CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Acid rain occurs when the pollutants that come from immobile

sources such as smokestacks, power plants, and mobile sources

such as cars rise up into the clouds and fall back to earth as

contaminated rainfall. The rain becomes acidic because of gases

which dissolve in the rain water to form various acids. As the

name implies, acid rain is just rain which is acidic. As the name

implies, acid rain is just rain which is acidic. Rain is naturally

slightly acidic because of the carbondioxide dissolved in it (which

comes from human and animals breathing and to a smaller

extent from nitrogen compounds that come from the soil and the

seas as part of the nitrogen cycle.

Acid rain is a rain or any form of precipitation that is unsually

acidic meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ion (low

pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and

infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide

1
and nitrogen oxide, which reacts with the water molecules in the

atmosphere to produce acids.

Acid rain contains an excess of hydrogen ions. Absolutely pure,

(distilled) water contains equal numbers of acidic and basic ions

(H+ and OH) (Raloff, 1995).

This gives rain a pH of around 5.0, and in some parts of the world

it can be as low as 4.0 (this is typical around volcanoes, where

the sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide form sulphuric acid in

the rain). Before the industrial revolution, the p H of rain was

generally between 5 and 6, so that, the term acid rain is now

used to describe rain with a pH below 5 (Rubiera, 1999).

Acidic water contains an excess of hydrogen ions. Absolutely pure

water contains equal numbers of acidic and basic ions. The p H of

pure water is 7, which is a neutral pH. This means that the water

is neither acidic or alkaline. Ordinary unpolluted rainwater has a

pH of 5.6.

Acid rain is formed by the reaction of rain water to a combination

of various gases. These reaction and the subsequent

2
transformation will be studied here. We will also see where these

gases arise from and what their main sources on earth are. Acid

rain has some disastrous consequences on human, plant and

animal life. However, this is not as bad as it seems. We have

managed to find some remedies for this situation. What remains

to be seen is how successful these will be.

Government, and Non governmental organization have made

efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulphur dioxide

and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere with positive results.

Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning

strikes, and sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions.

The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and

marble was noted in the 17th century by john Evelyn, who

remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles (De

Beer, 1995). Since the industrial revolution, emissions of sulphur

dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased

(weathers and likens, 2006). In 1852, Robert Angus smith was

3
the first to show the relationship between acid rain and

atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England (Seinfeld, 1998).

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 SOURCES OF ACID RAIN

i. SULPHUR

Most airborne acid sulphate appears to be formed in cloud

droplets. SO2 dissolves to form HS0 -3, which then reacts with

hydrogen peroxide (H202) to form acid sulphate. H2SO2 is the most

efficient oxidant in the conversion of dissolved so2 to H 2SO4. This

reaction is a product of photochemistry. The lower the pH the

faster the reaction proceeds. The oxidation of dissolved SO 2 is

rapid even at a pH value below 5. (Goulding, 1998).

The oxidation of SO2 to acid sulphate is also catalyzed on the

surface of fine particulates present in smoke stacks. The reaction

rate is relatively slow. The conversion of SO 2 to acid takes only

several hours to several days, while N0x conversion take place

within hours (Gould, 1985). Reactions with ozone in solution are

also important. Dissolved oxygen in water can slowly oxidize

sulphur dioxide, but the reaction is faster if catalyzed by ions of

transition metals (such as iron, manganese, and vanadium) or by

5
carbon soot particles. Oxidation of suphur dioxide by dissolved

oxygen in clouds is relatively unimportant compared with

oxidation induced by ozone or hydrogen peroxide.

ii. NITROGEN

In the photochemical relationship between nitric oxide, ozone,

and nitrogen dioxide, the concentration of these chemical species

is directly affected by the intensity of sunlight. There chemicals

are also known to react photochemically with hydrocarbons and

other atmospheric chemicals to form photochemical “smog” No 2

reacts faster with OH to form acid nitrate than does sulphur. In

polluted air, NoX can react with organic matter to produce

peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), a pollutant which can be transported

long distance before it is eventually converted to acid nitrate.

Reactions between NoX and H2 O2 are very slow. Ho2 reacts with

NO and then nitrous oxide reacts with hydroxyl.

6
H02 + N0 OH + N02 (1)

N02 + OH HNO3 (2)

The atmospheric degradation of the HFC’s and HCFS’s is initiated

by the abstraction of hydroxyl (OH) resulting in the formation of

an alkyl radical. This radical reacts with oxygen to yeiled an alkyl

peroxy radical. This reacts with nitric oxide to produce NO 2.

The rate of this reaction depends on the concentration. During

daytime conversion, an important photochemical cycle takes

place in which both the production and destruction of ozone

occurs. As part of this process, NO 2 is converted to nitric acid and

water vapour

The basic reactions go as follows:

OH + SO2 HSO3 (3)

HSO3 + O2 HSO5 (4)

HSO5 +NO HSO4 + NO2 (5)

HSO4 + NO2 H2S04 + HN03 (6)

7
Unlike in deposition, anthropogenic source emission of SO 2, NOx

and VOC’s do not vary from season to season (Irving, 1991)

The basic components of acid rain are SO 2, NOx VOC’s (volatile

organic compounds) and several others. Most of the sulphur

present in the atmosphere of the northern hemisphere is from

anthropogenic sources. Coal and lignite power stations contribute

to a large amount of this pollution.

The united states emits almost 20 million tons of sulphur dioxide

every year, with three quarters coming from the burning of fossil

fuels by electric utilities (Tietenberg, 1989).

Coal burned in most part of the world is high in sulphur

transportation, residential combustion, smelters and other

industrial processes are the other man made contributions to SO 2

emission. During smelting, ores containing sulphur are roasted at

high temperatures and the sulphur is driven off as SO2 Natural

resources such as volcanoes and marsh gases contribute to a

small percentage of this concentration through gases such as

hydrogen suphide and dimethyl suphide which are produced by

8
the action of soil bacteria on rotting vegetation and on inorganic

sulphate. When they enter the air, these sulphur compounds are

rapidly oxidized to acid sulphate. Virtually all the sulphur

deposited in precipitation is in the form of acid sulphate.

Typically, less than 5% of the sulphur is dissolved SO 2 and this

remnant is rapidly oxidized to acid after falling to earth (Wujcik,

1998).

Smoke stacks are used to emit industrial fumes. It is assumed

that the higher the smoke is emitted, the better it is for the

atmosphere. However, emissions from tall smoke stacks remain

aloft longer and have more time to be oxidized to acid than do

emissions from stacks of lesser height since the residence times

of pollutant, emitted higher into the atmosphere is longer hence,

sulphur and nitrogen fumes emitted by high smoke stacks are

more easily converted to acidic pollutants.

The amount of uncontrolled SO2 emissions from a utility or

industrial boiler depends on the amount and sulphur content of

9
the fuel burned, the type and operating characteristics of the

boiler, and other chemical and physical properties of the fuel.

There are several natural sources of NO x. These come from

denitrification of the soil. 78% of the atmosphere is made up

nitrogen and 80% of this is from anthropogenic sources.

Therefore, the other factor that affects the formation of NOx is

temperature.

The higher the temperature, the greater the formation of Nox.

Aircraft fumes as well as fossil fuel combustion from vehicles

contribute to the Nox in the atmosphere. This is a direct emission

of nitrogen. Fossil fuel combustion is a source of several nitrogen

oxides, including N20 and Nox another source is coal – fired power

plants.

Another contribution is via the action of anaerobic bacteria on

livestock wastes and commercial inorganic fertilizers. A fourth

source is from the burning of grasslands and clearing of forests

(Miller, 1999). Natural sources of NOx include forest fires,

lightning, oxidation of ammonia and so on.

10
Other pollutants include particulates, hydrocarbons and carbon

monoxide, Trifluoroacetic acid is an atmospheric breakdown

product of the chlorofluorocarbon replacements HCFC – 123,

HCFC – 124, and HFC – 1349. Trifluoroacetic acid partitions into

the various aqueous phase that occur

Throughout the environment. HFC’s and HCFC’S have greater

reactivity and therefore lower atmospheric lifetimes than their

predecessors, the CFC’S. Because of this heightened reactivity

and reduced tropospheric residence time, the HFC’S and HCFC’S

are less likely to be transported to the stratosphere where they

might mediate the photochemical destruction of ozone. Therefore,

the HFC’s and HCFC’s are likely to cause less environmental

damage than the CFC’S.

Ammonia is another determinator of acid rain. It generally exists

as an alkaline vapour with the capacity to neutralize either

sulphuric or nitric acid in the atmosphere. It is readily soluble in

water and dissolves to form ammonium and hydroxyl ions.

Ammonia can react directly with the sulphur in the atmosphere to

11
form ammonium sulphate particles. Most ammonia emissions are

released into the atmosphere by natural and biological process,

primarily through the decay and decomposition of organic matter

and some through forest fires

2.2 CAUSES OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain, or more accurately acid precipitation, is the term used

for describing rainfall with a PH level lower than 5.6. This type of

pollution is a matter of great debate currently due to its potential

of causing environmental damages all across the world. For the

last decade or so, acid rain has caused destruction to hundreds of

lakes and streams in many parts of the world, including the US,

Canada, and Europe. Acid rain forms due to the oxides of sulfur

and nitrogen combining with the moisture content of the

atmosphere, resulting in the formation of sulphuric and nitric

acids. These acids can be dispersed far away from their places of

origin.

The oxides f nitrogen or Nox and sulfur dioxide or SO2 are the two

main sources of acid rain.

12
 i. Sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide, which is a colorless gas, is released as a by–

product when fossil fuels that contain sulfur are burned.

Formation

- Industrial processes like the processing of crude oil, utility

factories, and iron and steel industries

- Natural means and disaster can also result in sulfur dioxide

being released into the atmosphere such as rotting

vegetation, plankton, sea spray, and volcanoes, all of which

emit about 10% sulfur dioxide.

- On the whole, industrial combustion is responsible for 69.4%

sulfur dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and vehicular

transportation is responsible for about 3.7%.

When sulfur dioxide reacts with the atmospheric moisture it

undergoes oxidation to form sulfate ions.

S02 (g) + 02 (g) SO3 (g) (7)

13
The sulfate ions then combine with hydrogen atoms from the

atmosphere to form sulfuric acid in the aqueous state.

S03 (g) + H20 (g) H2S04 (g) (8)

Sulfur dioxide affects the breathing capacity of lungs and cause

permanent damage to them. Shortness of breath, asthma,

recurring cough are some of the major problems related to

constant exposure to this gas.

ii. Oxides of Nitrogen

Nitrogen oxide is another major component of acid rain. Nitrogen

compounds that contain oxygen atoms, are known as oxides of

nitrogen. For example, nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide

are oxides of nitrogen, and they are generically termed as NOx.

- These gases are produced in combustion process, which involve

extremely high temperatures. For example, utility plants,

Automobile and chemical industries such as in the production

of fertilizers.

14
- Five percent of nitrogen oxide is emitted by natural processes

like lighting, volcanic eruptions, forest fires and action of

bacteria in the soil. Industrial processes emit 32% and

vehicular transportation is responsible for 43%.

While reacting with atmospheric moisture, nitrogen oxide also

undergoes oxidation reaction to give rise to nitric or nitrous acid.

NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) (9)

Nitrogen oxide, which is a dangerous gas in itself, causes damage

to the respiratory organs by attacking the membranes in them.

Thus, increasing the chances of respiratory diseases. It also

cause smog and plays a critical role in damaging the ozone layer.

The nitrogen oxide can be carried far away from the original

location of its emission.

15
2.3 EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse effects on forests,

freshwaters and soils, killing insert and aquatic life forms as well

as causing damage to buildings and having impact on human

health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals.

Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface

water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish

and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs

will net hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers

becomes more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has

eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook

trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically

sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack mountains of the united

states. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly

or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river

acidity (i.e, depending on characteristics of the surrounding

watershed) is variable. The united states environmental

16
protection Agency’s (EPA) websites states: “of the lakes and

streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic

lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams”. Lakes hosted by

silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within

limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition

(i.e marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even

with the same amount of acid rain (kesler, 2015)

i. Soils

Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain.

Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are

killed.

The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape

so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of

acid rain also mobilize toxins, such as aluminum, and leach away

essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium

2H+ (aq) + Mg2+ (clay) 2H+ (clay) +Mg2+ (aq) (10)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations,

such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain thereby

17
affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple (Acer

Saccharum) (likens, 2002; likens, 1996).

ii. Forests and Other Vegetation

Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain like the

acid’s effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous

precursors to acid rain. High attitude forests are especially

vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and tog which

are more acidic than rain.

Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on

food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers

to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also

be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable,

but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands.

When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these

trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even

death (Dehayes, 2001; Lazarus, 2006).

18
 iii. Ocean acidification

Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on the oceans. However,

acid rain can cause the oceans acidity to rise, making it more

difficult for different coastal species to create their exoskeletons

that they need to survive. These coastal species link together as

part of the ocean’s food chain and without them being a source

for other marine life to feed off of more marine life will die.

Coral’s limestone skeletal is sensitive to pH drop, because the

calcium carbonate, core component of the limestone dissolves in

acidic (low pH) solutions.

iv. Human Health Effects

Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the

rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. However,

the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulphur dioxide and

nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of

fine particulate matter in the air do contribute to heart and lung

problems including asthma and bronchitis.

19
 v. Other adverse effects

Acid rain can damage buildings, historic movements, and statues,

especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble,

that contain large amount of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain

react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create

gypsum, which than flakes off.

CaCo3(s) + H2S04 (aq) CaS04(s) + Co2 (g) + C02 (g) + H20 (<) (11)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where

acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely

illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in

particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.

vi. Affected Areas

Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe

include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into

Scandinavia (Ed. Hatier, 1993), the eastern third of the united

states (US environmental protection agency 2008) and

southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the

southeastern coast of china and Taiwan.

20
 CHAPTER THREE

REMEDIATION

The effects of acid rain can never be reversed. The sooner we

realize this the better it will be for all concerned. These are some

possible mitigation measure.

Acidic substances lead to a low pH should be order to reduce the

effect of the acidity, the pH should be increased. This can be done

by the introduction of alkaline substances. Acidic waters can be

remedied by using acid neutralizing chemicals such as limestone

(CaO, Ca(OH2) and lime (CaCo3). This process is known as liming.

This is an effective agent for restoring water quality. An

alternative suggestion is fertilization of surface waters by adding

phosphorous to increase algal productivity and generate acid

neutralizing capacity (Bennet, 1985).

a. There are however, two limitations on this. Firstly, it can

only be applied in certain cases and it can reverse

acidification only to a certain degree. Liming has to be

repeated several times. This could turn out to be costly in

21
 the long run. Metal rich in acid water meanwhile will

continue to flow into the water body. There is an inherent

danger of these becoming redisssolved when the acidity

rises again.

b. Therefore, liming is purely an intermediate measure akin to

the uselessness of a painkiller, which merely relives the

problem but does not eliminated it.

c. Sulphur emission can be reduced before combustion by

physical, chemical or biological coal cleaning, during

combustion by sorbent injection. After combustion by flue

gas desulphurization, or by the most obvious, though not

always possible method of low – sulphur coals alone or as

components of coal blends. Microbial methods to remove

sulpur are being used. The main process involving coal

microbial degradation is the removal of inorganic sulphidic

Minerals (Rubiera, 1999).

d. Switching to low sulpur coal may be a good alternative, but

it also has some drawbacks. Western low sulfur coal has a

lower bituminous value than most high–sulfur coals. Power

22
 plants therefore have to burn more of it to generate the

same amount of electricity. Thus, they produce more carbon

dioxide and contribute more to the problem of global

warming. Low–sulphur coal also tends to have more mercury

and other trace metals than do other coals. Therefore, the

switch to low – sulfur coal has likely worsened the North

American toxic air pollution problem. (Munton, 1998).

e. In coal fired power plants, sulphur emissions are removed

with a “scrubber” where a limestone slurry is injected into

the flue gas to react with the SO 2. The resulting gypsum

slurry can eventually be used in other industrial processes

the main problem with scrubbers is that they are expensive,

and they decrease the overall operating efficiency of a power

plant. The decreased efficiency results in increased

emissions of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas

(Raloff, 1995).

f. Similarly, with nitrogen, producing it at lower temperatures

and at shorter durations of combustion, less NO x is

produced. There are also ways of reducing the nitrogen

23
 emissions from motor vehicles by fitting them with 3 – way

catalytic converters, which filter out nitrogen oxides. This

can be further aided by the introduction of lead free

gasoline.

g. Switching to alternative sources of energy may be the best

alternative we have left. Nuclear energy, geothermal,

energy, hydroelectricity, wind power all forms of energy that

have been found to be more efficient than the burning of

coals. As far as nuclear energy is concerned, however, it is a

matter of replacing one evil with another.

h. The following are some of the practices that are on China’s

agenda to improve the quality of rain. All new coal-fired

power plants are required to install particulate control

devices, such as electrostatic preceptors and fabric fitters,

which can remove more than 99% of particulate emissions.

There is also a ban on the digging of new mines that contain

high sulphur coal. Many large cities have begun to switch

from gasoline to cleaner fuels, such as liquefied natural gas

and liquefied petroleum gas, for taxicabs and urban mass –

24
 transportation fleets. To raise public awareness of air

pollution and it’s impact, nearly 60 cities in china publish

reports on air quality at least once a week (chenggang,

1999)

The discovery of the decade has been emission trading. Emissions

trading has been revolutionary in the sense that it has facilitated

a rather stark change in the philosophy of air pollution control

policy in the united states traditionally the government was

responsible for defining environmental goals, for dictating the

best control technologies for meeting those goals, and for

monitoring and enforcing compliance with its mandates. This

proved to be an excessively challenging responsibility because of

the sheer number of substance, sources and possible control

strategies.

i. Although setting standards and monitoring and enforcing

compliance remain government responsibilities, under

emissions trading strategies, emitters have the opportunity

to use their own ingenuity to determine the best way to

25
 comply with the goals introducing this flexibility has resulted

in substantially lower compliance costs, higher levels of

compliance and more innovative ways to control pollution

(including promotion of pollution rather than more

traditional end-of-pipe reduction technologies) (Tietenbery,

1989).

Some members of the EV, such as Sweden, want a minimum limit

set on emissions, not a maximum. They feel that if a nation

wants to enforce a more stringent limit, it should be permitted to

without any threat of being considered against fair competition.

“The directive should set only a minimum requirement, allowing

counties to go further of they so wish”, argues per Elvingson of

the Swedish society for natural conservation. “The primary aim of

the directive is not to maintain free trade but to protect the

environment”. (Tickell, 1996). This is a fact that the rest of the

world had yet to recognize. So far, there are some individuals and

groups who initiate pollution prevention and reduction plans and

there are other groups who implement it. It is for the

implementation group to realize that reduction and prevention

26
has to occur not just because refusal to do so will result in penal

action, but because it is what is required for the well being of the

environment.

3.1 TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

i. Many coal–firing power stations use flue gas

desulphurization (FGD) to remove sulphur – containing

gases from their stack gases. For a typical coal – fired power

station, FGD will remove 95% or more of the SO 2 in the flue

gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is

commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower

equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases

from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in

slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the

stack gases and combine with the sulphur dioxide present.

The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces P H –

neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the

scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulphur pollution into

industrial sulfates.

27
ii. In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as

gypsum when the purity of calcium sulfates is high. In others,

they are placed in landfill. However, the effects of acid rain can

last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can

stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into

otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insert

and fish species and blocking efforts to restore native life.

Fluidized bed combustion also reduces the amount of sulphur

emitted by power production.

Vehicle emissions control reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides

from motor vehicles.

iii. International Treaties

A number of international treaties on the long – range

transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed for

example, the 1985 Helsinki protocol on the reduction of sulphur

emissions under the convention on long – Range Transboundary

air pollution. Canada and US signed the air quality agreement in

28
1991. Most European countries and Canada have signed the

treaties.

iv. Emissions Trading

In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given

or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for

each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then

install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their

emissions allowances they no longer need for their own

operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their

investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators

economic incentives to install pollution controls.

The first emissions trading market was established in the United

States by enactment of the clean air act amendments of 1990.

The overall goal of the acid rain program establishment by the act

is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits

through reductions in emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and

nitrogen oxides (N0x), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve

this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both

29
regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air

pollution.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

4.1 CONCLUSION

Acid rain is one of the world’s major environmental problems

since 19th century. Coal burning is the major cause of SO2

production and also vehicle emission and various fossil fuel based

power generation emits NOx. Both SO2 and NOx produces

suplhuric and nitric acid respectively by reacting with atmospheric

water vapour and precipitate as wet deposition such as rain,

snow, sleet and fog and dry deposition including hazardous

particles of PM 2.5. Acid rain affects forest trees causes yellowing

and leaf fall, acidified rivers and lakes causes fish death, loss of

calcareous shell forming species (mollusks), it also affects soil

microorganisms causes increased nitrification which also leads to

eutrophication in water bodies and changes in the biodiversity.

Acid rain also destroys the coral reefs. It causes leaching of metal

ions including toxic Aluminum and heavy metals such as

chromium, cadmium and nickel, which adversely affects the soil

micro flora and aquatic biota. Acid rain deteriorates the marble,

31
stone monuments and architectures, corrode metal structures

and fading paints. Liming is used to neutralize the acidity in soil

and aquatic bodies. Several methods are used to reduce the

emission of SO2 and NOx such as reducing the sulphur content in

fuels, using scrubbers such as flue gas desulphurization (FGS)

lime injection multi stage burning (LIMB) or fluidized bed

combustion (FBC or circulation dry scrubber). To reduce NOx

methods such as selective catalytic reduction process (SCR)

where injection of reactive chemicals such as ammonia reacts

with NOx and convert into N2 and O2, changing air to fuel ratio

and changing the combustion temperature. In automobile three

way catalytic converters are used to get rid of NOx. By 1990 US

congress has passed amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of

the amendment consist control measures to SO2 and NOx,

implemented in 2 phases.

32
4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this study it is therefore recommended that:

1. Regulating the emissions coming from vehicles and buildings

is an important step, according to the EPA. This can be done

by restricting the use of fossil fuels and focusing on more

sustainable energy sources such as solar and wind power.

2. Also, each person can do their part by reducing their vehicle

use. Using public transportation, walking, riding a bike or

carpooling is a good start, according to the EPA. People can

also reduce their use of electricity, which is widely created

with fossil fuels, or switch to a solar plan. Many electricity

companies offer solar packages to their customers that

require no installation and low costs. 

33
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