO/NAVMOORd High Medium High High High High
Moorfast Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Offdrill II Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
Flipper Delta —c —c Medium —c —c Medium
STEVIN —c —c Medium —c —c Medium
STEVFIX Low Low High High Medium High
STEVPRIS —c —c —c High High High
STEVDIG —c —c —c High Medium High
STEVMUD High —c High —e —e —e
BOSS High Medium High High —c High
Hook High High Medium Medium High Medium
BRUCE Cast High High Low High High High
Bruce Twin-shank High High High —c High High
a
Fluke angle set at manufacturer’s recommendation for sand
b
With stabilizers (ratings not as high without stabilizers)
c
Insufficient data available for rating
d
Fluke angle set at 30 degrees for sand
e
Anchor not normally used in this seafloor

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

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G-2.4 Drag Anchor Types. Physical

characteristics of an anchor affect its
tripping, penetration, stability, and overall FLIPPER
performance. Anchors can be classed by STEVSHARK DELTA
DELTA
general characteristics such as fluke/shank
angle (typical anchors for each class are
shown in Figure G-8); the presence and
geometry of stabilizers, crowns, tripping
palms; and hinge function:
DEEP PENETRATION ANCHORS
• Deeply penetrating anchors of
unique geometry with holding
ADMIRALTY
power roughly proportional to BRUCE BRUCE T.S. HOOK AC-12
the third power of penetration
such as Stevshark and Delta
(see Paragraphs G-2.5.1 and
G-2.5.2).

• Anchors with elbowed shanks ELBOWED SHANK ANCHORS

for deep penetration, such as
Bruce, Hook, and AC-12 (see STEVDIG/ STEVFIX STEVMUD
Paragraphs G-2.5.3 and G- STEVIN
2.5.4).

• Anchors with large, hollow

flukes, hinges near the center
of gravity, and relatively
short shanks and stabilizers, STEVIN ANCHORS
known generically as Stevin
anchors (see Paragraph G- MOORFAST/
2.5.5). DANFORTH L.W.T. STATO/ BOSS
NAVMOOR

• High-performance stockless
anchors with hinge and
stabilizers at the rear and
relatively long shanks and
stabilizers such as Moorfast, HIGH PERFORMANCE STOCKLESS ANCHORS
O f f d r i l l , S TAT O ,
NAVMOOR, LWT, etc. (see ADMIRALTY
Paragraph G-2.5.6 and the AC-14 STOKES SNUGSTOW WELDHOLD
U.S. Naval Ship Salvage
Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-
A6-MAN-010)).

• Improved stockless anchors

with short, thick stabilizers, IMPROVED STOCKLESS ANCHORS
hinges at the rear and
relatively short, more or less
NAVY
square shanks, such as the STOCKLESS
BEIJERS HALLS SPECK
AC-14, Stokes, and similar
anchors (see Paragraph G-
2.5.7).

• Standard stockless anchors,

such as the Navy Stockless STANDARD STOCKLESS ANCHORS
and similar commercial pat-
terns (see Paragraph G-2.5.8).

• Stocked anchors with small ADMIRALTY

AM-7 STOCK DREDGER MOORING
fluke area and stabilizers at SINGLE-FLUKE ANCHOR
the front of the shank such as
the Stock (old-fashioned or
Admiralty), Single Fluke
Stock, Dredger, etc. (see STOCKED ANCHORS
Paragraph G-2.5.9).
Figure G-8. Drag-Embedment Anchors.

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G-2.5 Drag Anchor Notes. The following notes describe features specific to some commonly used drag anchors, such as tripping, penetration,
burial, and effectiveness in various soil types. The NAVMOOR, STATO, LWT, Danforth, Eells, and Navy Stockless anchors, described in
Paragraph 7-2.2.1 of the U.S. Navy Salvage Manual, Volume 1 (S0300-A6-MAN-010), are not addressed here.

G-2.5.1 Stevshark. The Stevshark is a ballastable anchor with fixed twin-shank fitted with teeth. It is used primarily for temporary and
permanent moorings in stiff clays and heterogeneous sediments, but in practice tripping is generally incomplete in very stiff clays due to teeth
hooking. Burial is impossible in very stiff soils. The anchor breaks out easily.

G-2.5.2 Delta. The Delta is a compact, unilateral, pointed-fluke anchor which exhibits excellent tripping and stability in all soil types. Delta
anchors embed deeply in soft soils and are recommended for temporary moorings in mud and sand seafloors. A variation known as the Delta Triple
consists of three Delta anchors welded together. The Delta Triple penetrates rapidly and deeply, but is very bulky and difficult to handle. Delta
Triple anchors are generally used for permanent moorings in sandy soils. The Flipper Delta is a bilateral anchor with cut-out, pointed flukes in the
shape of right triangles with the right angles against the shank. The crown is open and cage-like with the outboard perimeters formed by angled
plates that act as stabilizing fins. Stability and tripping reliability are excellent in all types of soil; burial is deep in soft soils, but hampered by the
crown in stiff or heterogeneous soils. The anchor is bulky on deck, but resists fouling as there are no projecting parts other than the shank.

G-2.5.3 Bruce. The Bruce is a rugged, nonarticulating, self-stabilizing anchor, usually constructed of cast steel. Penetration is satisfactory
in clays, and good for temporary moorings in sand; stability is very good. A welded steel version, with two cross-stiffened shanks is known
as the Bruce TS (twin-shank).

G-2.5.4 Hook. The Hook anchor is a nonreversible, large-area plate anchor with a curved shank, used primarily for permanent moorings in
sand and mud. The Hook anchor trips satisfactorily, but penetration is difficult, and stability is poor in stiff soils.

G-2.5.5 Stevin. Stevin anchors are distinguished by several features:

• Strong streamlined shanks, hinged near the anchor’s barycenter, to enhance penetration.

• Hollow flukes to give maximum fluke area for anchor weight.

• Stabilizers protruding from the flukes to overcome instability inherent in hinging the shank near the barycenter.

• Fluke-to-shank angle adjustable for different soil conditions.

• Crowns specially designed to enhance tripping.

The Stevin anchor family includes the basic Stevin, Stevdig, Stevfix, and Stevmud anchors (the Stevshark is produced by the same manufacturer
as the Stevin anchors, but is a distinct anchor type, as discussed in Paragraph G-2.5.1). Tripping is satisfactory in all soils. Penetration is very
good in sandy and soft seafloors, but difficult in stiff soils. Stability is generally good. Stevin anchors are characterized by reliable holding
power, minimum weight, and easy handling.

The Stevfix is based on the basic Stevin design, with a considerably enlarged fluke area (about 64 percent). Stock stabilizers combined with
the fluke points prevent the anchor from sliding over the bottom on its side. Holding power in mud is about 30 times anchor weight. For very
soft mud, an adapter can be fitted to the anchor to increase fluke area by 80 percent.

The Stevmud has enlarged flukes to increase holding capacity in very soft mud. The fluke area is twice that of the basic Stevin (see Figure
G-8); holding power in mud is about 35 times anchor weight.

G-2.5.6 Moorfast. The Moorfast is a cast version of the Stato anchor, but of heavier construction. The fluke area is half that of the Stato,
and holding power is about 14 times weight. Moorfast anchors are provided with wedges to set fluke angle for 32 degrees in sand and 50
degrees in mud. The Moorfast crown is suitable for use in mud without modification. T-ATF-166 Class tugs carry a large Moorfast anchor
hawsed in the stem. The Offdrill anchor is similar to the Moorfast, but with slightly smaller flukes.

G-2.5.7 Improved Stockless Anchors. Most of the anchors in this class have holding capacities of about 8 times anchor weight in soft soils,
and from 10 to 15 times anchor weight in sand or firm clay. The AC-14 is used as a ship’s anchor by the Royal Navy and is approved by
Lloyds and ABS. Fluke angle is 34 degrees. Stabilizer fins ensure continuous penetration. The Danforth-Jackson Stokes anchor is similar.

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G-2.5.8 Standard Stockless. Stockless anchors were designed for use as ship’s anchors. Consequently, they are more easily recovered but
less efficient than higher performance mooring anchors. Fluke angle is set at 45 to 48 degrees for most stockless types. Holding efficiency
is about 4.5 times the anchor weight for U.S Navy Stockless, and 2 to 3 times the anchor weight for most commercial Stockless anchors.
Performance is enhanced by fitting stabilizers, and by welding or blocking flukes open at the critical angle for the soil.

G-2.5.9 Stock Anchors. With the stabilizing stock forward of, and at right angles to the fluke(s), burial is impossible with stock anchors; the
relative orientation of fluke and stock does ensure reliable tripping and penetration, however. They are capable of significant holding capacity,
often as high as 15 times anchor weight in firm clay or sand. They can resist moderate uplift because the embedded fluke digs in like a pickaxe
when the end of the shank is raised. Because of its grappling ability, the old-fashioned Stock and similar anchors can hold on coral or rocky
ground. The single blade salvage anchor, shown in Figure G-9, is commonly used by commercial salvors and is a modification of the admiralty
pattern AM-7 single fluke anchor. The
enlarged fluke area increases holding
capacity in soft soils.

G-2.5.10 Doris Mud. The Doris Mud

anchor shown in Figure G-9 is a unilateral,
nonarticulating anchor especially designed
for soft soils, and does not readily fit into
any of the anchor classes defined in
Paragraph G-2.4. Stability is good, but
penetration and burial are possible only in
SINGLE-BLADE
very soft soils where the large area of the SALVAGE ANCHOR DORIS MUD ANCHOR
bulldozer-like blade resists forward motion.
The anchor is bulky and difficult to handle
and break out. Figure G-9. Specialized Anchors for Soft (Mud) Seafloors.

G-3 DEADWEIGHT ANCHORS

Any heavy object that can be placed on the seafloor can be used as a deadweight anchor. Steel, concrete, and ferro-cement clumps are
commonly used. Factors to consider in selection of deadweight anchors and their installation include:

• Water depth.

• Seafloor slope.

• Presence and rate of soil erosion.

• Degree of sediment consolidation.

Significant characteristics of common deadweight anchors are shown in Figure G-10 (Page G-12).

G-3.1 Holding Capacity. Holding power of a deadweight anchor is the force required to lift or drag the large weight over the sea bottom.
Resistance to uplift or vertical force is simply the submerged weight of the anchor, plus suction effects in soft bottoms. Resistance to dragging
results from friction between the seafloor and the anchor. See Paragraph 3-7 for a discussion of basic soil properties and calculations.

Lateral loads result from several causes:

• Mooring line tension,

• Down-slope force of gravity on a sloping seafloor,

• Current drag, and

• Storm-wave or earthquake loading.

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(a) SINKER (b) SQUAT CLUMP (c) RAILROAD RAILS (d) CONCRETE SLAB
OR SCRAP IRON WITH SHEAR KEYS
• EFFICIENT UPLIFT • LOW OVERTURNING • LOW BULK, HIGH WEIGHT • HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY
• EASY TO HANDLE • MORE AREA CONTACTING SOIL • LOW COST • SCOUR CONTROL

(e) OPEN FRAME WITH (f) MUSHROOM (g) WEDGE (h) SLANTED SKIRT
WEIGHTED CORNERS
• HIGH LATERAL CAPACITY • SHALLOW BURIAL • SHALLOW BURIAL • DEEPER BURIAL
• REDUCED LOWERING • LOW OVERTURNING • UNI-DIRECTIONAL
LINE DYNAMIC TENSIONS • UNI-DIRECTIONAL
• SHALLOW BURIAL

zs
Df
SHEAR
(i) HIGH LATERAL (j) FREE FALL (DELCO) KEYS
CAPACITY, FREE FALL
• FREE-FALL • FREE FALL B
INSTALLATION INSTALLATION
• HIGH LATERAL • EFFICIENT UPLIFT (k) DEAD WEIGHT GEOMETRY
CAPACITY
ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985

Figure G-10. Deadweight Anchors.

G-3.1.1 Static Short-term and Cyclic Loading in Cohesive Soils. Static short-term loading and cyclic lateral loading on cohesive soils are
treated as undrained failure problems. The maximum lateral load capacity (parallel to the seafloor), Qul, for an anchor on cohesive soil is:

Qul = suzA + 2 suaDf B

where:

suz = undrained shear strength of the soil at depth Df , [force/length2]

sua = average undrained shear strength between the seafloor and depth Df, [force/length2]
A = foundation or anchor base area, [length2]
Df = embedment depth of foundation or anchor (depth of shear key tip below the seafloor), [length]
B = minimum foundation or anchor base dimension (usually called the foundation width), [length]

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G-3.1.2 Static Short- and Long-term Loading in Cohesionless Soils. For cohesionless soils, lateral load failure is a drained soil failure, and
the maximum lateral load capacity in sliding is:

Qul = µ Wb + γb A Df Fve cosβ Fh sinβ + Rp

where:
µ = coefficient of friction between anchor base and soil or between soil and soil when shear keys cause deep failure (shear keys
are described in Paragraph G-3.1.3)
Wb = underwater (buoyant) weight of anchor, [force]
Fve = design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the vertical direction (upward is positive), [force]
Fh = design environmental loading and mooring line loading in the horizontal direction (down-slope is assumed positive), [force]
γbADf = buoyant weight of soil trapped in shear keys, [force]
γb = buoyant unit weight of soil, [force/length3] (see Table 3-3, Page 3-18)
A = base area of the anchor, [length2]
Df = embedment depth of shear keys, below the seafloor surface, [length]
β = seafloor slope angle
Rp = passive soil resistance on leading edge of base, [force]

The coefficient of friction depends on soil type and anchor

roughness. Table G-6 gives coefficients of friction for typical Table G-6. Coefficient of Friction for Deadweight Anchors.
materials and marine cohesionless soils. In the absence of
better information, the internal coefficient of friction can be Internal
Smooth Rough Smooth Rough Smooth
estimated from the soil friction angle φ: Soil Friction
Steel Steel Concrete Concrete PVC
Coefficient
Quartz Sand 0.67 0.27 0.60 0.60 0.69 0.33
µ = tan (φ - 5) degrees for a rough steel or concrete
Coralline sand 0.67 0.20 0.63 0.63 0.66 0.20
base without shear keys
= tan φ for a base with shear keys Oolitic Sand 0.79 0.23 0.56 0.58 0.74 0.26
Foraminiferous Sand-Silt 0.64 0.40 0.66 0.67 --- 0.40

Friction angle φ is given for various soils in Table 3-3 on From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
Page 3-18.

When the anchor is embedded deeply or fitted with shear keys, a wedge of soil in passive failure develops in front of the leading foundation
edge and provides resistance to sliding. In some cases, this passive wedge can contribute about 10 percent of the total lateral resistance.
Because the sediment comprising the passive wedge may be removed by current scour or by animal burrowing, the contribution of the passive
wedge to sliding resistance is usually neglected.

To maintain stability against sliding, a factor of safety, Fs, can be applied to the lateral load capacity, Qul, to account for uncertainties in soil
data or failure mechanism:

Qul
Fs =
(Wb γb A Df Fve) sinβ + Fhcosβ

For most applications, a factor of safety of 1.5 to 2 is adequate. The minimum underwater (buoyant) weight of the anchor is derived from the
maximum lateral load capacity equation, assuming Rp = 0:

(Fs + µ tanβ) Fh
Wb = + Fve γb A D f
µ Fs tanβ

For level seafloors, β is 0 and anchor buoyant weight is:

 
F F 
Wb =  s h  + Fve γb A D f
 µ 

Anchors with skirts but without shear keys are more likely to slide along the foundation base rather than at the depth of the skirt—the buoyant
weight of soil in the skirts/keys (γbADf) is neglected.

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G-3.1.3 Shear Keys. Shear keys are

vertical plates added to the base of SEAFLOOR B
deadweight anchors to increase lateral load zs
Fh
capacity by forcing the failure surface (the
surface on which the anchor slides), deeper
into the seafloor, where stronger soils resist POTENTIAL POTENTIAL POTENTIAL
higher lateral loads. Three possible failure FAILURE FAILURE FAILURE
modes for shallow foundations fitted with PLANES PLANES PLANES
shear keys are shown in Figure G-11. (a) SLIDING BASE FAILURE (b) DEEP PASSIVE FAILURE (c) PASSIVE WEDGE FAILURE
Shear keys should be placed close enough
to each other to force sliding failure to ADAPTED FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING,
occur at the base of the shear keys, as KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
shown in Figure G-11(a).
Figure G-11. Soil Failure Modes for Sliding Deadweights.
The number of shear keys, n, required in
each direction is computed by comparing
the design load parallel to the seafloor to the passive resistance developed per key:
Fs Fhp Wb sin β
n ≥ 1
Rp

where:

Fhp = resultant of applied loads in the down-slope direction, [force]

Fs = safety factor
Wb = buoyant weight of the anchor, [length]
β = seafloor slope

Minimum shear key spacing should equal the shear key depth for cohesive soils and twice the shear key depth for cohesionless soils. The
passive resistance developed by one shear key, Rp is:

 2 
 γ zs 
Rp =  b + 2sua zs B (cohesive soils)
 2 

K p γb z s B
2

Rp = (cohesionless soil)
2

where:

zs = shear key depth below base of the anchor, [length]

sua = average undrained soil shear strength between the foundation base and the tip of the key, [force/length2]
γb = soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3]
B = shear key width, [length]
Kp = coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure
= tan2(45o + 0.5φ)
φ = soil internal friction angle (see Table 3-3)

In cohesionless soils, a shear key depth of 0.05B is appropriate for internal shear keys. The shear key around the edge of the foundation, or
the perimeter skirt, prevents undermining of the anchor by scouring and is normally deeper; a depth of 0.1B is recommended. The depth of
shear keys or perimeter skirts is usually limited by the net downward force available to drive the keys. Shear keys should be designed to
penetrate fully under only the submerged weight of the anchor. Penetration is assisted by installing vent holes in the base to allow water and
soft surficial soils trapped by the keys to escape. Sharpening the leading edge of keys will also aid penetration.

G-3.1.4 Overturning Resistance. If subjected to excessive lateral and uplift loading, a deadweight anchor on a horizontal surface may rotate
about a point near the leading edge of its base. On sloping seafloors, the forces are resolved into components parallel and normal to the seafloor
surface. Stability against overturning is achieved by insuring the resisting or stabilizing moment, Ms, is greater than the overturning moment,
Mo. To insure full contact between the base and the supporting soil, the anchor should be designed so that the resultant normal soil reaction,
Rs, acts within the middle one-third of the base. The point where Rs crosses the shear key line is then the assumed point of anchor rotation.
The maximum stabilizing moment is:
(Wb Fve) B
Ms =
6
The soil within the shear keys is assumed to separate from the base during overturning, and does not contribute to the stabilizing moment.

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The overturning moment is:

Mo = Fh H1 + zs

where:

H1 = vertical distance from Fh to the base of the shear key

zs = depth of the shear key tip below the foundation base

To maintain stability, Ms must be greater than Mo:

Wb Fve B
≥ Fh H1 + zs
6

For preliminary sizing, the minimum width of the anchor can be calculated from:
6Fh H1 + zs
B =
Wb Fve

To minimize the potential for overturning, the moment arm of the lateral load component (the distance H1 + zs) should be kept as small as
possible. This is most easily done by minimizing height of the deadweight; H1 should be limited to 0.25B, if possible.

G-3.2 Shallow Foundations. Lateral load capacity, uplift resistance, and overturning resistance for foundations are calculated by the same
equations used for deadweight anchors, with two modifications:

• Buoyant weight of the anchor, Wb is replaced by buoyant weight of the foundation and supported structure, Wbf + Wbst. Buoyant
weight of surface-piercing structures will vary with tide, swell, and other water level fluctuations.

• Significant lateral loads may result from current and/or wind loads on the supported structure.

When evaluating a foundation’s stability against overturning, using the highest values possible for Wbf and Wbst may not give a realistic estimate
of the stabilizing moment, Ms. If lower values for Wb and Wbst are possible at the same time the maximum values for Fve and Fh occur, the lower
values should be used. Foundation placement should be smooth and continuous to minimize disturbance to the seafloor soil and creation of an
eccentric foundation orientation. Bearing capacity (downward load), Qu is determined by:
Q u = A s uN c K c + γ b D f K q

where:

A = effective base area of foundation, [length2]

su = undrained shear strength of cohesive soil—averaged over the distance B below the foundation base, [force/length2]
Nc = bearing capacity factor; for undrained failure Nc = 5.14
γb = buoyant unit weight of soil above the foundation base, [force/length3]
Df = depth of embedment of foundation
Kc,Kq = correction factors which account for load inclination, foundation shape, embedment depth, and inclination of ground. For a
nearly level surface, a nearly square or round shape, and a vertical load, Kc = 1.2 and Kq = 1.0.

If the load is eccentric, or includes a moment, bearing capacity is based on a reduced foundation base to soil contact area. Effective dimensions
are calculated from the eccentricity, e. For a rectangular footing, effective length (L′), breadth (B′), and area (A′), are:

L′ = L - 2el
B′ = B - 2eb
A′ = B′ L′

where:

el = distance from center of footing to center of load, measured parallel to the long axis of footing
eb = distance measured parallel to short axis of footing

Foundation settlement due to elastic deformations and soil consolidation may pose a significant problem, even in the absence of a bearing
capacity failure, because such settlements are rarely uniform. The occurrence of differential settlement is greatly enhanced by eccentric loading.

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G-4 GRAPPLING DEVICES

Grappling devices are used to engage and hold against solid massive seafloor features, such as coral heads, rock outcrops, and crevices or ledges
in rock and coral bottoms. Holding power depends on the strength of the grappling device and the seafloor features. Correct pulling angle and
constant tension must be maintained to prevent the anchor from losing its grip and sliding.

G-5 DIRECT-EMBEDMENT ANCHORS

Direct-embedment anchors are installed in such a manner that the anchor is buried before the anchor line is loaded, in contrast to drag-
embedment anchors which bury themselves as they are loaded. Deadmen, clumps, or drag anchors placed in excavated pits and buried are crude
but effective direct-embedment anchors, as are drag anchors settled into the seafloor by diver-jetting or explosive-induced vibration. Purpose-
built direct-embedment anchors are primarily plate-type anchors which are inserted vertically into the seafloor and expanded or re-oriented to
increase pullout resistance. There are five major types of direct embedment anchors:

• Propellant-driven,

• Vibratory-driven,

• Impact-driven,

• Jetted-in, and

• Augured-in.

Direct-embedment anchors offer significant advantages over other types of anchors, including a very high holding capacity/weight ratio, resistance
to uplift, and the ability to support short ground leg scopes and tight moorings. Advantages and drawbacks of direct-embedment anchors are
given in Table G-7.

Table G-7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct-embedment Anchors.

Anchor Type Advantages Disadvantages

Vibro-driven Deep burial. Emplacement cost increases rapidly with

High values of holding capacity/weight ratio. anchor size and water depth.
Accept vertical/multidirectional forces.

Propellant- Same as above. Possibility of misfire.

embedded Penetration probable in relatively hard soils (consolidated clays, coral, and Shock wave, personnel safety.
glacial tills). Frequent damage to anchor chain.
Rapid installation.

Jetted-in Same advantages as for vibro-driven anchors.
Used in sands which are easily liquified.
Sand returns to denser condition, increasing holding power.
Need for dual system (water injection and
sediment extraction of sand by air lift.
Application limited to thick, sandy beds.
Not good in clay.
Slow and uneconomical.

Augured-in Used for anchoring pipelines to seafloor. 500 FSW limit due to difficulty in
Anchoring in tandem provides torque reaction on each anchor. supplying hydraulic power to greater
depths.

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G-5.1 Propellant-embedded Anchors.

Propellant-embedded anchors are fired into 1. TOUCHDOWN 2. ANCHOR 3. ANCHOR 4. ANCHORAGE
(FIRING) PENETRATION KEYING ESTABLISHED
the seafloor by a gun barrel to achieve high
holding capacities. They have been
developed for both deep and shallow water
use, and have the significant advantage of
near-instantaneous embedment on seafloor
contact.

Propellant-embedded anchors do not require

a support stand during installation, can be
installed without difficulty on moderate
slope, and do not require deployment
vessels to remain on station for an extended
period, as do vibratory or impact-driven
systems.

After firing on touchdown, the anchor

penetrates and comes to rest deep within
the seafloor substrate. When a load is
applied to the mooring line, the anchor
keys, or rotates, into a position of maximum
resistance. The installation sequence is
shown in Figure G-12.

Because of the limited selection of

propellant-embedment anchors, design is a
matter of selecting an adequately sized
anchor and fluke pattern appropriate to the
seabed. The NCEL propellant-embedment
anchor, with various fluke patterns, is
shown in Figure G-13 (Page G-19).
Propellant-embedment anchor performance
and physical characteristics are given in
Tables G-8 and G-9 (Page G-18). FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985

Figure G-12. Installation Sequence for a Propellant-Embedment Anchor.

Table G-8. Propellant-embedded Anchors (PEA).

Measured or Estimated Holding Capacity (kips)

Nominal Capacity (lbs) Design Operational
Anchor Type
x 1,000 Water Depth, ft
Sand Claya Coral

NCEL, Port Hueneme, CA

Navy 10K 10 25 - 20,000 30 15 35b
Navy 20K 20 50c - 20,000 60 35 35d
Navy 100K 100 35 - 20,000 250 150 110e
SUPSALV 100K 100 35c - 700c 250 150 105f
NAVY 300Kg 300 50 - 20,000 600 450 —
U.S. Army Mobility Equipment R & D Center,
Fort Belvoir, VA
XM-50 50 9c - 150 — — 70h
A/S/ Raufoss, Ammunisjonsfabrikker, Norway
REA 250TD 100 — 180 70 —
e
a Average of 22 tests in coral with an unknown strength
Average for soft clays found in ocean basins f
b Average of 6 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 1,500 - 2,500
Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 4,200 psi
c psi
Has been used at this water depth g
d Anchor is under development—capacities are estimated
Average of 10 tests in coral with an unconfined strength of 3,400 psi h
Average of 2 tests in coral of unknown unconfined strength

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnicial Engineering, 1985

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Table G-9. PEA Characteristics and Performance.

Anchor Type

10K 20K 100K SUPSALV 100K 300Ka

Anchor System Characteristics

Length, gun with fluke, ft 6.5 9.0 12.0 13.0 15.0

Diameter or width, ft 2.0 3.5 6.0 8.0 8.0
Nominal weight, in air, lbs 650 2,000 7,000 14,000 18,000
Operating water depth, ft 25-20,000 50-20,000 35-20,000 25-500 50-20,000
Nominal holding capacity, lbs 10,000 20,000 100,000 100,000 300,000
Fluke velocity, fps 370-390 360-460 380-500 380-500 380-520

Fluke Dimensions

Sand:
length x width, ft 2x1 3x2 5 x 2.5 5.5 x 2.8 7x4
bearing area, ft2 1.9 5.5 11.0 13.0 24.0
weight in air, lbs 160 290 1,300 — 4,000

Clay:
length x width, ft 2x2 3x3 6x4 6.7 x 3.3 8x7
bearing area, ft2 3.7 8.5 28.0 22.0 56.0
weight in air, lbs 185 420 2,100 1,900 6,800

Coral:
length x width, ft 2x1 3 x 1.5 5 x 2 or 6 x 3.2 6.7 x 3.3 —

Estimated Penetration, ft

Clay Flukes
Soft basin soil (silty clay) 25.0 35.0 52.0 —b 64.0
b
Distal turbidite (low su) 19.0 27.0 43.0 — 57.0
Distal turbidite, (high su) 19.0 26.0 39.0 —b 49.0
Proximal turbidite 17.0 23.0 33.0 —b 41.0
Calcareous ooze (deep water) 27.0 39.0 60.0 —b 72.0
Coarse calcareous ooze (low su) 25.0 35.0 54.0 —b 63.0
Coarse calcareous ooze (high su) 19.0 27.0 42.0 —b 50.0
Siliceous ooze 30.0 43.0 65.0 —b 79.0
Pelagic clay (low su) 33.0 47.0 68.0 —b 81.0
Pelagic clay (high su) 27.0 37.0 52.0 —b 63.0

Sand Flukes
Loose sand (φ = 30 deg,γt = 110 pcf)c 12.0 17.0 25.0 —b 30.0
Medium dense sand (φ = 35 deg, γt = 120 pcf) c
11.0 16.0 23.0 —b 27.0
Dense sand (φ = 40 deg, γt = 130 pcf)c 10.0 15.0 21.0 —b 25.0
Corala 2-7 3-12 10-37 8-35 —
a
Estimated parameters for anchor under development
b
No experience
c
γt = Total unit weight

From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

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G-5.1.1 Holding Capacity in Coral.

Holding capacity—the load required to pull
the anchor fluke out of the seafloor in a SAFE-AND-ARM
few minutes—is thought to result from the DEVICE
plate-like fluke keying or partially keying
into the coral formation under increasing
anchor line load. Because the failure mode
is not well understood, mechanistic models GUN

GUN ASSEMBLY
BARREL
to predict holding capacity have not been

3.3 FT
developed. Holding capacity has not been REACTION
related to coral strength; as coral strength VESSEL
increases, penetration decreases, but holding
capacity remains approximately constant.
Average holding capacity in coral is given
in Table G-8 for various sizes of
propellant-embedded anchors. Holding CLAY
capacity of anchor flukes embedded by the FLUKE

FLUKE ASSEMBLY
NCEL 10K and 20K systems were
SAND
evaluated by a simple regression analysis, FLUKE

2.0 FT
yielding an equation for predicting holding
capacity as a function of kinetic energy: TOUCHDOWN
PROBE
  0.684
Fc  m v 2 TOUCHDOWN
  PROBE (READY
POSITION)
 2 
10K ANCHOR SHOWING SAND
where: AND CLAY FLUKES

Fc = holding capacity, [kips] 1 FT

1 FT
m = anchor fluke and piston
mass, [slugs]
v = initial fluke velocity, [fps]
2 FT

This equation is completely empirical and is

3 FT
not dimensionally stable. Values used for m
and v must be in the units described. The
use of this equation is therefore limited to
the range of input parameters covered by the
data from which it was developed; it is valid 10K CORAL FLUKE USED AT EXPERIMENTAL ROCK FLUKE
only for anchor fluke shapes similar to the BARBERS POINT, OAHU, HAWAII FOR 20K SYSTEM
NCEL plate-like coral fluke and for coral FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
with unconfined compressive strengths
ranging from 1,500 to 4,200 psi.
Figure G-13. Navy Propellant-Embedded Anchors.
G-5.1.2 Holding Capacity in Rock.
Holding capacity is thought to result from
high compressive stresses between the rock Table G-10. NCEL 20K Propellent-Embedded Anchor Tests in Rock.
and the conical fluke and from the bonding
of comminuted rock to the fluke surface by Rock Type Approximate Penetration Peak Load Comments
the heat generated during penetration. Compressive Strength (Vertical)
Model tests indicate that holding capacity psi ft lbs
decreases with rock type in the following Sandstone 2,000 3 45,000 Could not extract, wire failed
order: granite, basalt, limestone, shale, and
Sandstone 2,000 3.6 42,000 Could not extract
sandstone. The results of six test firings of
Basalt 3,000 3 --- Not tested
an NCEl 20K anchor are shown in Table
G-10. In other tests by NCEL, propellant- Basalt 3,000 3 65,000 Could not extract, wire failed
embedded rock flukes have carried vertical Basalt 3,000 3 65,000 Could not extract, wire failed
loads greater than 100,000 pounds and Basalt 3,000 3 75,000 Could not extract, wire failed
lateral loads approaching 200,000 pounds
without failure. At present, these and similar test results are the only guide to expected performance of the NCEL rock fluke. It is not known
how these results may extrapolate to other rock types or to other size anchors.

To date, efforts to develop a reliable holding-capacity equation for the propellant-embedded anchors in hard rock have not been successful. Local
rock strength variations within the rock types tested are believed to be largely responsible for the lack of consistent holding capacity performance.
Work is continuing in this area to better understand embedment anchor behavior and to allow development of a predictive method. NCEL should
be contacted for the best estimates of holding capacity in rock, and anchors should be proof-loaded to verify adequate capacity.

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G-5.1.3 Sediment Overburden. The

energy imparted to the anchor fluke by the DRIVING
firing system is attenuated during MANDREL
penetration through overlying soil layers,
resulting in shallower penetration into the MUD LINE
rock or coral layer and presumably lower
holding capacity. There is insufficient data
to estimate the influence of different types
ENLARGED
or depths of sediment overburden; most PERSPECTIVE
tests have been conducted on bare
formations. NCEL 100K anchors with
coral flukes have been installed through up
10 feet of coralline sands and oozes without
capacity degradation, as judged by proof-
loading. Smaller anchors that penetrate
about half as far as the 100K anchor pre- POSITION
AFTER PULL-
sumably would not be affected by similar OUT TEST
sediment layers up to five feet deep. The FINAL
DRIVING IN-SERVICE EMPLACEMENT
effect of sediment overburden on conical POSITION
POSITION POSITION
rock flukes is unknown; tentative guidance
is to limit their use to sediment depths of MARK IV UMBRELLA PILE-ANCHOR MENARD ROTATING PLATE ANCHOR
less than 10 feet of clay or 5 feet of sand. FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985

G-5.1.4 Topography. Seafloor Figure G-14. Impact-Driven Anchors.

topography does not affect holding capacity
directly, but may prevent proper
installation. Flukes may ricochet off
sloping or oblique surfaces. Flukes striking PRESSURIZED RISER
on top of an outcrop or near the edge of a WATER
ledge may spall the rock or coral without
penetrating deeply. Areas with surfaces AIR
INJECTION
sloping more than 20 degrees or with
vertical or near vertical faces taller than one SKIRT
fluke length should be avoided.

G-5.2 Impact-driven Anchors. Impact- or

hammer-driven anchors include the Navy
umbrella pile and the Menard rotating plate
anchor, shown in Figure G-14. Water depth PERIPHERAL
is limited by the available pile-driving and JETS NOZZLE
follower equipment for installation, although
impact-driven anchors have been successfully HYDROPIN ANCHOR
installed at depths greater than 1,000 feet.
Impact-driven anchors may be an attractive WATER INLET BRIDLE LUGS SEABED SETTLED SAND
anchoring solution for salvage if adequate ANCHOR LINE
pile-driving equipment is available.

G-5.3 Jetted-in Anchors. Jetted-in anchors

are buried in the seafloor through water-jet UNDISTURBED
disturbance of the sediment. The anchor SAND
consists of a cylindrical drum equipped with WATER JETS
one or more injection nozzles along its per-
iphery. The system is embedded by the dual WATER BRIDLE
INLET LUGS
action of pressurized water injection and SEABED CEMENT GROUT
pumping of fluidized sediment. Figure G-15 PULLING LINE
PLATE
shows typical jetted-in anchors. BOLTED TO
ANCHOR

WATER
JETS UNDISTURBED
CLAY

ROYAL DUTCH SHELL JETTED ANCHOR FOR SAND AND CLAY SEAFLOORS

Figure G-15. Jetted-In Anchors.

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Jetted-in anchors function best in sands or granular soils that are easily liquified by the jetting process. In hard clays, shell, and cobble soils,
penetration by jetting is slow and uneconomical. Advantages include deep burial, high holding-capacity-to-weight ratio, and the ability to resist
vertical and multi-directional pullout forces. Disadvantages include the size and complexity of the installation apparatus, and the limited number
of seafloor types in which the system can be used effectively. Jetted-in anchors can sometimes be built on site and installed with available high-
pressure pumps and firehoses.
G-5.4 Vibro-driven Anchors. Vibro-driven anchors are driven vertically into the substrate by cable traction vibro-driving units. Cable traction
is exerted in an off-center direction on the plate to cause it to pivot, mobilizing the passive pressure of the soil.
Hydraulic vibro-driving units are typically limited to 1,000 feet because of the problems associated with loss of hydraulic pressure at depths.
NCEL has developed and successfully tested an experimental, battery powered variation of a vibro-driven anchor for water depths to 6,000 feet.
Further use of this device was discontinued as propellant-driven anchors were developed. The main disadvantage of the vibro-driven anchoring
system is that the installing platform must be maintained in a position directly over the anchor during the period required for proper fluke
deployment, typically 15 to 20 minutes. Costs increase proportionately with anchor size and water depth. Vibro-driven anchors are seldom used
in salvage if adequately sized propellant-embedded or impact-driven anchors are available.
G-5.5 Augured-in Anchors. Auger anchors are screw-
shaped shafts installed under high torque and some Table G-11. Conditions Complicating Direct-embedment Anchor Use.
vertical load. The depth limit is approximately 500 feet
and is imposed primarily by difficulties in supplying
power through hydraulic hoses to the seafloor. Augured- Seafloor Condition Potential Complication
in anchors are used primarily for anchoring pipelines to
the seafloor and are usually installed in pairs opposite Hard Strata
each other. They may be useful for anchoring temporary
pipelines or other equipment to the seafloor during Thin soil layer over rock, or thin Soil thickness not sufficient to develop fluke
certain salvage operations. soft clay layer over sand. capacity, but sufficient to consume most of fluke
kinetic energy before it reaches stronger layer.
G-5.6 Site Data. In nonhomogeneous soils, sediment
type and thickness must be determined. The seafloor Glacial erratics or residual Damages flukes and limits penetration into
type and approximate consistency must be known in surficial gravel and cobbles. underlying sands and hard clays.
order to select the appropriate anchor fluke type (i.e.,
clay, sand, coral, or rock fluke). Depth of sediment strata Nodule or pavement formations Same as above.
(usually manganese) over soil.
must be known to ensure that the anchor fluke has suf-
ficient sediment thickness to develop the design capacity. Submarine lava flows. Extremely irregular and complex. Anchors must
These data are best obtained over a wide area through be proof-tested to full load to ensure reliability.
acoustic sub-bottom profiling and coring. In areas of
large relief, such as areas of outcropping rock, erosion, or
slumping features, a deep tow profiling system may be Sloping Seafloor
necessary to obtain an accurate picture of seafloor
Soil slopes over 10 degrees. Anchor may affect slope stability, but direct-
topography and distribution of sediment in-fill between
embedment anchors have less effect than most
the relief features. Geotechnical properties may be other anchor types.
estimated from soil property profiles to make a rough
estimate of capacity in lieu of accurate site-specific data. Hard soil or rock scarps or cliffs. Improper embedment from deflection or ricochet
of fluke.
For direct-embedment anchors in critical moorings,
where the consequences of a single mooring failure are
severe, data from in-situ tests and good quality soil Scour Sand waves can be large and move rapidly,
cores are required. Where dynamic loads are removing significant overburden from shallow
significant, specialized tests using core samples may be embedded anchors.
necessary. If sediment consistency or type varies
across the mooring site, cores should be obtained at Sensitive, Soft Soils
each anchor location. Soil cores should be obtained
over the full estimated penetration depth of the anchor. Cohesive soil with sensitivity of 6 Fluke installation can remold and weaken soil,
or greater. limiting developed holding capacity.
Small corers, which achieve penetrations of 10 feet in
sands and 30 feet in clays, are often used to obtain the Deep ocean oozes. Same as above.
sediment and define the upper portion of the geotechni-
cal property profile. With the guidance of geophysical Weak, porous clays (shear Long-term capacity may be lower than short-
data, sediments below this sampled depth may be as- strength to overburden pressure term.
sumed to be similar, and the soil property profile would ratio, su /p0, 0.1 - 0.15).
be extended to the necessary depth. Expendable From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
penetrometers can provide additional data where longer
coring is not possible.
G-5.6.1 Complicating or Hazardous Conditions. Direct-embedment anchor systems function well in a wide range of seafloor conditions.
They can be adapted to function well where drag anchors and pile anchors are inefficient or nonfunctional. Extreme soil conditions, such as
very hard or very soft seafloors, complicate the use of direct-embedment anchors, making special efforts necessary during site survey, positioning,
design, installation, and proof-loading. Table G-11 lists complicating or hazardous conditions, and describes their impact on direct-embedment
anchor performance. The approach to most of these complications is to avoid them by relocating the anchor or selecting an anchor system less
sensitive to the problem (e.g., using deadweight, pile, or grappling anchors on rock).

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G-5.6.2 Specialized Survey Tools. Two specialized site survey tools have been developed that can support the siting, design, and installation
of the Navy’s propellant-embedded anchors. The expendable Doppler penetrometer measures the undrained shear strength of the soil indirectly.
Although strength is not determined to the level of accuracy as it is from in-situ measurement or coring, the device is simply employed and
requires little on-site time. The Pinger probe is a 3.5-kHz battery-powered sound source that can be used with a propellant-embedded anchor
system to assist positioning the anchor in complex seafloor conditions. The probe is attached to the anchor system’s lowering line about 100
feet above the anchor, and provides a high quality, real-time image of sub-bottom seabed stratification. The installation vessel then maneuvers
the anchor system over a seabed profile until a location is found that maximizes chances for successful installation. Doppler penetrometers and
Pinger probes can be obtained through the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (NCEL).
G-5.7 Fluke penetration and Keying. Estimates of propellant-embedded fluke penetration are taken from Table G-9 and can be refined from exist-
ing profiles of undrained soil strength. The penetration depth of jetted-in anchors is limited primarily by hard layers in the soil profile, which stop
or impede the jet erosion process. Penetration depth of driven anchors depends on the capacity of the available pile-driving equipment.
As the anchor fluke moves upward it keys into a horizontal orientation—the position of maximum holding capacity. The keying distance, zk, is a
function of fluke geometry, soil type, soil sensitivity, and duration of time between penetration and keying. Experience has shown that Navy
propellant-embedded anchor flukes key in about 2.0 fluke lengths in cohesive soil and in about 1.5 fluke lengths in cohesionless soils.
Although no recommendation is made for
altering the above estimate for zk, it is
believed that keying distance may be great-
er in highly sensitive soils. Keying dis-
tance in sensitive soils can be shortened by
allowing the anchor to "soak" for 24 hours
or more before tensioning the anchor line. FAILURE
SURFACE
G-5.8 Static Holding Capacity. Loads on
seafloor anchors are rarely completely static SOIL BEARING
but often have impulse or repetitive FLUKE PRESSURE
WIDTH
components. Dynamic holding capacity is
addressed in Paragraph G-6.4.
Holding capacity depends on the soil failure
mode, which in turn is dependent on FLUKE
relative embedment depth (the ratio of WIDTH
embedment depth to anchor minimum
dimension, z/B) and on the soil type and
strength. Shallow failure occurs when the SHALLOW ANCHOR FAILURE DEEP ANCHOR FAILURE
seafloor surface is displaced by the upward FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
motion of the anchor plate and the soil
failure surface continues up to the seafloor.
Deep failure occurs when the anchor plate Figure G-16. Soil Failure Modes for Direct-Embedment Anchors.
is sufficiently deep within the seabed that
the soil failure surface does not reach the
seafloor. Transition from shallow-to-deep
behavior occurs over a range of relative
embedment depths from 2 to 5 in cohesive Table G-12. Soil Strength Reduction Factor.
soil and 2 to 10 in cohesionless soil.
Failure modes for direct-embedment
anchors are shown in Figure G-16. Soil Type h

G-5.8.1 Short-term Capacity in Cohesive Very soft, moderately sensitive, clayey silt, su ≈ 1 psi, St ≈ 3 0.8-0.9
Soils. Short-term loading conditions exist Soft, normally consolidated, silty clay, su ≈ 2 psi, St ≈ 3 0.8
when the anchor-caused soil failure is
governed by a soil’s undrained shear Pelagic clay, su ≈ 1.2 psi, St ≈ 3 0.7
strength. Failure occurs immediately after, Foraminiferal sand-silt, 77-86% carbonate, su ≈ 2.2 psi, St ≈ 10 0.25
or within a few minutes of load application,
before significant drainage of pore water can From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
take place. Short-term static load capacity in
cohesive soils, Fst, is:
  B 
Fst A su h N cs 0.84 0.16   
  L 
where:

A = projected maximum fluke area perpendicular to B = plate minimum dimension, usually width, [length]
direction of pullout, [length²] L = plate maximum dimension, usually length, [length]
su = soil undrained shear strength, [force/length2] h = soil strength reduction (disturbance correction) factor
(see Paragraph 3-7.1.4)
Ncs = short-term holding capacity factor in cohesive soil, from Figure G-17.

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The disturbance correction factor, h,

accounts for soil remolding during fluke (a) SHORT-TERM 20
penetration and keying. Values for the HOLDING
factor, h, were determined for the four soil CAPACITY
types listed in Table G-12 by anchor tests. FACTOR
15
Sensitivity, St—the ratio of undisturbed to
remolded shear strength—is an important
indicator of the strength reduction resulting
from soil disturbance. For soils with St
Ncs 10
values considerably different from those in su < 0.75 PSI
Table G-12, an estimate must be made for su < 1 PSI
the h-value. More sensitive soils will su < 1.5 PSI
display greater strength reductions. su < 4 PSI
5
The holding capacity factor, Ncs, from
Figure G-17(a), is a function of the soil’s
undrained shear strength and relative
embedment depth. For the deep failure 0
mode, Ncs = 16. If drainage vents allow 0 2 4 6 8 10
water to flow rapidly to the underside of RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B
the plate anchor, the suction formed on the
underside of the plate will be relieved; Ncs (b) LONG-TERM 15
should be reduced to the long-term holding HOLDING
CAPACITY
capacity value, Nc, from Figure G-17(b). FACTOR

G-5.8.2 Long-term Capacity in Cohesive 10

Soils. Long-term loading exists when a
static load is applied to the anchor over a
time long enough to allow virtually
complete dissipation of excess pore water Ncs 5
pressures. The time duration ranges may su < 0.75 PSI
be a day for silts, a week for silty clays, or su < 1 PSI
considerably longer for clays. In cohesive su < 1.5 PSI
su < 4 PSI
soils, the long-term holding capacity is 0
governed by the effective soil drained 0 2 4 6 8 10
strength parameters—the drained cohesion RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B
intercept, c, and the drained friction angle,
φ. The long-term static holding capacity, (c) DRAINED SOIL 100
Flt, is: HOLDING 80
CAPACITY 60
φ = 40˚ *
  B 
Flt = A c N c + γb z N q 0.84 + 0.16   40
  L 
20 φ = 35˚
where:
Nq 10 φ = 30˚
8
A = projected maximum fluke area 6
perpendicular to direction of φ = 25˚
pullout, [length²] 4
φ = 20˚
c = drained soil cohesion,
[force/length2](from Table 3-3) 2
Nc = long-term holding capacity
factor in cohesive soil (from 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure G-17(b))
γb = buoyant unit weight of the RELATIVE EMBEDMENT DEPTH, z/B
soil, [force/length3] (from
Table 3-3) NOTES: Z = EMBEDMENT DEPTH
Nq = holding capacity factor for a B = PLATE MINIMUM DIMENSION (WIDTH)
drained soil condition (from * = VALUES FOR φ CAN BE OBTAINED
FROM TABLE 3-3
Figure G-17(c))
Flt = long-term static holding
capacity, [force] FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
Fst = short-term static holding
capacity, [force] Figure G-17. Short-term Holding Capacity Factors for Cohesive Soil.
z = embedment depth [length]

Long-term static holding capacity, Flt, must be less than short-term capacity, Fst—the applied long-term load cannot exceed the short-term load
without initiating failure.

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For very soft underconsolidated sediments, such as delta mud, the shear failure mode may be different than for normally consolidated sediments.
The reduced holding capacities in these very soft soils can be conservatively predicted by reducing the cohesion, c, and the drained friction angle,
φ, values before obtaining the holding capacity factors and calculating holding capacity. The reduced values, c′ and φ′, are determined by:
2
c = c
3

2 
φ = arctan tan φ
3 

G-5.8.3 Short- and Long-term Capacity in Cohesionless Soils. In sands and gravel, static-loading- induced excess pore water pressure
dissipates rapidly as the load is applied. Soil failure is assumed to be drained for both static short- and long-term loading. Static holding
capacity in cohesionless soils, F, is:
  B 
F A γb z Nq 0.84 0.16  
  L 

where the holding capacity factor Nq is obtained from Figure G-17(b) using the relative embedment depth and the soil friction angle.

When dealing with very loose sands (i.e., relative density less than 40 percent), the soil friction angle, φ, should be reduced in the same manner
as for the drained cohesive soil case before entering the plots Figure G-17.

G-5.8.4 Factors of Safety. For applications where little is known about the soil conditions at the site, a safety factor of 3 is recommended
for holding capacity estimates, i.e., limit applied loads to F/3, where F is calculated holding capacity. A safety factor of 2 can be used when
good site data leads to a high level of design confidence.

G-5.9 Dynamic Holding Capacity. Dynamic loads are applied quickly, but for short periods. Dynamic loads are considered to be applied
quickly when the load development takes less than 10 minutes for clays or less than 10 seconds for sand. Dynamic loads are divided into two
categories: (1) cyclic or repetitive loadings and (2) impulse loading (basically a single event). Both types can alter plate anchor holding capacity
by changing the conditions in the soil surrounding the anchor. Cyclic loads typically result from wave forces on moored vessels and attendant
vessel motions. Impulse loads can result from sudden changes in loading of a vessel moored on short scope (heavy lift), vessel collisions, and
similar events. Wind loading is normally quasi-static, but strong gusts may impulse or on near-cyclic loads.

G-5.9.1 Cyclic Loading. For design purposes, cyclic loading is separated into three categories:

• Cyclic line loading of the anchor, leading to soil strength loss in the vicinity of the anchor and subsequent failure.

• Cyclic line loading that may cause upward anchor movement (creep), possibly moving the anchor into shallower soil; thereby
lowering short-term static holding capacity.

• Earthquake-caused cyclic loading of the soil mass resulting in near-complete loss of strength in the entire soil mass and sudden
anchor failure.

Cyclic loads are characterized by a pure cyclic double-amplitude loading component, Pc, superimposed on a static loading component, Ps. Cyclic
and static load magnitudes are expressed as a percentage of static short-term anchor holding capacity. Cyclic loads with a double amplitude
less than 5 percent of the static short-term holding capacity are disregarded. Two additional parameters are required to describe a cyclic loading
condition:

nt = Total number of load cycles expected in the anchor’s lifetime to evaluate the potential for anchor creep.
nc = The number of cycles that occur in a limited time period required for dissipation of excess pore pressure, tcd, to evaluate soil
strength loss and potential for liquefaction.

G-5.9.2 Strength Loss. Virtually all soils are subject to some strength loss from extended cyclic loading. The amount of strength loss,
however, varies considerably depending on soil type, state, and the nature of the cyclic loading. The following factors reduce soil susceptibility
to strength loss:

• Denser soil,

• More plastic soil,

• Lower cyclic loading magnitude,

• Smaller number of load cycles, and

• Longer time period over which the cycles occur.

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Some low-density cohesionless soils are

susceptible to complete liquefaction. 108 103
Sediments of this type (uniform fine sands,
coarse silts, and some clean deep sea oozes) 107 102

PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (days)

can experience a near-total strength loss un-

PRESSURE DISSIPATION, tcd (sec)

der cyclic loading. Plate anchors are not 101

TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE

TIME REQUIRED FOR PORE

106
recommended for these soils if significant
cyclic loading is expected. 105 100
FT
7
B
= FT
For other soils, the susceptibility of a given 104 2 10-1
=
plate anchor to cyclic-load-caused strength B
reductions can be evaluated by estimating
103 10-2
the maximum cyclic load that can be
sustained by the anchor without pore
102 10-3
pressure dissipation. The plots in Figure
G-18 give the time required to dissipate
excess pore pressure, tcd, as a function of 101 10-4
fluke length, B, and soil permeability, k.
100 10-5
Table 3-6 gives permeabilities for typical 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11
soils, but permeability should be de-
SOIL PERMEABILITY, (k) ft/sec
termined by testing undisturbed soil from
the vicinity of the anchor’s soil mass, if FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
possible. The maximum number of double-
amplitude cyclic loadings that can occur Figure G-18. Time for Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressure.
within the time period tcd is estimated from
the known or expected loading conditions.
Figure G-19 is then entered to determine
the maximum cyclic load, Pc, that can be 100
(% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY)

sustained without significant loss of soil NOTE: DATA APPLY TO ANCHORS WITH AN
DOUBLE-AMPLITUDE CYCLIC LOAD

90
strength. AVERAGE STATIC LOAD LESS THAN
80 33% OF STATIC SHORT-TERM CAPACITY

G-5.9.3 Factors of Safety. Because the 70

HIG
design approaches for cyclic loading are HLY
PL
60 AST
quite conservative, lower safety factors can IC CLA
be used for the cyclic loading aspects of 50 YS
anchor design. Safety factors of 1.75 for 40
calculations based on limited soil data, or LOW PLA
30 STICIT Y AND M
1.25 for those based on detailed soil data, EDIUM D
ENSITY S
are appropriate. OILS
20

10
G-5.9.4 Impulse Loading. An impulse
load, PI, is a single load applied quickly but 0
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
for a short period—less than 10 minutes for
clays and less than 10 seconds for sands. NUMBER OF LOADING CYCLES, nc
These loads are considered single events FROM NEEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
only if enough time elapses between similar
events to allow the soil to return to its Figure G-19. Direct-Embedment Anchor Cyclic Load Capacity (Without Soil Strength Loss).
normal state without residual effect. In the
absence of other dynamic loads, an anchor
can resist an impulse load higher than its short-term static capacity. The procedures for predicting holding capacity under impulse loading
presented below are appropriate for use with circular, square, or rectangular (L/B ≤ 2) anchor flukes only.

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G-5.9.5 Cohesive Soil. For cohesive soils,

the maximum impulse load that can be 3.4
applied to an anchor, FI, is determined by: 3.2 OVERCONSOLIDATED OR
SENSITIVE CLAYS (St > 5)

SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I

FI = I Rc RI If Fst 3.0 NORMALLLY CONSOLIDATED, MODERATELY
SENSITIVE CLAYS (St = 2 TO 5)
2.8
where: NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, NONSENSITIVE
2.6 CLAYS (St < 2)

Fst = static short-term anchor 2.4 ALL CLAYS WITH LIQUIDITY INDEX > 1
holding capacity, [force] 2.2
I = influence factor for adjusting
2.0
the soil strength for strain
rate from Figure G-20 1.8
Rc = reduction factor for cyclic 1.6
loading
1.4
RI = reduction factor for repeated
impulse loading 1.2
If = inertial factor for capacity 1.0
increase under very rapid and 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
short-duration loading (i.e., LOAD DURATION (sec)
for impulse duration less than
NOTE: WHEN su IS ESTIMATED, USE NORMALLY
0.01 second) CONSOLIDATED, MODERATE SENSITIVITY CURVE
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
The factor I is a strain rate used to adjust
for an increase in the soil undrained shear
Figure G-20. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesive Soil.
strength during impulse loading. The factor
Rc depends on the loading history prior to
the impulse loading and adjusts FI for the 3.4
influence of other nonstatic loads that are
3.2
occurring at about the same time. If the
impulse load is the first event, then Rc = 3.0
1.0. If cyclic loads immediately precede 2.8
the impulse event, then: B = 7 FT
INERTIAL FACTOR, If

2.6
Rc = Pc Fst 2.4

2.2
where Pc is the design vertical compressive
2.0
load at the foundation pile.
1.8
The factor RI adjusts FI for repeated 1.6
impulse loadings. If there is only one
1.4
impulse load in a four-hour period, RI = 1.
If there is more than one impulse load in a 1.2
B = 2 FT
four-hour period, 1.0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
1.15f c
RI 1.33 e LOAD DURATION (sec)
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985

where fc is the average frequency, in Figure G-21. Inertial Factor (If).

impulses per hour, over a four-hour period.

The factor If increases FI for the inertia of the soil mass at very short duration loadings (i.e., where the loading is known to be applied for less
than 0.1 second), and is determined from Figure G-21.

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G-5.9.6 Cohesionless Soils. Impulse holding capacity under impulse loading in cohesionless soils is also derived by applying a series of
influence factors to the calculated short-term static holding capacity:
N 
FI  qI  Rc RI If Fst
N 
 q 

where:

Fst = static short-term anchor holding capacity

NqI = cohesionless soil holding capacity factor adjusted for impulse loading
Nq = cohesionless soil holding capacity factor (from Figure G-17).
Rc = reduction factor for cyclic loading
RI = reduction factor for repeated impulse loading
If = inertial factor for capacity increase under very rapid and short-duration loading (i.e., for impulse duration less than 0.01 second)

The adjusted holding capacity factor (NqI) ac-

counts for the effect of the impulse loading 3.4
on the soil friction angle (φ). Nq from Figure
G-17(b) can be used for NqI by substituting 3.2
SOIL STRENGTH INFLUENCE FACTOR, I
the adjusted friction angle φI for φ, where: 3.0
FINE-SILTY SANDS
I sin φ MEDIUM-COARSE SANDS
φI sin 1  
 2.8 I sin φ
 1 + (I = 1) sin φ  φI = sin-1
1 + (I - 1)sin φ
2.6
where I is the influence factor for adjusting
the soil strength from Figure G-22. The 2.4
factor Rc is determined in the same manner 2.2
as for cohesive soil.
2.0
For repeated impulse loads, RI is dependent (UNTYPICAL, OVERCONSOLIDATED CONDITION)
on the frequency of those impulse loads (fs). 1.8
(TYPICAL CONDITION)
If fs is less than or equal to one impulse per
1.6
10 minutes, RI is 1.0. If fs is greater than one
impulse per 10 minutes, then RI is obtained 1.4
from:
0.116 f s 1.2
RI 2 e
1.0
where fs is the average number of impulses 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
per 10 minutes. The inertial factor If is taken LOAD DURATION (sec)
from Figure G-23.
FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
G-5.10 Holding Capacity on Slopes.
Holding capacity of embedded plate anchors Figure G-22. Strain-Rate Factor (I) for Cohesionless Soil.
on slopes is affected by the stability of the
slope under the additional influence of the
embedment anchor, and the influence of the inclined seafloor on the soil resistance mobilized by the loaded anchor. The influence of an anchor
on slope stability is extremely complex, involving the effects of anchor installation and anchor loading on the slope. Table G-13 lists factors that
influence submarine slope stability. All factors lead to a lower resistance to soil mass down-slope sliding and, therefore, greater slope instability.
The influence of plate anchors on slope stability depends to a high degree on the type and sensitivity of the sediment. Slope angle itself is not a
clear indicator of potential problems.
On inclined seafloors, a significant portion of the soil shear
strength is mobilized to support the soil slope against gravi- Table G-13. Direct-embedment Anchor Effects on
tational forces. For down-slope loading, most of the soil shear Submarine Slope Stability.
stresses developed to resist anchor pullout will be in addition
to those resisting slope failure. The result is that a smaller Factor Effects
amount of the soil’s shear strength is available to resist anchor Effect similar to earthquake loading but with
pullout than in a horizontal seafloor. This is less important Impact Loading During Embedment greater local influence; more critical problem in
when the anchor is loaded in a vertical or up-slope direction. loose soils.
Remolding or Disturbance of Soils
Effect varies significantly from one soil to another.
Holding capacity of a direct-embedment anchor on a specific During Installation
slope can be estimated by multiplying the holding capacity Cyclic Loading by Anchor Effect varies significantly from one soil to another.
calculated for a horizontal seafloor by a reduction factor, Rs: Local Instability After Anchor Pullout Can progress to major slope failure.
Direct Application of Anchor Load to Probably not more significant than a local instabil-
Fs 1 Slope ity problem but can progress into large slide.
Rs
Fs From NCEL Handbook for Marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985

where Fs is the factor of safety against a slope failure without the anchor. Rs represents the amount of soil strength remaining, or the amount
not mobilized to maintain slope stability. In computing the anchor holding capacity, anchor depth and the holding capacity factors Nc and Nq
are based on a depth of embedment measured perpendicular to the seafloor.

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G-6 PILE FOUNDATIONS AND ANCHORS

Piles are secure, deeply embedded

anchoring devices installed by driving or by Table G-14. Pile Anchors.
drilling and grouting (pile installation
methods are described in Paragraph G-6.6). Characteristics Applications Approx. Maximum Installation Methods Applicable Soil Type
High installation costs usually preclude Capacity
their use in conditions for which drag- Pipe and H-piles Foundations and anchors Axial: 20,000 kips Driven or drilled and Soil and rock
embedment, deadweight, or direct- Lateral: 1,500 kips grouted
a
Umbrella Piles Anchors 300 kips in sand Driven Soils without boulders
embedment anchors are suitable. Pile 100 kips in mud and other obstructions
anchors are particularly suited for use when Chain-in-holea Anchors 550 kips Drilled and grouted Rock with overlying
short-scope moorings are desired, and on soil strata
very hard seafloors. Applications and Rock Boltsa Anchors 30 kips Drilled and grouted or Rock
mechanically wedged
characteristics of several types of pile Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages Remarks
anchor are listed in Table G-14. Pipe and H-piles Easy to splice, high Very high cost Pipe piles resist bending in any direction
capacity, can penetrate
Steel pipe sections and H-piles fitted with through light obstructions
mooring line connections are the most Umbrella Piles High capacity in uplift Maximum depth limited Resistance developed similar to plate-
by hammer; soils must be embedment anchor
commonly used pile types, although homogenous
specially designed piles have been Chain-in-hole High capacity Installation may be —
developed to increase lateral or uplift difficult
Rock Bolt Very low cost, no heavy Rock must be competent, Diver/hand-installed; much smaller than
capacity. Typical anchor piles are shown mechanical equipment nonfractured (shallow normal piles
in Figure G-23. For simple pipe and H- necessary water only); low capacity
piles, axial forces are resisted by soil
a
friction developed along the pile shaft and Special anchor pile; may be considered a direct-embedment anchor
Adapted from NCEL Handbook for Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
by bearing on the pile tip (for downward
loads). Lateral forces and moments are
resisted by the pile shaft bearing on the
near-surface soils. Lateral earth pressure PADEYE
and skin friction effects on a pile anchor
are shown in Figure G-24.
PIPE PILE
G-6.1 Holding Capacity. Pile anchors or FOR MULTI-
foundations may be subjected to one or DIRECTIONAL
more of the following loads: LOAD

• Axial uplift loads, PIPE PILE

• Lateral loads,
MOORING-LINE
CONNECTION
FLANGE WEB
• Bending moments, or LOAD
LOAD
• Axial downward loads
(compression).
WIDE-FLANGE
SECTION FOR
A simplified procedure for the design of UNIDIRECTIONAL
uniform cross-section piles in a nonlayered LOAD
seafloor consisting of sand, clay, or
calcareous soils is presented in the following WIDE-FLANGE (WF) SECTION
paragraphs. Design is a trial-and-error
procedure; a pile is selected and then WELD PADEYE
evaluated for its ability to resist applied loads
without excessive movement and without FINS TO IMPROVE
exceeding the allowable stresses for the pile LATERAL LOAD
CAPACITY
material. The pile is assumed to be a beam
on an elastic foundation with an elastic WELD WELD
modulus that increases linearly with depth.
Design calculations for pile anchors and
foundations are identical; lateral and uplift BUILT-UP SECTION FOR
loads are governing for anchor piles, while MULTIDIRECTIONAL LOAD
downward loads are usually governing for
BUILT-UP SECTION (COMPOSED OF T-SECTIONS)
foundation piles. Both anchor and
foundation piles may be subjected to
significant moments, depending on the point Figure G-23. Anchor Piles.
of application of lateral loads; foundation
piles may also be subjected to uplift loads.

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Soil properties for the installation site should be determined by in-situ or laboratory testing, or both. If site-specific soil data are not available,
it may be possible to extrapolate soil properties from geologic and geophysical data from similar areas. Where soil properties vary significantly
with depth, average properties in the uppermost four pile diameters are used for lateral load analysis, and average properties over the pile length
for axial load analysis.

PILE HEAD MOORING LINE

AD
LO

LATERAL EARTH
PRESSURE

SKIN
FRICTION
PILE

Figure G-24. Lateral Soil Pressure and Skin Friction on Pile Anchor.

G-6.1.1 Lateral Load Capacity. The lateral load capacity, Ph, is given by:
ymax(EI)
Ph =
Ay T 3 + a By T 2

where:
Pn = lateral load capacity, lbs
ymax = pile head lateral deflection, [in.]
EI = pile stiffness, [lb in2]
E = modulus of elasticity of pile material, [lb in2]
I = moment of inertia of pile cross section, [in 4]
Lp
Ay, By = deflection coefficients, functions of the depth coefficient , Figure G 25 (Page G 30)
T
a = height of the pile load attachment point above the seafloor surface, [in]
Lp = pile length, [in]
T = pile-soil relative stiffness, [in]
0.2
EI
=
Nh

nh = coefficient of subgrade reaction, from Figure G 25 (Page G 30), [lb in3]

Pile length, Lp, is assumed. A length of Lp = 3T is suggested as a minimum. For anchor piles, the ratio of maximum lateral deflection to pile
diameter or width (ymax/D) should be less than 0.1D. Smaller deflections may be required for foundation piles. If lateral load capacity, Ph, is
equal to or slightly higher than anticipated loads, the trial pile is adequate. If Ph is much greater than anticipated loads, the pile is over-designed.
If cost reduction or material optimization are desired, pile stiffness should be decreased by reducing pile diameter or wall thickness, and/or the
pile length shortened. If Ph is less than anticipated loads, the pile is under-designed. Holding capacity is increased by increasing:

• Pile stiffness by increasing diameter and/or thickness,

• Pile length, unless already very long, or

• Design depth of pile head.

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5 0
LOOSE Dr = 35%
Dr = 50%
20 65%
4 Dr = % 0 SOFT CLAY
85
Dr =
40
MEDIUM DENSE 50
(Ay and By)

nh (lb/in3)
3
DENSE
Ay STIFF CLAY
60

kl
2 100
By 80 Dr = SOIL RELATIVE
DENSITY
1 D = PILE DIAMETER 150
100 OR WIDTH
su kl
nh =
D
0 120 200
2 3 4 5 6 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20
zmax Lp ymax ymax
DEPTH COEFFICIENT ( T
=
T
) D
(%)
D
(%)

(a) DEFLECTION COEFFICIENT (b) nh FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS (c) nh FOR COHESIVE SOILS
AT SOIL SURFACE

FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE AFTER EVALUATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, SUBGRADE REACTION, K. TERZAGHI, GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING,
KARL ROCKER, 1985 GEOTECHNIQUE, 1955 KARL ROCKER, 1985

Figure G-25. Coefficients Ay, By, nh.

G-6.1.2 Uplift Capacity. Pile uplift

resistance results from skin friction between Table G-15. Recommended Limiting Values for Unit Skin Friction
the pile and the soil mass. Pile frictional and End Bearing for Cohesionless Soils.
resistance is:
Soil Type φ (deg) Nq fs (max) qp (max)
Qs As fs (ksf) (ksf)
Noncalcareous Soils
where: Sand 35 40 2.0 200
Silty sand 30 20 1.7 100
As = the surface area of the pile Sandy silt 25 12 1.4 60
below the seafloor [L2]. Silt 20 8 1.0 40
fs = average unit skin friction
Calcareous Soils
resistance
Uncemented calcareous sand (easily crushed) 30 20 0.3a 60
Axial load capacity is increased most Partially cemented calcareous sands with
effectively by increasing pile length, carbonate content:
although increasing diameter may be 0 to 30% — — 2.0 100
effective. a
30 to 45% — — 0.64 160
For cohesionless soils, average unit skin above 45% — — 0.56a 140
friction resistance, fs, is calculated from: Highly cemented calcareous soils, i.e., chalk — — 1.1 140

fs = k p vo tan (φ 5°) a
For drilled and grouted piles, the value may approach 2,000 psf, the value for quartz sand: actual value depends
upon installation technique
where:
From NCEL Handbook for marine Geotechnical Engineering, 1985
k = 0.7 for compression
= 0.5 for uplift.
pvo = effective overburden vertical stress in soil, [force/length2]
φ = drained (effective) friction angle from Table G-15 or Figure 3-3

Table G-15 gives limiting values for unit skin friction for cohesionless soils. For piles driven into calcareous soils, the table’s limiting values
should be used unless higher values are justified by on-site testing.

For cohesive soils, unit skin friction resistance is calculated differently for normally consolidated and over-consolidated soils. The soil
consolidation state is indicated by the ratio of undrained shear strength and effective overburden pressure, su/pvo. If su/pvo ≥ 0.4, the soil is
overconsolidated.

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For normally consolidated soils, the average unit skin resistance, fs, is equal to:

  L 
fs p vo 0.468 - 0.052 ln  p  
  2.0  

where Lp is in feet. The limiting value for skin frictional resistance is the undrained shear strength of the soil, i.e., fs ≤ su. For overconsolidated
soils:

  s 
fs = su 0.468 0.155 ln  u 
  pvo 

For 2.0 < Su/pvo < 4.0, fs = 0.351su.

Average effective overburden soil pressure, pvo, at the pile midpoint is:

γb L p
p vo =
2

where:

γb = soil buoyant unit weight, [force/length3]

Lp = pile length, [length]

If the pile is not fully buried, Lp is the buried length. If the soil unit weight varies with depth, unit weights along the buried length are averaged.

G-6.1.3 Compressive Load Capacity. For foundation piles, resistance to compressive loading comes from frictional resistance along the pile
and from resistance to tip or end penetration. For closed-ended piles, the soil bearing capacity for the pile tip, Qp, is:

Qp = Ap qp

= pvo, tip Nq for cohesionless soils

= 9 su, tip for cohesive soils

where:

Qp = soil bearing capacity, lbs

Ap = gross end area of the closed pile, ft²
qp = unit soil bearing capacity at the pile tip, lb-ft²
≤ limiting values from Table G-15
pvo, tip = effective vertical stress at pile tip, lb-ft²
Nq = bearing capacity factor from Table G-15
su, tip = soil undrained shear strength at pile tip, lb-ft²

Open-ended piles will develop a soil plug inside the open end when installed. The soil plug limits the value of Qp to the force required to push
a soil plug up into the pile (a thin-walled pipe). This limiting value is approximately equal to the frictional capacity of the pile, Qs. Total pile
capacity in compression, Qc from Paragraph G-6.1.2, is thus:

Qc = Qs Qp

If pile capacity is less than the design compressive load, capacity can be increased by increasing pile diameter or, preferably, length. Qp of an
open-ended pile is significantly limited by the value of Qs. Qc may be increased by closing the pile end with a concrete plug or steel plate.

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G-6.1.4 Steel Stress Analysis. Maximum stress in the pile under tension (fmaxt) and compression (fmaxc) is calculated by:

Pt Mmax
fmaxt =
Aps S

Pc Mmax
fmaxc = +
Aps S
where:

Pt = vertical uplift at pile head, lbs

Pc = horizontal load at pile head, lbs
Aps = cross-sectional area of the pile, ft²
S = section modulus of the pile, ft3
Mmax = maximum moment, ft-lbs

The terms Aps and S and allowable maximum stress in tension and compression are available from steel design manuals or manufacturer’s
literature. The values for fmaxt and fmaxc are compared with the allowable steel stress in tension and compression for the pile being used. For
most common structural shapes, the allowable maximum stress in tension and in bending is about 60 percent of yield, or about 22,000 psi.

It is also possible to reinforce the pile over the length where high moments exist. While this is a cost-effective alternative, calculation of loads in
piles of variable cross section is beyond the scope of this handbook.

Total maximum moment, Mmax, in the pile is the sum of any applied (design) bending moments, Ma, and moments created by horizontal loads.
Total moment, Mt, at any point along the pile is:

Mt Am Ph T + Ma Bm

where:

Am = nondimensional moment coefficient a function of the depth coefficient z/T, from Figure G-26
Ph = design horizontal load at the foundation pile, lbs
T = pile-soil relative stiffness = (EI/nh)0.2, in. (see paragraph G-6.1.1)
Ma = applied bending moment, in-lb
Bm = nondimensional moment coefficient, from Figure G-26

It may be necessary to determine Mt at several locations along the pile in order to find the maximum moment (Mmax).

0 0
MOMENT
COEFFICIENT (Bm)
MOMENT COEFFICIENT FOR APPLIED
(Am) FOR APPLIED MOMENT (M)
1 1
LATERAL FORCE (P)
DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T

DEPTH COEFFICIENT z/T

L P /T = 2

L P /T = 2
L P /T = 3
2 2
L P /T = 3

3 3
LP/T = 4

L P /T = 4
4 4 L P /T = 5
L P /T = 5
L P /T = 10 L P /T = 10
0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Am Bm

AFTER NONDIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS FOR LATERALLY LOADED PILES..., H. MATLOCK AND L.C. REESE,
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 8TH TEXAS CONFERENCE ON SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING,
BUREAU OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN, 1956

Figure G-26. Moment Coefficients Am and Bm.

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G-6.2 Submerged Anchor Pile Head. For anchor piles driven below the seafloor surface, the mooring line angle at the pile is not the same
as the angle at the seafloor, due to soil bearing resistance against the mooring line. The actual angle at the pile becomes higher and the force
exerted on the pile becomes more of an axial uplift. The seafloor horizontal and vertical (uplift) load components, Ph and Pu, are corrected to
reflect the actual loads on the pile head. The force corrections are based on several simplifying assumptions, including the assumption that the
changes in both vertical and horizontal force components are due to the soil resistance to horizontal anchor line movement.

The correction to the horizontal force Ph (horizontal soil force) is:

fcb = zc db γb N q
2
for cohesionless soils

fcb = 11 su db zc for cohesive soils

where:

fcb = horizontal force exerted on the mooring line by the soil, lbs
zc = depth of pile connection below seafloor, ft Table G-16. Bearing Capacity Factors for Chain
Lateral Force in Sand.
db = characteristic mooring line size, ft
= wire rope diameter or 3 × (chain diameter) Soil Friction Angle, φ degrees Nq
γb = soil buoyant weight, lb-ft3
20 3
Nq = bearing capacity factor, from Table G-16 25 5
ssu = undrained shear strength, lb-ft2 30 8
35 12
The corrected horizontal and uplift load components, Ph′ and Pu′, are: 40 22
45 36

Ph = Ph fcb After G.G. Meyerhoff and J. F. Adams, The Ultimate Uplift Capacity of Foundations,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Nov 1968
2 2
Pu = Pu + 2 Ph fcb fcb

G-6.3 Pile Anchors in Rock Seafloors.

There is no rigorous design procedure for
pile anchors in rock because of the
difficulty in characterizing the material CRUSHED FRACTURED
ROCK ROCK ROCK
failure mode. Three principal rock failure SEAFLOOR
modes are illustrated in Figure G-27:

• Failure in lateral bearing due

to rock crushing under lateral
load.

• Failure in uplift due to failure

of grout-to-rock bonding or
because of a rock-mass
failure in fractured material.
(a) LATERAL BEARING (b) UPLIFT FAILURE OF

•
FAILURE OF ROCK GROUT-TO-ROCK (c) UPLIFT BLOCK FAILURE
Failure in uplift due to the AND PILE BONDING OF PILE AND ROCK-MASS
pile’s loosening and loss of
resistance from repeated Figure G-27. Pile Anchor Failure Modes in Rock.
lateral loading.

The mode of failure is difficult to establish or predict for a specific location. The strength of a cored sample may be misleading when applied
to the prediction of pile anchor holding capacity in jointed, bedded, faulted, or weathered rock masses.

G-6.3.1 Lateral Capacity. In a rock or hard cemented soil seafloor, a soil cover may be present above the rock, or the rock/cemented zone
may be underlain by soil. For layered soil-rock sites, available computer programs should be used to account for the complexities introduced
by these nonuniform conditions.

G-6.3.2 Soil Overlying Rock. For soil overlying rock, pile capacity design approach depends on the relative depth to the rock, zs/T, where
zs is the thickness of the soil layer and T is the pile relative stiffness. If zs/T is greater than 3.0, the pile can be designed to develop all support
from the soil layer.

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If zs/T is less than 3.0, a conservative

approach is to design the pile as if the soil Table G–17. Compressive Strength of Rock.
were not present. That is, the pile is
considered to be cantilevered out of the
Rock Type Compressive Strength, sc , ksi Buoyant Unit Weight lb/ft3 Shear Strength, Ss , ksi
rock surface and to resist all forces without
assistance from the soil layer. Stresses Dolerite 28.4 – 49.8 123 3.5 – 8.5
from the applied lateral load must be less
than the rock’s compressive strength: Gabbro 25.6 – 42.7 123 –––

Ph Gneiss 7.1 – 28.4 117 2.1 – 7.0*

≤ sc
D Le Basalt 21.3 – 42.7 111 2.8 – 8.5

where:
Quartzite 21.3 – 42.7 101 2.8 – 8.5

Ph = lateral force applied to the Granite 14.2 – 35.6 98 2.0 – 6.5

pile head, lbs
D = width or diameter of the pile, Marble 14.2 – 35.6 98 3.0 – 6.1
in.
Le = effective length of the pile Slate 14.2 – 28.4 98 2.0 – 10.2*
bearing on the rock strata
Dolomite 11.4 – 35.6 92 2.5 – 7.1
equal to the smaller of the
rock layer thickness (zr) or
Limestone 4.3 – 35.6 73 1.4 – 7.1
the pile diameter (D), in.
sc = rock compressive strength Sandstone 2.8 – 24.1 61 1.1 – 5.7
from Table G-17, lb-in2
Shale 1.4 – 14.2 61 0.4 – 4.3
G-6.3.3 Rock Layer Overlying Soil.
When or rock or other hard layer overlies Coal 0.7 – 7.1 5 –––
softer soil, the influence of the rock layer
may be ignored and the pile designed to
After I. W. Farmer, Engineering Properties of Rocks, 1968, and Engineering Behavior of Rocks,
develop all support from the underlying 1983; and Richard E. Goodman, Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 1980*
soil, if the rock layer thickness, zr, is less
than 0.2T, where T = (EI/nh)0.2 and nh is the
coefficient of soil reaction of the underlying
soil. For rock layer thickness greater than 0.5T, the influence of the underlying soil may be ignored and the pile designed for the rock
compressive strength. For intermediate values of zr, the designer must judge whether to use the soil or rock procedure; the decision depends
upon pile diameter, knowledge of rock layer strength and fracturing, and the layer thickness.

G-6.3.4 Uplift Capacity. Failure in uplift may occur at the grout-to-pile interface, the grout-to-rock interface, or along a rock fracture zone
outside the grouted area. For failure in a fracture zone, a block of rock containing the pile is assumed to be lifted free of the surrounding rock.

In massive, competent rock, uplift capacity is governed by the strength of the grout bond to the pile, by the grout shear strength, or, more rarely,
by the strength of the grout bond to the drilled shaft wall. Uplift capacity, Ra, of the anchor is given by:

Ra = sb Lr Cp

where:

sb = the lesser of the grout-pile bond strength, grout-rock bond strength, or grout shear strength, [force/length²]
Lr = length of pile embedded in rock, [length]
Cp = minimum perimeter transmitting the uplift load, [length]

Unless higher bond strengths are verified by testing, the grout-to-steel bonding strength should be limited to 27 psi. The grout-to-rock bond
strength may vary from 0.3 to 1.0 times the rock shear strength, depending on cleanliness of the drilled hole, type of rock, and grouting
procedure.

In fractured rock, anchor uplift capacity is determined by the weighs of the blocks of rock which move with the anchor and by the frictional
force developed between the attached blocks and adjacent blocks. Because of the difficulty in estimating the normal forces acting on vertical
joints and cracks, this frictional force is normally ignored, and uplift resistance taken as the weight of the rock that would be lifted with the pile.

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G-6.4 Increasing Lateral Load Capacity.

TECHNIQUE LOWERED BURIED PILE HEAD ATTACHING FINS SHEAR COLLARS
As shown in Figure G-28, there are four ATTACHMENT WITH ANCHOR
principal means to increase lateral load POINT PLATES
capacity of a pile anchor: ADVANTAGES LATERAL LOAD IS LATERAL LOAD INCREASES INCREASES
REDUCED. REDUCED. LATERAL LATERAL AND
RESISTANCE IS PROVIDES FOR RESISTANCE. UPLIFT
• Lower the anchor line HIGHER SCOUR. LIMITS PILE HEAD
DEFLECTION AND
RESISTANCE.

attachment point along the BENDING

MOMENT.
pile length.
DISADVANTAGES UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPLEX
LOADING. INSTALLATION.
• Lower the pile head beneath SOIL IN FRONT OF
PILE MAY BE MORE COSTLY
MORE COSTLY
FABRICATION.
the soil surface into stronger WEAKENED. FABRICATION. LIMITED
EXPERIENCE
soils. WITH SYSTEM.

• Attach fins or shear collars

near the pile head to increase
lateral bearing area. ILLUSTRATION SHEAR
COLLAR
CROSS
• SECTION ANCHOR
Increase pile diameter near SHAFT
the surface. ANCHOR
PLATE
G-6.4.1 Load Applied Below the Pile LOWERED BURIED ATTACHMENT SHEAR COLLARS
ATTACHMENT PILE HEAD FINS WITH ANCHORS
Head. When the anchor line is connected POINT PLATES
to the side of an anchor pile at a distance FROM NCEL HANDBOOK FOR MARINE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, KARL ROCKER JR, 1985
of more than five pile diameters from the
head, the lateral load analysis becomes very Figure G-28. Improving Pile Anchor Lateral Capacity.
complex and may require use of a computer
program. When calculations must be made
without access to geotechnical engineering
services, the mooring line attachment should be kept less than five pile diameters. As the connection point is lowered from the pile top to a
point midway down the pile and with the same lateral loads, pile bending moments and deflection are reduced significantly. The mooring line
will approach the pile at a decreasing angle as the connection point is lowered, greatly lowering lateral load and increasing uplift force.

G-6.4.2 Piles with Variable Cross Sections. Increased pile size near the seafloor will increase resistance to lateral loads and bending moments.
Analysis of the response of piles with variable cross sections to lateral loads is complex and, again, best accomplished with the aid of computer
programs. In general, a large increase in pile diameter over a lesser depth is more efficient in reducing deflections at the seafloor than is a small
increase in diameter over a greater depth. When enlarged pile sections at the pile head are used, the length of the enlarged section should be
limited to three times the larger diameter.

G-6.5 Special Seafloor Conditions. Steeply sloping seafloors, rock, cobbles, or cemented zones can make installation of driven piles difficult,
although other installation methods may be successful. Drilled and grouted piles may be the method of choice in these environments. Scour
of sediments from around the pile/seafloor interface, typically in areas with swift bottom currents, weakens resistance to lateral force. Soil type
and size and configuration of pile groups influences scour pattern and rate. Liquefaction of loose granular or sandy sediments by cyclic loading
can effectively remove soil support and cause pile failure. Removal of the surface layers prior to pile installation can significantly improve pile
performance in granular soils. Slump or sub-sea landslide on slopes can subject piles to high lateral force causing failure or breakout of pilings.

G-6.6 Pile Installation. Piles are installed by one or more of the following methods:

• Driving,

• Drilling and grouting,

• Jacking, or

• Jetting.

Small piles can be installed with diver-operated equipment. Pile installation equipment and operators can be provided by Navy Underwater
Construction Teams, the Army Corps of Engineers, or contractors retained through the Supervisor of Salvage. The following information is
provided to give the salvage engineer an idea of the relative complexity, expense, and applicability of pile installation by various methods, but
is in general insufficient for planning major pile installations.

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G-6.6.1 Driven Piles. Piles may be driven by impact hammers operated above the water surface, by underwater impact hammers, or by
vibratory hammers.

Piles for piers, harbor structures, bridges, and many offshore structures in shallow water are driven from above the water surface with
conventional hammers like those used to drive piles on land. The pile is made long enough to extend above the water surface when driven to
its design penetration depth or a pile follower is used. The piles are commonly guided by a template that rests on the seafloor, although floating
templates may be used for small, shallow water installations. The pile-driving operation is conducted from a carefully moored work barge that
supports the necessary cranes and auxiliary equipment.

Submarine pile hammers are scaled-up versions of terrestrial hammers, and may be operated by single-acting steam, compressed air, diesel, or
hydraulic power. The rated energy of these hammers varies from less than 100,000 ft-lb per blow to over 1,500,000 ft-lb per blow. Surface-
operated pile drivers have been used in water depths in excess of 1,000 feet.

The success of the surface-driven method of pile emplacement in deep water is dependent upon the presence of the template to act as a guide
for the piles. Without the restraint offered by the template, most of the driving energy would be dissipated by lateral deflection of the pile.
For anchor piles driven from the surface without lateral restraint, a reasonable maximum water depth is about 250 feet.

Terrestrial pile hammers may be modified for operation underwater. One manufacturer makes a total of 12 types of steam/compressed air
hammers, with rated energies in air of 8,750 ft-lb to 60,000 ft-lb. These may be operated while submerged with little loss of efficiency. The
modifications consist primarily of providing exhaust hoses that extend to the water surface. Because steam cools too much when the hoses are
underwater, compressed air is usually used to operate the hammers.

Vibratory pile drivers are becoming more common in American practice as experience is gained with their use and as more powerful machines
are developed. The machines usually use counter-rotating eccentric weights powered by electric or hydraulic motors to produce the vibratory
forces. The major depth-limiting factors on present systems are the difficulty in handling long lengths of large-diameter, high-pressure hydraulic
lines and the large friction losses in the line. These factors limit the maximum practical water depth of a surface-powered, hydraulic vibratory
drive to about 1,000 feet.

G-6.6.2 Drilling and Grouting. Drilling and grouting is essentially identical to the method used to set a casing for an oil well. A hole of
somewhat larger diameter than the pile is drilled to the proper depth using rotary drilling tools and is cleaned out by pumping seawater through
the drill string. The pile is placed over the drill string and lowered into the hole. Portland cement grout is pumped down the drill string and
forced up outside of the pile to fill the annular void and bond the pile to the soil. The interior of the pile is filled with grout as the drill string
is withdrawn. Piles up to 8 feet in diameter have been placed in water depths in excess of 600 feet by drilling and grouting.

For small piles set in rock, either cement or epoxy grout can be used. Diver-operated hydraulic tools capable of drilling 3-inch diameter holes
to a depth of 20 feet, along with diver-operated grout dispensers, are used by Navy Underwater Construction Teams (UCT) and NCEL. Piles
fitting such holes may have capacities in the 10- to 60-ton range, depending on rock strength.

G-6.6.3 Jack-in Piles. Piles may be pushed or jacked into the seafloor if an adequate reaction force can be applied. For a satisfactory degree
of safety against failure in bearing of foundation piles, jacking loads must be two to three times the design load. The actual jacking of the piles
can be accomplished by a number of systems. A rack-and-pinion system may be used, with the rack being an integral part of the pile and
running its entire length. A chain acted on by a chain jack or a cable acted on by a hydraulic cable puller may be used, with the chain or cable
applying load to the top of the pile. A short-stroke hydraulic jack equipped with a means of gripping the wall of a pile may also be used.

G-6.6.4 Jetted Piles. Jetting is used to place piles primarily in cohesionless soils. The piles are pushed or lowered into the soil area, which
has been greatly weakened by jetting. The jetting action is generally confined to the inside of a pile or to portions of the outside of the pile
several diameters above its tip. Jetting can also be used in a form of reverse circulation in which both air and water are forced down a pipe
inside or outside the pile. The air-water mixture helps to lift the displaced soil materials to the surface of the soil.

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