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Offshore Pipeline
Design, Analysis,
and Methods

A .H . M o u s s e lli

p e im W e ll B o o k s
Ж . PcnnWall Publishing Company
Tulsa, Oklahoma
C o p y r i g h t ic? 1VS1 b y
PcnnW ell Publishing l o m p .i n y
1421 S o u t h S h e r i d a n R o a d ' P . О Box 12 6 0
Tulsa, O k l a h o m a 74ЦН
6 2 7 702
M OU
Libtiirv a! Connies'; C\iu:h i\^m^ in Puhlnuitn n П а и

M i u i s m II i , A H
O H s h o r c p i p e l i n e de s i g n , a n a l y s i s . . i i k I i n r t h n d s

Bi bliography О S. 3 -4 -
I n c l u d c s index
1 P e t r o l e u m i n s u b m e r g e d l . i n d s - Pi pe l i n e s 1 (.l.is, N a t u r a l . in
s u b m e r g e d l a n ds - - P i p e l i nes .
1 Title
T N H7y..S.M64 W^. S' 44 K0-2W.W
ISBN I)- Н 7 Щ 4 - 1 5 6 - 1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repro­

duced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed ш any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ­
ing photocopying and recording, without the written
permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

] 2 3 4 5 85 84 83 82 81
 Contents

List of T ab le s
List of Figures

1 Introduction
1.1 G en eral
1.2 O v e r v ie w of Oil and G a s P ro d u ctio n s
1.21 Id en tification of P ro sp ect Areas
1.22 A c q u isitio n s of Rights and P erm its
1 .2 3 E x p lo ratio n Phase
1.2 4 D e v e l o p m e n t and P rod u ctio n Phase
1.3 T y p e s of Suhsea Pipelines
1.31 Flow Lines (Intrafield Lines)
1.3 2 G a th e r in g Lines (Interfield Lines)
1 .3 3 T r u n k Lines
1 .3 4 Loading (Unloading) Lines

2 Hazards and Protection Concepts

2.1 H azard D e t e r m in a ti o n (M arine Survey)
2 .1 1 Purpose of Survey
2 . 1 2 E l e m e n t s of Survey
2 .1 2 1 O cea n o g ra p h ic D ata
2 . 1 2 2 Soil Investigations
2 . 1 2 3 E c h o S o u n d e r/B a th y m e try D a ta
2 .1 2 4 Side Scan Sonar M eth o d
2 .1 2 5 S u b b o tto m Profiling M e th o d
2 .1 2 6 M ag n e tic A n o m a ly D e t e c tio n

V
 2.2 Design and P ro tectio n C o n c e p ts 18
2.21 Route Selection 19
2 .2 2 Pipeline P ro tectio n M eth o d s 21

3 Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters 23

3.1 General
3 .2 Internal Pressure 24
3 .3 B uck le Analysis 25
3 .3 1 G eneral 25
3.3 2 Local Buckling 25
3 . 3 3 Buckle Propagation 26
3 3 4 Buckle Arrestors 28
3 .4 H y d ro d y n a m ic Forces 33
3 .5 V ortex-Ind u ced O scillations 48
3 .6 Pipeline-Soil Stability Analysis 53
3 .6 1 S e ttl e m e n t and Flotation 53
3 . 6 2 Soil Strength D e te rio ratio n 55
3.7 Effects of Large Soil M o v e m e n ts 56
3 .8 Effects of Seabed Irregularities 60
3 .8 1 Stresses Due to Low D ep ressio ns 61
3 .8 2 Stresses Due to E levated O b s tr u c t io n s 62
3 .9 S co ur and Erosion 69

4 Installation Methods and Analysis 72

4.1 G eneral
4 .2 Lay-Bargc M eth od 72
4.21 D escrip tio n of M e th o d 73
4 . 2 2 Lay-A n aly sis M eth o d s 80
4 .2 2 1 B eam M e th o d (S mall D eflection s] 86
4 . 2 2 2 N o n lin e a r B e a m M e th o d 88
4 . 2 2 3 N a tu ra l C a te n a r y M eth o d 88
4 . 2 2 4 Stiffened C a te n a ry M eth o d 89
4 . 2 2 5 Finite E le m e n t M e th o d 90
4 . 2 2 6 M eth o d for T h i c k C o n c r e te C o a tin g 90
4 .2 2 7 D y n a m i c Effects 95
4 .3 Reel Barge M eth o d 96
4 .4 T o w M eth o d 98
4.4 1 M a k e -U p Area 99
4 . 4 2 T y p e s of T o w installatio n s 100
4 .4 2 1 Surface and Below -Surface T o w 100
4 . 4 2 2 O ff-B o ttom T o w 103
4 . 4 2 3 B o tto m T o w 104

vi
 5.1 G e n e ra l .1 0 6
5 .2 F a c to r s A ffe ctin g Burial R e q u ir e m e n ts 107
5 .2 1 H y d ro d y n a m ic Effects 10 0
5 . 2 2 Spans and O b s tr u c t io n s 108
5 . 2 3 Soil S tre n g th D e te rio ra tio n D u e to
W a v e Loading 108
5 . 2 4 Fish in g A c t iv it ie s 108
5 . 2 5 A n c h o rin g 109
5.3 Pipe T r e n c h i n g M e th o d s 109
5 .3 1 Je ttin g M e th o d 110
5 .3 2 M echanical C utting 11 0
5 . 3 3 Flu id izatio n M e th o d 111
5 . 3 4 P lo w in g M e th o d 114
5 .4 T e c h n i c a l E v a lu a tio n s and L im i ta tio n s 115
5.4 1 Soil P a ra m e te rs 115
5 . 4 2 W a t e r D ep th 115
5 . 4 3 Pipe Size and W e ig h t 11 6
5 .4 4 P ro d u c tio n R ate 118
5 . 4 5 Sea State 118
5 . 4 6 T r e n c h Stability 118
5 . 4 7 Spoil D isposal 118
5.5 C o n c e p tu a l E v alu atio n 119
5 .6 T r e n c h i n g R egu latio n s and E xperien ce s 121
5 .6 1 Gulf of M e x ic o (USA) 123
5 .6 2 N o r th Sea 125
5 .6 2 1 U n ite d Kingdom 125
5 .6 2 2 Norway 126
5 .623 the N e th e rla n d s 126
5 .6 3 Japan 127
5 .6 4 A u stralia 128
5 .7 C o m m e n t s on R eg ulation s and E x p e rien ce s 128

Pipe Connection and Positioning Systems

6.1 G en e ral 133
6 .2 Pipeline C o n n e c t i o n S y stcin s 133
6.2 1 Flanged M e th o d 134
6 . 2 2 A t m o s p h e r ic W elding 135
6 .23 H yperbaric W elding 136
6 .2 4 M e c h a n ic a l C o n n e c to r s 137
6 .2 4 1 Big-Inch M arine S y ste m s 13K

VI I
 6 .2 4 2 C a m e r o n 138
6 .2 4 3 Gripper 139
6 .2 4 4 H y d ro T e c h 141
6 .2 5 C o m p a riso n of C o n n e c t i o n M eth o d s 143
6 .3 End Positioning M e th o d s 146
6.31 G eneral 146
6.3 2 Initiation and T e r m i n a t i o n M eth od 146
6 .3 3 Straight-ln T o w M e th o d 148
6 .3 4 1 )etleetion w ith B u o y a n cy 149

7 Subsea Pipeline Repair Systems

7.1 G en eral 154
7 .2 Repair M e th o d s and P ra ctice s 155
7.21 Surface W elding 156
7 .2 2 H yperbaric W eld in g 157
7 .2 3 M e ch a n ica l C o n n e c t o r s 158
7 .2 4 Full E n c i r c le m e n t Sleeves (Clamps) 162
7 .2 5 Flexible Pipe Repair 162
7.3 S to ck in g P rogram s tor M e c h a n i c a l Repair T o o ls 163
7 .4 C o m p a r is o n of Repair M eth o d s 163
7.41 T e c h n ic a l F eatu res 164
7.42 E xpe rie n ce 165
7 . 4 3 W e a th e r S ensitiv ity 1 66
7.44 Availability 166
7 .4 5 T i m e and C o s t s 168

3 Pipeline Risers
G en eral 168
Riser S y stem s 168
8.21 Flanged C o n n e c t i o n s 169
8 .2 2 H yperbaric W e ld in g 169
8 .2 3 M e c h a n ic a l C o n n e c to r s 169
8 .2 4 Subsea A t m o s p h e r ic W elding 170
8 .25 Surface W elding 1 70
8 . 2 6 J-Tube M e th o d 170
8 .2 7 R everse J-Tube 176
8 .2 8 Bending Shoe- 178
8 .2 9 Barefoot Riser 178
8 . 2 1 0 C o m p a ris o n of M e th o d s 178
8.2101 T e c h n i c a l C o m p a ris o n 178
8.2101 E c o n o m ic s 180

v iii
8 .3 R iscr-P ip e lin c F lexibility 180
8.31 Internal Pressure 180
8 .3 2 W a t e r T e m p e r a tu r e , 181
8 .3 3 C o n t e n t s T e m p e r a t u r e 181
8 .3 4 Residual T e n s i o n 181
8 .3 5 Soil Frictio n 181
8 . 3 6 D esign O p tio n s 181
8 .4 T y p ic a l N o r th Sea in s ta lla tio n s 182
8 .4 1 A m o c o M o n tr o s e 182
8 . 4 2 B N O C D u n lin T ie-In 1 83
8 .4 3 B N O C T h is tle 183
8 .4 4 E L F /N o r g e Frigg Field 183
8 .4 5 BP Forties 183
8 .4 6 Mobil Beryl and S tatljord 184
8 . 4 7 O X Y Piper Field 184
8 .48 Phillips Ekofisk C o m p l e x 184
8 . 4 9 Shell E xpro B rent S y s te m 185
Bibliography 186
Index 190

IX
 List of Tables

2.1 Special C o n s i d e r a t i o n s - P i p e l i n e & Riser Installation 22

in U n sta b le A reas
3.1 Buckle Pro p ag ation Pressure 29
3 .2 R e c o m m e n d e d C oe fficie n ts for Pipe Design 43
(Exposed Pipe)
3 .3 Pipe P rop erties F o rm u las 68
4.1 C o m p a ris o n of Pipelay A n aly sis M e th o d s 86
5.1 Maior U n d e rw a t e r T r e n c h i n g M a c h in e s 112
5.2 C o n ce p tu a l E v a lu a tio n of T r e n c h i n g m e th o d s 1 20
5 .3 Offshore Pip eline Burial re q u ire m e n ts 122
5.4 Pipeline T r e n c h i n g E x p erien ce s 130
7.1 C o m p a ris o n of Pipe E m e rg e n cy Repair M eth od s 165

X
 List of Figures

1.1 S c h e m a t i c of H y d ro ca rb o n P ro d u ctio n 3

2.1 Soil P isto n C o r e r 11

2 .2 P isto n C o r e r O p e ratio n 12
2 .3 S ide-Scan S onar Fish 14
2 .4 Seafloor M ap ping R ecorder 14
2 .5 Seafloor M ap ping Record 15
2 .6 O R E S u b b o tto m Profiling S y s te m 16
2 .7 E G & G B o o m e r Sled 17
2 .8 S u b b o tto m Profile Record 18
2 .9 Flow D i a g ra m of R oute and W e ig h t D esign 20

3.1 T y p i c a l Pip eline Buckle M od es 28

3 .2 T y p e s of B u c k le A rrcsto rs 30
3 .3 H y d r o d y n a m ic F o rce s on Pipe 34
3 .4 D e fin itio n of L inear W a v e P a ra m e t e rs 35
3 .5 R eg io n s of Validity of W ave T h e o r ie s 36
3 .6 S u m m a r y — L inear (Airy) W av e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 37
3 .7 W a v e L eng th and Height V ariations w i th D e p th 39
3 .8 D ra g C o efficien t vs. Reynolds N u m b e r 41
3 .9 D ra g C o e fficie n t for Different 42
K e u le g a n -C a r p e m e r Values
3 .1 0 Lift C o e ffic ie n t vs. Reynolds N u m b e r 43
3.11 V o rte x -In d u ce d O sc illatio n s 49
3 .12 V a ria tio n s of Strouhal N u m b e r 50
3.1 3 S trou h al N u m b e r vs. Drag C o e fficie n t 51
3.1 4 Pipe S tab ility m Soils 54
3.1 5 S to rm -In d u ce d B o tto m P ressures 55

<1
 3.1 6 Soil F o rcc Coefficient 59
3 .17 Soil Forcc O v er 6 -in. Pipe 60
3 .1 8 Pipe C o nfig u ration Hue to Low Depression 61
3 .1 9 M a x i m u m Stress Due to Low Depression 63
3 .20 Stress at Midspan 63
3.21 D eflectio n at Midspan 64
3 .2 2 Induced Pipe Spans 64
3 .2 3 Pipe D u e to Elevated O b s tr u c tio n 65
3 .2 4 Span D u e to Elevated O b s tr u c tio n 65
3 .2 5 M a x i m u m Stress Due to Elevated O b s tr u c tio n 66
3 .26 M od es of G rain Transport 70
3 .27 C u r r e n t V elocity tor S edim ent T ra n s p o it 71

4.1 C o n v e n ti o n a l Lay Baigc 73

4 .2 C o a te d Pipe Joints 74
4.3 C o a te d Field |omt 75
4 .4 Pipe O v e r R am p 76
4 .5 Stern R am p Support 77
4 .6 D iving Bell 78
4.7 D iv in g Bell and D e c o m p r e s s io n C h a m b e r 79
4 .8 S ection al Stinger for Large Sized Pipe 80
4 .9 Floated Stinger Prior to Stabbing 81
4 .1 0 Stinger D ra w b ar S e ctio n 82
4.11 Stinger Hinge 83
4 .1 2 Stinger Roller Supports 84
4 .1 3 C o n v e n ti o n a l I.ay-Barge M eth o d 84
4 .1 4 T y p ic a l T e n s i o n and Stinger Variations 85
4 .1 5 F.B.D . of Pipe String 87
4 .1 6 C o ated -P ip e Bonded Stiffness 91
4 .1 7 Stiffness D istrib u tio n 92
4 .18 M a x i m u m Stress vs A ssu m ed Stiffness 95
4 .19 Reel-Barge M eth o d 97
4 .20 Tow String M a k e -U p Yard 100
4.21 Surface l o w 101
4 .2 2 B e lo w -S u itace l o w 101
4 .2 3 R A T M eth o d 102
4 .2 4 O f f-B o tto m T ow 103
4 .2 5 B o tto m T o w 1 04

5.1 P ip e -T re n ch in g Definitions 106

5 .2 Jet Barge Illu stration 111
5 .3 Spoil R em o v a l by C o m p re sse d Air 112
5 .4 Sand Fluidization Burial M e th o d 113

xii
I

5.5 Pipe Bending D u rin g T r e n c h i n g 117

5 .6 Spoil R e m o v a l P rinciples 119

6.1 Big-Inch M arin e End C o n n e c to r 139

6 .2 C a m e r o n C o lle t C o n n e c t o r 140
6 .3 G ripper Grip and Seal C o n n e c to r 142
6 .4 H y d ro T e c h H y d ro C o u p le C o n n e c t o r s 1 4 4 -145
6 .5 Pipeline In itiatio n 147
6 .6 Pipe T e r m i n a t i o n Pull Head 148
6 .7 S traight-In T o w 149
6 .8 D eflectio n w ith B u o y an cy 150
6 .9 V ertical D e fle ctio n 152
6 .10 D r a w -D o w n T e c h n iq u e 153

7.1 Subsea Repair by Flexiforge M e c h a n i c a l C o n n e c to r s 159

7.2 Subsea Repair by G ripper M e c h a n i c a l C o n n e c to r s 160
7.3 Subsea Repair by H y d r o T e c h M e c h a n i c a l C o n n e c to r s 161

8.1 L o c k h e e d Riser C o n n e c t i o n S y ste m 171

8.2 Pipe P ic k -U p Steps for Riser S etting 172
8.3 Riser L o w e r Elbow (T ube T u rn ) 173
8 .4 R iser S e ttin g Pro ced ure 173
8 .5 Riser S e ttin g C o n t in u e s 174
8 .6 R iser C la m p e d P o sitio n 175
8 .7 R iser C l a m p 176
8 .8 Illu stratio n of Pipe Pull T h r o u g h J-Tube 177

XI I!
 Introduction

1.1 General

T h e ev e r-in cre a s in g d e m a n d for oil and gas h a s re su lte d in a su b s ta n ­

tial in cre a s e of offshore pro jects for finding and p ro d u cin g h y drocarb o ns.
Since the first offshore pip elines w e re laid in th e G u lf of M e x ico ,
th o u s a n d s of m iles of pipelines have been c o n s t r u c t e d offshore in
v a rio u s areas of the world, including the N o r th Sea, th e G u lf of M ex ico ,
th e M e d ite rra n e a n , A u stralia, S o u th e a st Asia, an d L a tin A m e r i c a . S om e
pipelines w ere installed in w a t e r d epths of nearly 2 , 0 0 0 ft. P ipelines as
large as 5 6 in. in d ia m e t e r w ere also in stalled. A va rie ty of c o n s t r u c t i o n
e q u ip m e n t w as used to install th e se pipelines, in c lu d in g th e c o n v e n ­
tio nal lay-barge m e th o d , reel barge, and various pull and to w m e th o d s .
A s th ese in stalla tio n s w ere m ad e in in creasingly deep w a te r, sp e c ia l­
ized te c h n ic a l and design pro b lem s had to be solved. A n offshore
pipeline installed at any w a t e r depth m u s t be d esigned s u c h th a t it
m a i n t a i n s its in te g r ity d u rin g c o n s t r u c t i o n an d d u r in g o p e r a ti n g
lifetim e. D u rin g c o n s tr u c ti o n , the pipeline is e x p o sed to v a rio u s bend
ing s tresse s as it is laid from the surface vessel to the seabed and due to
lateral c u r r e n ts and various d y n a m ic co n d itio n s. A fte r th e pipe rests on
the seabed, it is exp osed to several p oten tial risks of d a m a g e due to wave
and cu r r e n t c o n d itio n s in the area, soil instability, a n c h o r s , fishing
traw ls, and o th e r hazards.
A fter th e pipeline size has been d e te rm in e d based o n th e flow c o n d i­
tio n s and friction c h a ra c te r is tic s , the pip eline-design w o r k typically
in volves the e v a lu atio n of wave, cu rre n t, and b o t t o m c o n d i tio n s along
the pipeline ro u te from w h ic h s e le c tio n of the pipe p a r a m e t e r s ca n be
m ad e. T h i s in volves the e v alu atio n of soil s tr e n g th s u nd er s t a t i c and

1
2 | v_/ifshoi,. . v e lm o ^ w . g n ■■■, j s . a r .„ ...jih o c L

sto rm co n d itio n s and identification of the b o tto m features to define any

s lo p e -m o v e m e n t tendencies and lim its of u nstab le areas
Pipe route is selected to m in im iz e forces of possible soil m o v e m e n t s
on the pipeline and to avoid any o b s tr u c ti o n s or hazards w h ic h m ay
o cc u r along the pipeline route. S pecifica tion s of pipe m a t e ria l and
specific g ravities are made so th at the pipe ca n resist h y d r o d y n a m ic
forces and m a in ta in veitical stability during its lifetim e. T h e design
work also ty pically invnlvcs analysis oi the pipeline u nder operating
co n d itio n s including piessure effects, th e rm a l e x p a n sio n , and sto rm
loads on the pipe.
O t h e r c o n s id e r a ti o n s inclu de s e le c t io n ot th e m o s t feasible and
e c o n o m i c m e th o d for installing the pipeline and c o n n e c t i n g it to an
offshore facility T h ese also in clude p r o te c t io n m e t h o d s in clu d in g
tre n ch in g of the pipe below the seabed and riser in stallatio n s. In deep
w a te r and for relatively larg c-d iam eter pipelines, the design w o rk also
in volves an a n a ly sis of the bucklin g c h a r a c te r is tic s of the pipeline under
various c o n d i tio n s and specifications of b u ck le a rr e ste rs s u c h th a t an
a cc id e n ta l b u c k le is locally limited.
T h is book provides an overview of the various p rin cip les and p ra c tice s
of offshore pip eline design and m ethod s. T h i s in clu d es d e te r m in a tio n
and e v a lu a ti o n of the various hazards, p ro te c tio n m e t h o d s in cluding
trenching, in sta llatio n m e th o d s and an alysis of the various m e th o d s,
b uck lin g a n a ly s is and selection of the various pipeline p aram e te rs,
co n n e c t io n m e t h o d s and analysis, riser in stallatio n and analysis, op era­
tions an alysis, and o th e r specialized pro b lem s. Design fo rm u la s are also
presented w h e re v e r applicable. E x a m p le pro b lem s are given to illustrate
analysis and ca lc u la t io n s of c o m m o n s u b m arin e pipeline design prob­
lem s. T h i s provides the basic and various p rin cip les of offshore pipeline
design in a c o n c i s e m a n n e r and can be used as a referen ce book for basic
designs of offshore pipelines.

1.2 Overview of Oil and Gas Production

O ffshore pip elines have an im p o r ta n t role in the o verall ta sk s of

offshore oil and gas prod uction . A s c h e m a t i c d iag ra m [Figure 1.1) shows
the v ario us a sp e cts of this from the initial stages of a cq u irin g rights to
sea rch for oil and gas to the point w h ere p ro d u ctio n of th e se h y d r o c a r­
bons begins. T h e various phases can gen erally be divided in to four
c a te g o ries : j 1) id entification of prospect areas, (2) o b ta in in g th e rights for
ex p lo ra tio n , (3) e xp lo ratio n phase, (4) d e v e lo p m e n t phase, and (5) pro­
d u c tio n and tra n sp o rta tio n phase.
 In tro d u c tio n |

Ye?

T est w e ll

D rill c o n fir m a tio n w e ll(s ) a n d test

No

F ie ld d e v e lo p m e n t s tu d y & d e s ig n

1.1 S c h e m a tic o f h y ilr o c a ib o n p ro ilu ctio n

4 | o n s h o r e r tp o h n e u f ^ iy n , A ba iyo iS . ariui .v io ih o d s

1.21 Identification of Prospect Areas

T h is phase defines the general geological areas w h ere p o ten tial h y ­

drocarbon p rosp ects m ay exist. T h is is usually based on an e v a lu atio n of
the arch eo lo g ica l and geological h istories of the areas, w ith possible
study of geophysical and se is m ic d a ta of the areas.

1.22 Acquisitions of Rights and Permits

A fter p re lim in ary sea rch es to define p oten tial areas of h yd ro ca rb on

reservoirs are c o m p le te d , the right to drill e xp lo rato ry wells in offshore
tr a c ts m u st be ac q uired from the various o w n e rs of th ese areas In the
U nited S tates, th ese rights are usually acquired th rou gh su cce ssfu l bids
on specific tr a c ts in an offshore lease sale c o n d u c t e d by the sta te s for
s tate -o w n e d lands and by the B ureau of Land M a n a g e m e n t of the
D e p a r t m e n t of Interior for the federally o w n ed areas of the O u te r
C o n t in e n t a l Shelf. T h e s e rights c an also be ob tain ed fro m g o v e r n m e n ts
in foreign c o u n t r ie s by c e rta in c o n tr a c t u a l a g re e m e n ts b e tw e e n the
operating c o m p a n i e s and the o w n e r g o v e r n m e n ts or national oil c o m ­
panies. O f te n foreign g o v e rn m e n ts have p rovisions to share in the
h y dro carb o ns prod uced if th ey are found.

1.23 Exploration Phase

T h e o p erating c o m p a n y c o n d u c t s various geological and g e o te c h n ica l

surveys m the area to assess the possibility of finding oil and gas in the
specific tra ct. If the survey data in d icates th at h y dro carb ons m ay be
found in the specific tra ct, th e n e xp lo ra to ry wells are drilled in the area.
E xp lo rato ry drilling is usually done by various types of drilling rigs
dependin g upon w a te r depth in the area. Jack-up rigs, w h ic h c an be
floated and to w e d to site then set on site for drilling, ca n be used in
relatively sh allow w ater. In relatively deep w ater, o th e r types of drilling
rigs are used, in clu d in g the ship-shaped drilling rig and the sem is u b m er-
sible drill vessel. T h e s e vessels c a n be m o ored in ord er to m ain ta in
position d uring drilling. H o w ev er, in very deep w a te r, the m o o rin g
s y s te m is e it h e r su p p le m e n te d o r replaced by a d y n a m ic positioning
s y s te m for sta tio n keeping.
After the drilling vessel positions o n site, the ca sin g pipe is driven
below the seabed and c e m e n te d in place. T h e b lo w o u t p re v e n to r s ta ck is
n e xt installed in place to m in im iz e risks of a b lo w o u t, w h ic h m a y o c c u r
due to a c c u m u l a t i o n s of oil and gas d uring drilling. D u rin g the drilling
 In tro d u c tio n

phase, various data c a n also be c o ll e c te d o n th e fo r m a tio n s down the

well hole. A fter the exp lorato ry w ell is drilled, o t h e r co n fir m a tio n wells
m a y also be drilled and further d ata m a y be g a th e re d to e s ti m a te and
co n fir m the oil and gas reserves w h ic h m a y be p ro d u ce d fro m the
reservoir.

1.24 Development and Production Phase

A fter all in fo r m a tio n relating to th e g eo lo g ical and g e o te c h n ic a l data

of the reservoir is analyzed and c o rre lated w i th in fo r m a tio n obtained
from e x p lo ra to ry drilling, te c h n ic a l and e c o n o m i c stu d ies for develop ­
ing the field and p ro d u cin g the h y d ro carb o n s begin. T h e s e include an
e va lu a tion of a ltern a tiv e s for building an offshore fixed s tr u c tu r e for
drilling and producing, m u ltip le s tr u c t u r e s for drilling and producing,
subsea p ro d uction s y s te m s w ith an offshore te r m in a l, and oth e r drilling
or pro d ucing s y ste m s.
Field d e v e lo p m e n t studies are d o n e to e v a lu a te the various develop
m e n t a lte rn ativ es and the tim e sc h e d u le s and c o s t s as so cia ted with
th e se a ltern a tiv e s. O t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t o p tio n s in clude a definition of
the n u m b e r of w ells to be drilled, s e le c tio n of the m o s t feasible type of
p rod u ctio n facility, oil and gus processing, p o w e r-g e n e r a tio n sy stem s,
and o th e r op erational factors. B e ca u se of the c o s t and tim e involved in
c o n s tr u c ti n g an offshore p rod u cin g facility, it is gen erally desirable to
drill and produce using the s a m e facility S im u lt a n e o u s drilling and
p ro d uctio n is s o m e t i m e s undesirable for safety reasons, and often there
are separate s tr u c t u r e s for drilling and prod uction .
Various types of pro d uctio n facilities ex ist, in clu d in g surface and
subsea p ro d u ctio n sy s te m s . T h e su rtace -p ro d u ctio n s y s te m typically is
m ad e up of a fixed offshore p latform equipped w ith both drilling anil
p rod u ctio n eq u ip m e n t. Oil, gas, o r both are transp o rted to shore via
su b m a rin e pipelines. In o th e r cases, the cru d e m a y be tr ansp orted by a
su b m arin e pipeline to an offshore te r m in a l th en loaded to a tanker
w h ic h th en tran sp o rts the crude to shore.
T h e subsea p ro d u c tio n sy ste m typ ically is m ade up of a floating vessel
w h ic h has b oth drilling and p ro d u c tio n e q u ip m e n t. In the subsea
pro d uctio n s y s te m , all drilled wells are c o m p le t e d o n the seabed. T h e s e
w ells are c o n n e c t e d to and supported by a subsea te m p l a te . T h e cru d e is
th e n transported by a su b m a rin e pipeline to an offshore te r m in a l where
it c a n be loaded in to a storage and a tr a n s p o rta tio n facility. T h e m a m
advantag es to subsea pro d uctio n facilities are th a t th e p ro d u ctio n sys
t e m is less c o s tl y th an fixed p latform s, it ca n be used in very deep water,
6 I u ff s h o ic r i( ie lin u L«r:>ign А .н и , ois. a i w-Wioi.,

and it provides earlier production than would h ave been obtained by a

surface production faciluy. T h e s y s te m is also desirable 111 r e m o te areas
and for marginal Held d ev elo p m en ts.
In certain ca ses where reservoir h y d ro ca rb o n d eposits c a n n o t be
drilled and produced from the s a m e surface p ro d u c in g facility, a c o m b i ­
n ation of the surface pro d uctio n s y s te m and the subsea production
s y s tem ca n be used. In this case, the r e m o t e w ells are serviced by a
c o m m o n subsca manifold. P ro d u ctio n risers th en c o n n e c t the subsea
manifold to the su rface pro d uction facility.
If gas is found, a pipeline is required, a lth o u g h v ario u s s c h e m e s have
been proposed for offshore use of g a s -p o w e r g e n e ra tio n , a m m o n i a
plants, e tc . If gas is associated w ith oil p ro d u ctio n , it m u s t e ith e r be
flared (usually illegal in large quan tities), used for process power, rein­
jected, or pipelined to sh ore. D e v e l o p m e n t often p ro ceed s in phases: j 1)
oil p ro d uctio n /flare, (2) gas reinjection , and (3) gas p ro d u ctio n and
tra n s m issio n to shore

1.3 Types of Subsea Pipelines

T h e r e are four general class ific atio n s of ofishore pipelines, depending

on the line fu n ctio n . C e rta in pipe sizes and o p era tin g pressure m ay also
be asso ciated with each line classificatio n . T h e s e classifica tio n s are
tlow lincs or intrafield lines, g ath erin g lines or interfield lines, trunk
lines, and loading (unloading) lines.

1.31 Flowlines (Intrafield Lines)

A tlo w lin c c o n n e c t s a well to a p latfo rm or subsea m anifold. Usually

the line has a sm all d ia m e te r and m a y be bundled, blow inside of it m ay
be at high pressure. T h e flo w h n e is used w h e re reservoir pressure is
sufficient to flow the fluid through the line w i t h o u t boost (pump or
co m p resso r).

1.32 Gathering Lines (Interfield Lines)

A g ath erin g line c o n n e c t s from o n e (m u ltiw e ll) p la tfo rm to a n o th e r

p latform and is usually a sm all- to m c d i u m - d i a m e t e r line but can be
large d iam e te r, too. T h e line m a y be a b undled oil, gas, co n d en sa te , or
tw o -p h ase flow. T h e range of o p era tin g p ressu re is u sually betw een
1 , 0 0 0 - 1 , 4 0 0 psi. Flo w in th e lines is d one by b o o s te r p u m p s o rc o m p r e s -
 In tro d u c tio n I 7

sors w h ic h are often installed on the p latform . A g a th e rin g line m a y also

tr a n s m i t the p ro d u ct fro m a drilling p latform to a sep arate prod uction
p latfo rm .

1.33 Trunk Lines

A tr u n k line hand les th e c o m b in e d flow fr o m on e o r m a n y p latform s

to shore. T h e line is usually of large d ia m e t e r and c a n e it h e r be oil o r gas.
B o o s te r p u m p s or c o m p re s s o r s m u s t be provided a t in te r m e d ia te p lat­
fo rm s for very long tru n k lines. A trunk line is u sually a c o m m o n
carrier, carry in g p ro d u ct o w n e d by m a n y producers.

1.34 Loading (Unloading) Lines

T h e s e lines usually c o n n e c t a p ro d u ctio n p la tfo rm an d a loading

facility o r a subsea m an ifold and a loading facility. T h e lines c a n be
s m a l l or large d ia m e t e r and carry liquid only. C o n n e c t i o n m a y be from a
sh o re facil ity to an offshore loading or u nloading te r m in a l, a s in th e case
of th e L o u isian a Offshore Oil P ort (LOOP).
Loading lines are usually short, ranging from 1 to 3 m ile s long,
a lth o u g h in the case of L O O P , the unloading line is ab o ut 2 1 m i le s long.
T h e loading facility m ay be te m po rary, su ch as an early pro d uctio n
facility, to provide lim ited p rod u ct sh ip m e n t until a ga th e rin g o r a tr un k
line c a n be c o m p le te d . T h e loading line ca n be used w i t h a p e rm a n e n t
loading facility for sm a ll reservoirs and in r e m o te areas.
Several c o n s id e ra tio n s are usually m ade to d e te rm in e the size of the
pipeline. T h e s e co n s id e ra tio n s include the type of h y d ro carb o n c o n ­
te n ts being p um ped into the pipeline, th rou gh p u t in th e pipeline w h ich
is the v o lu m e of c o n t e n t s to he transported by the pipeline, p um p and
c o m p r e s s o r ca p a c ity at the pum ping station , p ressure lo sses along the
pipeline length, and the p ipelinc-route details. F ro m all of th ese c o n s id ­
e ra tion s, c a lc u la t io n s can be m ad e to size the pipeline so the required
th ro u g h p u t is ob tain ed w ith a m i n i m u m loss of energy.
D e t e r m in in g the size of a su b m arin e pipeline has m a n y sim ilar
a sp e cts to sizing an o n sho re pipeline. T h e m a i n co n s id e ra tio n s involve
flow and hydraulic c a lcu la tio n s to a c c o u n t for th e frictio n losses be­
tw e e n c o n t e n t s and the pipeline and to insure a n efficient m o d e of
tran sp ortin g the c o n t e n t s to a given lo cation . T h r o u g h o u t th is book, it
w ill be a s s u m e d th a t the pipeline size has been d e term in ed , and oth er
co n sid e ra tio n s will be analyzed regarding m e c h a n ic a l and structural
design of the su b m a rin e pipeline.
 H azards and Protection Concepts

2.1 Hazard Determination (Marine Survey)

V ariou s h azard s w ith p oten tial risks of d a m a g e to a su b m arin e
pipeline m a y e x ist along a proposed pipeline ro u te. T h e s e hazards are
due to e ith e r n a tu ral c a u se s or m a n -m a d e a c tiv itie s and ca n be classified
into th iee cate g o r ie s: |l) hazards w h ic h c a n o c c u r d uring the c o n s t r u c ­
tion period, (2) hazards w h ich can o c c u r after the pipeline has been
installed on the seabed, and (3) hazards w h ic h c a n o c c u r b oth during the
c o n s t r u c t i o n period and during operations.
N a tu ra l hazards arc those caused by the e n v ir o n m e n t, in cluding wave
and c u rre n t forces w h ic h m ay c au se pipeline instability at the seabed,
u n s u p p o rte d spans, soil m o v e m e n t s , and e a r t h q u a k e s . M a n -m a d e
hazards in clude dragging anchors, dropped a n ch o rs, fishing activities,
and discarded o b jects left on the seabed su ch as s u n k e n vessels or debris
left by c o n s t r u c t i o n vessels.
T o m i n i m iz e p o ten tial risks of d am ag e to the pipeline, th ese hazards
m u st first be identified in the specific site, th e n m e a s u re s be taken to
p ro te ct the pipeline from these hazards. T h e p r o te c t io n m e t h o d s in ­
c lu d e tr e n c h i n g th e pipeline b elo w th e seab ed, a n c h o r i n g of the
pipeline, in creased c o n c r e te coating, and s tr e n g th e n in g the pipeline. A
c o m m o n way for p ro tec tin g the pipeline is to tr e n ch it below the
seafloor.
T o identify the hazards w h ich m a y e x ist alo n g a proposed pipeline
route, d a ta m u s t be gathered regarding w av es, surface and subsurface
cu rre n ts, b o t t o m cu rre n ts, soil co n d itio n s o n th e seabed, soil m o v e m e n t
te n d e n cie s, and o th e r data. In areas w h e re a c ti v e offshore in stallation s
are m ad e, e n v ir o n m e n ta l data can usually be o b tain ed fro m g o v e rn m e n t

8
 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts |

and public reso u rces. Variou s o p erating c o m p a n ie s often h av e proprie-

tary d ata for th o se areas. In r e m o t e areas and w h ere d ata is unavailable, a
m a r in e survey is m a d e to g ather s u c h data.

2.11 Purpose of Survey

T h e o b jectiv e of a m a r in e su rv ey is to.

■ E stab lish an u n d erstan ding of the general g e o te c h n ic a l a c ti v itie s in

th e area, in clu d in g re c e n t deposits.
■ Identify faults, v o lc a n ic a c ti v ity , gas vents, m o v e m e n t ten d encies,
and depression s and o b s tr u c ti o n s w h i c h m a y be p resen t alon g the
proposed pipe route.
■ A ssess th e stability of the area se d im e n ts , including c o n tin u o u s
erosion an d deposits.
■ D e t e r m in e w a t e r d e p t h /b a th y m e tr y alon g the proposed route.
■ D e t e r m in e su b b o tto m features and stratig rap h y along the route.
■ O b tain data on the e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s in the area, including
w aves, surface c u rre n ts, an d b o t t o m c u rre n ts.

2.12 Elements of Survey

O n e principal c l e m e n t of л m a r in e pipeline survey is c o n tin u o u s

profiling of the s e a b o tto m c o n d itio n s along the pipeline ro u te. T h i s is
usually done by (1) to w in g a d e v ice called a " f i s h ” at s o m e depth along
the proposed ro u te and c o n tin u o u s ly re cording data on c h a r t s aboard the
to w in g vessel, and (2) c o lle c tin g d iscre te sta t io n su rveys w h ere data is
gath ered at local sta tio n s along the ro u te. T h i s in clu d es the d e p lo y m e n t
of cu rre n t m e te rs, soil sam pling, and c o ll e c tio n of o th e r p ertin e n t data.

2.121 Oceanographic Data

T h e o ce a n o g ra p h ic su rvey g a th e rs data on wind, w av e, and cu rre n t

c o n d itio n s e x is tin g along the proposed pipeline route. T h i s d ata rep re­
s e n ts th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l co n d itio n s d uring the c o n s t r u c t i o n period of
the pipeline and during its o p eratin g lifetim e. D u ra tio n of the c o n s tru c
tion period is affected by m a n y facto rs, in clu d in g the pipe param eters,
site c h a ra c te r is tic s , and the type of e q u ip m e n t and m e t h o d s used for
in stallatio n .
1C , " _ ttstic .jeim c gn. / , is .'a ' ' jintk

G enerally, the m ost severe significant w av e and s te ad y -cu rren t c o m ­

bin ations w h ich o c cu r on ce per 100 years are used to define o c e a n ­
ographic co n ditio n s on the pipeline during its lifetim e. Sim ilarly, the
mo st severe co m b in a tio n of w ave and steady c u rre n t w h ich m ay o c c u r
o n ce during the c o n s tru c tio n season arc used to define the o c e a n o g ­
raphic co n ditio n s on the pipeline during co n s tru c ti o n .
A n o th er im p o rtan t aspect of the e n v ir o n m e n ta l data is th at in fo rm a ­
tion can he obtained w inch helps in d e te rm in in g op erational li m its of
the c o n s tr u c ti n g vessel, o p tim u m periods for c o n s tr u c ti o n , and s e le c ­
tion of the m o s t feasible c o n s tr u c ti o n m e th o d .
C h a r a c te r is t ic s of the m o st severe o ce a n w aves w h ic h m a y o c c u r o n ce
per 100 years c a n usually he ob tain ed from published data. D ata to be
used m the h y d ro d y n a m ic-stab ility an alysis of the pipeline include the
direction of the d eep w a ter wave, the significant period, and the sig­
nificant height of the wave. T h e significant w av e h eight is the average of
the highest on e-th ird of the observed w ave h eigh ts in a given w av e
population. T h e m a x i m u m observed w av e height usually correspon d s
to the co m b in e d energy of several w aves having different w av e heights,
directions, p hase angles, and periods.

2.122 Soil Investigations

T h e purpose of ob ta in in g soil sa m p le s is to identify the soil c h a r a c ­

teristics along the pipeline route. T h e s e c h a r a c te r is tic s are used in the
design of the su b m arin e pipeline, including d e te rm in a tio n of resistan ce
of the soil to pipeline m o v e m e n t , soil-stren g th d eterio ratio n due to
c y c l i c - w a v e loadin gs, tr e n c h in g r e q u ir e m e n t s if the pipe is to be
tr ench ed below the seabed, and load-bearing c a p a c ity of the soils.
Soil properties needed for the pipeline design include the following:

■ G en eral classificatio n of soils and the grain-sizc distrib utio n s of the

soil sam ples.
■ Specific gravity of the soils.
■ Soil m o i s tu re co n te n t.
■ C o n s i s te n c y or Atterb erg limits.
■ U n d istu rb ed shear streng th of clay e y soils.
■ R em o ld ed (disturbed) shear stren g th or sen sitiv ity .
■ Perm eab ility.

Various d e v ices ca n be used for o b tain in g soil sam p les, including the
following:
 Hazards and Protection Concepts | 11
V

■ G r a v ity corer, a d evice th at c o n s is ts of a w e ig h te d co rin g tube w h ich

relies on grav ity to p e n etra te the seabed. T h i s m e t h o d is not effec­
tive w h e re gravel or ro ck m a te ria ls are e n c o u n te r e d o n the seabed
sin ce th e c o re p en etrate s very little in th e se m a t e ria ls .
■ P isto n grav ity c o re r (Modified Kullenberg), a d e v ice th a t con sists
of a steel barrel (usually 10 ft long) w ith a p la s tic tube liner, core
retain er, and a c u tti n g bit at the lo w e r end (Figure 2.1). T h e d evice is
rigged w i th driving w eights, u sually 4 0 0 - 5 0 0 lb. T h e sa m p le -co re
le n g th depends on th e type of soils and varies f ro m 10 ft in soft clays
and silt to 8 ft in sand, and a b o ut 1 ft in stiff clay . L ittle penetration,
if any, c a n be ob tain ed in the c a s e of ro ck s e d im e n ts. T h e device's
o p eratio n is s h o w n in Figure 2 .2.
■ Drilled c o re sam p ler, a d ev ice th a t uses a drilled p isto n to ob tain soil
s a m p le s to a large depth b elow the seabed.
■ Vibrocorer, a d e v ice th a t is self-powered and capable of o btaining a
4-in. d ia m e t e r co re of up to 2 0 ft long. T h e d riving force in the
v ib rac o rer is ob tain ed from a vib rator m o t o r h o u se d in a pressure
c a s in g and driven th ro u g h e le c tric a l c ab les su pplied from the su r­
face vessel.

2.1 Soil p iston corcr

 f 1{>''ЬГ<<; r\> iciiy SIS, ci> iu JviethOuo

■ С.rah sam p ler, a device used in u ncon so lid ated -sea b e d s e ttle m e n ts .
T h e s a m p le r is lowered to the seafloor w h e re soil e n ters an e n c lo ­
sure in the sampler. T h e sam p ler is th e n clo sed and returned to the
su rface.
• U n d e r w a t e r c a m e r a s ca n also be used for visual e x a m i n a t io n of the
seabed sed im en ts, particularly clay o u tc ro p s and boulders.
 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts | 13

2.123 Echo Sounder/Bathymetry Data

E c h o so u n d e rs are used to m e a s u re depth of the seafloor (water depth).

Several ty p es o f e c h o sou nd ers are available. S o m e have high precision
for in cre ase d a c c u r a c y of depth m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e principle of the
e ch o -so u n d in g in s tr u m e n t co n s is ts of tr a n s m itti n g a co n tro lled high-
frequ en cy a c o u s t i c signal to the seabed from an u n d e rw a te r transducer.
As th e signal is reflected on the seafloor and received by the transducer,
the ti m e difference b e tw e e n initial tr a n s m is s io n and the receiving
period is m e a s u re d a c c u ra te ly .
A fter c o r r e c tio n s and c a lib ratio n s have been a c c o u n t e d for regarding
the speed of the a c o u s tic signal in water, depth of the transducer, and
o th e r co n d itio n s, the tim e difference ca n th en be calibrated to produce
th e w a t e r d ep th a t a p articu la r statio n . T h i s ty p ically is provided by a
c o n tin u o u s d epth plot as the su rv ey vessel travels along the proposed
rou te. W a t e r d e p th c a n be m e a s u re d w ith an a c c u r a c y of ± 0 . 1 % to 1% of
w a te r depth, depen d in g on p recision of the specific in s tr u m e n ts used.

2.124 Side-Scan Sonar Method

T h e p rin cip le of the sid e-scan son ar m e t h o d (seafloor mapping) is

based o n sen din g a wide b eam of d iscre te son ic pulses from a towed
tr a n sd u ce r fish (Figure 2.3 ) above the seabed. T h e towed transd u cer
e m i t s th ese a c o u s t i c pulses w h ich scan the seabed on e ith er side of
th e tra n sd u ce r. R e fle c tio n s of th ese pulses from o b )ccts on the seabed
are receiv ed by the s a m e transducer.
R eflected signals are recorded co n tin u o u s ly on a c h a rt aboard the
to w in g vessel. T h e s e signals rep resen t reflection s from various objects
o n the seabed, s u c h as gravel, o u tcro p s , and pipelines. T h e in tensity of
th e reflected signal depends on the object from w h ich it has been
reflected. F o r e x a m p le , a signal rep re sen tin g a reflection from rocks
w ould be d a rk e r th a n a reflectio n signal from sand.
By stu d y in g th e in ten sity of the reflected signals and im ages on the
recorded c h a rt, it is possible to in terpret the sonar reflections in a
g eological m a n n e r and to e s ti m a te the size and height of various ob­
jects on th e seabed. T h e sonar fish is n o rm a lly tow ed betw een 3 0 to
5 0 ft fro m the seabed. An E G & G seafloor m apping recorder is sh o w n in
Figure 2 .4 .
V a lu a b le i n f o r m a t i o n for s u b m a r i n e p ip e lin e s c a n be o b tain ed
fro m th e s id e - s c a n s o n a r re c o r d s . I b i s in f o r m a t i o n in clu d e s the
followin g:
2.4 Seafloor mapping tecoiJcr
 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts | 15

■ Id e n tification of the various features on the seabed w h ic h m a y exist

a lon g a proposed route, in cluding depressions, o b stru c tio n s, rock
o u tcro p s , sand waves, and mud flows.
■ P o sitio n of pipe inside the tre n ch if the pipe has been t r c n c h e d . .
■ A n c h o r s c o u rin g m a r k s or trawl m a r k s w h ich m a y h ave o ccu rred
in the v ic i n i ty of the pipeline route. An e x a m p le of th e sid e-scan
so n ar re cord sh o w in g m u d flow features and the pipe is sh o w n in
Figure 2 .5 .

i
I

I
I
2 . ‘> Sciifl(H>r m a p p i n g rc(<tr<i
 U tis t 'ip p ii . s ifjn . ..-ysis. - — V i/le ih ^ „^

2.125 Subbottom Profiling Method

T h e suhbiirtum profiling m e th o d is a c o n tin u o u s -re fle c tio n profiling

technique which provides data on the geological s tr u c tu r e and c o m p o s i­
tion beneath the seabed. Л co n tro lled pulse of a c o u s tic energy is em itted
Im m .1 towed seism ic so u rce and d irected to w ard the seabed. W h e n e v e r
the em itted signal strik es an a c o u s tic in terface, a portion of the signal is
reflected and d etected by the tow ed h ydrophone.
T he various in terfaces usually in d ica te a ch ang e in the ac o u s tic
velocity, w hich, in turn, m e a n s a ch a n g e in the geological properties of
the sedim ents. Such ch an ges are d e te c te d by the reflected signals and are
recorded on a m a c h in e aboard the to w in g vessel. By a p p ro x im a tin g the
speed of the a c o u s tic signal in th ese vario us geological s e d im e n ts and
m easu ring the tim es of reflections, depths of these different geologic
interfaces can be d e teim in e d .
T h e ivpe of se d im e n ts b e tw e e n the in terface boundaries can then be
interpreted based on a stu dy of the c o n t i n u o u s reflection profiling in
correlat ion with soil co rin g sa m p les ob tain ed in the field. An ex a m p le of
(he su h b ottom -p rofilin g s y s te m is s h o w n in Figure 2.6. T h is sy ste m is
made by O ce a n R esearch E q u ip m e n t Inc. (O R.E.) and c o n s ists of:

2.6 О R.li M ibl'uttom p io iilin g sy stem

 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts |

■ T o w e d tr a n s d u ce r veh icle and cable a sse m b ly .

■ T ra n s c e iv e r.
■ P aper g raphic recorder.
■ W i n c h to a c c o m m o d a t e taired cable.

A n il lu s tra tio n of EG&.G B o o m e r sled is sh o w n in Figure 2.7. An

illu stra tion of reco rds obtained by the su b b o tt o m profiling m e t h o d is
sh o w n in Figure 2 .8 .

2.7 EG&>G b o o m e r s le d
 O f':.. ... . . J'.,!' . - 'у'-,I'.' (V'cU

2.126 Magnetic Anomaly Detection

T h e m a g n e t o m e t e r is used for a n o m a ly d e te ctio n along a proposed

pipeline route. T h e m e t h o d is based on d e te c tin g ch an g es in the m ag
n etic field c au sed by m etal ob jects on the seabed. T h is in s tr u m e n t can
be used to d e te ct m etal o b jects su ch as o th e r pipelines or w recked ships
w h ich m a y e x ist n ea r the proposed pipe ro u te A sensor is towed near the
seafloor, and the unit is tuned to the local earth m a g n e tic Held level.
A m b ie n t earth m ag n e tic Held and ch a n g es due to local an o m a lie s are
recorded on a c o n tin u o u s ch a rt.

2.2 Design and Protection Concepts

As stated earlier, an offshore pipeline resting on the seabed can be

exp osed to various types of hazards. T h e specific hazards and severity of
 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts | 19

th e se hazard s depend on the p ipeline-site lo c a t io n For e xa m p le , in the

G u lf of M e x ic o , Mississippi D e lta area, the pipeline m a y be exp osed to
m u d slides and turbidity cu rre n ts as well as to p o te n tia l severe sto^m
a c ti o n and o th e r b o tto m instabilities. In the n ea r-sh o re areas, the
pipeline is often exp osed to high h y d r o d y n a m ic fo rces if exp o se d on the
seabed. In o th e r areas of the world su ch as offshore C alifornia, pipelines
are designed con sid erin g ea rth q u a k e s as well as faultings w h ic h m a y
o c c u r in th e area.
A flow d iag ram of the m a in design co n sid e ra tio n s for s e le c t in g the
pipe w e i g h t and ro u te and m a x i m iz in g safety in p o te n tia lly u nstab le
s e a b o tto m s is sh ow n in Figure 2 .9 . Special co n s id e ra tio n s of pipeline
in stalla tio n s in unstable se a b o tto m s are listed in T a b le 2.1 .

2.21 Route Selection

Based on the above d iscu ssion s for identifying th e various hazards

along a proposed pipeline route, the basic crite ria in selec tin g pipeline
rou tes, p articu la rly in unstable s e a b o tto m s , include the following:

■ Avoid b o tto m o b stru ctio n s or possible pipe spans w h ic h m a y e x ist

a lo n g th e proposed route.
■ Avoid o th e r pipeline cro ssing s w h e n e v e r possible.
■ Avoid a n ch o rin g areas if present.
* M in im iz e pipe length in unstable sea floors and ro u te the pipe in a
relativ ely m o r e stable area, if th ese can be identified.
■ Avoid any m o u n ded o b s tru c tio n s and depressio n s w h ic h m a y cause
spans to the e x te n t possible.
■ In m u d -flo w areas, m in im iz e an y s o il -m o v e m e n t risks of d am ag e to
the pipe by routing the pipe m su ch a w ay th a t it ru n s in the sa m e
d irectio n as the mud flow. T h i s c a n be a c c o m p li s h e d by h aving the
pipeline routed in a d irectio n p erp e n d ic u la r to the b o tto m depth
co n to u rs .

O t h e r fa cto rs m ay also have to be con sid e re d in s e le c tin g the pipeline

route, depen d in g on the specific site area, in clu d in g b o tto m faults,
p articularly in earth q u ak e areas, rock o u tcro p s, Hshing-trawl activities,
and, in c e rt a in areas, possible floating ice. In addition, o th e r consul
oratio n s for se le ctin g a pipeline route m ay in clude a study of the biologic
a ctiv itie s in the area, including coral reefs, e n v ir o n m e n ta l a sp e cts in the
area, and e c o n o m i c trade-offs.
 IJJCl'

O ceanographic daia
W avos Wind
C urrents

Determine most D eterm ine n>os(

severe conditions
during construction
lor a specific
installation method
severe conditions Identity candidate pipeline routes И in m ud slide area,
during li*f* of
route should be selected lo parallel direction of slide*
pipeline
(tOO-yr SKif:n )
Determ ine generalized soil conditions and siratigraphy
along candidate routes

Pet form si .1 stability analysis

S trength je te rio ra tio n d uring storm conditions
P otential ol la rge sctl m ove m en ts and induced lorces

E sta b lish la te r;* Unuon Select safest pipe route, and determ ine
co e fficie n ts d ‘?*pcs™ i depth o f soil affected by siorm loads.
pipe along ro u t'1 if any

D eterm ine required pipe specif», Determ ine required pipe specific
gravity (when expo sed ) based o< gravity (exposed) based on
hydrodynam ic stability d uring hydrodynam ic stability during
constructor. SGc o p e ra tion SG 0

Select specific gravity such that pipe

S p ecific g ravity req u irem en ts . S p ecific gravity req uirem ents. rem ain s o n or n ear m udline.
S G (during co n stru ctio n ) > SGC S G (during construction) > SGC S G (during construction) > S G C
S G Tk> * < SG < SOw k .
SG 0 < S G (Р 1Р« a n d < SG
S®» < SG c o m e n i) < S G s,nh 0 c o n ie n i) ink

2.9 F low d ia g r a m o f m u te a n d w eig h t desig n

 H a z a rd s a n d P ro te c tio n C o n c e p ts |

Table 2.1 Special Considerations for Pipeline & Riser Installation in Unstable
Areas

R o u te S election
• E n v iro n m e n ta l d esig n c r ite r ia
• Hazard evaluation
Mud slides
Soil liquefaction
Spans
P ip elin e D esign
• H y d r o d y n a m i c s t a b i l i t y analysis
• Buckling analysis
• Liquefaction/stability analysis
• Thermal load/flexibility analysis
• Riser design recommendations
• Connection tie-in recommendations
• Saiety |omtjvalve recommendations
S p ecifica tio n s
• Ma t e r i a l s , i n s t a l l a t i o n

E v a h u i t e tillrrn n fiv e s
• P i p e l i ne riser d e s i g n s
• Installation methods
• Burial recommendations
• Cost trade-offs
• Alternative bids
P erm it A p p licatio n
• D e s i g n report

2.22 Pipeline Protection Methods

M eth od s e xist to p ro te c t the pipeline from risks of d a m a g e due to

e n v iro n m e n ta l and o th e r hazards. T h e s e in clu d e th e following:

■ Increase pipeline weight coating, wall th ic k n e s s , o r both.

■ A n c h o r the pipeline by using gravity a n c h o r s , s c r e w an ch o rs , or
o th e r types of a n ch o rin g arra n g em e n ts.
■ Strengthen the pipe.
■ Bury the pipeline below the level of the seabed.
■ Provide engin eered filling m aterial o v e r th e pipeline, including
gravel, c o n c r e te m ats, and sandbags.
2 Jttsh peiir sign, 'sis, 1 letiic

In m o s t cases, the pipeline is buried below the seabed to p ro te ct it

fro m th ese hazards. H ow ever, in s o m e cases burial m a y adversely affect
the safety of the pipeline as was discussed earlier in areas of large soil
m o v e m e n t s . As will be discussed in C h a p te r 5, burial of an offshore
pipeline m a y also be m a n d a to ry by the regulatory a u th o ritie s in c e rt a in
w a t e r depths and areas offshore.
In general, burial p ro te c ts the pipe against w av e and c u rre n t a ctio n s,
including h y d r o d y n a m ic lift and drag, and scour. Exposing the pipeline
m a y be preferred in c e rta in areas w h e re m u d slides o c c u r ov er the pipe
length, w h e re ea rth q u a k e s m a y be present p roducing high soil forces
alo n g th e pipe length, and w h e re faults m a y be present.
By in cre asin g the w eig ht c o a tin g of the pipeline, the pipe m a y resist
h y d r o d y n a m ic forces due to c u rre n t and w av e actio n, and resist vib ra­
tion effects due to v o r t e x shedding. T h e increased c o n c r e te co ating,
h o w e v er, m a y c o m p l i c a t e the in sta llatio n o p eratio n and in cre ase the
c o s t of installing th e pipeline. A s y s te m a tic and balanced design p ro c e ­
dure sh ould be followed as o u tlined in Figure 2 .9 to se le c t the m o s t
feasible m e t h o d for p ro te c tin g the pipeline a gainst e xistin g hazards in a
sp ecific area.
As will be d iscu sse d later, the pipeline m a y also be exp osed to hazards
of d a m a g e during c o n s tr u c ti o n , s u ch as in creased bending stresses and
the p oten tial th re at of buckling. S e lectio n of the in stallatio n p a ra m e te rs
and b u ck le design co n sid e ra tio n s are d iscu ssed in C h a p te r 3. Pipeline
p ro te c tio n by burial is d iscu ssed in detail in C h a p te r 5.
 Design Evaluations and Pipe P aram eters

3.1 General

T o e n su re m a x i m u m safety to the pipeline, the pipe p a ram eters

sh ould be carefully e valu ated and selected. T h e v a rio u s design task s are
d iscu ssed an d an alyzed in th is ch a p te r. S e le c tio n of pipe p a ra m e t e rs as a
resu lt of th e various an alyses is also d iscussed.
In general, subm arin e-p ip eline design re q u ires careful e x a m i n a t i o n of
the following design e le m e n ts:

■ Line sizing.
■ R oute selectio n .
■ H y d r o d y n a m i c s ta b i l i t y a n a l y s i s ( i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d o p e r a ti n g
lifetime).
■ Soils liqu efaction analysis (safe range of pipe specific gravity).
■ Soils m o v e m e n t a n alysis (loads im posed on pipeline).
■ Ice m o v e m e n t and sco u r data.
■ Pipe p ro te ctio n m e th o d s /b u ria l re q u irem en ts .
■ Pipe b uck lin g analysis.
■ T h e r m a l load/flexibility analysis (exp an sion loops, restrain ts, if
any).
■ Pipe lay analysis (vessel m o tio n s; te n sion , stinger requirem ents).
■ R o u te plans and profiles.
■ R iser designs.
■ C o n n e c ti o n tie-in safety joint designs.
■ Shore cro ssing design.
■ P e rm it applications, design report.
■ Specifications, m aterials, in stallation.

23
 A lth ou gh som e of these e le m e n ts m ay not fit in ce rta in installation s,
m o s t applications include e v a lu a tio n so f flow properties, h y d r o d y n a m ic
forces, internal pressure, v o rtex-in d uced pipe oscillation , pip eline-soils
stability, pipe buckling, effects of large soil m o v e m e n t s , geologic faults,
b o tto m o bstructions, and depressions w h ich m ay induce spans of the
pipeline.
Design p a ra m e te rs are carefully d eterm in ed so the pipe ca n w i th sta n d
forces applied to it during co n s tru c ti o n , and during the o p e ratin g
lifetim e. Because the pipeline is filled and often buried below the mud
line d uring operations, it can w ith stan d m o re severe h y d r o d y n a m ic
forces during operation th an during co n stru c tio n .
D u rin g op eration ol the pipeline, oth er hazards m u s t be evalu ated ,
including storm -in d u Lcd soils' horizontal and vertical instability. Also,
c o n n e c t io n s to otfshoie risers or subsea tie-ins are designed su c h that
o p erating stresses due to th erm al expansions, internal pressure, and
o th e r loads rem a in w ith in safe limits.

3.2 internal Pressure

A fter the pipe size has been d eterm in ed, pipe-w all t h i c k n e s s is
selected so the m a x i m u m tangential (hoop) stre ss d ue to in ternal
p ressu re does n o t e x ce e d the allowable stress as ou tlined by A m e r i c a n
N a t io n a l Standard C o de for Pressure Piping (ANSI B31.8, 1 9 7 5 ) and
m i n i m u m Federal Safety Standards for gas lines relating to tr a n s p o rt a ­
tion of natural gas by pipeline (Part 192, title 49, C o de of Federal
R egulations). T h ese codes state that a design factor of 0 .5 should be
used for the riser and the pipeline near th e p latform and a design fa c to r of
0 . 7 2 be used lor pipe aw ay from the platform. For oil pip elines, th e
g o v ern in g codes are ANSI B 31 .4 and part 195, title 4 9 , C o de of Federal
R egulations.
T h e hoop stress due to internal pressure (P) is given by:

W h e re . <r„ hoop stress due to pressure P, psi

P -- internal pressure in pipe, psi
D = n om in al o utside d ia m e te r of pipe, in.
t - pipe-wall th ick n ess, in.
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs \

A te m p e r a tu re derating facto r is used if th e p ro d u c t tem peratu re

e x c e e d s 250°F . Also, a lon gitud in al joint f a c to r m u s t be used where
applicable (n ot for se am less pipe).

3.3 Buckle Analysis

3.31 General

As pipeline installations m o v e d in to deep w a te r, the p roblem of

pipeline collapse caused by the in creased h y d r o s ta ti c pressure b ecam e
sign ifican t. Pipe collapse depends o n m a n y fa cto rs, in clu d in g the pipe-
d ia m e t e r /w a l l - t h i c k n e s s ratio ID/t), s tr e s s -s tr a i n p rop erties, initial
o v aliz atio n (out of roundness), h y d r o s ta ti c pressure, and bending m o ­
m e n t in the pipe. Axial ten sion w a s also rep orted to influence the
co lla p se c h a ra c te r is tic s of the pipeline, a lth o u g h to a lesser e x t e n t than
bending o r h y drostatic pressure.
Pipe b uck lin g can be defined as the flatten in g or e x c e s s iv e ovaling of
the pipe c ro ss section. T h e b uck le c a n be " d r y " w h ere pipe does not
ru p tu re or " w e t " where pipe ru p tu res and fills w i th w ater.

3.32 Local Buckling

T h e critical elastic b uck lin g pressu re of a th e o re tic a lly perfect pipe

(perfectly round w ith a c o n s ta n t th ic k n e s s and flawless m ateria l) due to
h yd rostatic-p re ssu re loading on ly is given by th e follo w in g expression:

2E
P.-
i-V I)

W here: P,. = critica l collapse pressu re for perfect pipe, psi

E = elastic m o d u lu s, psi
i> - P oisson 's ratio
D = pipe d ia m e te r, in.
t = pipe-wall th ick n ess, in.

T h e c ritic a l elastic buckling pressure is valid for a perfect pipe w ith a

very large D / t ratio (greater than 250). In p ractice, residual ov alizatio n in
the pipe is present, and significant d e fo rm a tio n of th e pipe surface may
I Offshore ripelm e u e sign, м/laiysis, anu iwelhous

o c c u r prior to collapse. Hence, the h y d ro static collapse pressure is also a

fu n ctio n of the yield properties of th e pipe m aterial.
An exp ressio n for d e term in in g the critical b uck lin g p ressure of p er­
fect pipe w h ich a c c o u n t s for the pipe yield stress is adopted from the
R u les for the D esig n C o n s t r u c t i o n and In s p e c tio n of S u b m a r in e
Pipelines and Pipeline Risers by D et n o rsk e Veritas (DnV), 1 9 ? 6 . T h is
critical buckling pressure |P( ) is given by:

P,. = 2 <r,. — for <7,. « — Y

D 3

13.3)

W h ere: <r, = E ( ~ ~ J P -4 )

Y = pipe specified yield stress (corresp ond in g to

0 . 0 0 5 strain)

C o m p u t e r p ro g ram s have been developed by various orga n iz atio n s to

predict the collapse pressure of pipe u nder the c o m b in ed influence of
pressure, axial forces, bending, and a c c o u n t in g of pipe o ut-of-roundness.
An ap p r o x im a te exp re ssio n for the critica l c o m b in a tio n of bending
m o m e n t (M) and e x te r n a l pressure (P) is reported in the DnV code as:

I = I И-51

W h ere: M,. = critical bending m o m e n t when P = 0

P, = critica l net e x te r n a l pressure w hen M 0
300 P
= 1 +
D / t P,.

3.33 Buckle Propagation

L ab o ra to ry e x p e r im e n t s on pipe b u ck lin g co n d u c t e d by Battelle

C o lu m b u s Laboratories in the early 1 9 7 0 s revealed a buckle p h en o m en a
referred to as a "p r o p a g a ti n g b u c k le ." T h is d escrib es the situ a tio n w here
a transverse dent (w hich m ay have been cau sed by e x ce ss iv e bending or
by any o th er cause) ch inges its co n fig u ra tio n in to a longitudinal buckle
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs \ 27

and propagates alo n g the pipe, ca u sin g collapse of the pipe along its
trav elin g length. T h e driving energy w h ich ca u se s a b uck le to propagate
is the h y d r o s ta tic pressure.
T h e n a tu re of a p ropagating b uck le is that a greater p ressure l e v e l i s
required to in itia te a propagating b uckle (called b u c k le in itia tio n pres­
sure, P|) th a n the p ressure required to m a in ta in p rop agation of the
b u ck le (called b uck le propagation pressure, Pp). As a c o n se q u en ce to this,
a b u c k le in itia ted in an offshore pipeline propagates an d c o llap se s the
line u ntil th e e xte rn a l pressu re b e c o m e s equal to o r less th a n the
pro p ag atin g p ressu re. T h i s a s s u m e s th a t pipe p roperties (p articu larly
w all th ick n e ss) r e m a in the s a m e . A n u m b e r of prop agatin g b uckle
m o d e s h a v e b een reported fro m e x p e rim e n ta l stu dies. T h e s e are s h o w n
in Figure 3 .1 .
T h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r im e n t a l investig ation s w ere m a d e by various
o rg a n iz a tio n s to stu d y th e b u ck le-p rop agation p h e n o m e n o n and to
d e te r m in e th e buck le-p ro p a ga tio n pressure for offshore pipelines. T h e s e
stu d ie s h a v e resu lted in sim ilar, ra th e r sim ple e xp re ssio n s for c a l c u l a t ­
ing the prop agation p ressure (P„):

(3.6)

(3.7)

If D is m u c h greater th an t (as is the ca se in m o s t applications), then the

second exp ression b ecom es:

(3.8)

A co m p a riso n of the propagating pressure as c alcu lated by th ese expres­

sions is s h o w n in Table 3 .1 . As seen in this, considerable difference is
noted betw een the results for low D / t ratios, w hereas the results are
sim ilar for large D / t ratios. T h e expression reported by D nV is considered
very c o n serv ativ e for the low D / t ratios.
It is i n te r e s tin g to n o te th at the propagation pressure depends only on
th e pipe yield stress and on the D / t ratio and does n o t depend on the
stre ss sta te of the pipe. T h e n a tu re of ca u sin g a b uck le in the pipe
depends on th e pipe p a ra m e te rs as well as e xte rn a l forces applied on the
pipe. In c o n tr a s t , the propagation p h e n o m e n o n addresses the pipe-
b u ck le trav elin g due to h y d r o s ta tic pressure after a b u ck le has been
initiated.
21 , J fs h c _ .JfeiiflL .<jг t.. , jiH. a 'M h'oi

3.34 Buckle Arrestors

As stated, a pipe-localized buckle initiated by ex cessiv e bending during
laying, a n c h o r dent, or any oth er ca u se propagates along the pipeline
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 2м

Table 3.1 Buckle Propagation Pressure

Pipe D/t Ratio *Pp - 6Y f l l s ' Y( s ) ’

% Difference

10 6 ,4 4 0 2 ,6 7 6 58
20 1,138 600 47
30 413 258 38
40 201 143 29
50 115 90 21
60 73 63 14
70 50 46 9
80 36 35 3
90 27 27 0
100 21 22 --5

Note : 24-in OD perfect pipe and API X-60 Grade

‘ Formula after paper # O T C 2680, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1976,
by T. Johns, et al.
t Form ula after Det Norske Veritas (DnV), " Ru l e s for Design, C onstruction and Inspection
of Submarine Pipelines," 1976.

length as long as the h ydrostatic pressure e x cee d s the propagation pres­

sure (Pp|. T h i s c o u ld d am ag e a su bstantial length of the line and result in
great e c o n o m i c losses. It would also be very u n e co n o m ic a l to design the
pipeline w ith sufficient wall th ick n ess su ch that the propagation depth
(corresponding to propagation pressure) would be greater th an w a te r
depth along the pipe length. Accordingly, m ean s have been found to limit
the length of damaged pipe by the use of buckle arrestors.
In principle, the buckle arrestor is a s eg m e n t of pipe stronger than the
m a in pipe, th u s requiring additional energy to plastically deform it and
flatten it. T h is is usually done by increasing the wall th ick n ess of the
arrestor to w ith sta n d flattening by a propagating buckle.
Various types of external and internal buckle arrestors exist, including
integral ring, welded ring, welded sleeve, heavy-w all integral cylinder,
and grouted free-ring buckle arrestors. T h e s e are illustrated in Figure 3 .2
and are listed as follows:

■ Integral ring, a heavy-w all ring with the s am e ID and a greater O D

than the pipe— the most-effective external type.
■ W elded ring, a sleeve welded o n to the O D of the pipe.
■ Free ring, a sleeve w hich is slipped over the pipe. T h e annular space
b etw ee n the sleeve II ) and pipe O D is grouted. Free rings are usually
made from heavy wall pipe and are eco n o m ic al, but they are best
suited to shallow water.
 /ipthr

3- , JffshL pelin . _ign, . . ,s is , t . 'VetTftO-.

dZ
In te rn a l rin g b u c k le a r re s to r

P ip e -* - H.1UI --------------

JSSS
In te g r a l rin g b u c k le a r re s to r

P ip e —►

W e ld e d rin g b u c k le a rre s to r
P ip e -►

w W e ld e d s le e v e b u c k le a r re s to r
P ip e -

H e a v y -w a ll in te g ra l c y lin d e r
b u c k le a r re s to r
P ip e -

G r o u te d fre e -rin g b u c k le a r re s to r

P ip e -

\
£ G ro u t

C o n c r e te w e ig h t c o a tin g

3.2 T ypes o f b u c k le arrestors

 н у II С iVUUO '

Design Evaluations and Pipe Parameters | 31

■ Internal ring, a section of heavy-wall pipe w ith the s a m e O D and

sm aller ID th an the line pipe. T h is is the m o s t effective type, but the
sm a lle r Ю m a y restrict pipeline pigging operations.

D esig n of b u ck le a rre sto rs in clu d es s e le c tio n of th e sp acin g s of

a rre sto rs and a rre sto r p aram eters, in clu d in g d ia m e te r, w a ll th ick n e ss,
grade, le n g th , and type of arresto r. T h e s e p a ra m e t e rs are s e le c t e d su ch
th a t a tra v elin g b uck le in the pipeline u nder h y d r o s ta tic p re ssu re does
n o t " c r o s s o v e r " th e h ea v y -w alle d a rre sto r. T h e c ro s s - o v e r p re s su re is
defined as th e n e t h y d ro s tatic p ressure required to allo w a tra v elin g
b u ck le in th e pipeline to p e n e tra te the a rre sto r and c o n tin u e to propa­
gate in th e pipeline on the o th e r side of th e arresto r. A c co rd in g ly , the
b uck le a rresto r should be designed s u c h th a t th e c ro ss o v e r pressu re is
safely g re a te r th a n the e x p e c te d h y d r o s ta ti c pressu re o n th e b uckle
arrestor.
S e le ctio n of th e n u m b e r and sp acin gs of b u ck le arrestors alo n g the
pipeline is str ic tly a m a t t e r of e c o n o m i c s . In sta lla tio n of b uck le a rr e s­
tors to l i m it th e a m o u n t of pipe d a m a g e sh o u ld a b u ck le o c c u r is a form
of risk in s u ra n c e to lim it tim e and e c o n o m i c losses. Sin ce th e risk of
pipe b u ck le is generally g rea te st during pipe laying, it s e e m s logical to
se le c t th e le n g th spacings b etw e en b uck le a rr e sto rs to equal th e length
of pipe suspended free span. H o w ev e r, s e le c t io n of spacings and the
n u m b e r of b u ck le arresto rs often depends o n m a n y factors, including
ease of repair, e v alu a tio n of risks in the area, m o d e of in stallatio n , and
o th e r e c o n o m i c factors. In m a n y ca ses, b u ck le arrestors h ave been
spaced at in terv a ls of 4 0 0 - 5 0 0 ft alo n g the pipe length, althou gh
sp acings of as m u c h as 1 ,3 0 0 it have been used.
FTee-ring b uck le arrestors m ay co s t fro m a b o u t $ 5 0 0 to $ 2 , 0 0 0 o r m o re
e ach to install. T h e order of m a g n itu d e installed c o s t is ab o ut three
ti m e s th a t of th e m aterial c o s t alo n e. Integral ring and welded-ring
arre sto rs are m o r e e xp ensive clue to added fabrication, m a c h in in g , and
w eld in g co sts.
It is im p o r t a n t to n o te that b u c k le -a rre s to r re q u ire m e n t s depend on
w a t e r d epth. L o n g subsea pipelines are typ ic a lly divided in to sh o rte r
seg m e n ts , depen d in g on w a t e r depth. A p p ro p riate design c ri te ria are
used for e a c h seg m e n t..D iffe r e n t b u c k l c -a r r e s t o r designs and spacings
are used for the various pipeline s e g m e n ts. P ipe-w all th ic k n e s s e s and
m a t e ria l grades are also graduated to fit th e b u ck lin g and laying re­
q u i re m e n ts of v ario us w a te r depths alo n g th e pipeline ro u te. A single
b u c k le -a rre sto r design will have lim ite d ap p licatio n . T h e o p t i m u m
design for m a x i m u m w a te r depth will be o v erd esig n ed for a large portion
of m a n y pip eline routes.
 unsi •'ipeli js ig n . . y s is , _ .v le lh ___

F re e -s tr e a m ve lo c ity , U 0

W -- T otal s u b m e r g e d w e ig h t o f p ip e , in c lu d in g c o n c re te

c o a tin g a n d w ra p , s te e l p ip e , a n d c o n te n ts , lb /ft

F0 = D ra g fo rc e , lb

F, ~= In e rtia fo rc e , lb

Fl =; L ift fo rc e , lb

N = N o rm a l fo rc e , lb

F, ■= F ric tio n re s is ta n c e , lb

U ^ F lo w v e lo c ity in b o u n d a ry layer, ft/s e c

() ■= S lo p e o f s e a b e d , °

3.3 H y d ro d y n a m ic fo rces on p ip e
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 35

3.4 D efin itio n o f lin e a r w a v e p a r a m e te r s la tter Sliou Protection

Manual, 1977)

tion, consideration is m ad e of the linear, small amplitu de, oscillatory-

w ave theory. F o rm u la s for ca lcu la tin g the different wave c h a ra cte ristics
as a fu n ction of w a v e height, period, w ave phase angle, and w a te r depth
are given in Figure 3 .6 .
It is im p o rtan t to n o te that the deepw ater significant wave height and
w ave d irection ch ang e as the w ave travels into shallow w ater due to
co m b in e d effects of shoaling, refraction, detraction, friction, percolation,
and reflections. A n illustration of the changes m the deepw ater wave­
length (L„) is sh o w n in Figure 3 .7 for different w a te r depths.
So the pipeline rem a in s stable on the seabed, s u m m a tio n of all forces on
the pipe m u s t satisfy the sta tic equilibrium equation given by.

H orizontal forces (x): F„ -t- F t - F t - VV sin (-) ^ 0 (3.11)

Vertical forces (y )': N + F[ - W co s (-) 0 (3.12)

W h e re the sy m b o ls are described in Figure 3 .3 .

If pipe is restin g o n the seabed w ith little e m b e d m e n t into the
soil, th e n th e lateral resistin g force (Fr) ca n be related to the n o rm a l force
(N) by:
3 b | O ffs h o re n p e lin e u e s ig n . m i id iy s is, a iiu iviethc'j=>

.15 R e g i o n s o f v a lid ity o f w a v e t h e o r i e s f a l t e r S h o r e I’r n t e e t i o n

M a n u a l , 1 9 7 7)

F, - м N (3.13)

W here /x is the lateral friction coefficient b etw een pipe surface and the
seabed
C o m b in in g eq uations 3.11 and 3 1 2 and usinj; E qu ation 3 .1 3 yields

F„ + F, + M (F,. - W co s H| = W sin H (3.14)

 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 37

Sh « i l 0 « * < 4 * TRAHt'llO faAl «ГАтем P df м ц я

J- < А < 1
г f » 25 1 г W
}«<M *1 к м *4

c ■у ■/ у * с. i . £ .... ( i i i ,
c c V 4 v

I * I /Г « . С1 ■T*
- ‘ l -т 1 ) l - L . - V
4 C'e»» С , • С « /^ 4 Ч ■ ЛС , i I 1 . ------- 1 ? < Ч _ I с
• Z [ *<«Ь (4 v tf / L ) J c« ' T c • -& Г

н 4 r cem ( 2* ( i * < ) / i | л
• ■s у * ...« . . ^ - . 4 * ...»
2 L ce»» ( 2 * 4/11 ***
») V»>lxal . . в ( I/ ll e
. . IJL . 4 * ...»
? i c '* U M i4 i
4 •«■(! PgM.cii
a »M cot» [ t • ( < ♦ * ) /L 1 л
.. . гн (1 )’ . ‘ f 1 ... e
‘ 1. I 2» < / l I ""
q # *и f г * 11 . J i / i . ) j
•« • • ( f М ' * -J 1 'М й
1 i <«»»( г • * / 11
a , . - I h ( - f )* • («1 8
J W«i«> P«o>cit O i it iK t a i" 1!
•) < . - i t / г ... * ( н (М ц [? • | i a
...»
2 t'» H ? *4 /1 .1
t) t ^ ... X. , (П, д ► H »>«•' ( t * 1 1 * • t ' I ) А
( -г - tH iz T T T r r 1 - ' 1 { . s . ^ ... 1

* '■м 1*) I I i l l
f ^ sg»K 1 2 • 4 / * ‘ Jt V

2 тг t
0 = Т = w a v e p e r io d , t = tim e
Т

3 .6 S u m m a r y — l i n e a r ( A n y ) w a v e < Inirai teristic\ ( a f t e r S h o re P ro te c tio n

M a n u a l, 1977)

T h e m i n i m u m pipe submerged weight (W) tor an air-filled pipe during

c o n stru ctio n and for material filled pipe during operation ca n then be
determ in ed using Equation 3 .1 4 in the form:

W = F|> + F| F |- (3.15)
fJL c o s (-) + sin (-)

For a level seafloor w ith В = 0, Equation 3 .1 5 b ecom es:

■ W = F,. + i - l f , , + F () (3.16)
Г -

T h e flow -induced drag and inertia forces on th e pipeline can be

ca lcu la te d by ad o p tin g an exp ression derived by M o rris o n (19 50 ) for
co m p u tin g th e h o rizo n tal forces induced by a u n ifo rm fluid flow ov er a
cylinder. T h e s e forces are given by:

F|> = у p C „ I ) U (-: (3.17)

3 - | Jffsh— . .pelir. itgn. /sis, v letnc

F, = , , C m ( i t D - ' 4 ) ( d u /d t ) (3.1KI

W here: F n = drag force per unit length of pipe, lbs

F, inertial force per unit length of pipe, lbs
p = density of fluid, 2 slug/ft* f o r sea w a te r
I) = pipe OD, ft
U,. ■= effective horizontal w ater-p article velocity
over pipe height, ft/sec
du - horizontal w ater particle a cce le ration
over pipe, ft/sec-
C„ = hydrodynam ic drag coefficien t
C m - h ydrodyn am ic inertia or m a s s coefficient

T h e total force is a c o m b in a tio n of an inertia force plus a drag lorce on

the pipe. T h e inertia lorce c o m p o n e n t is derived from an analysis ol
forces on a body in an accelerated flow of an ideal n o n v is co u s How. The
velocity and a ccele ratio n te rm s due to the co m b in e d effect of waves and
cu rren ts m u s t be evaluated over the pipeline d epth and the force in te­
grated over the pipeline diameter. Typically, the velo city and acceleration
term s are evaluated at l m above the seabed based on standard wave
theories as described earlier. A boundary layer is th en a ss u m e d from l m
above the seabed to the seabed where the v e lo city te r m s vanish.
T h e 1 /7 th power lavs' is c o m m o n l y used to a p p r o x im a te the horizontal
velocity profile (U) versus depth in the boundary layer:

U / у V'7
. (-. ) n-1»'
W h e re : U = horizontal particle v e lo c ity at a
height у from the seafloor in the boundary
layer, ft/sec
U„ = measured or calcu lated horizo n tal particle
velocity at height yH, ft/sec

A s stated above, U„ is usually calcu lated in th e free stre a m at about lm

above b o tto m . In reality, depth of the boundary layer depends on the
b o tto m roughness and flow Reynolds' n u m ber.
T h e effective velocity ( U J to be used in E qu atio n 3 . 1 7 can be obtained
from the following averaging expression:
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs \

3.7 W ove length a n d height variations w ith depth

U|' = n f u tyl dy 13,201

41 , M tslK зе1ш ig n , sis, t ё thot

Substituting Equation 3 .1 9 in Equation 3 .2 0 yields the following:

U,2 0 . 7 7 8 U ; (D /y ,,)1* !H" 13.21)

T h e lift force (F , ) can sim ilarly be ob tain ed from the following

expression:

F, - j-,, Q I ) Ur (3.22)

T h e major difficulty in ca lcu latin g lift, drag, and inertial forces is

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the lift c o e fficie n t, drag c o e fficie n t, and inertial
coefficient. For steady-How conditions, the drag coefficient |C,>) depends
on the flow Reynolds n um bers and roughness of pipe surface. T h e
Reynolds n u m b e r is defined by the following:

R,. = Ц Л . (3.23)
V

W here: v - k in e m a tic viscosity of the fluid about

1.0 x 1 0 r> ft'-'/sec for sea water)

Pipe roughness coefficient (k) is defined as.

к - — , in./in.
D

Where: e = height of roughness

E x t e n s i v e m e a s u r e m e n t s h ave been m a d e for finding the drag

coefficient in a unidirectional, steady-state How over a pipeline and for
nonsteady flows. Drag coefficients were m easu ied as a function of the
Reynolds number. Results are show n in Figure 3.8. Generally, the drag
coefficient varies from 0 .6 to 2.0, depending on the flow Reynolds
number.
A lthough drag coefficients have been measured for steady flows, these
results are usually used for oscillatory flows associated with waves by
selecting the m a x i m u m value of the co m b in ed current and wave induced
velocity over the pipe section. Because v elocity of the flow varies over the
pipe d iam eter due to boundary-layer effects, the effective velocity is used
to evaluate the flow Reynolds n um b e r then to dete rm in e the correspond­
ing drag coefficient.
E xperim en ts to m easu re drag coefficients for a wave-induced oscilla­
tory flow over pipe showed that the drag coefficient depends on the
 D e s ig n E va lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs \

3.8 Dri i g m c l l i c i c n t w R e y n o ld s n u m b e r lafter tones)

Reynolds number, pipe roughness, as well as the Keulegan-C arpenter

n um ber (K), w h ic h is defined as:

11 T
К - (3.24|
L)

Where: T = oscillatory w ave period, sec.

An illustration of the variation of drag coefficient w ith Reynolds

n u m b e r for co n s ta n t values of К is sh o w n in Figure 3 .9 . T h is can also be
used to d eterm in e the drag coefficient for a particular application. How
ever, use of Figure 3 .8 for determ in in g the drag coefficient is adequate for
offshore pipeline design.
E x p e rim e n ts have also been co nducted in the past for m e a su re m e n ts of
Ас. | O M s iiu ii: ' ip o lifiu J-M.uiysis, ( , * < , . 1 e lh c „ „

(if the hit coe fficien t (C ,) and the inertial coefficient ( C J T h e lift
coefficient also depends on the R ey no lds n u m b e r and pipe roughness
coefficient (k) for a s te a d y -s ta te flow. T h e lift coefficient ( C L) depends on
the Reynolds n u m b e r as well as th e K eu le ga n -C a rp e n te r n u m b e r (K) tor
oscillato ry flows. V ariation of the lift c oefficien t versus the Reynolds
n u m b e r tor s te ad y -state flows is s h o w n in Figure 3 .1 0 .
In vestigation s of the in ertia c oefficien t (C M) f o r a nonv isco us, a c c e le r­
ated fluid flow over a pipeline h ave s h o w n th a t the m ea n value of C M
generally varies from 1.5 to 2 .5 , depending on the flow Reynolds
num ber
Based on the above discussions, re c o m m e n d e d values of the hydrody­
n am ic coefficients, (C„), |C,J, and (C M), to be used for calculating hydro-
dynam ic forces on an offshore pipeline are su m m a riz e d in Table 3.2.
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs I 43

R e y n o ld s n u m b e r, R e

Л.10 L ift coefficient vs. Reynolds number

Table 3.2 Recommended Coefficients for Pipe Design (Exposed Pipe)

Re c„ c, CM

Rc<5.0 x 10‘ 1.3 1.5 2.0

5.0 x 10'<Re< 1.0 x 10' 1.2 1.0 2.0

10 x 105<Re<2.5 x 10' 1 53 IU> 1.2 - R4 2.0

3 x 10:' 5 x 10'
2.5 x 10:,<Re< 5.0 x 10' 0.7 07 2.5 - Re
5 x 10'
5.0 x 1(>'<Re 0.7 0.7 1.5
N o t e : T h e r e c o m m e n d e d c oefi ic ic n t s .ire lor use in pr ac tic al pi peline designs where pipe is
exp os ed and pipe sur face has sligh t roughness.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM :

G iv e n :
Pipe O D = 2 4 in.
Effective co m b in e d particle velocity 1 tt'sec.
C a lcu la te h y d ro d y n am ic coefficients for pipe design.

S o lu t io n :

C a lcu la te Reynolds num ber

U, D
R
i'

_ 1.0 x 2 4___
1 .0 x 1 0 • x 12

- 2 x 10’

T h e r e fo r e :

C„ = 1 S 3 — = 0.8 6
3 x 10'

C, =1 . 2 - - — = 0 .8 0
5 x 1O'

C m = 2 .0

T h e coefficient of friction b etw een pipe surface and the soil m u st also
be determ in ed to calcu la te the lateral soil-resisting forces on the pipeline.
T his coefficient of friction depends on the surface co ating of the pipe and
the b o tto m soil ch aracte ristics. T h e friction coefficient also depends on
the depth of e m b e d m e n t of the pipeline in the soil.
In reality, w h en pipe is resting on the b o ttom , the soil below the
pipeline deform s slightly. As the pipeline m o v e s laterally, soil tails
underneath the pipeline and further lateral m o v e m e n t oi the pipeline
would ca u se the soil to deform laterally, thereby increasing the resisting
forces to the pipe m o v e m e n t.
E x p e r im e n ta l m e a s u r e m e n t s in the past have indicated that the
coefficient of friction betw een the pipe and the seabed soil can vary
between 0 .5 to 0.9, depending on the pipe c o a tin g and the type of soil. In
general, the following coefficients of friction are used betw een concrete-
coated pipe and the various types of soils:
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 45

S o il T y p e C o e f f i c i e n t o f F r ic t io n

C la y 0 .3 -0 .6
Sand 0 .5 -0 .7
G ra v el 0 .5

T h e s e v a lu e s are g reatly affected if pipe is em b ed ded in th e soil. T h e y are

re d u ce d for an u n c o a t e d steel pipe or for a th in -film , e p o x y -c o a te d pipe.
A n e x a m p le is given to illu strate the p rocedure for d e te rm in in g the
required pipe su bm erg ed weight to resist h y d r o d y n a m ic forces. T h e
p ro ce d u re illu stra te s c a lc u la t io n of the b o tto m particle v e lo c i ty and
a c c e le r a tio n , and lift and drag forces on the pipe.

E X A M P LE PROBLEM:

G iv e n :

Sign ificant w ave height, H„ = 10 ft

S ign ificant w a v e period, T = 10 sec
W a t e r depth, d = 10 0 ft
W a v e d ire ctio n is n o rm a l to pipe axis
Pipe O D = 1 ft
Seabed slope = 0
A s s u m e a clay b o tto m with ц -- 0 .5

S o lu t io n :

A. C h e c k if linear th eory is valid:

d 100
0 .0 3 1
gT- 3 2 . 2 x 10 x- 10

As seen from Figure 3.5 , linear (Airy) theory can be used to describe
w av e c h a ra c te r is tic s .

B. D e e p w a t e r w a v e length is given by:

L„ = - 8 H = 5 .1 2 T-
2 tt

L„ = 5 1 2 f t

d 100
= 0 .2 0
L.. 512
ми ■ Ofhiiio't-j Pipeline L^esigii, ^MidlySIS, anu Mellioo;?

F ro m Figure 3 .7 , the co rre sp o n d in g d/L is:

= 0 .2 2 5 '
L

and the w ave height ra tion due to shoaling effects is:

J L = 0 .9 2
H,

F ro m these, the w av e length and w av e height at d -- 1 0 0 ft are:

L = 4 4 4 . 4 ft
H - 9 .2 ft

C. Particle ve lo city is given by Figure 3 .6 :

U = — c o s h [ 2 я- (z + d )/L | . c / 2 n t \
2 L c o s h (2 7t d/L ) V T /

At y„ = 1ft from the seabed, z + d = 1 ft and

v = H _gT co sh (0 .0 1 4 ) cqs 2 tt t
2 L c o s h (1 .4 1 5 ) T

This ve lo c ity is m a x i m u m w h ere t -- 0,

it , \ 9.2 3 2 . 2 x 10 v 1
U m a x = --------------------------- x = 1.53 ft/se c
2 444.4 2 .1 8

D. C a lcu la te effective v e lo c ity fro m E qu ation 3 .2 1 :

U ; = 0 . 7 7 8 (Ui) (D /y „)°2H,i

U* = 0 . 7 7 8 (1 .5 3 2) ( 1 /1 )0 2HH = 1.8 2

or U,. = 1.35 tt /s e c

E. C a lc u la te R eynolds n u m b e r:

r = -У , D = I ? 5 x 1 = 1 .3 5 x 10*
^ 105

T h i s defines the h y d r o d y n a m ic coefficients:

C „ = 1.08

C,. = 0 .9 3

C M= 2 . 0
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs

F. S u b stitu tin g in E q u atio n 3 . 1 7 , the drag force is:

F „ = - I p С о D U'f.

F u = — x 2 x 1 .0 8 x 1 x 1 .82 = 1.97 lb/ft

2
S im ilarly th e lift force is:

Fl = CLD Ui

F, = — x 2 x 0 . 9 3 x 1 x 1 .8 2 = 1.69 lb/ft
2
T h e m a x i m u m drag force o c c u r s at t = 0. T h e inertia force
is given by E qu ation 3 . 1 8 :

F, = p C M (7 7 D'^Al) (du/dt)

W h e re : d u /d t = S 71 H ^ sh I2 * (* + d)/L] sin ( z l j L l )
L c o sh (2 -гг d/L) \ T /

T h i s te r m van ish e s at t = 0.

In general, b oth the drag force and in ertial force m u s t be evalu

ated at a given ti m e and added to yield the c o m b in e d drag forces on
the pipe. T h e m a x i m u m c o m b in e d drag forces w ou ld be used in
E q u atio n 3 . 1 6 to d e te rm in e required pipe su bm erg ed weight. In
this e x a m p le , it is a s s u m e d th at th e m a x i m u m c o m b in e d drag
forces o c c u r a t t = 0, and thus this m a x i m u m force equals Fn.

G. N o w su b s titu tin g in E qu ation 3 . 1 6 for a level seafloor, the required

pipe su b m erg ed w eig ht is:

W = F,. + -L (F „ + F.)
M

W = 1 .6 9 + —1— x 1.97 = 5 .6 3 lb/ft

0 .5

N o t e th at the above p roblem con sid ered the b o tto m -in d u c ed particle
v elo city due to waves. In general, c u rre n ts m a y also be present, and
these m u s t be added to the w av e-in d u ced b o tto m v e lo city to c o m p u te
lift and drag. Also, only shoaling effects w e re con sid ered for c o m p u tin g
H. It o th er effects are significant, i.e., refractio n , th en these should be
considered in calcu latin g s h a llo w -w a te r w av e p a ra m e te rs

3.5 Vortex-induced Oscillations

When w ater cu rre n ts flow across the pipeline, vo rtice s |eddies! o c c u r

d o w n stre a m from the pipe. T h e se v o rtice s are ca u se d by the (low
turbulence and instability behind the pipe. V o rte x shedding cau ses a
periodic ch ang e in the net h y d r o d y n a m ic p ressu re on the pipe, w hich
may cau se a pipe span to vibrate.
Frequency of the v o rte x shedding depends on pipe d iam e te i and the
tlow velocity . If the v o rte x frequency, also referred to as Strouhal
frequency, is sy n ch ro n ize d w ith one of the n atu ral fr e q u e n cu ^ of the
pipeline span, then re so n a n c e o c c u r s and the pipe span vihiates. Pipe
damages have been reported due to v o rte x -in d u c e d o s cillatio n s in the
pipeline.
Pipeline o s cilla tio n s m ay o c c u r in the cro ss-flo w d irection and the
in-line d irectio n of the flow. By far the m o r e serio us o scilla tio n s are
those w hich o c c u r in the cross-tlo w d irectio n . In-line o scilla tio n s are
not generally considered to cau se serious o scilla tio n p ro b le m s in the
pipe, although s o m e e x c e p tio n s to this h a v e been reported Vortex-
m d u ced pipe o sc illatio n s are illu strated in Figure 3 . 1 1 .
Pipeline failures w h ich m ay be c au sed by v o r t e x -e x c ite d m o tio n s can
be prevented if the v o rte x shedding frequency is su fficiently tar from the
natural frequency of the pipe span su ch th a t d y n a m ic o s cilla tio n s ot the
pipe are m in im iz e d . T h e v o rtex -sh e d d in g frequ en cy is given by the
following:

W here: f, -- V o rtex-sh ed din g frequency, cps

S = S trou h al n u m b e r
V = Flow velo city, ft/'sec
D D i a m e t e r of the pipeline, ft

T h e Strouhal n u m b e r is a fu n ctio n of the R e yn o ld s n u m b er of the

flow, as sh o w n in Figure Л.12. T h e drag co e ff icie n t is also a fu n ctio n of
the Reynolds n u m b e r w h ich , in turn, is a fu n ctio n of the w ater flow
velocity, pipe d iam e te r, and k in e m a ti c v is c o s ity of w ater.
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs

H o ern er (1 9 6 5 ) found that the Strouhal n u m b e r ca n be related to the

drag co efficien t th rou gh the follow ing relationship:

S = 0 . 2 1 / ( C 1,)"7:‘ (3.26)

T h is fo rm u la is also plotted in Figure 3 . 1 3 . Fo r m o s t p ra ctica l pipeline

problem s, the S tro u h al n u m b e r is tak en as 0 .2 .
N a t u r a l frequ en cy of th e pipe span depends o n th e pipe stiffness, end
c o n d itio n s of the pipe span, len gth of the span, and co m b in e d m a s s of
the pipe, including its c o n t e n t s and added m a s s around the pipe. T h is
added m a s s is generally 1 to 2 ti m e s the m a s s of w a t e r displaced by the
pipe. T h e fu n d am e n ta l natural frequency for v ib ra tion of the pipe span is
given in the following fo rm u la.
 W h ere: El =■ Pipe stiffness, lbs-ft"
L = Span length, ft
M = C o m b in e d m as s of the pipe and added m a s s arou n d
the pipe per unit length of pipe, slugs/ft
С = C o n s t a n t w h ich depends o n the end co n d i tio n of
the pipe span

For e x a m p le , if b oth ends of the pipe span are a s su m e d to be sim ply

su pported, С is 7 J - / 2 , o r 1.5 7. If both ends are a ssu m ed to be cla m p e d , С is
3 . 5 0 In p rac tice , it is difficult to assess the best m o d e lin g of the end
c o n d itio n s to s im u la te the assu m e d end co n d itio n s. T h erefo re, in m a n y
p rob lem s the lo w est value w h ich correspon d s to sim ply supported end
co n d itio n s is con sid e re d for a c o n s e rv a tiv e e v a lu a tio n of the p o te n tia l of
a v o rte x in d uced o s cilla tio n in the pipe span.
P rev io u s s tu d ies have sh o w n that the v o r t e x -e x c ite d o scillatio n of the
pipe span is a fu n ctio n of the reduced velocity (V„), defined by:
 D e s ig n E va lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs |

W h e re: V = Flow velo city, ft/sec

fn = N a tu ra l frequ en cy of th e pipe span, cps
D = Pipe d iam e te r, ft

T h e s e stu d ies also have sh o w n th a t a pipe span sta r ts to os cillate in

line w ith th e flow w h e n the shedding frequ en cy is ab o ut o n e -th ird of the
n atu ral fre q u en cy of v ib ration of the pipe span. T h i s correspon d s to a
value for the red u ced v elo city of ab o ut 1.3. As the flow ve lo city in ­
cre a se s to h ig h er levels, th en cross-flow o scilla tio n s begin to o cc u r, and
this corresp o n d s to a reduced ve lo c ity of about 5. In th is case, the natural
frequency of th e pipe span equals the vorte x-sh ed d in g frequency of the
flow.
For design purposes, it is c u s to m a r y to m a in ta in the value of the
reduced v e lo c ity to less than 3 .5 (corresponding to a ratio of the v ortex-
shedding frequ en cy to pipe natural frequency of 0.7). V o rtex-ind u ced
 им f'lpc H.'SKj -.4JуSI: Mol

o scilla tio n s in the pipe were not observed for v o rtcx -tre q u e n cy values
w here

f. ■-= 0 .7 f„ (3.29!

EXA M PLE PROBLEM:

G iv e n ; y
Pipe ■- 12.75 in. О П x 0 .5 in YV'I
Span length = 100 ft
f low velocity 2 ft/sec

A s s u m e pipe span is sim ply su ppoited at both ends and c h e ck tor

vortex exited o scilla tio n s of the pipe span.

So/ui юп.

A. C a lc u la te the Reynolds num ber:

R„ , V ' . i M 2 L l l L v , 2.n , 10-.

I’ 12. X 1 0 ’

B. T h e v o it e x -e x e iti n g frequency |tj is given from E qu ation 3 . 2 5 :

u - -s - v -
D

0 .2 x 2 > : 1 2 niu
л -----------------------— 0 . 3 8 cps
12 .75

C. Pipe-span natural frequency for sim ply supported ends:

f C [ Г Г ~
" ^ M

1 --- (!>' - D ' J (D ( = inside pipe d iam eter)

64

W h ere: I), - D - 2 t = 1 2 .7 5 - 1 = 1 1.75 in.

1 = — ( 12. 75' - 1 1 .7 5 ') = 3 6 1 . 5 4 in.'

64

El - 3 ч i o ; x 3 6 1 . 5 4 = 1 ,0 8 5 x l O 7 lb-in.-

EI = 7 .5 3 x 1 0 7 lb-ft-
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 5

Pipe u nit w e ig h t in air = W a = — (D2- D 2i) x p , g

4

W h e re: ps g = w e ig h t d ensity of steel

Pipe u nit m a s s = M , = --------- - -- ( 1 2 .7 5 2 - 1 1 .7 5 2) —

4 x 1 44 32 .2

= 2 .0 3 slug/ft

D isp lace d m a s s (a ssu m e d equal to added m ass)

~ 77 x 12.75-’ < 6 4 1.7 6 slug/ft

4 x144 3 2 .2

T herefo re, total unit m ass, M = 2 .0 3 + 1 .7 6 - 3 . 7 9 slug/ft

Now: . 1.57 Г7.53 x 1 0 7 „ ,n

1 / ------------------ = 0 . 7 0 cps
1 0 ,0 0 0 - ^ 3 . 7 9

0 .7 fn = 0 .4 9

E x a m in in g E qu atio n 3 . 2 9 for pipe safety from v o rt e x -e x c ite d

o scilla tio n s:

F< 0 .7 fn
In tins case:
0 . 3 < 0 .4 9

and pipe is safe from vo rte x e x c ita tio n s.

3.6 Pipeline-Soil Stability Analysis

V ertical and h o riz o n ta l pipeline s tab ilities need to be carefully

e x a m in e d w h en pipe is resting on the seabed or em b ed ded in the soil.
T h e se s ta b ilities m u s t be analyzed under s ta t ic c o n d itio n s as well as
under c y c lic pressure c o n d itio n s caused by passage of a surface wave.

3.61 Settlement and Flotation

W h e n a pipeline is partially or totally buried, it m a y float upward or

settle d o w n w a rd under sto r m conditions, depending on the pipe weight
(including c o n te n ts), soil density, and undrained sh ear streng th of the
soil (see Figure 3.141.
Various e x p e r im e n t s have been made to m ea su re soil flotation and
; O l k l h jic P ip e lin e u e s i g n , M iid ly s is , o n u M e t iiw ^ a

r e s is ta n c e forces. Based on th ese s tu d ies (G h azzaly , 1У751, a range of

pipe specific g ra v itie s m ay be s e le c t e d su ch th a t the pipe is stable. T h e
fo llow in g e q u a t io n s have been ad opted to d e t e r m i n e su ch a design
range.

E q u iv a le n t soil d e n sity -= w e ig h t d e n sity of pipe and

con ten ts R |3.3U)

К - Ю Р (3 .3 1 !

W here: R Soil r e s is ta n c e to flotatio n or s e t t l e m e n t

per unit v o lu m e of pipe, 1b ' f t 1

С R e m old ed c o h e s iv e sh e ar str e n g th
of the soil, lb /tt-

I) O u tsid e d i a m e t e r of pipe, ft
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs j

If b o th sid es of E q u a ti o n 3 . 3 0 a rc divided by p , th e d e n s ity of w a te r,

t h e n th e u p p er an d lo w e r li m its of the pipe sp ecific g rav ity required for
e q u i lib r i u m c a n be c a lc u la t e d from:

SG , < SG < SG, (3 .32 )

W h e r e : SG = A l lo w a b le range of pipe sp ecific gravity

S G , = S G s,„| + 2 C / p I ) lo w e r l i m i t of SG
S G 2 = SGa.u + 2 C / / i D upper l i m i t of SG

3.62 Soil Strength Deterioration

U n d e r c y c l i c lo ad in g s of the b o tto m s e d i m e n t s c a u s e d by passage of a

s t o r m w a v e (Figure 3.151, significant c y c l i c stra in s m a y d evelo p in cla y
g e n e r a ti n g large p ore p ressu res. As a result, the soil s tr e n g t h after this

Surface wave

MWL

M ean
Diff ----------------
pressure at m udline

Pressure couple

Idealized failure surface

Shear resistance

3 15 S to rm -in d u c e d b o tto m pressures

bb j O ' t ' 1',-_;ic P i p e l in e U t j n . A n a ly s i s ; i i n i M o ii4 ; . js

c y c lic loading b e c o m e s less than the static u n d ia in c d sh ear sticn g th .

In tins case, the rem o ld ed R e d u ced ! sh eai s tr e n g t h ot the soil m u s t be
used in place ot the uiulraincd sh e ar s ti c n g t h in d e t e r m i n i n g the
allo w ab le range of pipe specific g ra v itie s required for pipe stab ility .
In g en eta l, d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the p o te n tia l s o il -s tr e n g th r e d u c tio n
w h en subiected to s t o r m - w a v e s tr e s se s on the seabed l e q u n c s k n o w l ­
edge of the w av e ti m e h istory and the str e n g th c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the soil.
L a b o r a to ry m e a s u r e m e n t s have been m ad e m th e p ast [Lee and F o ch t,
19751 to d e te r m in e the c y c l i c stre ss an d u n ifo rm n u m b e r of c y c l e s (S-N
c u rv e s ) w h i c h c a u s e soil failure Soil failure m a y be defined in te r m s of a
c y c l i c stra in a m p litu d e . O t h e r facto rs, s u c h as the c y c li c -lo a d sh ape and
freq u e n cy , soil stress strain re latio n sh ip , and soil p e rm e a b il ity , h av e
also been d e te r m in e d to in flu en ce the soil S-N c u rv e .
P re v io u s stu d ies have in d icated th at the d e te r i o r a tio n ot soil str e n g th
w h e n su b je cte d to c y c l i c lo ad in g d epen d s o n th e g e n e r a ti o n of e x c e s s
pore p icssu re . G e n e r a t i o n of this pore pressu re is b as ic ally s tr a in d e p e n ­
d e n t; h e n c e , soil failure c a n be d en n ed in te r m s of the c y c l i c strain
a m p litu d e .
In sand, the pore p ressu re m a y build up to a level equal to the ve rtica l
e ffectiv e stress, q u ick ly c a u s in g sand liq u e factio n . T h u s , the failure
p o te n tia l toi sand is c o m m o n l y ev a lu a te d based on th e rat io of the c y c l i c
e x c e s s pore pressu re to the ve rtica l effe ctiv e stress.
B e c a u se of th e rela tiv e ly low p e im e a h il itv of clay , a c c u r a t e pore-
p rc s s u rc m e a s u r e m e n t s require very slow rates of c y c l i c loadings, and
m o s t c y c l i c tests on clay do not in clude any p o re -p re ss u re m e a s ­
u r e m e n t s T h u s , failure c ri te ria toi c la y aie c o m m o n l y defined in te r m s
of a c y c h c - s t r a m a m p li tu d e c a u se d by c y c l i c - s t r e s s loadings.
A s t o r m w av e is c o m p o s e d ot an infinite n u m b e r of fre q u en cie s, and
c o n c e p t s h ave been d evelop ed to e x p re s s the effe cts of ir regu lar c y c l i c
load in gs on soil in te r m s of an e q u iv a le n t n u m b e r of u n ifo rm c y c l e s of
an av e rag e co rr e sp o n d in g c y c l i c s t r e s s .
A l te r d e te r m in in g the p o te n tial and e x t e n t of so il -s tre n g th d e te r i o r a ­
tion, pipe sp ecific g ra v itie s m ay be s e le c t e d s u c h th at the pipe re m a in s
stab le in the w e a k soil. As general crite ria , pipe in u n sta b le soils should
be d esign ed su ch th at its unit w eight is c lo se to the u n it w e ig h t of the
liquefied soils.

3.7 Effects of Large Soil Movements

Several m e c h a n i s m s h ave been rep o rted to c a u s e soil m o v e m e n t s at

th e seabed, in clu d in g erosio n, tu rb id ity (or su sp e n sio n ) c u r r e n ts , rapid
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs |

so il d e p o s itio n s o n steep slopes, and passage of la rge s u rfa ce w a v es.

A c t u a l field m e a s u r e m e n t s h av e been rep o rte d o n v e r t i c a l and lateral
w a v e - in d u c e d m o v e m e n t s of fine-grained s e d i m e n t s .
T h e m e c h a n i s m of th e i n t e r a c t i o n of o c e a n w a v e s a n d large m o v e
m e n t s of u n d e r w a t e r slo p es in soft, u n d e r c o n s o l i d a t e d s e d i m e n t s is
c o m p l e x . E fforts m a d e to e x p la in th is m e c h a n i s m h a v e re su lte d in
p a rtia l e x p l a n a t i o n s d u e to the v ario u s s im p l ify in g a s s u m p t i o n s m ad e.
In g en eral, g ra v ity fo rc e s a c t i n g a lo n e o n s lo p e d b o t t o m s are not
s u ffic ie n t to c a u s e a m u d slide. H o w e v e r, g r a v i ty fo r c e s , w h e n c o m b in e d
w i t h c y c l i c w a v e lo ad in g s o n th e b o t t o m s e d i m e n t , c a n c a u s e large soil
m ovem ents.
W a v e fo r c e s o n th e seabed ca n c a u s e s e d i m e n t in s t a b i l i t y in t w o w ay s
F irst, as a re s u lt of th e c y c l i c s tr e s s e s an d in c r e a s e d po re p re s s u re caused
by t h e tr a v e lin g w a v e , th e soil s h e a r s tr e n g t h m a y be g r e a t ly r ed u ced and
g r a v i ty fo rces m a y be s u ffic ien t to c a u s e slo p e m o v e m e n t s . Second , the
d ifferen tial lo ad in g c a u s e d by th e w a v e o n th e s e a b o t t o m will induce
s t r e s s e s in th e u n d erly in g soil. If th e se s t r e s s e s e x c e e d th e soil stre n g th
sig n if ic a n t soil m o v e m e n t m a y o c c u r .
F in ite e l e m e n t a n a ly s e s h a v e b een u sed (W r ig h t, 1 9 7 6 ) to c a lc u la t.
w a v e - in d u c e d s e a b o t t o m m o v e m e n t s , w h e r e th e e ffe ct of g ra v ity , cy c lu
an d p e r m a n e n t soil m o v e m e n t s w e r e c o n s id e r e d . A h y p erb o lic, non
li n e a r s tr e s s -s tr a i n re l a tio n s h ip h as b een a s s u m e d , b u t n o stra in rate oi
h is to r y effe cts h a v e b e en in clu d ed .
A m o r e r e c e n t a n a ly ti c a l m o d e l w a s d e v e lo p e d (S c h a p e ry and D u n lap
1 9 7 8 ) to p re d ic t s t o r m - i n d u c e d s e a b o t t o m m o v e m e n t u s in g v isco elasti.
a n a ly s is . T h i s m o d e l a c c o u n t e d for th e soil in e rtia , n o n l i n e a r m a t e r u ,
d a m p in g , ra te d e p e n d e n c e of th e soil p ro p e rtie s , an d d o w n -s lo p e m ove­
m e n t s in d u c e d by w a v e a c ti o n . H o w e v e r, th e m o d e l a s s u m e s a sinusoi
dal w a t e r - w a v e train at the sea su rface an d d o e s n o t a c c o u n t for t b
a d d itio n a l e n e rg y p rovided to th e w av e d u rin g its t r a v e l due to wind
A n a ly s e s and e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e for de­
t e r m i n i n g w a v e - in d u c e d soil m o v e m e n t s an d th e c o n s e q u e n t forces 0 1
a b uried pile (M a rti, 19 7 6 ). B ased on la b o ra t o ry m e a s u r e m e n t s of soil
m o v e m e n t - i n d u c e d force s on a pile, the fo l lo w in g r e l a tio n s h ip is de­
riv e d to c a l c u l a t e s u c h fo rce s w h i c h c a n be a d o p t e d to calcu late
d y n a m i c s o i l - m o v e m e n t forces o n a b uried pipe:

F = 1 1 .4 2 (12.5.9 n)" (V /D )" C u D (.V.i.i

W h e r e : F - D y n a m i c soil force per u n it le n g th of pipe, lb/ft

D = Pipe d ia m e t e r , ft
 P ip e lin e D e s ig n . A n a ly s is , a n a M e t h o d s

V - R e su lta n t soil v e lo c ity , f t /s e c

C u = U l t i m a t e soil s h e a r s tr e n g t h , psf
n ■= A n e x p o n e n t w h i c h defines the v i s c o e l a s tic
b e h a v io r of soil

I Ik - .lhove e x p o n e n t (n) has been c o r r e l a t e d to the liquidity in dex ot soil.

T h e m a x i m u m s ta t ic m u d -slid e force o n th e pipeline c a n be d e t e r ­
m ined based on the u l t i m a t e soil r e s t ra in in g force given by H a n se n
j 19 61 ) as follows:

F ^ С N.. 1) ,.U-»I

W h e re : F - U l t i m a t e soil s t a t i c force, lb/ft

С C o h e s i v e (disturbed) sh ea r s tr e n g th , pst

I) Pipe d ia m e t e r , ft

N.. R e a rin g -c a p a c ity fa c to r

T h e h e a r in g -c a p a c it y fa cto r is a f u n c tio n of th e d epth ol pipe e m b e d ­
m e n t as s h o w n m Figure 3 . 1 6 .
Soil o v e rb u rd e n pressu re in c re a s e s w i t h pipe e m b e d m e n t below the
m u d line. T h i s c a u s e s th e s o i l - m o v e m e n t in d u ced force on a pipeline to
in crease w h e n the pipe is e m b e d d ed p ro gressiv ely d eeper in the soil.
T h i s is s h o w n in Figure 3 . 1 7 for a g iv en soil sa m p le .
T h e refo re, th e pipe should be p laced at or slightly b elow the seabed to
m i n i m iz e forces o n the pipe due to soil m o v e m e n t . T h e s e lo rc e s m a y
soon b e c o m e e x t r e m e l y large w h e n th e d epth of pipe b uiial is in creased .
Based on the s o i l - m o v e m e n t fo rces on th e pipeline and the lateral soil
re sista n ce , a n a ly s is ca n be m a d e to c a l c u l a t e str e s s e s in th e pipe in d uced
by th ese forces R e s u l ts of th e a n a ly s is s h o w th a t th e po ssib ility of pipe
failure u nder soil loadings w o u ld depen d on th e pipe s tr e n g th , soil fo rces
w h ic h in cre a s e w ith d epth, and th e w i d t h of th e m u d slide.
If failure o c c u r s , the m o d e of failure will d epen d m a in ly on the forces
resistin g the pipe m o v e m e n t and th e e x t e n t of th e slide w id th . If the
m o v i n g soil a c t s o v er a sh o rt le n g th of th e p ip elin e and large fo rces arc-
re sistin g g en eral m o v e m e n t of th e pipe, th e n a lo ca liz ed bending failure
is likely to o c c u r . H o w e v e r, th is c o n d i tio n is very u n lik e ly , and, in
gen eral, failure of the pipe due to build u p of large te n sile loads is m u c h
m o r e likely to o c c u r .
Sin ce soil m o v e m e n t forces o n th e p ip elin e are m i n i m u m w h e n the
pipe is placed on the seabed, a p ip elin e in sta lle d in u n sta b le b o t t o m s
sh o uld be d esign ed s u c h th a t it r e m a i n s o n or slig h tly b elow the seabed
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs |

Nc
3 4 5 6 8 10 M u d lin e

I
H

T
D
±

3.1 6 Soil ftircc CDL'ltlLlClll ,litter IldliSCI!)

Л.17 S m l t o i c c <п\’г 6 in p i p e

d urin g its life tim e T h i s will m i n i m i z e any risks ot d a m a g e to the pipe

due to m u d slides.
H o w e v e r, w h e n the pipe is n ot buried, it is e x p o s e d to h y d r o d y n a m i c
fo rces on th e b o t t o m . T h e r e fo re , th e pipe s p ecific g ra v ity m u s t be
s e le cte d s u c h th a t th e w e ig h t of pipe (in clu d in g c o n t e n t s ! is h eavy
en o u g h for th e pipe to r e m a in stab le u nder th e m o s t se v e re w av e and
c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s d u rin g its lifetim e, yet light e n o u g h th at the pipe
d o e s n o t e m b e d itself b elo w th e m u d line.

3.8 Effects ot Seabed Irregularities

L3urmg in s ta l la tio n of a s u b m a r in e pipeline, the pipeline m a y cro ss

e le v ate d o b s t r u c t i o n s o r lo w ered d e p r e s s io n s a lo n g its ro u te . A s th ese
b o tto m irre g u la ritie s are crossed , sp an s and b end in g s tr e s s e s will be
in d uced in the pipe th a t m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d a t a safe level to p rev en t
d am a g e. If th e se spans and stre s se s w o u ld e x c e e d th e ir safe level, then
m e a s u r e s m u s t be ta k e n e it h e r to alte r th e p ip elin e ro u te nr to m i n i m i z e
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs

th e b o t t o m irre g u la ritie s by m e t h o d s s u c h as p resw e ep in g . T h e s e m e a s

u re s are e v a lu a te d based o n t e c h n i c a l an d e c o n o m i c c o n s id e r a ti o n s
T h e r e fo re , to plan th e in s ta l la tio n p ro ce d u re p rop erly, an a c c u ra ti
p r e d ic ti o n of pipe s tr e s s e s due to b o t t o m irre g u la ritie s is n e c e s s a ry .

3.81 Stresses Due to Low Depressions

C o n s i d e r th e pipe c o n f ig u r a t io n o v e r a low d e p r e s sio n s h o w n n

F ig u re 3 . 1 8 . T w o d i s t i n c t re g io n s m a y be defined for th e pipe: 11) pip<
sp an in th e d e p r e s sio n g iv e n by L, and (2) pipe span o u ts id e th e d e p a s
s io n g ive n by 1 o n e it h e r side of the d ep ression .
B e c a u s e of th e g e o m e t r i c a l s y m m e t r y of th e pipe c o n fig u ra tio n , onl\
h alf t h e pipe span n eeds to be co n sid e re d . T h e pipe is divided in to t h i e <
p rin cip al pipe s e g m e n t s , an d a free body d ia g ra m of th e pipe forces i

Л . /S P i p e c o n f i g u r i i i i n n t l u с t o /<m wn/i
 wil. r Ipe ' U!,:gi , Jiysis, ‘‘rviott .^.„1

sh o w n in Figure 3 . 1 8 Boundary con ditio n s arc m a tch e d appropriately

betw een ea ch tw o adiacent pipe segm ents.
R esults of the c o m p u t e r a n alysis m ay be described in te r m s of
d im en sio n less p aram eters for application to general p roblem s. V aria­
tion of the m a x i m u m bending stress versus the depression span is
shown for various values of pipe tension in Figure 3 19 Sim ilarly,
stresses as well as d e flection s at inidspan are depleted in Figures 3 20
and 3 .2 1 , resp ectively . N o t e that the m a x i m u m stress o c c u r s at the
boundary of the low depression.
An e x a m i n a t i o n of th ese figures reveals that these stresses decrease as
the pipe te n sio n is increased. In p articular for large depression spans,
inclusion of tension su b s tan tially reduces pipe stresses. L ength ot the
pipe span induced ou tsid e the depression is also depicted as a I unci ion of
the depression span and ten sio n in Figure 3 .2 2 . T h e s e pipe spans
decrease in length as the pipe tension is increased. Sim ilarly, it is
observed that, for large-depression spans, inclusion of tension reduces
lengths ot induced spans o u tsid e the depression.

3.82 Stresses Due to Elevated Obstructions

C o n sid er the pipe co n fig u ratio n ov er an elev ated o b s tr u c ti o n as

show n m Figure 3 . 2 3 . Let the elev atio n of the o b stru ctio n be fi anil the
induced su spended pipe span be L. A free-body diagram of the pipe forces
is sh ow n in the s a m e Figure 3 . 2 3 . Sin ce the pipe span is s y m m e t r i c about
the ob stru ctio n , it is sufficient to con sid er half the pipe span for the
bending analysis.
T h e pipe-governing e q u atio n s are solved em p lo y ing fanniiar n u m e r i ­
cal te ch n iq u e s B ecau se the span length is not k now n a prio n , iterative
procedures are em p lo ye d to dedu ce this span length and pipe forces.
R e s u l t s of the so lu tio n s are th en presented in te rm s ol d im e n s io n le ss
param e te rs described earlier.
C ia p h s d epicting variations in induced pipe spans and resulting
m a x i m u m stresses versus e le v atio n of the o b s tru ctio n are sh o w n in
Figures 3 . 2 4 and 3 .2 5 , resp ectively. It is observed th at m a x i m u m bend­
ing stresse s cau sed by elevated ob stru ctio n s are virtually unaffected by
v a riatio n s in pipe tension. In c o n tr a s t , pipe spans are in creased as the
pipe ten sio n is increased. It is noted, h ow ever, that tensile stress and
co m b in e d bending and tensile stress will in crease w h e n tension in the
pipe is increased. Figures 3 . 2 4 and 3 . 2 5 allow for direct ca lcu la tio n of
induced spans and m a x i m u m pipe stresses for a wide range of o b s tru c ­
tion heights and various ten sion values.
 1.0 • N otes

0.9 к (■- — ■)' 1 Characteristic length

w
EC Characteristic
^ stress1
/
Dim ensionless tension

0 0. 5 1.0 1.5 2, 0 2. 5 3 0 3 5
L
Dim ensionless span
U

>3.7 9 M a x im u m stress due to lo w depression

Notes
1.0
El Characteristic length
U (
0.9 w
EC
U. Characteristic stress
08 к
T
0 - w Ц Dim ensionless tension
С Pipe outer radius
0

ш
с
о
(Л
С
ш
Е
Q

0 0 5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Dim ensionless span —
*-c

3.20 Stress at midspan

(j 3
Notes
3.24 Span ilue to vl evaU' i l o b s t r u c t i o n
 Notes

D im e n s io n le ss elevatio n —- * 1 0 0

.1.? ) Л/ j \ i m u n i s t r e s s J i i i ’ In I ' h ' v i i t a l o b s t r u c t i o n

E X A M I'L L P R O B L E M :

T o illustrate the use of d im en sio n less graphs for an aly sis of pipe
cro ssing b o tto m depressions or o b stru ctio n s, co n sid e r the following
e xa m p le .

C iv c n

1’ i p e 16 m x 0 7 5 i n. W . T .
Pipe w eigh t ; 3 5 1b. f t

CulcuLitc the following:

1. M a x i m u m bending stress for a pipe over a span of 5 0 0 ft and having
a tension of 6 5 kip.
2. M a x i m u m bending stress for a pipe over an elevated o b stru ctio n of
10 ft and h av in g a tension of 6 5 kip.
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs \ 67

S o lu t io n :

T h e first step is to c o m p u te the c h a r a c te r is tic length ch a ra c -,

te ris tic stre ss (orc), and d im e n sio n less te n sio n j/3):

Lt = » 1 8 4 f,

<r, - = 7 4 5 8 3 l b t i J = 1 0 8 , 6 9 6 psi
Lr

W h ere:
E = E la stic m odulus, lb/ft"
El = Stiffness of pipe, lb-ft-
W = Pipe subm erged weight lb/ft
С = Pipe o u te r radius, ft
T = A x ia l tension, lbs

Desired u n k n o w n s are now directly read off:

1. For a span of 5 0 0 ft, the d im e n s io n le ss span length is given by:

— = 2 .7 2
L,

T h e co rre sp on d in g value ot m a x i m u m d im e n s io n le s s stress for fi -

10 is read off Figure Л.19 as

-Js- - 0.2.5
<Ti

T herefore, m a x i m u m stress <r - 2 5 , 0(H) psi

2. For an o b s tru c tio n elevation ol 10 It, d im e n sio n le ss e le va tion is

given by:

x 100 5.43
L,

T h e co rrespo n d in g v alue <>t m a x i m u m d im e n sio n le ss stress for

/3 = 10 is read off Figure Л 25 as
68 ] O ffshore: Pipeline; D e sig n , A n a ly s is , a n a M e lh o a s

.-- 0 .3 3
<rt.

T herefore, m a x i m u m stress a,,, = 3 5 , 8 7 0 psi

Table 3.3 Pipe Properties Formulas

NOM ENCLATURE

I) o u t s i de d i a m e t e r of s t e e l pi pe, in.
1). i ns i de d i a m e t e r of s t e e l pi pe, in.
t, t h i c k n e s s of c o r r o s i o n c o a t i n g , m.
1л -- t h i c k n e s s of w e i g h t c o a t i ng , in
w,. s t eel w e i g h t in air, lb/ft
w. „ c o r r o s i on c o a t i n g w e i g h t m air, lb/ft
w .. w e i g h t c o a t i n g w e i g h t in air, lb ft
w„ pi pe w e i g h t in air, l h f t
в b u o y a n t f or t e , lb ft
w. s u b m e r g e d w e i gh t of pipe, l b It
1 b e n d i n g m o m e n t of i n e r t i a of s t eel pipe, m 4

EQ U A TIO N S

W„ 2.6.4(1)-' I),)

W„ I d ) t 2 t, )- O ' ) , /j, - C o r r o s i o n eo. i t d u v -п v. l b H 1

>76

W ,, (D i 2t, f 2 t „ )- ( П i 2 1, ) ’ ), /I, W e i g h t с о it d e n s i t y , I b f t ’
S 76
w, VV.„ . W. „ -i w :m
И О ь (П 1 2 t, 1 2t„)J

W W, 15

I U )‘ n .‘)
64
 D e s ig n E va lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 69

3.9 Scour and Erosion

In the surf zone and areas w h ere b o tto m cu rre n ts are large in m a g ­
nitude, b o t t o m s e d im e n ts m a y be eroded, suspended, and deposited
e lsew h e re . T h i s c a n c a u s e pipe ex p osure, loss of support, and pipe
spanning, resu ltin g in the p ote n tia l of d is p la ce m e n t, vib ration, and
d a m ag e to the pipeline.
T h e m e c h a n i s m of soil ero sion is c o m p l e x and is related to soil
properties. C onsiderable re s e a r c h h as b een c o n d u c t e d in th e past on
s e d im e n t tra n sp o rts due to w a t e r flow above river beds. M u c h of this
rese arch is in general a g re e m e n t on the in itia tio n of m o t io n of sedi­
m e n ts c o n s is tin g of sand, silt, o r gravel. T h e in itia tio n of m o t i o n of sand
requires less c u r r e n t v e locity th a n th a t needed for the in itia tio n of
m o t i o n of c la y particles. T h i s is due to th e co h e sio n b e tw e en the clay
particles.
T o illu strate this p h e n o m e n o n , co n sid e r a fla t-b o tto m seabed c o n ­
taining sand w i th w a te r flowin g above it. W h e n the v e lo city is low, the
seabed p article s will n o t m o v e . As the flow rate is gradually increased,
s e d im e n t g ra m s begin to m o v e (the se q u en ce of th is m o v e m e n t is
illu strated in Figure 3.2 6 ).
Initially, the m o v e m e n t co n s is ts of ra n d o m rolling and sliding of
individual grains. As the flow rate in creases, tu rb u le n c e in creases near
tbe seabed, and m o r e p articles roll and slide n e ar the seabed. T h i s first
incipient m o t i o n is referred to as th e th resh o ld of particle m o v e m e n t on
a flat seabed. As the flow rate is in creased, m o r e p a rticles m o v e , with
s o m e lifted off the seabed for a sh o rt tra je cto ry before falling back on the
seabed. T h e tra n sp o rta tio n of m a t t e r in this w ay is s o m e t i m e s referred
to as s ilta tio n of sed im en ts.
As tlie flow b e c o m e s m o r e tu rb u le n t, s o m e of the s e d im e n t particles
will be lifted in creasingly higher above the seabed until they are in
su spension and c an be transported w ith the flow. T h e m o re turbulent
the flow is, the m o r e p articles are in su sp ension. A t very high flow rates,
the flow will c a u se irregularities on the seabed k n o w n as ripples. T he
suspended p a rticle s are free to travel in the m i x e d tlow until the velocity
d e cre a se s to a level su ch th a t the p article s c a n n o t r e m a in in su spension
any longer. T h i s v e lo city is k n o w n as the se ttlin g velo city .
T h e m i n i m u m tlow v e lo citie s for particle erosion, suspension, and
s e t t l e m e n t depend on the soil properties, in clu d in g grain size and
sp ecific gravity. H ow ev er, the variation of specific gra v ity is sm all since
m o s t of the s e d im en t p articles are q u artz w i th an im m e rs e d specific
gravity of 1.65. T h erefo re, the se d im e n t tran sp o rt v e lo city for sand can
be stu died based on the g rain-sizc d istrib u tio n of sed im en ts.
] OUshore Pipeline D es'ijn. Analysis, and M ethods

M an y th e o re tica l a ml e x p erim en ta l efforts have been m ad e m the past

to quantify the relationship b e tw ee n the flow rate and the velo cities
as so cia ted w ith sed im en t transport. Plots have been gen erated to illu s­
tr a te the m i n i m u m erosion velocity, transp ort velo city , and the d e p o si­
tion v e lo city of the soil particles versus grain size of the sand se d im e n ts,
as sh o w n in Figure Д.27.
M e a s u re s to protect the pipeline from sco u r in clu d e burial of the
pipeline to sufficient depth of co v er and a n ch o r in g the pipe. Burial of the
pipe can be effective if the line is buried beyond the depth of exp ected
erosion during pipe lifetim e. D e t e r m in a ti o n of th e a m o u n t of erosion in
a given area is c o m p le x . H ow ever, in m o s t cases, and p articularly in
sand, an e s t i m a t e can be m ad e of the depth of erosion.
 D e s ig n E v a lu a tio n s a n d P ip e P a ra m e te rs | 7I

G ra in s iz e , ф

ve lo c ity , c m /s e c
Mean

G ra in s ize , m m

1) M e a n v e lo c ity a t 1 m a b o v e s e a b e d .
2 ) M a te r ia l g ra in s a re a s s u m e d u n ifo rm .

127 Cur re nt v e l o c i t y lor s e i h m c n t transport

 Installation Methods and Analysis

4.1 General

T h e r e are various m e th o d s of su bm aiin e-p ip eline in stallation s, in­

cluding the lay-barge, reel, botto m -p ull, tow, and o th e r m e th o d s Some
of these m e t h o d s are m o re suited for a p a rticu la r a p plication than
others. C e rta in m e t h o d s are p articularly suited for s m a ll-d ia m e te r pipe
installatio n s; o th e rs are particularly suited for d eepw ater installations.
A d escription is given in this ch a p te r of the m o s t c o m m o n pipe-
installation m e t h o d s . Also, various tech n iq u e s of laying analysis are
presented and discussed.

4.2 Lay-Barge Method

T h e m ost c o m m o n m ethod for subm aiine-p ipeline installations is the

lay-barge m ethod. Since the first box-shaped lay barge was introduced,
various im p ro v em e n ts and modifications have been made to extend the
lay capabilities. T h r e e different types of lay barges exist, including
conventional box hull, ship-shaped barge, and semisubmersible.
T h e se m isu b m e rsib le c o s ts m o r e to c o n s t r u c t th a n a co n v en tio n al
barge or a ship -shaped vessel. H ow ever, the response m o t io n s of the
se m is u b m e rs ib le lay vessel are m u c h m o re favorable than i hose for the
barge or the ship-shaped vessel. For e x am p le, sem is u b m ersib les can
usually operate in significant w ave heights of up to 1 5 - 1 7 ft from any
directio n , w h ile box or lay barges ca n operate in significant w ave
heights of up to 5 ft from any d irection . Ship-shaped lay vessels can
usually operate at higher significant w av e h eights of up to 12 ft in the
case of head seas.

72
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 73

B o x-h ull barges are gen erally required to seek sh eltered w a t e r in m u c h

less severe w e a th e r c o n d itio n s th an th o se required for ship-shaped and
s e m is u b m e r s ib le hulls. T h e in creased stab ility of se m isu b m e rsib le
hulls h a s also allo w ed d e v e lo p m e n t of large stingers, w h ic h , in turh,
a llo w lay ing la rg e -d ia m e te r pipe in relativ ely deep w ater.
D e v e l o p m e n t of the ship-shaped and se m isu b m e rsib le -h u ll lay barges
has m a d e it possible to o p e ra te in sev e re w e a t h e r c o n d itio n s s u ch as the
N o r t h Sea and to e x te n d th e w o r k i n g season in th ese areas.
E x a m p le s of th e b o x-h ull lay barge is B row n & R o o t's B A R -3 4 7 , J. Ray
M c D e r m o t t &. C o .'s lay barge N o . L B -2 9 , and S anta Fe In ternation al
C o rp .'s C h e r o k e e . E x a m p le s of ship -shaped lay barges are th e E T P M
1 60 1, and N e th e r la n d s O ffsh ore C o .'s S e a L io n I. M c D e r m o t t ' s V ik in g
P ip e r , Saip em S .P .A .'s C a s t o r o 6, and B row n & R o o t's S e m a c 1 are
e x a m p le s of the s e m is u b m e r s ib le lay vessels.

4.21 Description of Method

An illu stratio n of a c o n v e n t io n a l lay barge is sh o w n in Figure 4 .1 . Lay

barges use e sse n tia lly the s a m e m e t h o d for laying pipelines. Pipe is

4. 1 C o n v e n tio n a l la y barge
delivered to the lay barge in single or d oub le-len gth joints |20- or 40-ft
lengths) by a cargo barge, show n in Figure 4.2.
Several of the large lay barges are capable of h andling 80-ft pipe |oints.
A deck cran e transfers the pipe to storage ra c k s on the lay barge. During
laying, the cra n e transfers pipe from storage ra ck s to an a u to m a t e d rack
for "fe e d in g " pipe to the lineup table. T h e lineup table is the first
position (work station) of the pro d uctio n line for welding the pipe and
n o n d e stru c tiv e Iу e x a m in in g the welds. Lay barges c a n have 5 to ] 2 w ork
stations, depending on the size of the barge and the d ia m e te r of the pipe
being welded.
After welding the pipe |oints, the field joints are co a te d w ith co rrosion
co ating s |and weight c o a tin g s o m e t i m e s ) as s h o w n in F ig u ic 4.3.
Pipe laying op e iatio n s c o n tin u e, w ith pipe supported by the barge
rollers (show n in Figure 4.4) and stinger before m o v in g to the seabed. A
stern roller on a large d ia m e te r lay barge is s h o w n in Figure 4.5.
F.ach of the hull designs ca n fu rther be categ o rize d by the lo catio n of
the p roduction line, c ith e r c e n te r line or side m o u n te d . S ide-m ounted
production lines provide tor the m o s t efficient use of deck space and

4.2 Coated pipe joints

 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 75

4.3 Coated fie ld jo in t

d eck e q u ip m e n t. H o w e v er, th ey also subiect the stinger, stinger hitch,

and pipe to hig h er forces during roll and yaw than a c e n te r-lin e -m o u n te d
pro d uctio n line.
C e n te r-lin e o p eratio n s generally require d up lication of deck equip­
m e n t for pipe handling, in addition to less-etficient use of d eck space.
M o st lay barges designed for o p eratio n in se v ere -w ea th e r co n d itio n s use
the c e n te r - lin e -m o u n te d p ro d u ctio n line, since low er-in d u ced loads on
the stinger h itc h and pipe are m o r e critica l than the loss in deck-sp ace
efficiency.
T h e p ro d u c tio n line of a lay barge is limited to installing a single line.
If m u ltip le lines are required, the barge m u s t retrace the lay path for each
line o r it m a y m odify its d eck operatio ns to use portable reels. In
situation s w h ere o n e or tw o s m a ll-d ia m e te r lines 11 -Л in.) are required
 OHs _ . P ip c i _ _ a s ig r.. -ly s is , .. M e lt

44 1‘ip t'o \ cr rump

in c o n ju n c tio n with л single larg e -d ia m ete r line, it m a y be possible to set

up te m p ora ry p roduction lines.
C o n v e n tio n a l lay barges require additional v essels to support a laying
o p eration. T h e spread generally in clu d es one or m o r e an c ho r-h and lin g
tugs, carg o barges, and tugs for supplying pipe and o th e r m aterials.
D ivin g support is n orm ally required for in sp ectio n of pipe on the seabed
and for pipe subsea c o n n e c tio n s . In sh a llo w -w a te r operations, diving
c a n be suppoited directly from the lay barge. H ow ever, in deepw ater
operations, a diving-support vessel equipped w ith a re m o te -co n tro lle d
v eh icle (RCV| or a m an n ed su bm ersib le m a y be needed. D iv in g-system
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a lysis | 77

4 .5 Stem rom p support

c o m p o n e n t s are sh o w n in Figures 4 .6 and 4 .7 , in clu d in g the diving bell

and the d e co m p ressio n c h a m b e r.
A pipeline is initiated by p o sitio n in g an a n c h o r on the sea floor,
bringing th e a n c h o r cable o v e r the barge stinger, and a tt a c h i n g it to the
end of the first pipe joint. T h e barge is m o ved forward by taking in cable,
as required, o n the b reasting a n ch o rs and lettin g out cable on the s te m
anchors.
T h e barge stinger helps support the pipe and form s an S -cu rvc as the
pipe is layed. Stingers have developed from stra ig h t-lin e designs, origi­
nally used in sh allow w ater, to the curved, se ction a l, articu lated stm g-
I Offshore Pipeline Design. Analysis, a na Methoas

4V> Diving bell

ers required for d eepw ater o p erations. T e n sio n in g m a c h in e s positioned

along th e pro d uctio n line provide a hold back force to lim it the c u r v a ­
ture of the pipe as it descends to the seafloor.
A c u rv e d sec tio n a l stinger for large d ia m e t e r pipe in relatively deep
w a t e r is s h o w n in Figures 4 .8 and 4 .9 . Stinger se ctio n s vary in length,
a lthou gh e a c h se c ti o n is ty pically 6 0 ft long. T h e draw bar sectio n,
sh o w n in Figure 4 .1 0 , c o n n e c t s the sting er to the barge h itch . Stm ger
se c tio n s are c o n n e c t e d through hinges as s h o w n in Figure 4 .1 1 . Stoppers
 In stallatio n M e th o d s a n d A nalysis j 79

4 .7 D iv in g b e l l a n d d e c o m p r e s s io n c h a m b e r

are used to c o n tro l the m i n i m u m radius. R ollers (sh o w n in Figure 4 .1 2 )

are in stalled o n the stinger s e c tio n s to support th e pipe d u rin g lowerin g.
T h e m a x i m u m depths to w h ich c o n v e n tio n a l lay barges c a n operate
are g overn ed by:
1. C a p a c i ty of the barge m o o rin g s y s te m .
2. Stinger size.
3. T e n s i o n e r ca p a city .
4. Pipe d ia m e t e r and wall th ick n css.
5. Pipe w e ig h t c o a ti n g (if required).
In gen eral, lay barges c a n be grouped by the w a t e r d e p th s for whiph
th eir m o o r in g s y s t e m s arc designed: (1) to 3 5 0 ft, |2| to 6 0 0 ft, and (3| to
1 ,0 0 0 ft. T h e r e is a li m ite d n um ber of pipe-lay v essels c u r r e n tl y capable
of m o o r in g w ith d y n a m ic positioning a ss is ta n c e and lay ing pipe in
w a t e r d e p th s e xc ee d in g 1 ,0 0 0 ft. T h e C a s t o r o 6 is in th is group of
vessels.
ои | Offsnore Pipeline Design, Analysis, ana Meth oas

4 .8 S e c tio n a l stin g er fo r la r g e -s iz e d p ip e

4.22 Lay Analysis Method

An illu stration of the pipe string being low ered from the lay barge to
th e seabed is shown in Figure 4 .1 3 . T w o regions c a n be identified: the
overb en d region and the sagbend region. T h e overb en d generally e x ­
tends fro m the tensioner on the barge d eck, o v e r the barge ramp, and
d o w n the stinger to the lift-off point w h e n pipe is n o longer supported by
th e ra m p or stinger. T h e sagbend region gen erally e x ten d s from the
in flection point to the to u ch down point (TDP).
Pipe cu r v a tu r e in the overbend region is usually co n tro lled by proper
 In stallatio n M e th o d s a n d A nalysis | 81

4.9 F lo a te d stin ger p rio r to stabbing

p o sitioning of the ra m p su pp orts and by c o n tro llin g c u rv a tu re of the

stinger. In general, the o verbend radius of c u r v a tu r e (including stinger)
is selected su ch th at the m a x i m u m bendin g stress in the pipe does not
e x c e e d 8 5 % of the m i n i m u m specified yield stre ss (MSYS). T h e bending
strain is given by:

L) |4.1)
2R

W h e re : D = O u tsid e steel d ia m e t e r of pipe, ft.

R = Overbend radius ot c u rv a tu re , ft.
4.10 Stinger drawbar section

N o t e th a t the u n its of D and R m u s t be th e s a m e . T h e co rrespon d in g

axial bending stress is:

= — (4.2)
2R

W h e re : E = Elastic m o d u lu s ■= 3 0 x 10 K psi

T h ere fo re , the m i n i m u m overbend radius c a n usually be selec te d from:

R = • П) (4.3)
2,r„ DF

W h ere: <r„ = M in im u m specified yield stress of pipe

D F = Design factor, u sually 0 . 8 5

The above analysis assu m es th a t the pipe has a u n iform bending

radius over the barge and stinger supports. Inreality, the pipe bends
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 83

4.11 Stinger h in g e

m o r e over th e supports th an in b etw een , and the ov erb e n d stress usually

in creases at the supports and d e creases b e tw ee n the supports.
C o m p u t e r p ro g ram s and elab o rate m e t h o d s are available for ac cu ra te
overbend analysis. In these cases, a less c o n s e rv a tiv e design criteria is
used to d eterm in e th e m i n i m u m o verbend c u r v a tu r e . In c ertain cases,
pipe is allowed to ex ce e d the yield stress in the overbend, and strain
crite ria (since deflections can be con trolled ) are used in place of the
lim itin g -stre ss criteria.
T h e sagbend stress analysis is m ainly done to d e te rm in e the tension
and stinger-length re q u ire m en t for safe laying. In gen eral, th e higher the
4.12 Stin ger ro ller su pports

4.13 C onventio nal lay barge m ethod

 In stallatio n M e th o d s a n d A nalysis | 8 5

te n s io n is , th e s h o rte r th e s tin g e r th a t c a n be u s e d . O fte n a p lo t o f

p ip e -s a g b e n d stre s s e s a n d re q u ire d s tin g e r le n g th s a re p lo t t e d v e rs u s
te n s io n , as s h o w n in F ig u re 4 .1 4 . T h e s e p lo ts a re th e n u s e d f o r a tra d e - o ff
d e t e r m in a tio n o f te n s io n a n d s tin g e r le n g th .

(Л
(Л
0>
to
T3
С
a>
n
o>
CO
CO

In c re a s in g te n s io n

sz
D)
С
CD

Ф
O)
С
+-»
i/>
O)
с
со
со
Q
к_
)
о
с

4.14 TvpL'til t сп s'/О / 1 < / т / s linger vdriiidoi is

86 | Offshore Pipeline Desig n, Analysis, and Methods

Several m e t h o d s e x is t for stress an alysis of pipe in the sagbend region,

in c lu d in g th e b e a m m e t h o d , c a te n a r y m e th o d , stiffened ca te n a ry ,
n o n lin e a r-b e a m m e th o d , and the fm ite-difference m e th o d . Generally,
th e b ea m m e t h o d yields a c c u r a te re su lts in shallow w ater, w h e re as the
c a t e n a r y a n d s t i f f e n e d -c a te n a r y th e o r i e s y ield a c c u r a t e re s u lts in
d ee p w a te r a p p licatio n s. B o th the n o n lin e ar-b ea m m e th o d and finite-
e le m e n t m e t h o d yield a c c u r a t e re s u lts for all w a te r depths. A brief
c o m p a r i s o n of th e se v ario us a n aly sis m e t h o d s is given in T able 4 .1 .

Table 4.1 Comparison o f Pip*-Lay Analysis Methods

B o u n d a ry
M eth o d A p p lic a tio n s C o n d itio n s V alidity
Linear-beam theory Shallow water Satisfied Small deflections
Nonlinear theory All depths Satisfied General
Natural catenary Deep water Not satisfied Away from ends,
small stiffness
Stiffened catenary Deep water Satisfied Small stiffness
Finite-element method All depths Satisfied General

4.221 Beam Method (Small Deflections)

In th is theory, th e pipe suspended span in the sagbend is m odeled as a

b e a m se g m e n t as s h o w n in Figure 4 .1 5 . H ow ever, deflections are as­
su m e d sm all, i.e.:

dy_
« 1
dx

T h e g ov ern in g bendin g eq u atio n is:

- q = El - T„ 14-4)
dx4 dx2

W h e re , q = U n i t subm erged w eight of pipe, lb/ft

El = Pipe bendin g stiffness, lb-ft2
T u = Effective lo w e r pipe tension, lb
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a lysis | 87

B o u n d ary co n ditio n s:

у (о) = О И-5)

(о) = 0 (slope of seabed) (4.6)

dx

(о) = 0 (4.7)
dx*

у (L) = H (4.8)

El i b L ( L ) = M (4.9)
dx2

(M = 0 a t in flection point)

N o te : T = T „ +' q H (4.10)

T h e o r y is applicable for sm a ll d eflectio n s only, as in s h allo w -w ater

ap p licatio n s.

4 .1 5 F.B.D. o f p ip e string
 I

4.222 Nonliner Beam Method

T h i s theory considers the n on lin e ar-b e n d in g eq u a tio n of a b ea m to

describe the bending of pipe span. T h e theory is ap plicable in both
shallow and deep w a te r and is valid for sm all and large d eflection s as
well.
T h e governing differential e q u a tio n is:

do
q = El — (Sec вв - T„ S e c 2 « (4.11)
ds V ds2/ ds

W here: s = D ista n ce along pipe span

в = Angle at a d is ta n c e s

Sin I) _dy_ (4.11al

ds

Since boundary c o n d itio n s n o rm a lly in clu d e the d isp la ce m e n t at

either end of the pipe span, the above differential eq u a tio n m ay be
described in term s of у rather th an (I. S u b stitu tio n of 0 i n te r m s of у and $
variables in equation 4.11 results in a m o re c o m p l e x differential eq ua­
tion tor y|s' than for f>(sl
Four boundary co n d itio n s are needed to solve the differential eq ua­
tion, and an additional boundary eq u a tio n is needed to solve for the span
length sin ce it is not k n o w n a priori.
T h e above differential eq uation and co rrespon d in g boundary eq ua­
tions are usually treated as a bo un d ary -v alue problem and are solved
n u m e ric a lly . T h e fim te-difference m e t h o d of a p p r o x im a tio n s has been
used successlu lly to provide the solution.

4.223 Natural Catenary Method

T h e natural caten ary theory ca n be used to describe the pipe span

co n figu ra tio n away from th e tw o pipe ends, i.e., aw ay fro m the lift-off
point at seabed and the upper pipe p o in t near stinger. T h e m e th o d is
applicable where the pipe stiffness is very sm a ll; the boundary co n d i­
tions on pipe span are not satisfied.
T o illu strate the m etho d , let El = 0 in the n on lin e a r b eam bending
E qu atio n 4 .1 1 . T h e following e q u a tio n is o btained:

dfl
T„ S e c20 (4.12)
ds
 In stallatio n M e th o d s a n d Analysis | 8 9

T h i s has the so lu tio n:

0 = tan 1 + С (4.13)
T„

W h e r e : С = c o n s t a n t (C = 0, if pipe slope = 0 a t se a bed), w h i c h is the

fam iliar go v e rn in g eq u a tio n for a n a tu ra l c a te n a ry .

T h e span length (s) is given by:

S = L + 2 l- j± = J k . sin h ^ 14.14)
V q q \T0 /

T h e m a x i m u m sagbend strain c a n be a p p r o x im a te d fro m the m i n i m u m

cu rv a tu re , w h e re:

M a x i m u m bending strain, e = (4.15)

2T„

D = Pipe o u te r steel d ia m e t e r

All units m u s t be c o n s is te n t in E q u a tio n 4 .1 5

T h e c a te n a ry eq u a tio n s can th en be used to e s t i m a t e pipe co n fig u ra ­
tion a w ay from the ends w here pipe stiffness is sm all, in deep w ater, or
w here the ten sio n is very large su ch th a t the ten sio n te r m in E qu atio n
4 .1 1 is p re d o m in a n t over the stiffness term .

4.224 Stiffened Catenary Method

T h e stiffened c a te n a r y m eth o d is different from th e c a te n a r y m e th o d

in th at th e boundary co n d itio n s are satisfied. In this m e th o d , the
n o n lin ea r-b e am differential eq uation is solved a s s y m p t o t i c a l l y ; but
a s s u m in g th at the n o n d im e n sio n a l te r m (a 2) is very sm a ll:

<»* = El « , , .1
q S:l

S - Pipe span length (c h a ra c te ris tic length)

T h i s th eo ry provides a c c u ra te re su lts of the pipe con fig u ratio n , in ­

clu d in g pipe regions near the ends. H o w e v er, the th eo ry is applicable
w h e re the pipe stiffness is sm all or in deep w ater.
9 0 | Offshore Pipeline Des.gn, Analysis, and Methods

4.225 Finite Element Method

A s in th e case of the n o nlin ear-b ean a n aly sis m e th o d , the finite

e l e m e n t pipe-span analysis is applicable in all w a t e r d ep th s for sm all or
large deflections.
T h e pipe span is m odeled as a s y s te m of c o n n e c t e d finite bean
e le m e n t s . Bending eq uation s are developed for e a c h pipe e le m e n t and
boun d ary co n d itio n s m a t c h e d b e tw e e n e le m e n t s . T h e s y s te m eq uation s
are th e n developed in to a m a t r i x fo rm and solved using m a t r i x t e c h ­
niq ues.
By proper se le ctio n of the p ip e -e le m e n t length, d efle ctio n s of e ach
pipe e l e m e n t c a n be kept sm all, u sually w ith re sp e ct to a local co o rd i­
n a te s y s te m . T h i s m a k e s it possible to use the linear fo rm of the bending
differential e q u atio n for e a c h pipe e le m e n t as d escribed in S ection 4 .2 2 1 .

4.226 Method for Thick Concrete Coating

In c e rt a in pipeline installatio n s, it m a y be n e ce ss a ry to in crease the

pipe su bm erg ed w eig ht sufficiently to w ith s ta n d h y d r o d y n a m ic forces
a t the seabed. T h i s m a y require a large th ic k n e s s of c o n c r e t e c o a tin g on
th e pipe. As a result, w h e n pipe is bent, su ch as during in stallation by a
lay barge, bending stre sses are intensified at the field joints due to
r e d u ctio n in flexural stiffness a t th ese joints.
f P ro ced u re s for c a lc u la t in g intensified stresses in pipelines w ith e x ­
tr e m e c o n c r e t e co a tin g s during laying c a n be developed based o n the
I effective-stiffness c o n c e p t . T h e pipe effective stiffness c a n be used to
d e te r m in e th e pipe s ta t ic co n figu ra tio n , th en using stre ss in ten sifica­
tio n fa cto rs a t th e field joint to find m a x i m u m bending stresses in the
pipe strin g. T h i s allo w s use of various pip e-laying a n aly se s m e th o d s.
W h e n pipe is bent, one po rtio n of th e co a ti n g is su bjected to tensile
fo rce s an d a n o th e r portion is su bjected to c o m p re s s iv e loads. Since
te n s ile s tre n g th of c o n c r e te is negligible, th e c o n c r e t e p o rtio n in te n sio n
fails and th e neutral axis of the c o m p o s it e cro ss s e c tio n of pipe and
c o a t i n g shifts.
Bending stre sses in the o u te r fibers of steel pipe in crea se o n the tensile
side and d e crea se on the co m p re s s iv e side. At the field joints, pipe is bare
e x c e p t for a co rr o sio n co a tin g or freshly applied c o n c r e t e w h ic h offers
little additional stiffness to th e pipe. T h ere fo re , bending stiffness is
red u ced at the field joint, and ad ditional cu r v a tu r e o c c u r s at the joint to
b a la n ce the bending m o m e n t in c o n c r e te - c o a te d pipe. T h is in creases
bend in g stresse s at the field joint.
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 91

Shift in n e u tra l axis c a n be c a lc u la t e d fr o m the eq uilib rium of forces

applied a t th e c ro ss s e c tio n (Figure 4 .1 6 ). If an ideal bond b e tw e e n the
c o n c r e te ja c k e t and steel pipe is a ssu m e d , th e n coated -p ip e " b o n d e d ”
flexural stiffness ( K J ca n be c a lc u la t e d d irectly as s h o w n in Figure 4 .1 6 .
H o w e v e r, e x p e rim e n t a l stu d ies h ave s h o w n th a t w h e n co n c re te -

Concrete failed

,1 :

compression
Shift in neutral axis
2 F — / o, dA„ + / v c d A c о ( 1),а ~ r ccos «
<r. = E . ( y / R ) , « - r =--■ E c ( y / R )
Substitute in (1):
r cl t c s in <* - « a t, r, - я N r j ba — о
An iterative procedure yields the shift in neutral axis.

N = E4/E,.

lii
т
Strains Steel Concrete
stresses stress
londed stiffness, X c
K c = E , ( I, + А „а ;) + Ec I c

I c = Jy’ dA ,
= « [(r„‘ - r,*)/4 t a'J (r,,* r r ) ] + sin 2 “ (r0* - r, 4)
— (4 /3 ) a sin « (r01 r, ’)

4.16 C oated-pipe bonded stiffness

co a ted pipe is bent, slippage o c c u rs b etw een the co n c re te c o a tin g and
in te r la cin g m aterial, thus red u cin g c o m p ressiv e stresses in c o n c r e te .
T h is slippage is caused by shear forces b e tw ee n c o n c r e te and the
in terlace m a te rial w h ich inhibits the c o a tin g from in creasin g flexual
stillness of the pipe. Length of pipe over w h ich slippage o c c u r s depends
on c o n c r e te th ick n e ss and strength and m a x i m u m bond stress b etw een
it and in terfacing m aterial.
Studies by M ogbo et al. (1 9 7 0 ) m e asu re d pipe length over w h ich
slippage o ccu rs. A plot of the product of bond stress and affected slippage
length v s . c o n c r e te th ick n e ss were obtained for a given c o n c r e te c r u s h ­
ing strength.
Due to tins slipping behavior, a tlexural-stiffness distrib ution along
the n o m is assu m ed , as sh o w n in Figure 4 .1 7 . Stiffness at the pipe ends is

4.17 Stiiiiu^s d i s t r i b u t i o n
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 9

th at of bare pipe w h i c h in creases over the affected length (lj) u ntil full
p o ten tial of the c o n c r e t e c o a tin g is realized. L en g th of pipe where
bonded stiffness of co a te d pipe is reach ed is te r m e d l c.
An e xp re ssio n developed by W ilho it and M e rw in (1 9 6 7 ) c a n be used to
e s ti m a te effective pipe stiffness:

Kt.„ = (21j K, + K,.lr |/L |4.16)

W h ere: K, = O S |K, + Ks)

L - Pipe joint length
Ks = E,IS, steel pipe stiffness

If slippage o c c u r s o v e r the en tire length of the pipe joint, flexural

stiffness ot the pipe joint is:

K,.„ --- (K. + Kr)/2 (4.171

W here: K, th e reduced valu e of pipe stiffness ( K J w h e n full p otential

of K, is not reached.
E valu ation of Kr requires an e x p e r im e n t a l procedure. H ow ever, a
co n se rv a tiv e ap proach is to a s s u m e th at full p oten tial of additional
c o n c r e te stiffness is reached at the pipe joint m id p o in t and th at stiffness
d istrib ution is th at s h o w n in Figure 4 17. Effective stiffness of the pipe is
then:

К,,, (К., . K, '..2 (4.181

C o n c e r n i n g stress at field joints, to satisfy eq uilib rium of the pipe

joint, the bending m o m e n t induced in the co a te d s e c tio n of the pipe
m u s t be balanced by an eq uiv alen t m o m e n t at the Held joint.
Since flexural stiffness ot the field joint is less th an the effective
stiffness of c o a te d pipe, sn e s s e s are in creased in the Held joint. Effects of
pipe weight and axial tension m u st be included w h en c a lc u la tin g these
stresses.
If the effects of te n sio n variation and additional bending due to pipe
w eight along a single pipe joint are n eg lected, then, for a given m ean
radius, stress in te n sificatio n at the Held joint is:

f - m a x i m u m stress on the field j o i n t / m a x i m u m

stress in co ated pipe
 W h e re : <rb = |M ) |r r/I,)
<т« = (M) (Es) (r, + a )/K r
M = M a x i m u m bending m o m e n t in the pipe

T herefore, stre ss-in ten sificatio n fa cto r for a given m e a n radius is:

f = (Kr) (r j / (EsIsj (r. + a) (4.20|

T o illu strate this analysis, suspended p ipe-string con figu ra tio n s were
c a lc u la te d for several pipelines w h e re a u n ifo rm stiffness w as assu m e d
along the pipe string. Variations of pipe d is p la ce m e n ts vs. bare-pipe
stiffness, b o n d e d -co a ted stiffness, and effective stiffness are sh o w n in
Figure 4 17.
Pipe d is p la c e m e n ts are d im e n sio n less, so th at the n u m b e r of pipe
p a ra m e te rs w h ich need to be con sid ered are reduced. T h is is done w hen
dividing d is p la c e m e n ts by a pipe c h a ra c te r is tic .le n g th |LC). N o rm a liz e d
stiffness is ob tain ed by dividing pipe a s s u m e d stiffness by bare-pipe
stiffness. For e x a m p le , bare-pipe n o rm a liz ed stiffness = 1.
In e a c h of the th ree different pipe stiffnesses studied, m a x i m u m
in tensified stre ss in the sagbend has been d e te rm in e d and n o rm a liz e d by
dividing by the m a x i m u m sagbend stress for the bare pipe. T h is n o r­
m alized stre ss is sh o w n for e a ch of the ca lcu la te d pipe co n fig u ratio n s in
Figure 4 .1 8 . W h e n n o rm alize d stress equals one, m a x i m u m sagbend
stress equals th a t for bare pipe.
Figure 4 . 1 8 s h o w s th a t th e m a x i m u m sagbend stress in the pipeline is
subs tan tially in creased w h en in creased pipe stiffness due to c o n c re te
co a tin g is considered. F u rth erm o re , use of effective stiffness yields less
co n se rv a tiv e and m o r e realistic stresses th an use of the bonded c o a te d
stiffness.
A n alysis of this data a lso sh o w s th at increasing pipe tension has
a l m o s t no effect on the sagbend b en d in g s tr e s s e s for very h ea v y
pipelines. For m o s t applications, a lon g stinger is needed w h ic h w ou ld
virtually support the pipeline to the seabed. T h i s procedure can be used
to e s t i m a t e m a x i m u m stresses in th e pipe string, particularly at the field
joints d urin g laying. Effective pipe flexural stiffness is evalu a ted on the
basis of c e r t a in generalized e x p e rim e n ta l results.
If slits are m a d e along the pipe, effective stiffness of the pipe is
reduced, and stress inten sification at the field joints decreases. T h e s e
slits c a n be m ad e by saw ing the c o n c r e te c o a tin g or using jetting
nozzles.
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a lysis \

4.227 Dynamic Effects

T h e p reviou s d isc u ss io n s on pipe-lay analysis have addressed static

analysis of the pipe string. In reality, the pipe strin g exten d in g from
te n sio n er to the seafloor is su bject to d y n a m ic e x c it a tio n s due to barge
m o t io n s and to d irect h y d r o d y n a m ic a c tio n on the pipeline and stinger.
In early design efforts, it was assu m ed th at a design factor of 0 .8 5
(lim iting o verbend stre ss to 8 5 % of yield) would be adequate to a c co u n t
for additional d y n a m ic stre sse s on the pipe in the overbend region. A
m o re co n s e rv a ti v e a llo w a n c e was made for pipe in the sagbend region
 o 'f i j ipe iibiyi ' jysis. .

since pipe w as not supported there. It is im p o r ta n t to n ote th at these

a llo w a n ce s were adequate w h ere laying w as done in ca lm to m od erate
w e a t h e r conditions.
A m o r e im po rtan t c o n se q u e n ce of the pipe string d y n a m ic s is the
ten sion v ariatio n s in the pipe. T h e barge m o tio n s, p articularly heave
m o tio n , can cau se significant ch a n g es in the pipe tension, especially in
d ee p w ate r applications. T h is m u s t be carefully e x a m in e d in design of
ten sio n ers for deep w a te r or for se v e re - e n v i ro n m e n t applications.
T h e pipe and barge d y n a m ic s m a y also c a u s e pipe s la m m in g on the
supports and resu lt in c o a tin g d am ag e. An adverse effect of barge and
pipe d y n a m i c s often is d am age to the sting er or the stinger h itch
D y n a m i c an alysis of the pipe string is c o m p le x , requiring c o m p u ter-
aided so lu tions. C o m p u t e r an alyses performed by the au th o r on su s­
pended pipe spans and floating p ro d u ctio n risers have sh ow n that
d y n a m ic -t e n s i o n v a riatio n s c a n be as large as th ree ti m e s the static
tension m d ee p w a te r ap plications. T h e s e ten sio n v ariatio n s aie mainly
caused by m o t io n s of the surface-laying vessel.

4.3 Reel-Barge Method

T h e reel-barge m e t h o d of laying su b m a rin e pipelines uses a c o n t i n u ­

ous length of pipe c oiled o n to a reel. A sse m b ly of th is pipe string is done
on shore, and n o n d e s tr u c tiv e te stin g is c o m p le te d prior to co iling the
pipe. B e cau se of coiling, no c o n c r e te c o a tin g c a n be used and relatively
h e av y wall th ick n e sse s are required to avoid pipe flattening and, in s o m e
cases, to provide additional w eig ht for pipe stability on the seabed. T h is
m e th o d of in stallation is illu strated in Figure 4 .1 9 .
Pipe bundles can be in stalled by a reel barge. T h e pipes are banded
to g e th e r as th ey are loaded o n spools at the sh ore facility. T h e n u m b e r of
pipes per bundle depends on th e reel size and pipe d ia m e te r. If the bundle
is to be co m p o se d of pipe of various d ia m ete rs , it m a y be n e ce ss a ry to use
portable reels and c o m p le t e banding during the lay o peration. Multiple
reels are n o t req u ired b e c a u s e of reel l i m i t a t i o n s but b e c a u s e of
stra ig h te n e r lim itatio n s.
T w o co n fig u ra tio n s for reel barges are in u se: the vertical reel, su ch as
the S anta Fe A p a c h e , and the h o riz o n ta lly m o u n te d reel, su ch as the
S an ta Fe C h i c k a s a w . U s e of th e v e r t ic a l reel is a d v a n t a g e o u s in
d e e p w a te r applications, sin ce it c a n be loaded for discharge from the top
and not require a stinger. B e ca u se of the relatively large size of pipe
w h ic h c a n be handled by the Santa Fe A p a c h c , an adjustable deck-
m o u n te d ra m p is used to c o n tro l the pipe-entry angle.
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a lysis | 97

Pipeline in s ta lla tio n is a c c o m p li s h e d by u n coilin g and straightening

the pipe as th e barge m o v e s forward. Pipe laying can take place at
relatively high sp eeds; d y n a m ic positioning can be used as opposed to
m u lt ip o in t a n c h o r s y s te m s .
In itiatio n of th e pipeline is sim ila r to c o n v e n tio n a l lay-barge o p e ra­
tions. O ffsh ore su pp ort for reel-barge operation is generally lim ited to a
to w in g vessel and diving support. T h e Santa Fe A p a c h c has been
designed to allo w for self-diving support.
T h e c a p a c ity of pipe o n the reel barge depends on the reel size and pipe
d iam e te r. T h e S a n ta F c A p a c h e has a ca p a city of 2 , 0 0 0 short ton of pipe
( 2 6 5 , 0 0 0 ft of 4 -in . pipe to 3 0 , 0(X) ft of 16-in. pipe). Lay rates for reel
barges are ab o u t 1 to 2 m i /h r.
T h e reel m e t h o d has been used e xte n siv e ly to install s m all-d iam e te r
pipe in rela tiv ely sh allo w w a t e r depths. A d eep-w ater in stallation test
using the S a n ta Fe C h i c k a s a w barge to lay and recover a 10-in.-diam eter
X - 4 2 grade pipe w ith a 0 .5 -i n W T in 1 ,0 0 0 ft of w a te r was c o m p le te d in
19 75 . A 1 15-ft stin g er lim ited sagbend stresses during the laying op era­
tion.
T h e p urpose of this test was twofold: (1) to test operational con
strain ts for ree l-typ e in stallation in deep water, and (2) to d eterm in e
m e ta llu rg ica l e ffe cts on pipe of reel installation in deep water. Results of
the test p ro g ra m in d icated that reel installation in deep w ater is te ch n i­
cally feasible, and it identified a p oten tial m ateria l problem in line pipe.
9 8 | O ffs h o ro P ip e lin e D e s ig n . A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

C old w o rk in g asso ciated with coiling and u nco ilin g and subsequ en t
strain aging effect w h en the pipeline is in serv ice ca n significantly
reduce the im pact re sista n ce of the pipe. A m ateria l sp ecification
requiring e x tr a tou g h ness of the pipe sh ould be stated w h e n the reel-lay
m e t h o d is to he u sed . T h i s c a n be o b t a i n e d by a v a il a b l e pipe-
m a n u fa ctu rin g te ch n o lo g y s u ch as a higher m a n g a n e se -to -ca rb o n ratio,
lowering the su lp h ur and p hosphorous c o n te n t, and m odifying the steel
with van adium and n iob iu m .
T h e m a m ad vantage for a reel-barge in sta lla tio n include:

■ Im proved p ro d u ctio n c o n tro l at o n sh o re facility.

■ Reduced im p a ct of adverse w e a t h e r c o n d itio n s due to pipe in stalla ­
tion speed.
■ Ability to assem b le and co il pipe of v a rio u s sizes for seq uential
installation.
■ Ability to a sse m b le and coil pipe bundles. -

P rim ary d isad v antag es of the reel-barge in sta lla tio n include:

■ M a x i m u m pipe size lim ita t io n of 10 to 16-in. d iam eter.

■ Heavy wall th ic k n e s s e s required for coiling.
■ Lim ited length of pipe w h ic h c a n be reeled o n a single reel.

T his m ay require the use of m u ltip le loadings of the reel, w ith the
recovery and c o n n e c t io n to prior-laid s e g m e n ts of pipe. If m o r e th an one
reel load is required, lo ca tio n of the sh ore-su p p ort facility and the
loading and travel ti m e b e c o m e im p o r ta n t factors in e v alu a tin g the reel
m ethod .

4 .4 T o w M etho d

T o w m eth o d s ol pipeline installation, like the reel m e th o d , offer the

advantage of pipe assem b ly on shore. Also, to w in g requires relatively
small vessels for tra n sp o rtatio n of pipe strings to the in stalla tio n site.
Four tow m e th o d s are cu rre n tly being developed or have been c o m m e r ­
cially d e m o n stra te d :

■ Surtace tow.
■ Below -surface tow.
■ O n -b o tt o m tow .
■ O ff-b otto m tow
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 99

T h e pipe-string a s s e m b ly is c o m m o n to all m e t h o d s and c a n be done

a t an o n sh o re m a k e -u p yard or by a lay barge in sh a llo w , p ro te c te d w ater.
T o w tests, p rov in g th e feasibility of lo n g -d ista n ce to w , have been
d e m o n s tra te d . In 1 9 7 5 , a 3 , 2 8 0 - ft str in g of 1 6 - in. pipe w a s to w ed below
the s u rface for a d is ta n c e of 5 6 0 m ile s . A lso in 1 9 7 5 , a 2 ,0 0 0 - f t string
m a d e up of 16-in. and 3 0 -in. pipe w a s b o t t o m - t o w e d a b o u t 2 4 0 m iles.
T h e to w ro u te in clu d ed w a t e r d e p th s in e x c e s s of 1 , 0 0 0 ft.
In July 1 9 7 6 , th ree s e c ti o n s of 3 2 -i n . pipeline |Frigg-St. Fergus) w ere
b o tto m -to w e d ab o ut 5 m i le s and tied in to a c o n c r e t e c o m p re ss io n
p latform sta n d in g in 3 0 0 ft of w a t e r (the p la tf o rm w a s lo cated about
m id w a y b e tw e e n Frigg Field and St. Fergus). In 1 9 7 7 , tw o additional
c o m m e r c i a l ap p licatio n s of b o tto m to w w ere c o m p le t e d : a 7,40 0-ft,
3 6 - in. d ia m e t e r pipeline w as m ad e up at S tavanger, N o r w a y , and tow ed
2 3 6 m iles to c o n n c c t the C o m le c p A p latfo rm in th e N o r t h Sea w ith a
nearb y loading p latform T h e tow ro u te cro ssed th e N o rw e g ia n T r e n c h
at a depth of 1 ,2 6 0 ft
In late 1 9 7 7 , a 3 ,4 0 0 - f t se ctio n of 10-in. d ia m e t e r reserve loading line
in the Argyll Field c o m p l e x w as c u t and to w ed a l o n g a 1 5-m ile route and
positioned to o p erate as a flowline b e tw e e n tw o w ellheads. T h is w ork
w as done m 2 5 0 -f t wate r d e p t h .
T h e tow force depends on the pipe s u b m e rg e d w e ig h t, len g th of tow ed
seg m en t, and friction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw ee n pipe and seabed soils. For
exa m p le , a 1 2 -in .-d ia m e te r flowline, 5 , 0 0 0 ft long w ith a subm erged
w eight of 25 lb/ft, the b o tto m to w ed o v er clay, would require a bollard
pull of about 25 t o n s . A tow vessel of ab o ut 1 5 0 hp w ould be required.
For tow applicat ions using b u o y an cy , the required to w p o w e r depends
on several variables, su ch as tow speed, pipe size, drag coefficients, and
b u o y an cy sy ste m H o w ev er, it can be m u c h lo w er th an required for
b o tto m tow.

4.41 M a k e -U p Are a

T h e selectio n ot the m a k e -u p site lo catio n is g en erally an im portant

factor for pipe m akeup. E valuation ot the surf zone, the near-shore
co n to u rs, and the d istan ce lio m beach to 2 0 - 3 0 - f t w a te r depth are
prim ary c o n sid e ratio n s tor site selection . T o o p tim iz e lau n ch in g of the
pipeline from the m a k e-u p site, 2 0 3 0 -f t w a te r d epth sh ould be within
3 , 0 0 0 ft of the shore I me. After s ele ctio n of the site location , the make-up
area size and conti guiat i o i u a n he laid out to fit available space and work
required for clearin g and giailmg.
T h e site layout should include m a tc ria i-s to ra g e area, pipe make-up
о ..П. ■ ч, I Vi.-ic

area, p ip e -s trm g storage area, and lau n ch w a y . T y p ic a l string lengths for

to w a p p licatio n s are 1 ,0 0 0 to 5 , 0 0 0 ft. H o w ev e r, strin g lengths depend
on available space. Short m ake-up strin gs will in crease la u n ch tim e
because ot the ad ditional handling and t i c - m welds required. Pipe
storage and string m ak e-u p is on te m p o rary sleepers. T h e la u n ch w a y
can be m ad e up of rollers, tracked dolly units, or a flotation ca n a l. Figure
4 . 2 0 п -presents a typical m ak e-u p yard.

‘I 2 0 I dw string m a k e - u p yard
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is j

As the strin gs are assembled, they ca n be n o n d e s tr u c tiv e ly and

h y d r o s ta tica lly tested. A lte r com p le tin g a s s e m b ly and testin g of the
strings, a to w in g head is a tta ch e d to the first strin g and the to w in g cable
is s ecu re d to th e to w in g vessel. R unning and s ta n d in g hold -b ack s y s­
te m s are p o sitio n e d on the la u n ch w a y to restrain the pipe d uring tie-in
of s u c c e s s iv e strings. T h e tie-in welds are c o m p le t e d and X -ra y e d on the
la u n c h w a y . B u o y a n c y and ch ain can be added to th e pipe if required.
I’ ipe m a k e -u p c a n also be a cc o m p lish ed on a c o n v e n t io n a l lay barge in
p ro te cte d w a te r. T h e lay barge would be m o o red and the pipe pulled off
in strings o r in on e c o n tin u o u s length. T h is te c h n iq u e w as used in the
N o r th Sea to prepare three 2,St)()-tt se ctio n s of 3 2 -i n . d ia m e t e r pipe
w h ic h w e re b o t t o m - t o w e d into position for riser c o n n e c t i o n s to the
M C P p la tfo rm of the Frigg pipeline sy ste m .

4.42 Types of Tow Installations

4.421 Surface and Below-Surface Tow

Surface tow , as illu strated in Figure 4 . 2 1, uses p o n to o n s to support the

pipeline at the w a t e r surface. Below -surface tow , illu strated in Figure
4 .2 2 , uses flotation d ev ices to support the pipe strin g b elow significant
w ave a c tio n . Spar b uoy s are generally used to li m it the a m o u n t of
su rface m o t i o n transferred to the pipeline.

H o ld -b a c k vessel Tow vessel

F lo ta tio n
-'■?— ------- fp — ----- C l . --------
— ' t _ r 11------ и -------- u — - —LL. тЛ±ш. i i — tit ---- ----- I - a "
Pipe C able
Tow sled

4.21 Su rface to w

H o ld -b a c k vessel Tow vessel

Spar buoy
ft П
• ir t д г Л —т : *-----1 г Ъ
\ ----м,A— u—1 - " O
c nd O
b iie^ *
F lo ta tio n Pipe
Tow sled

4 .2 ? licU>w-surfiH с t o w
102 ) O ffs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

In ad dition to the prim ary tow vessel, a secon d vessel is usually

needed for control of the floating strin g in b o th of th e su rfac e-to w
tech n iq u es. This hold back vessel c a n generally be s m a l le r th an the
p rim a ry -to w vessel, as it is o n ly required to e x e r t a r e l a tiv e ly sm all
tension force on the string. H o w e v er, it m a y be desirable to use tw o
or even three vessels of the s a m e size to provide red u n d a n c y during a
long tow.
T h e b uoyancy units are installed as th e pipeline is la u n c h e d from the
m a k e -u p site. A t the installation site, pipe is low ered by a p rocedure
developed for the specific in stallation . L o w e rin g c a n be a c c o m p li s h e d
by using a stinger-equipped lay barge, reg u latin g b u o y a n cy of th e p o n ­
toons, im p le m e n tin g a pull-down p roced ure w i th sh e a v e s a n ch o r e d to
the seafloor, or c o m b in in g th ese te ch n iq u e s.
T h e ad vantage of surface or near-su rface to w in g is th e re la tiv e ly low
horsep ow er re q u ire m en t for the to w vessel. T h e m a i n d isa d v a n ta g e s are
th e su scep tib ility to surface co n d itio n s (s o m e w h a t re d u ce d by below-
su rface tow), e xp o su re to m a r in e traffic, and th e sp ecial c o n s id e ra tio n s
required for low erin g the line, w h ic h c a n in clu d e in cre a se d p ull-d ow n
loads due to b u o y an cy tanks.
A group of French firms, headed by E PM , developed a p ro ced u re for
pipeline in stallation k n o w n as R A T , R em o rq u a g e (towing), Ab o u tag e
(tie-in), T e n sio n . T h is is a co m b in a ti o n m e t h o d w h e re b y a lay barge is
used to lower the pipe to the seabed, but a surface or n e a r-su rfa ce to w is
used to supply long lengths of pipe to the barge. T h i s m e t h o d m i n i m iz e s
offshore w ork and also reduces the size and c o m p l e x i t y of th e barge.
T h is m eth o d uses o n sho re m a k e-u p of pipe strings, su rface to w to the
installation site, and a modified lay barge for c o n n e c t i n g strin g s and
lo w erin g the pipe to the seafloor.
Figure 4 .2 3 illu strates this m e th o d . B e cau s e the lay barge requires
only one welding station, it can be of a relatively sm all size an d capable
of d y n a m ic positioning. T h e m e th o d is a d v a n tag e o u s for pip elines of

J o in in g b a rg e Tow o ut
..^
S tin g e r

./P ip e

Ш "

4.23 RAT method

 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a ly s is | 103

steel needing special w eld in g or h e a t-tre a tin g procedures, as the string

c o n n e c t io n s offshore w o u ld n o t significantly slow the relative laying
rate. T e s t a p p licatio n s of this m e t h o d were su ccessfu lly c o m p le te d in
1 9 7 5 and 1 9 7 7 .
T h e R A T m e t h o d is an e x te n s io n of a m e th o d developed an d p aten ted
by G as de F ra n ce. T h e m e t h o d uses floats w ith variable b u o y a n cy to
support the pipe d o w n to the seabed. T h e floats provide the support th at
would n o rm a lly be provided by the stinger and tensioners in a c o n v e n ­
tional lay barge. A sm all a m o u n t of ten sio n is required at th e surface.
D e v e lo p m e n t tests, in clu d in g in sta llatio n and retrieval of 3 ,0 0 0 - f t
se ctio n s of 10-in. d ia m e t e r line in w a te r depths to 6 , 0 0 0 ft, were
su ccessfu lly c o m p le t e d . C o m m e r c i a l installations using this te ch n iq u e
have been co m p le t e d in 1 ,0 0 0 -f t w a t e r depths in the M ed ite rra n e an Sea
and for a 1 0 -i n .- d i a m e te r line in Lake G e n e v a in w a te r depths to 1 ,1 0 0 ft.

4.422 Off-Bottom Tow

O ff-b o tto m to w in g is an ad ap tatio n of the below -surface technique. It

also requires both a p rim ary to w vessel and a sm all hold -back vessel.
B u o y a n cy tan k s arc a tt a c h e d to the pipe string at specified intervals, and
the tow and h o ld-back sleds are positively b uoyan t. Lengths of ch ain are
suspended from the b u o y a n c y tan k s. D u ring the tow , the weight of the
ch ain raised off the seafloor b alan ces the b u o y an t thrust, and the pipe
string is supported at a p re d e te rm in ed design height off the seafloor.
T his m eth o d is illu strated m Figure 4 24.
if t h e t o w r o u t e i n c l u d e s a r e a s w h e r e l a t e r a l c u r r e n t s m i g h t a f f e c t t h e
s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p i p e , t h e l e n g t h o f c h a i n p u l l e d o n t h e s e a b e d c a n he
designed to provide a sta b iliz in g force. Should the tow route cross

4. 24 ( ) t l h i H t o m t ow
i O ' jn s h pour iig n /sis, nunc

e x is tin g pipelines or o th e r o b stru ctio n s, the trailing tug c a n hold te n ­

sion on the line cau sin g a ch an g e in the string co n fig u ratio n . T h e
a m o u n t of hold-back ten sio n c o n tro l s the additional height to w h ic h the
line is raised ab ove the sea floor to red u ce sagging. T h e line will re tu rn to
its norm al to w in g co n fig u ratio n as tension is released.
T h e prim ary ad v an tag es of o ff-b o tto m tow in g include:

■ R elatively low h o rsep o w er re q u ire m e n ts.

* Expo su re to o th e r m a r in e traffic is lim ite d to relativ ely sh allow
w a te r areas su ch as the la u n c h zone.
■ Expo su re to adverse w e a t h e r con d itio n s is significantly reduced.

T h e m a m d isadvantage of off-b o ttom tow for d eepw ater in s talla tio n s

is in the design and e c o n o m i c s of the buoy an cy sy ste m , both for to w
o p eratio ns and re lea se /re trie v al at the installation site. D e e p w a t e r
applicatio ns m a y require th a t b u o y a n cy tan k s be partially pressurized
an d/o r designed w ith pressu re-vcssel ratings to avoid co llapse.

4.423 Bottom Tow

B o tto m tow requires c e rta in design co n sid e ratio n s w h ic h differ from

the crite ria for th e o th e r to w tech n iq u es. T h is difference in design
approach is p rim arily because all but the leading end of the pipe s trin g is
in c o n s ta n t c o n t a c t w ith the sea floor. T h e tw o te ch n iq u es for float-
suspended pipe strings are not c ritica lly affected by the selected tow
route.
In b o t t o m - t o w design, the to w ro u te is one of the basic design factors.
R o u te co n sid e ra tio n s affect co a ti n g design for abrasion criteria , stab ility
during tow , to w vessel size, and o p t i m u m length of tow ed s e g m e n ts.
M ultiple ro u te su rv e y s m ay be required to identify an a cce p ta b le to w in g
corridor. R o u te su rveys and installatio n -site surveys should in clude a
detailed investigatio n of v ariations in soil co n d itio n s to be e n c o u n te r e d ,
b o tto m c u rre n ts , b o t t o m co n to u rs, and identification of o b s tr u c ti o n s
w ith in the corridor. R oute su rveys should include the n ea r-sh o re and
surf zon es at proposed m a k e-u p sites in the sa m e detail as the d e ep w a ter
co rrid or. T h i s m e th o d is illustrated in Figure 4 .2 5 .
T h e p rim a ry ad v antag es of b o tto m tow ov er o th e r tow m e t h o d s
include:

■ M in im a l e xp o sure to severe w e a t h e r co nditions.

■ Safety w i th w h ic h the pipe c a n be abandoned if w e a th e r c o n d itio n s
e x c e e d to w -v essel lim its.
 In s ta lla tio n M e th o d s a n d A n a lysis \

■ T h e lo n g -te rm stability ot the pipe strin g restin g in its tow track.

B o tto m tow does not require a hold back vessel.

T h e m a in disadvantages ot this m e th o d are:

■ H igher h o rse p o w e r req u irem e n ts for the to w vessel.

■ E x p o su re to d a m ag e ot the pipe co ating .
■ T h e potential for the pipe to he c a u g h t in seabed o b stru ctio n s.

As stated earlier, a n u m b e r ot b o tto m -to w in sta llation s have been

m a d e , d e m o n s tr a t in g the m e th o d 's viability and a d v an tages for certain
ap plications. T h e s e ap plications are e c o n o m ic a l ly a tt r a c t i v e for short
flow lines and in r e m o te areas w h eie m o b iliz a tio n and d em ob ilizatio n
c o s ts can be substantial.
 Pipeline Trenching Methods

5.1 General

A p ip e lin e -tren ch in g operation is defined as the process oi c u tti n g a

tren ch in to w h ic h the pipe settles. T h e tr e n c h m a y he backfilled
e v en tu a lly by natural processes. A pipe-burial o p eratio n is s o m e t im e s
defined as the p rocess of tre n ch in g the pipeline, then backfilling the
trench . Backfill can be by natural actio n or by engineered m e ch a n ica l
eq uipm ent.
In ce rta in cases, burial is defined to m e a n the s a m e as trenching.
U n le s s o th e rw ise specifically stated, a pipeline-burial o p eration is d e­
fined in the s a m e way as pipeline tr e n c h in g in this book T h e various
tre n ch in g p a ra m e te rs are defined in Figure S.I, including depth of

A = D e p th o f tre n c h С = D e p th o f b u ria l

В = L o w e rin g d e p th D = D e p th o f c o v e r

5.1 Pj n*>- * r <>nrhi nv / I n f i n i t i n n s

1Ф /&
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s \ 107

trench , depth of burial, lo w erin g depth, and d epth of cov er. As seen in
this figure, burial depth is different from tr e n c h in g depth.
Pipe tr e n c h in g m a y be d o ne using th ree different m od es: (1) p re­
trench in g, w h e re a tren ch is m a d e prior to pipeline in stallatio n ; (2)
sim u l ta n e o u s tren ch in g , w h e re tr e n c h in g o c c u r s during the in stallation
p rocess; and (3) p o st-tren ch in g , w h ere tr e n c h in g is done subsequ en t to
the pipeline in sta llation . L o c a tio n of the pipe to u c h d o w n point during
laying m a y be difficult to c o n tro l in deep w ater, m a k in g it difficult to
po sition the pipe in a predug trench . H e n ce , p re tre n ch in g is used in
s h a llo w -w a te r applicatio ns, and m a y also be em p lo y e d if pipe is pulled
into the tr e n c h using e ith e r pull or to w te ch n iq u e s for in stallation.

5.2 Factors Affecting Burial Requirements

Several facto rs are considered to d e te rm in e the burial req u irem e n ts of

a su b m arin e pipeline. T h e s e factors include h y d ro d y n am ic forces on the
pipeline during lifetim e; spans, o b stru ctio n s, rock outcroppin gs, and
boulders w h ic h m a y be e n c o u m e i c d along the pipeline rou te; scou r
co n d itio n s; potential of fishing tr.iu I in terferen ce w ith the pipeline; and
p o ten tial of a n c h o r c o n t a c t w ith the pipeline due to an ch o r dropping or
dragging.

5.21 Hydrodynamic Effects

An offshore pipeline is designed so that it re m a in s stable on the seabed

during c o n s t r u c t i o n w h en the pipeline is e m p ty . It the pipeline is to
rem ain stable on the seabed during its lifetim e, n is e ith er designed with
an adequate w eight to ensure stability while exposed or buried below
the seabed. S election of the m o st tec h n ica lly and e c o n o m ic a lly feasible
a lte rn ativ e is based on a detailed e va lu a tion of tech n ic al, e c o n o m ic , and
risk a s p e cts ass o cia te d w ith each of the a lte rn a te m etho d s. It is possible
th at the pipeline m a y be light and trenched over portions of its length
and m a y be designed to he heavy over o th e r p ortions of its length.
H y d ro d y n am ic effects are usually m ore e x t r e m e in the near-shore
zon e than in the offshore area. In m an y cases, the required pipeline
c o n c r e te c o a tin g for stability near the shore zone m a y b e c o m e e x tr e m e ,
ca u s in g c o m p li c a tio n s in the handling of the pipe during c o n s tru c tio n .
H ence, m o s t pip elines are n o rm ally tr ench ed below the m u d line in the
near sh ore zone.
, J f i s h , . , , , , ,p e !n ... . , o 3 i g n . . . . . „ . / s i s , .H e th o ^ o

5.22 Spans and Obstructions

W h en the pipeline spans arc exposed to cu r r e n t flows n ea r the seabed,

the pipe span m ay vibrate due to v o rte x-s h e d d in g effects. T h e s e effects
ca n b eco m e severe if the Strouhal (see C h a p te r 3) v o rte x frequency
becom es c o m p ara b le to the n atu ral frequ en cy of the pipe span. Hence,
pipeline free spans m u st be reduced below the c ritic a l lengths to
elim in ate or m i n i m iz e the vorte x-sh ed d in g effects o n th e pipe. Usually,
spans c an be e lim in a te d or reduced by tr e n c h in g the pipeline along
either side of the span.
O b s tr u c tio n s s u c h as ridges and o th e r e lev a te d ro u gh n ess sp ots on the
seabed m ay e xist along the pipeline ro u te. T h e s e o b s tru c tio n s may
induce e x c e s s iv e bending stresses in th e pipe, th u s in creasing risks of
dam age O b s tr u c t io n s can be elim in ated or m i n i m iz e d by presweeping
operations, w h e re a wide tre n ch is m ad e alo n g th e pipeline ro u te prior to
pipeline in stallatio n on the seabed. If th ese ridges c a u s e e x ce ssiv e
stresses in the pipeline during te stin g or in o p era tio n and are n ot severe
enough to c a u s e high stresses in the pipe w h e n the pipe is e m p ty , then
these rulges m a y be tren ch e d and m in i m iz e d after the pipeline has been
installed on the seabed.
C o n sid era tio n s for burying the pipeline and d e te r m in a tio n of the
depth due to th ese spans and o b s tru c tio n s are u sually e v alu ated based
on the specific p a ra m e te rs and ro u te -su rv e y data.

5.23 Soil Strength Deterioration Due to Wave Loading

W h e th e r a pipeline is resting on the seabed or em b ed ded in it, soil

stability alon g the pipeline ro u te is e x a m i n e d u nder s ta tic co n d itio n s
and under cy clic-p re ssu re co n d itio n s ca u s e d by passage of a surface
wave It the pipeline is partially or to ta lly buried, it m a y float upward or
settle d o w n w a rd under s to r m con d itio n s, depending o n th e pipe w eight
(including co n te n ts), soil density, and u nd ra in e d sh ea r streng th of the
soil
Under c y c li c loadings of the b o tto m s e d im e n ts ca u se d by passage of a
sto rm wave, significant c y c lic s tresse s m a y develop in clay, g enerating
large pore piessures. As a result, the soil str e n g th b e c o m e s less than the
sta t u undiained shear strength. In sand, the pore p ressure m a y build up
to a pressure equal to the vertical stress, ca u s in g sand liquefaction.
In (he liquefied o r remold ed soil, the pipeline specific gravity is
selected s o the pipe does not float upward or sink d o w n w ard . T he
 P .p i/.V ’i Т ге п а ъ п д M e th o d s | 109

h y d r o d y n a m ic pressure w hich causes soil-stren gth d e terio ra tio n near

th e seabed d ecreases rapidly as the depth ot p en e tra tio n is increased
below the mud line. In s o m e eases, the effect of soil liquefaction on the
pipeline ca n be e lim in a te d if pipe is buried to a sufficient depth below
the seabed. T h is depth of burial can be d e te rm in e d from the e n v iro n ­
m e n ta l co n d itio n s in th e area and pipeline and soil data.

5.24 Fishing Activities

In areas w here traw lin g op erations are active, risks of d am a g e to the

fishing traw l gear and to th e pipeline m u s t be e v alu ated ; m e a s u r e s m u s t
be ta k en to eli m in a te th ese risks or m i n i m iz e t h e m as m u c h as possible.
T h e m od es of possible d am ag e depend on the type of fishing gear used
in the area and on the possible exposed spans along the route. Fishing-
trawl im p a ct on the pipeline may c au se c ra c k s in the c o n c r e te coat
ing, depending 0 1 1 the size and im pact speed ot the fishing trawl. If e x ­
posed pipe spans are present in the tishing areas, then risks e x ist where
the tishing trawl m ay hook the pipeline. D a m a g e m ay be caused
to the fishing ge.ir or to the pipeline I Lizards ot in te r a c tio n b etw een the
tishing gear and the pipeline can usually be alleviated it the pipeline is
tren ch e d below the seabed. T his tre n ch in g would not allow the pipeline
to be an obstacle

5.25 A n c h o r i n g

Л su b m a rin e pipeline m ay be subject to a n c h o r in terferen ces when

installed in an a n ch o ra g e area or acro ss a fairway in the ev en t ot
a ccid e n ta l ship a n ch o rin g during an e m erg e n c y .
Risks ot dam age to the pipeline due to an ch o r dropping or dragging can
be m in im iz e d if the pipeline is trenched below th e p e n e tra tio n depth of
an cho rs. T h e depth of a n ch o r penetration in a given area depends o n the
a n ch o r size, soil ch a ra c te r is tic s , and the height from w h ic h it is dropped.
E xperie n ce indicates th at the pipeline can be p ro te c te d from relatively
sm all a n c h o r s w hen buried to a certain depth. H o w ev e r, in areas where
large a n c h o i s are used or w here the soil is very soft, the required burial
depth for p ro te ctio n ca n be greater than is obtain ab le by trench in g
eq u ip m e n t In su ch cases, oth er m e th o d s of p ro te c tio n m a y have to be
considered, including reroutin g the line in .1 less-h az ard o u s route.
110 | O ffs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a lysis, a n d M e th o d s

5.3 Pipe Trenching Methods

M ust eq uipm ent used in tr e n ch in g su b m a rin e pipelines has em ployed

jetting, sand fluidization, m e c h a n ic a l cu ttin g , o r plowing.

5.31 Jetting Method

The m o st c o m m o n m e th o d for pipe tr e n c h in g has been jetting.

However, since the early use of jetting, little has been done to im prove
the operation. Som e v ariatio n s were m a d e in the design and im p le m e n ­
tation, w here the nozzle configuration and su rface -p u m p in g eq uipm ent
have been modified. As jetting o p erations w ere ad v anced to deep w ater
in the N o rth Sea, c o n tr a c t o r s in creased the size of the support vessels,
streng th ot the m o o rin g sy ste m s, h orsep ow er for the tre n ch in g o p era­
tion, and exp anded diving support facilities.
M ain ob jection s to usin g c o n v e n tio n a l jetting e q u ip m e n t in deep
w a te r are the adverse effects of q u a si-static and d y n a m ic responses of
the u m b ilical hoses. D u e to friction losses, th e se ho ses will likely be
long and bulky, m a k in g th e m difficult to handle and in creasing the risks
of d am age to the pipe, sled, or hoses. A typical jet barge is illustrated in
Figure 5.2.
T r e n c h i n g e fficie n cy also is in flu en ced by e ff e c tiv e n e s s of soi!-
disposal o perations. A ir-su ctio n s y s te m s are ineffective in rem o v in g the
soil in deep w ater. T h is is due to the in creased h y d ro static piessure,
w hich, in turn, ca u ses the air v o lu m e to d e crease appreciably and thus
provides small soil-lilting force on b o tto m . D etailed analyses have
been p erform ed to d escrib e the effect of w a t e r depth on soil lift­
ing capabilities of the a ir-su c tio n s y s te m . T h e resu lts are sh own in
Figure 5.3.
M o st of the ictting e q u ip m e n t cu rre n tly in use is o w n e d and operated
by Brown & Root Inc., ). Ray M c D e r m o t t , and S anta Fe International.
T h i s eq u ip m en t has the following range of capabilities:

■ Available power— 3 , 0 0 0 to 4 2 , 0 0 0 hp.

■ Pipe-size capability— 2 in. to 8 4 in.
■ W a ter-jettin g pressure— 6 0 0 to 2 , 5 0 0 psi.
■ M a x i m u m design operating w a t e r d epth — 6 0 0 to 1 ,0 0 0 ft.
■ W a te r flow rate— 2 , 2 0 0 to 2 0 , 0 0 0 gpm.

Land and M arine (U.K.) o p erates an u n d e rw a te r jetting m ac h in e

w here subm ersible pum ps and m o t o r s are m o u n te d on the m a ch in e .
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 111

5.32 Mechanical Cutting

M e c h a n i c a l c u t t i n g is r e l a tiv e ly new to th e o ffsh o re in d u stry .

M e c h a n i c a l - c u t t i n g e q u ip m en t presently available is lim ited , but se v ­
eral c o m p a n ie s re m a in a ctiv ely engaged in d e v e lo p m e n t. A s u m m a r y of
the m a jo r eq u ip m e n t and statu s is sh o w n in T ab le 5.1
112 | O lfs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

5.3 Spoil removal hv compressed air

Table 5.1 Major Underwater Trenching Machines

O niicj Ilesiyner lid.se 7 ype Propulsion

Brown N Root Houston Cutters Tracks

E I’ M fiance Rotary cutter T w o sidetracks

Kvacrncr-Myren Norway Rotary cutter Pipe tr a ck ing

Land and M a rin e U. K. Jcttinu nozzles 14illed f r o m

with unJerwater surface
pumps

Orenstcm ^ Ko ppcl i .crmany Rotary cutter O n e sidetrac k and

pi pe t r a c k i n g

S.S.O.S I t al y T w o rotary P u sh in g against

cutters pipe

Saipcm Italy F:o u i c u t t e r s Surface-towed

Technomarc I t al y T w o cutterheads T w o tracks with

g u i d a n c e a r m o n pi pe
 P ip e lin e 7ly n c h in g M e th o d s | 113

5.33 Fluidizatlon Method

Flu id ization m e t h o d s are designed for n o n c o h e s iv e soil conditio n s

w h e re co n v e n tio n a l m e t h o d s h a v e been in effective. T h e m e th o d is m o s t
effective in sand and slightly c o h e s iv e s e d im en ts, s u ch as silty clay.
F luid izatio n in vo lv es fo rcin g a large v o lu m e of w a te r in to the soil
su rro u n ding th e pipe, th u s r e d u c i n g t h e soil density and allo w in g p ip e to
settle in the soil. T h e m a i n ad v a n ta g e of this m e th o d is that, during
fluidization, the pipe is im m e d ia te ly co v e re d with sand and full pipe
p ro te c t io n is a c h ie v e d .T h is m e t h o d is illustrated in Figuie 5.4.

Л, ‘V S.i/n/ fin a liz a tio n b u r u i l m e t h o d

 Several tests were c o n d u c te d on the fluidization m e th o d in 1969.
Sin ce then, the m etho d has been tried w ith little s u cc e ss in the D u tc h
s e cto r of the N o rth Sea. T h e m a in disadvantage of th e m e t h o d is that it
is effective only in sandy soils, and co nsiderable v ariation s in soil type
are n orm ally e n co u n tere d along a pipe route. Also, fluidizing eq uipm ent
is large and bulky and requires large v o lu m e s of w ater. H ose-handling
c o m p lic a tio n s are inevitable during o peration.

5.34 Plowing Method

S ub m arin e tr e n ch in g plows have been used to c u t a trench m shallow

w aters and 111 river crossings. T h r e e different m o d es of plowing exist.

■ Preplowing, w h ere a tre n ch is t u t in w h ich the pipeline is later

installed T h is m e th o d has been used to cu t a trench in 130-m w ater
depth for a 3 6 -i n . pipeline w h ich was then installed bv the ho tto m -
tow m e th o d . P rep low ing is often feasible for pipelines to be in­
stalled by b o tto m pull or by b o tto m -to w m e th o d s.
T h is m e th o d is not favored for laying and plowing pipe in deep
w ater, sin ce it is difficult to co n tr o l the positio n of the pipe
to u ch d o w n point in deep w ater. Also, the tr e n c h will have to rem ain
open until pipe is placed in it. In s o m e cases, b o tto m cu rre n ts m ay
cause m a te rial to fall b ack in to the tre n c h before the pipe is lowered
into the trench .
■ S im u lta n e o u s plowing, w h e re a tr e n ch is m a d e in a co m b in e d
operation w ith pipe in stallatio n . T h i s tech n iq u e has been used with
lay-barge in stallatio n s in s h a llo w -w a te r depths w h e re a plow was
a tta c h e d to the en d of a stinger w h ic h exten d ed to the seabed. T h is
m e th o d is effective o n ly in re la tiv ely s h a llo w -w a te r ap plications
since the stinger e x te n d s to the seabed.
■ Postplowing, w h ere the tr e n ch is c u t in a sep arate o p eratio n after
pipe has been installed at the seabed. T h i s tech n iq u e ca n be used
w ith any of the pipe-lay m e th o d s. T h e m e th o d was used tor plowing
a pipeline using a draw barge to draw the plow. T h e m ain advantages
of p o stp low ing are that it can be used in d eep w ater applications, has
very high prod uction rate, and can quick ly p ro te c t the pipeline after
in stallation. Careful design and in s tr u m e n t a tio n are needed to
m i n i m iz e the possibility of d am age to the pip eline during plowing.
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 115

5.4 Technical Evaluations and Limitations

As d iscu ssed earlier, several m e th o d s e x ist for tr e n ch in g offshore

pipelines, inclu ding jetting, m e c h a n i c a l cu ttin g , fluidization, and plo w ­
ing. Efficiency of a tre n ch in g m e t h o d depends on m a n y factors, in clu d ­
ing soil type, pipe size and weight, w a t e r depth, p ro d u c tio n rate, sea
state, tre n ch stability, soil disposal, an d p o w er c o n s u m p t io n .

5.41 Soil Parameters

Soil p a ra m e te rs are m o s t im p o rta n t m in fluencing the p erfo rm an ce of

a trench in g operation. T h e s e p a ra m e te rs in clu d e soil density, w ater
co n te n t, sh ear strength, sen sitiv ity , p la s ticity index, friction angle,
granular distribution, and p e rm ea b ility S om e of th ese p ara m e te rs are
m ore critical than others, and a variation of one soil p a ra m e te r m ay
result in a variation of the o th e r soil p a ram e te rs.
For e xa m p le , the undrained sh ear stre n g th d ecre a se s as the w ater
c o n t e n t is in crea se d , and tr e n c h i n g m a c h i n e s g e n e ra lly are m ore
efficient in c u tti n g soil w ith relatively high w a t e r c o n te n ts . Stability of
the tren ch m a y be reduced w h en the soil c o n ta in s high m o istu re . A
q u an titativ e d e scrip tion of tre n ch in g is difficult to m a k e separately in
te r m s of ea ch soil p a ra m eter because the p a ra m e te rs arc in terrelated.
T h u s a classificatio n of tren c h in g efficiency is usually m ad e based on
generalized soil types. T h e trench in g rate red u ces su b stan tially at very-
high soil shear strengths.
A n o th e r im p o rtan t con sid e ra tio n of pipe tr e n ch in g is the backfilling
of pipe after it has been tre n ch e d and the rate at w h ich backfilling
occu rs. During the natu ral backfill m e c h a n is m , soil is stirred up then
suspended by high-velocity cu rre n ts c au sed by w aves and tides. This
velo city is k now n as erosion velo city, and e x p e r im e n t s results are
available to d eterm in e the low er lim it of su ch v e lo c itie s for different
gram sizes as show n in Figure 3 .2 7 .

5.42 Water Depth

T h e efficiency of a tre n c h in g op eration is g reatly affected by w a te r

depth. Since diver a s sista n ce is needed in m o s t cases, w ate r-d ep th
capabilities are influenced by diver lim ita tio n s. T o date, m o s t diving
operatio ns have been m ad e in w ater depths up to 1 8 0 m . W o rk in g dives
I O ffshoie r'ipeline u e s ig n , A n a ly s is , an a M ethods

h a v e b e e n m a d e to g re a te r d e p th s a n d m a y e x te n d th e w a te r-d e p th
c a p a b ilitie s to 5 0 0 m .
C o n v e n tio n a l je t t in g o p e ra tio n s are f u r t h e r lim it e d b y w a te r d e p th
d u e to f r ic t io n lo sse s in th e u m b ilic a l h o se s. I f c o m p re s s e d a ir is u s e d to
re m o v e s o il fr o m th e tre n c h , t h e n th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f th is a ir - s u c tio n
o p e ra tio n is d r a m a t ic a lly re d u c e d in d e e p w a te r . F r ic tio n losses d e p e n d
o n th e h o s e s ize , f lo w ra te , a n d th e f r i c t i o n c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e in n e r
s u rfa c e o f th e h o se . F o r a s te a d y , f u l l y d e v e lo p e d , in c o m p re s s ib le flo w in
a h o se w it h o u t e x te rn a l-e n e r g y tra n s fe r, th e h e a d lo s s in th e u m b ilic a l
h o s e o w in g to f r ic t io n m a y be re p re s e n te d b y th e D a rc y W e is b a c h
e q u a tio n :

h= 15,1
W h e re : h = H e a d lo s s p e r u n i t le n g th , f t / f t
f = F lo w -re s is ta n c e c o e f f ic ie n t (f-fa c to r)
U = A v e ra g e f lo w v e lo c ity , ft/s e c
D = In n e r d ia m e te r o f h o se , f t
g = G r a v it y a c c e le ra tio n = 3 2 .2 ft/s e c 2

T h e re s is ta n c e c o e f f ic ie n t is o b ta in e d f r o m e x p e r im e n ta l m e a s ­
u re m e n ts a n d d e p e n d s o n th e R e y n o ld s n u m b e r f o r a la m in a r flo w . I t is a
f u n c t i o n o f b o t h t h e R e y n o ld s n u m b e r a n d t h e h o s e - r o u g h n e s s
c o e ffic ie n t fo r a t u r b u le n t f lo w . S e v e ra l o t h e r e m p ir ic a l fo r m u la s are
a v a ila b le in th e lit e r a t u r e fo r e v a lu a tin g th e f r ic t io n in d u c e d h e a d lo s s
in a p ip e .
A n e x a m in a tio n o f th e a b o v e fo r m u la re v e a ls t h a t h e a d lo sse s d u r in g
p ip e je t t in g fo r d e e p w a te r a p p lic a tio n s m a y b e c o m e s ig n ific a n t a n d m a y
re q u ir e a n in c re a s e in th e s iz e o f th e u m b ilic a ls to o ffs e t th e s e losses. A s
a re s u lt, th e u m b ilic a l h o se s b e c o m e b u lk y , d i f f i c u l t to h a n d le , e x p e n ­
s iv e , a n d m o re s e n s itiv e to s u rfa c e a n d s u b s u rfa c e c u rre n ts . J e ttin g sleds
w i t h u n d e r w a te r p u m p s p la c e d o n th e s le d h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d ,
e lim in a t in g th e n e e d fo r th e u m b ilic a ls , e x c e p t fo r p o w e r a n d s ig n a l
tr a n s m is s io n . In th a t case, th e je t t in g o p e r a tio n is v i r t u a l l y u n a ffe c te d
b y w a te r d e p th s .

5.43 Pipe Size and Weight

In c o n v e n tio n a l tr e n c h in g o p e ra tio n s , s o il m u s t be re m o v e d , a llo w in g

p ip e to s e ttle in t o th e d itc h . T h e a m o u n t o f s o il to be re m o v e d in c re a s e s
s u b s t a n tia lly fo r a la rg e - d ia m e te r p ip e .
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 11

E ffe c t o f th e p ip e s u b m e rg e d w e ig h t o n tr e n c h in g is s ig n ific a n t in
d e t e r m in in g th e e ffic ie n c y o f th e t r e n c h in g o p e ra tio n . E x p e rie n c e h a s
s h o w n t h a t th e n u m b e r o f passes re q u ire d to tr e n c h p ip e to a d e s ire d
d e p th in c re a s e s i f th e p ip e lin e is flo o d e d . T h e l i m i t i n g c r it e r io n in
in c re a s in g th e p ip e w e ig h t, h o w e v e r, is th e in d u c e d s tre s s e s in th e p ip e
d u r in g tr e n c h in g . T h e s e stre s s e s d e p e n d o n th e p ip e p a ra m e te rs a n d th e
tr e n c h in g d e p th p e r pass.
A t y p ic a l p ip e c o n f ig u r a t io n d u r in g tr e n c h in g is s h o w n in F ig u re 5.5 .
C o m p u te r a n a ly s e s w e re p e rfo r m e d to p r e d ic t p ip e c o n fig u r a tio n a n d
s tre s s e s d u r in g tr e n c h in g . P lo ts d e p ic tin g v a r ia tio n s o f in d u c e d s tre s s e s
v e rs u s th e p ip e s u b m e rg e d w e ig h t, p ip e s tiffn e s s a n d t r e n c h in g d e p th are
a ls o s h o w n i n F ig u re 5.5 .

20

I li... I 1----- 1------1

6 0 2 2 36 4 6 6 л 10

40
INDUCED LOWfcR SPANS DURING TRENCHING
ё г 0Г
J

I2 D im ension)*»* Trench Deplh ^ 100

6 0 2 4 6 78 л 10
Oimensfontess Trench Deplh 100
MAX (Ml/M PIPE STRESSES DURING IRfcNCHiNG
INDUCEO U P P tR SPANS OURING TRENCHING

NOTES exam ple

С ■ Pipe O uter S ieel Radius Pipe 32 m OD * 0 75 m W T

E • Elastic Modules Pipe Submerged Weight 130 Kg/m 87 lb/ft

Truf'Ch Depth 2m • 6 66 tl

L 60 m 278 fl

992.024 * N /m ' М 3 772 psi

148.800 kN /m 7 21 666 psi

5.5 I’ipe bending during trenching

1' t t ~ • * - ' ..J f c J U Ю \^ ч»

5.44 Production Rate

T h e p r o d u c tio n ra te o f a tr e n c h in g o p e r a tio n m a y be id e n tifie d b y th e
m a s s o f s o il b e in g re m o v e d d u r in g tr e n c h in g o r b y th e ra te o f a d v a n c e
a n d tr e n c h d e p th o f th e t r e n c h in g m a c h in e . In g e n e ra l, th e tr e n c h d e p th
d e p e n d s o n th e speed o f th e tr e n c h in g m a c h in e . F o r e x a m p le , fo r a fix e d
h o rs e p o w e r, th e d e p th o f a tr e n c h m a d e u s in g a je t t in g s le d decre a se s
w h e n th e a d v a n c e sp ee d o f th e s le d is in c re a s e d . In c o n tra s t, a v e ry h ig h
to w in g spe ed o f th e s le d w i l l re d u c e th e t im e d u r in g w h ic h a g iv e n
le n g th o f p ip e w i l l r e m a in u n s u p p o rte d in th e tre n c h ; th u s s ilt in g o f
je tte d tr e n c h w i l l be s u b s ta n tia lly re d u c e d . O p t im u m speeds o f tr e n c h ­
in g c a n be s e le c te d b a se d o n m o d e l s tu d ie s a n d e x p e rie n c e re c o rd s fo r
th e s p e c ific e q u ip m e n t.

5.45 Sea State

D iv in g s u p p o rt o fte n is n e e d e d d u r in g th e s ta r t o f tr e n c h in g o r o n
o c c a s io n s d u r in g th e tr e n c h in g o p e ra tio n . D iv in g o p e ra tio n s are s u p ­
p o rte d a n d m o n it o r e d f r o m th e s u rfa c e a n d t h u s a re g e n e ra lly in flu e n c e d
b y sea s ta te s . C o n v e n tio n a l je t t in g is f u r t h e r in flu e n c e d b y sea s ta te s
d u e to s u s p e n d e d w a te r a n d a ir h o se s, w h ic h , i n t u r n , are s e n s itiv e to
c u rre n ts a n d s u rfa c e -v e s s e l m o tio n s . U n d e r w a te r tr e n c h in g m a c h in e s
are m u c h le s s v u ln e r a b le to w e a th e r c o n d itio n s .

5.46 Trench Stability

T r e n c h s t a b ilit y is d e te r m in e d b y th e ty p e o f s o ils b e in g tre n c h e d .
W h e n tr e n c h in g c la y e y s o ils , a tr e n c h w i t h a lm o s t v e r tic a l s id e s c a n be
p ro d u c e d . H o w e v e r, tr e n c h in g in s a n d y s o ils o fte n p ro d u c e s tre n c h e s
w i t h v e ry s h a llo w in c lin a tio n s . A ls o th e d e p th o f th e tr e n c h w h ic h c a n
b e a c h ie v e d b e fo re c a v e -in is g re a te r in c la y th a n in sand.

5.47 Spoil Disposal

A f t e r a tr e n c h h a s b e e n c u t, s o il m u s t be re m o v e d , a llo w in g th e
p ip e lin e to s e ttle in t o th e tre n c h . T h is is g e n e r a lly a c c o m p lis h e d u s in g
o n e o r a c o m b in a t io n o f m e th o d s as s h o w n in F ig u re 5.6. In th e
e je c to r - s u c tio n m e th o d , w a te r is d r iv e n f r o m th e s u rfa c e in to th e e je c to r
tu b e . T h e d iffe r e n c e i n p re s s u re c a u s e s s o il t o b e l if t e d a n d e je c te d fr o m
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 1

Air-lift principle Ejector principle Mechanical pump

' S p oil r e m o v a l p rin c ip les

'' j c tre n c h . In th e a i r - l i f t s y s te m , c o m p re s s e d a ir is fo rc e d in t o a n

- ,- iu c to r tu b e o n th e b o t t o m . V a r ia t io n o f d e n s ity in th e tu b e c a u se s a n e t
, ; ’w a r d fo rc e w h e re s o il is lif t e d a n d d is p o s e d a t th e s id e s o f th e tre n c h .

5.5 Conceptual Evaluation

A n e v a lu a tio n o f t r e n c h in g m e th o d s m a y be in flu e n c e d b y th e s p e c ific
^ u i p m e n t u s e d . F o r e x a m p le , b o th a c o n v e n tio n a l je t s le d w i t h th e
p r im e m o v e rs o n th e s u rfa c e a n d u n d e r w a te r je t t in g m a c h in e s w it h th e
r im e m o v e rs m o u n te d o n th e m a c h in e use th e s a m e je t t in g p r in c ip le in
. ’j t t i n g s o ils . H o w e v e r, b a s ic d iffe re n c e s c a n be id e n tifie d b e tw e e n th e
* w o ty p e s o f e q u ip m e n t, w h ic h in c lu d e th e p o w e r re q u ire m e n ts , Sea­
g a t e d e p e n d e n c e , a n d h a n d lin g . In s e le c tin g a n o p t im u m m e th o d o f
f r c n c h in g , v a rio u s e q u ip m e n t is e x a m in e d a n d p e rfo rm a n c e p a ra m e te rs
> A th e b a s ic re q u ir e d e q u ip m e n t f o r a tr e n c h in g m e th o d a re c o m p a re d
A n d e v a lu a te d . In a ll cases, th e d e s ire d p e rfo rm a n c e r e q u ire m e n ts o f a
f r c n c h in g o p e r a tio n a re id e n t if ie d p r io r to e v a lu a tin g th e d iffe r e n t
tr e n c h in g m e th o d s a n d b a s ic e q u ip m e n t.
P a ra m e te rs t h a t a re c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e m e th o d o f tr e n c h in g h a v e
b e e n id e n tifie d , a n d tr e n c h in g m e th o d s h a v e b e e n e x a m in e d v e rs u s
th e s e p a ra m e te rs , as s h o w n in T a b le 5 .2 A s se e n fr o m t h is ta b le , n o .
s in g le tr e n c h in g m e th o d is fo u n d w h ic h ra te s w e ll a g a in s t a ll o f th e
tr e n c h in g -p e r fo r m a n c e p a ra m e te rs d e s c rib e d . F o r e x a m p le , t h e flu id iz a -
 .K J | Oiy'H. yOJO, VttMlll

ТаЫе 5 2 Conceptual evaluation of Trenching Methods

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Sandy bottom + Effective

- Not effective
Clayey bottom + Effective
- Not effective
Surface + + Dependent
dependence - Very dependent
Current + + Slight effect
effects - Great effect
Deployment
procedure + + Less difficult
lowering and - Difficult
lifting
Cost + + Less costly
- Costly
Water depth - + Deep
- Shallow
Past experience + + E xperience
- No experience
R eq u ired
development 6c + + No development
testing - Development
Power demand + Low demand
- High demand
Production rate + + + + • High
- Low
Forces on + Small
pipe - Large

t io n m e th o d ra te s e x c e lle n t fo r tr e n c h in g p ip e lin e s in sa n d b u t ra te s
p o o r ly fo r t r e n c h in g in c la y . T h e re fo re , th e b e s t m e th o d fo r a b u r ia l
p ro je c t m u s t be s e le c te d base d o n th e s p e c ific r e q u ir e m e n t a n d p a ra m e ­
te rs o f th e p ro je c t.
 P ip e lin e Trenching M e th o d s | 1

N e w ly d e v e lo p e d s y s te m s w i t h p u m p s a n d p r im e m o v e rs m o u n te d o n
th e tr e n c h in g s le 4 # re m o r e te c h n ic a lly a d v a n c e d th a n c o n v e n tio n a l
w a te r - d r iv e s y s te m s . E x p e rie n c e w i t h th e s e n e w d e v e lo p m e n ts h g s b e e n
p o o r, p r im a r ily d u e to d e b u g g in g p ro b le m s c o m m o n ly e n c o u n te re d *
w it h n e w s y s te m s . A f t e r th e s e d if f ic u lt ie s a re a lle v ia te d a n d p ro p e r
o p e ra tin g p ro c e d u re s a re e s ta b lis h e d , th e s e s y s te m s s h o u ld o ffe r m o re
p o t e n t ia l f o r t r e n c h in g in d e e p e r w a te r th a n c o n v e n tio n a l j e t t in g
e q u ip m e n t.

5.6 Trenching Regulations and Experiences

N u m e r o u s s u b m a r in e p ip e lin e s a ro u n d th e w o r ld h a v e b e e n tre n c h e d
b e lo w th e seabed to p r o te c t th e m fr o m v a rio u s h a z a rd s . Q u e s tio n s o f
w h e th e r th e p ip e s h o u ld be tr e n c h e d a n d to w h a t tr e n c h in g d e p th s are
b e c o m in g in c r e a s in g ly im p o r ta n t , d u e to th e in c re a s e d tr e n c h in g c o s ts
in d e e p w a te r a n d th e lim it e d c a p a b ilitie s o f c o n v e n tio n a l tr e n c h in g
e q u ip m e n t in s u c h w a te r d e p th s . W h e re r e g u la tio n s d o n o t s p e c ific a lly
r e q u ire p ip e tre n c h in g , a n o p e ra to r u s u a lly tre n c h e s th e p ip e lin e w h e n
c o n v in c e d th a t s u c h tr e n c h in g e lim in a te s o r m in im iz e s ris k s o f d a m a g e
to th e p ip e . In s o m e cases, o p e ra to rs h a v e p e rs u a d e d th e re g u la to r y
a u th o r it ie s to re la x t h e ir b u r ia l re q u ire m e n ts , based o n te c h n ic a l c o n ­
c lu s io n s s h o w in g t h a t b u r ia l w o u ld n o t p ro v id e a s ig n ific a n t im p r o v e ­
m e n t in re d u c in g th e r is k o f d a m a g e to th e p ip e .
T h e u lt im a t e d e c is io n o f w h e th e r to tr e n c h th e p ip e lin e , d e te r m in in g
tr e n c h in g d e p th , a n d th e m o s t s u ita b le m e th o d to a c c o m p lis h tr e n c h in g
c a n o n ly be m a d e b ase d o n e v a lu a tin g s p e c ific h a z a rd s e x is tin g in th e
a rea a n d w h e th e r r is k s o f d a m a g e d u e to th e s e h a z a rd s c a n be m in im iz e d
o r e lim in a t e d th r o u g h p ip e tr e n c h - in .
T h e m a in o b je c tiv e o f r e g u la to r y a u th o r itie s in r e q u ir in g o ffs h o re
p ip e lin e tr e n c h in g is to m in im iz e ris k s o f d a m a g e to th e p ip e b y th e
v a rio u s h a z a rd s a n d to m a in t a in th e in t e g r it y o f th e p ip e lin e as w e ll as
o th e r in s t a lla t io n s in th e area.
G o v e r n m e n t r e g u la tio n s fo r o ffs h o re p ip e lin e s c o v e r a w id e ra n g e o f
areas, in c lu d in g s u rv e y , d e s ig n , m a te r ia l s p e c ific a tio n s , c o n s tr u c tio n ,
o p e ra tio n , in s p e c tio n s , m a in te n a n c e , re p a irs , s ta rt-u p a n d s h u t-d o w n ,
le a k s a n d s p ills , a n d b u r ia l o f th e p ip e lin e . T h e m o s t d e v e lo p e d o f th e s e
re g u la tio n s c o v e r o ffs h o re p ip e lin e s a n d in s ta lla t io n s in th e N o r t h Sea,
th e G u lf o f M e x ic o , o ffs h o re Japan, a n d o ffs h o re A u s tr a lia .
A lt h o u g h p ip e lin e s h a v e b e e n b u rie d to r e s tra in p ip e m o v e m e n t d u e
to th e r m a l e x p a n s io n , h is t o r ic a lly th e re a s o n s fo r p ip e lin e b u r ia l h a v e
b e e n to e lim in a t e , o r a t le a s t m in im iz e , ris k s o f d a m a g e d u e to lo c a l
!■ h . 1Г : '■ ,c

h a z a rd s . H e n c e , tr e n c h in g re q u ir e m e n ts d iff e r b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s
a reas o f th e w o r ld , d e p e n d in g o n th e m o s t c o m m o n h a z a rd s e n c o u n te re d
in e a c h area, as s h o w n in T a b le 5 .3 . M o s t o f th e o ffs h o re p ip e lin e - b u r ia l
o p e ra tio n s h a v e b e e n p e rfo r m e d in th e N o r t h Sea a n d in th e G u lf o f
M e x ic o , as m o s t o ffs h o re p ip e lin e s h a v e b e e n in s ta lle d in th e s e areas.
T h e N o r t h Sea p re s e n ts a m o re h o s tile e n v ir o n m e n t ’ a n d s e ve re w a v e
c o n d itio n s th a n th e G u lf o f M e x ic o , a n d a d v a n c e d d e v e lo p m e n ts fo r
o ffs h o re p ip e lin e b u r ia l h a v e t y p ic a lly b e e n m a d e f o r p ip e lin e s in th e
N o r t h Sea. ; i

Table 5 .3 Offshore Pipeline Burial Requirements

Applicable
Country/Agency code Requirements
1 U N ITED STATES
• Departm ent of 49 CFR 192 Pipeline to be buried below natural
Transportation 49 CFR 195 bottom
(DOT)— Office Pipe­
line Safety Opera­
tions (OPSO)

• Departm ent of In­

terior (DOI)— U.S. OCS Order 9 N o specific requirement.
. Geological Survey
(USGSI
— Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) 43 CFR 2 8 8 3 Pipeline m ust be buriied to 3 ft. below
the natural seabed out to a water depth
of 20 0 ft. '
2. U N ITED KINGDOM
• Departm ent of Petroleum General guidelines for pipe protection.
Energy (DOE) Pipeline "T h e Secretary of State may by regula-
Safety Code tio n make such provisions as he consid
1974 ers appropriate for the purpose of se­
curing the proper co m tru ctio n and prep-
Submarinc aration in safety operation of pipelines
Pipeline A ct, preventing damage to pipelines and se-
1975 curing the safety, health and welfare of
persons engaged on pipeline works . . ."
3. N ORW AY
• M inistry of Petroleum Norwegian "T o the exten t reasonable, pipelines
and Energy Petroleum shall be protected by buiial or by other
D irectorate m eans to avoid mechanical damage
(NPD), Royal caused by other activities along the
Decrees, 1976 route, including fishing and hunting,
shipping, and exploration ot submarine
natural resources. Moreover, the pipe­
lines shall be installed so as not to
damage fishing gear."
 Pipeline Trenching Methods | 123

Oftehor* Pipeline Burial Requirements Continued

C ou n ty lA g en cy A p p lic a b le c o d e R e q u ir e m e n ts

• Industry Recom­ Det norske "T h e pipeline is to be supported,

mended Practice Veritas anchored oi buried in such a ytty that
|DnV), 1976 under the assumed condition* it will
not move from as-installed position,
apart from m ovem ent corresponding
to permissible deformation, therm al
expansion, and lim ited am ount of set­
tlem ent after installation."
4. NETHERLANDS
• Inspector General Submarine Requirem ents for burial in shipping
of Mines Pipelines (or lanes oi fishing areas to insure
Transport of safety.
Gas, 1976
5 (APAN
• Ocean Develop­ Standard lor General nuidelines provided for safety
m ent Safety Safety C oncern ­ and pipeline stability. However, past
Division ing oil and n a­ experience h;is shown that severe
tural gas devel­ burial requirem ents and possible back­
opment, Part 2, fill can be imposed for pipelines cross­
Volume 3 ing areas of fishing activities.

6. AUSTRALIA
• Standards Associ­
ation of Australia
Draft-Australi- No specific requirement for burial. Sec­
an Standard tion 5.7— Buiying states. "T h e location of
Rules for Sub­ of underwater obstructions intersect­
marine Pipe­ ing the ditch route should be deter­
lines, 1974 mined in advance of construction ac­
tivities to prevent damage to such stru c­
tures A diver or television inspection
shall be made of the ditch ahead of lay­
ing operations to insure that th e ’spec-
ilications are m et."

T h e re p re s e n ta tiv e cod es, re g u la tio n s , a n d p ra c tic e s d is c u s s e d here

illu s t r a t e th e v a rio u s tr e n c h in g r e q u ire m e n ts a n d p ra c tic e s b y d iffe r e n t
a u t h o r it ie s in th e w o r ld , in c lu d in g th e U S A , th e U n ite d K in g d o m ,
N o r w a y , th e N e th e rla n d s , Japan, a n d A u s tr a lia .

5.61 Gulf of Mexico (USA)

T h e D e p a r tm e n t o f T r a n s p o r ta tio n (D O T J a n d th e D e p a rtin e Q t o f th e
I n t e r io r |D O I) re g u la te o ffs h o re p ip e lin e s in s ta lle d o n th e O u te r C o n t i­
n e n ta l S h e lf (O C S ) in th e U S A . A ls o , in d u s try -a c c e p te d s ta n d a rd s e x is t
 for offshore pipeline in sta lla tio n and operations. T h e s e in clude the
A m e ric a n P e tro l e u m I n stitu te (API) and the A m e r ic a n N a tio n a l S tan d ­
ards In stitu te |A N SI) stan d ard s. T h e B ureau of Land M a n a g e m e n t (BLM)
and the U n ited S tates G eo lo g ical Survey (USGS) of the D e p a r t m e n t of
Interior have o u tlin e d specific re q u ire m e n ts for burial of u n d e rw a te r
pipelines on th e O u t e r C o n t i n e n t a l Shelf in th e Gulf of M e x ic o .
As stated in th e C o d e of Federal R eg u latio n s ( 4 3 - C F R 2 8 8 3 ), th e B L M
oversees offshore pip elines with respect to routes and their e n v iro n m e n ­
tal im p act. T h e U S G S o v e rs e e s flow lines or g a th e rin g lines w ith in the
confines of a single lease or group of c o n tig u o u s leases u nd er'u n itize d
o peration or a single o p e rato r. T h e USGS fo cu ses o n te ch n ica l asp e cts of
the pipeline design, in sta llatio n , m a i n t e n a n c e , and o p eratio n in a c c o r d ­
a n ce w ith appropriate safety re gu lation s and standards. A cc o r d in g to the
code, an a p p lica n t for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of an offshore pipeline m u s t
agree to th e following:

■ Pipeline burial to a m i n i m u m of 3 ft below th e o ce an floor o u t to a

w a te r d epth of 2 0 0 ft. A n y deviation m u s t be justified at the tim e of
application.
■ Burial of all v a lv e s and taps at any w a t e r depth to a m i n i m u m of
1 ft c ov erag e. (3 ft required by USGS)

T h e U S G S burial r e q u ir e m e n t s for g ath ering lines in the Gulf of

M e x ic o s ta te th a t th e ap p lica n t m u s t agree to the following:

• T h e op in io n of th e G u lf of M e x ic o - O C S Area Office of the U S G S

w ith regard to pipeline burial is th at lines in. in d ia m e t e r and
sm aller, in stalle d in areas believed to be prone to self burial, do not
need to be buried a t th e ti m e of in stallatio n . T h e oil and gas
supervisor m a y require a trawl test o r diver survey if he q uestion s
the b o tto m soil's ability to allow the pipeline to self-bury o r su s­
p e cts th a t in te rfe ren ce w ith traw lin g is possible.
■ Burial to a depth of 3 ft of co v e r in w a te r depths o u t to 2 0 0 ft is
required of all p ipelines gre ater th an 8 % in. in d ia m e te r unless th ey
are lo cated in pipeline co n g ested areas or in c lo se p ro x im ity to
platforms.
■ T ap s and v a lv e s are con sid ered a serious p o te n tial th rea t to traw lin g
o p erato rs and sh all be provided w ith 3 ft of c o v e r in any w a t e r depth.

T h e U S G S O C S O r d e r 9 p r o v id e s th e a p p ro v a l p r o c e d u r e s for
pipelines in th e O u t e r C o n t in e n t a l Shelf in the Pacific Area. T h i s order
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 125

includes n o specific re q u ire m e n ts for burial of offshore pipelines. A n y

special re q u ire m e n ts w o u ld be stu died and d e te rm in e d o n a case-by-
c a s e basis a t th e t i m e of ap plication.
T h e m a i n rea so n for burial re q u ire m e n ts is to p r o te c t th e pipeline as
w ell as s h rim p traw ls fr o m possible d am ag e by p re v e n tin g th e pipeline
fro m b e c o m i n g an ob sta c le to th e traw lin g gear. H o w e v e r , a n o th e r
im p o r ta n t rea so n for burial is to p r o te c t pipelines in s h a llo w w a t e r from
large h y d r o d y n a m i c forces o c c u r r i n g in s e v e re -s to rm co n d itio n s , p rev­
a le n t in th e G u lf of M e x ic o .
W h e n large h y d r o d y n a m ic forces are e x p e c te d to e x is t n e a r the seabed
and the pipeline is n o t buried, the pipeline will h a v e to be designed w ith
large su bm erg ed w e ig h t to en su re pipeline stability. T h i s m a y c a u s e the
pipeline to be e x c e s s iv e l y h eav y and difficult to install, th u s in creasin g
the c o s t s of pipeline in stallation .
V irtually all pipelines installed w ith in the 2 0 0 -f t w a t e r depth c o n ­
tou rs in the G u lf of M e x i c o are buried to 3 ft depth as required. T h e only
e x c e p tio n s are for sm a l l-d ia m e t e r tlowlines. S o m e pip elines in the
vicinity of offshore p la tfo rm s are buried to p ro te ct t h e m fro m small-
boat a n c h o r d a m ag e and from c o n s tr u c ti o n debris.

5.62 North Sea

S ub m arin e pipelines installed in the N o r th Sea h ave been subject to

various regulations, dependin g on the specific in sta lla tio n lo c a t io n and
p a ra m e te rs. A s u m m a r y of tre n ch in g regulations is s h o w n in T a b le 5.3,
including th o se by the U n ite d Kingdom, N o w a y , and th e N e th e r la n d s.

5.621 United Kingdom

T h e m a m re gu lation s g overn in g offshore pip eline in sta llatio n and

burial in the U n it e d Kingdom are drawn by th e D e p a r t m e n t of Energy
|DOE) of the U n it e d Kingdom. T w o cod es govern offshore pipeline
burial, th e P e tr o l e u m Pipeline Safety C ode (1 9 7 4 ) and the S ub m a rin e
Pipeline A c t (19 7 9 ). T h e s e regulations inclu de specific burial c o n s id ­
eratio n s for d epth of co v e r in term s of seabed-level v ariatio n s, s u s ­
pended spans, scour, and the restraining pipe m o v e m e n t s . Pipeline
backfill, in sp ectio n , and survey re q u irem en ts for a d ditional pipe safety
are also con sid ered .
?€ ' !v‘ ic ' n< ' _ / ' а Г ! ос

5.622 Norway

T h e M in is t ry of P e tro le u m and Energy has issued the N o rw eg ian

P e tr o l e u m D i re c to ra t e (N PD ) R o y al D e c r e e (1 9 7 6 ) w h ic h co v ers the
re q u ire m e n ts for offshore pipeline burial. T h e m a i n e m p h as is in this
decree is o n p ro te c tio n of the pipeline fro m fishing tra w ls and a n ch o rs in
the area, and o n p ro te c t io n of the fishing traw ls fro m d am ag e by the
pip eline. In ad dition to th is regu lation , D e t n o rsk e V eritas (DnV) has
issued an in d u stry standard w h ic h g o v ern s th e design, co n s tru c ti o n , and
in sp e ctio n of su b m a rin e p ipelines a n d risers, " R u l e s for the Design,
C o n s t r u c t i o n , and In sp ection of S u b m a rin e P ipelines and R is ers."
W i t h re fe re n c e to offshore-pipeline burial, th e s e rules sta te th at the
pip eline m u s t be supported o r buried in s u c h a w a y th a t it will not be
displaced fr o m th e as-installed p o sitio n. N o specific burial req u irem ent
is o th e r w is e stated.

5.623 The Netherlands

T h e g o v e r n m e n t au th o rity w h i c h c o n tr o l s pipelines for the transp o r­
ta tio n of oil an d gas is the State D i r e c to r a t e of M in es. R e q u ir e m e n ts for
offshore pipeline burial are stated in th e code, “ S u b m a rin e Pipelines for
T ra n s p o r t of G a s , " issued by the In sp ector G e n e ra l of M in es. T h is code
s ta t e s the following:
" P ip e li n e s in or along shipping lan es o r passing fishing grounds have
to be provided w ith en ough soil co ve r. T h e th ic k n e s s of the co v er layer
has to be d e te rm in e d and m a i n t a in e d s u c h th a t.
(a) T h e pipeline m a y n ot be u n co v ere d due to ch an g es in se a b o tto m
level.
(b) T h e pipeline m a y n ot b e c o m e an ob sta c le for and not damaged by
fishing a ctiv itie s .
(c) D a m a g e of th e pipeline by shipping a c ti v itie s is p revented as m u c h
as p o ssib le ."
D u rin g th e early N o r t h Sea pipeline in s ta lla tio n s in th e late 1960s,
burial re q u ire m e n ts w ere severe (10 -ft co v er) for pipelines crossing
a n c h o r a g e are as so th a t th ey w ou ld be p ro te c te d from dragging an chors.
H o w e v e r, it so o n b e c a m e cle ar th a t s u c h burial d epths were not w ithin
th e cap ab ilities of burial eq u ip m e n t.
A d etailed stu d y of the burial re q u ire m e n ts and eq u ip m e n t p erform ­
a n c e w a s later m a d e by the U .K . a u th o rit ie s and o th e rs. In the case of the
3 6 - in. Flags gas pipeline (co n n e cts th e B ren t Field in th e U.K . Sector to
 P ip e lin e T re n c h in g M e th o d s | 127

St. Fergus, Scotland), a detailed study for p ro te c t io n of the pipeline

ag ain st an c h o r s and fishing gear reported th a t the pipeline co u ld be
p r o te c t e d fro m a n ch o rs by in c re a sin g the c o n c r e t e - c o a t i n g th ick n e ss
and g reatly stiffening th e pipeline.
A n o t h e r e x a m p le of a pipeline tr e n c h in g ex p e rie n c e in th e N o r t h Sea
is th e 3 6 - i n . E k o fisk -E m d e n gas pipeline op erated by Phillips P e tro le u m
C o . T h e pipe is a b o u t 2 7 0 m i le s long. M a x i m u m w a t e r d epth alon g the
ro u te is 2 5 5 ft. T h e pipeline required burial to p r o te c t it fr o m adverse
h y d r o d y n a m i c fo rces n ea r t h e seabed and to e li m in a te ridges o r spans
alo n g th e pipeline route. E x p o se d spans co u ld c a u s e in stab ility of the
pipeline if vo rte x-sh ed d in g effects w e re induced by b o tto m cu rre n ts .
A p o rtio n of the pipeline cro ssed the D a n ish s e c to r of th e N o r t h Sea,
and a u th o ritie s required th a t spans w h ic h re m a in e d after the pipe w as
tr e n c h e d should be e lim in a te d . As a resu lt, Phillips u n d e rto o k an
e x te n s iv e p rogram of sandbagging s o m e p o rtio n s and m e c h a n ic a ll y
b a ckfillin g o th e r p o rtio n s of th e pipeline. B ackfilling w as d o ne by a
s u rface v essel. E x c a v a te d m a t e r ia l fro m sh ore w a s loaded o n th e vessel
t h e n transp orted to th e desired area above the pipeline. Backfill m a te ria l
w a s th e n fed from hoppers in to a drop-pipe, w h ic h descen ded to a short
d is ta n c e ab ov e th e pipeline.
S o p h istica ted n av ig atio n e q u i p m e n t w as used to e n su re th a t the
b ackfill w a s discharged o v e r th e tr e n c h T h e average c o s t of tre n ch in g
w a s $ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 / m i l e , w h erea s the c o s t of sandbagging was $ 2 . 5 m i l­
l i o n / m ile and the c o s t of backfilling w.is S3 m i llio n /m ile .

5.63 Japan
T h e O c e a n D e v e lo p m e n t Safety D iv isio n has issued a report, " S t a n d ­
ard for Safety C o n c e r n i n g Oil and N a t u r a l G a s D e v e l o p m e n t in the
C o n t in e n t a l Shelf P r o d u c t io n ," D e c e m b e r 1 97 4 , w h ic h in part is c o n ­
c e rn e d w i t h offshore pip elines to be installed offshore Japan. Safety
co n sid e ra tio n s are d iscu ssed for pip eline design, in sta lla tio n , and in­
sp ection s. Based o n e x p e rie n c e , several burial re q u ire m e n ts m a y be
im p o sed o n pipelines c ro s sin g fishing areas to p rev en t d a m a g e to pipe
and fishing trawls.
T h e m a jo r s u b m a rin e pipelines w h i c h have been buried in Japan
include the T o k y o Bay gas pipeline and the A G A -O K I pipeline. S trin ­
g en t burial re q u ire m e n ts w ere im posed as a resu lt of d e m a n d s m a d e by
the Japanese F ish e rm a n 's U n io n . T h e m ain a rg u m e n t for th ese burial
re q u ire m e n ts w as to en sure th at fishing gear would not be d am aged by
!2( * lit ; нн a.i.. а

c o n t a c t w i th the pipeline on the seabed. O t h e r reaso n s for burial

inclu ded s tab iliza tio n of the pipeline against ty p h oo n c u r r e n ts and
p ro te ctio n from a n c h o rin g a ctivities.
T h e T o k y o Bay pipeline was required to be buried to a 16-ft depth, but
only 10 ft of low erin g was finally achieved. Sim ilarly, th e AC.A-OK1
pipeline w as buried to about an 8-ft depth. In addition, the A G A -O K I
pipeline m u s t be backfilled and the sea b o tto m restored to its " n a t u r a l
lev e l" to e li m in a te possible d am ag e to traw lin g gear.

5.64 Australia

T h e Standards A s s o c i a tio n of A u stralia, in co rp o rated by Royal C h a r ­

ter, issued a draft report of A u stralian Standard R ules for S u b m arin e
Pipelines w h ic h m a y he installed offshore A u stralia.
T h is report co n sid e rs the safety req u irem e n ts, including m ateria ls,
pipeline design, welding, c o n s tru c tio n , in sp e ctio n and testing, o p era ­
tion and m a i n t e n a n c e , and co rro sio n asp ects.
Section 5 . 7 of this stan d ard addresses pipeline burial and s ta t e s th at
" t h e locatio n of u n d e rw a te r o b stru ctio n s in te r se ctin g the d itch ro u te
shall be d e te rm in e d in ad v an ce of c o n s tr u c ti o n a ctiv itie s to preven t
dam age to su ch str u c tu r e s . A diver or te levision in sp ectio n shall be
made of the d itch ahead ot laying operatio ns to insure th at the s p e c ifica ­
tions are m e t . T h e o n sho re portion of any su b m a rin e pipeline shall be
buried in a c c o rd a n c e w ith the req u ire m e n ts of the appropriate S A A G as
or Liqued P e tro le u m Pip eline C o d e ."

5.7 Comments on Regulations and Experiences

T h e m a i n p a ra m e t e rs and highlights of tr e n c h in g e x p e rie n c e s for

m aio r s u b m a rin e p ipelines in the world are given in T a b le 5 .4 . T h e s e
pipelines in clu d e the Ekofisk -T eesid e pipeline in th e N o r t h Sea (N.S.),
the N i n ia n -S h e tla n d Islands pipeline (N.S.), th e Statfjord pipeline (N.S.),
the T o k y o Bay pipeline (Japan), the A G A -O K I pipeline (Japan), th e High
Island offshore pipeline s y s te m (Gulf of M e xico ), and th e Ekofisk-
E m d en pipeline (N.S.).
In all of th e offshore pipeline burial ap plications, the m a i n e m p h a s is
has been on safety and m i n i m iz in g risks of d a m ag e to the pipe and oth e r
objects in th e area. E x p e r ie n c e has sh o w n th a t th e regu latory a u th o ritie s
w ere, in s o m e in sta n ce s, flexible in applying burial re q u ire m e n t s if
su fficient te c h n ic a l justification w as presen ted to d e m o n s tr a t e th at
 P ip e lin e Trenching M e th o d s | 1 2 9

safety of the pipeline co u ld be m a i n t a in e d w i t h o u t burial o r w i t h a

reduced burial depth.
T h e Flags gas line in th e N o r t h Sea is an e x c e ll e n t e x a m p l e of this. As
d iscu ssed earlier, Shell E xpro c o n d u c t e d studies of v ario us a lte rn a tiv e s
for pipeline p ro te c t io n fro m fishing-gear in te r a c tio n an d h y d r o d y n a m ic
forces. Shell rep orted th a t in cre a se d pipe c o n c r e te - c o a tin g th ic k n e ss
w ith o u t burial w ou ld provide a d eq u ate p ro te ctio n o v e r considerable
p ortions of th e r o u te . Based o n th e resu lts of the stu d y, th e various
S co ttish and B ritish fishing and re gu lato ry org a n iz atio n s approved the
plan to o b v iate u n n e ce ss a r y tr e n c h in g a lon g the en tire pip eline route.
Nearly all of the G u lf of M e x i c o pipelines have been buried to a 3 ft
depth o u t to a 2 0 0 - f t w a te r-d e p th c o n t o u r in c o m p li a n c e w i t h the
req u ire m e n ts of the B ureau of Land M a n a g e m e n t (BLM) of the D e p a rt­
m e n t of Interior. S o m e o p era to rs h av e also au th o rize d the tren ch in g
c o n t r a c t o r to provide a single pass of the tr e n c h in g eq u ip m e n t over
pipelines installed in w a t e r d epths beyond th e 2 0 0 -f t depth co n to u r.
T h is p ra ctic e provides ad ditional h y d r o d y n a m i c stab ility to th e pipeline
for resisting s to r m -in d u c e d h y d r o d y n a m i c forces. If the tr e n ch in g barge
is already o n lo ca tio n , the c o s t of m a k in g an ad ditional pass o v e r the
pipeline portion in w a te r deeper th an 2 0 0 ft w o u ld be m i n i m a l, o n the
order of S 5 0 ,0 0 0 / m i l e .
S trict Gulf of M e x i c o p ipeline-burial re q u ire m e n ts m a y s o m e t i m e s be
modified, as s h o w n in th e case of a group of g a s -tra n sm is sio n co m p a n ie s
planning in stallatio n of a 4 2 - in. m a in tr a n sm is sio n line in th e High
Island area, cro ssin g an a n c h o r a g e area and safety fairway. R egulatory
a u th o rities at first required th a t th e pipeline be co v e re d to a b o ut 16 ft
below th e seabed to p r o te c t th e pipeline from possible c o n t a c t by
d ra g g in g sh ip a n c h o r s . T h i s b u r ia l r e q u i r e m e n t w a s b e y o n d th e
capabilities of available tr e n c h in g e q u ip m e n t.
T h e pipeline o p e ra to r in v estig ated the frequency and size of ships
a n ch o rin g in the area and d e te rm in e d the probabilities of dam ag in g
c o n t a c t b etw e en a n c h o r s and the pipeline for various d e p th s of co ver.
Based on th is study, it w a s co n c lu d e d th a t a b o u t 8 ft of c o v e r w ould
adequately p ro te c t the pipeline fr o m a n c h o r d a m ag e . H o w e v e r, this
depth of c o v e r (e q u ivalen t to a burial d epth of 11.5 ft) is still a severe
re q u irem e n t. W h ile the p robability of a n c h o r c o n t a c t w i th the pipeline
would be greatly red u ced at this burial depth, th e possibility of a n c h o r
c o n t a c t w ith the pipeline still e xisted . So the regu latory a u th o ritie s
agreed to p e rm it th e pipeline in sta llatio n w i th 1 0 ft of co ve r, w i th the
fu rther re q u ir e m e n t th a t the t r e n c h be m e c h a n i c a l l y backfilled if
adequate n atu ra l backfill did n o t o c c u r.
A n o th e r e x a m p le of the severe re q u ire m e n ts for burial of offshore
 Table 5.4 P ipeline Tren ch ing Experiences

Vfu'v Mu v A vg r a te
S ize W JtCr Soil T ren chin g E qu ip­ trc: к 1 So. of p e r pas\.
P ip elin e vt,’rv;c v lo c u tio n depth m :v p e m ethod m ent C on tru ctoi depth m passes k m day C om m ents

Tokyo 24" OD Upan 23 C l a y 6. l e t ti n g Bu ry N ip p o n г 2 0.7 B u n a l r e q u ir e m e n ts of

Bay Gas s ilty w ith barge K okan 5 m p la n n e d to p ro­
p ip e lin e c la y dredge A n z cn - K .K . t e c t th e p ip e lin e &
s u c tio n M a ru II (N K K l f is h in g tra w ls d u e to
pum ps f is h in g a c t iv it ie s &
a g a in s t h ig h ty p h o o n s
A G A-OKI 14" OD Jap an 80 San d y le ttin g B u ry N ip p o n 2.5 T w o or 0 .3 B u n a l an d b a c k fill
p ip e lin e G as s ilt & w ith barge S te e l m o re re q u ir e d to p r o te c t
s ilt w a te r C o rp . a g a in s t f is h in g tra w l
e d u c tio n (N S C ) in t e r a c t io n w ith
p ip e lin e
E kohsk- 34" OD N o r th S e a 95 M e d iu m J e t t in g BA R 279 B ro w n & 2 .0 O n e pass 1 .0 -1 .5 B u n a l s p e c if ic a t io n
T e e s id e Oil to s tiff w ith C h e ro k e e Root w ith tw o c a lle d fo r 1 m c o v e r
p ip e lin e c la y & a ir S a n ta Fe p a s se s in o ffs h o re p o r tio n ;
IP h illip s) san d s u c t io n in s o m e 3 m c o v e r in
sa n d a n c h o ra g e area
Fngg 32" OD N o r th S ea 150 C la y & le t tin g B A R 331 B r o w n &. 1.3 O n e pass 1.5 P ip e lin e b u rie d e m p ty
S t. F e rg u s G as c la y w ith w ith JB 4 Root in c la y ;
[T o ta l} o v e rla y in g a ir I R. tw o in
san d s s u c tio n M c d e r m o tt s ilt y sand

N in ia n 36 " OD N o r th S ea 160 M o s tJy Je t t in g C re e k S a n t a Fe 1 1 2 .0 B u n a l s a t is f a c to r y to

S h e tla n d O il sa n d o v e r­ w ith 1 m c o v e r . C re e k d e ­
Isla n d s la y in g c l a y ; w a te r sig n e d w ith w a te r
(BP) c la y & c J-c iio n e d u c t io n s y s te m for
ro c k n e a r s y s te m 3 0 0 m w a te r d e p th
S h e tla n d

S tr a tfjo r d A 36" OD N o r th S ea 15 2 S tiff P re -p lo w e d 5 0 -to n S M I T In t. 1 1 2 .0 km /hr B o t t o m to w p ip e in ­

oil c la y tre n c h plow M a rin e s t a ll a ti o n in t o p r e ­
lo a d in g 3 .0 0 0 S e r v ic e s p lo w e d t r e n c h —-
[S ta to il-
lin e psr 2 2 ,0 0 0 -h p 1 ,8 3 0 - m t r e n c h le n g th

High b la n d 4 2 " , M)". G u l f of 95 M o s tly le t ti n g B ro w n & 1 -3 w ith O n e pass 1.5 B u ria l re q u ir e d i s 0 .9 1 m

Offshore & OD M exico, c la y and barges Root 3 m for 0 .9 2 .0 fo r p ip e to 6 ! m w a te r
System ga t h e ri n g U .S. A . s o ft cla y 4 2 ” pipe co v e r m tre n c h d e p th , an d 3 m c o v e r
iH iO S1 hnevgas M cD e rm o tt a c ro s s & tw o a c r o s s fa irw a y
m.nn 3 0 " tfv 3 6 " ta irw a y p a sse s
p ip e lin e pipe 3 -m tre n ch
N U -T O S
system

Ek o t i s k - 36 i H) North Scj Sand гч le t t i n g HAR 103 B r o w n гч 1 m 15 S p a n s e x is t e d a fte r

Emden Gas s o ft c la y w it h air BAR 22s Ro ot onshore t r e n c h in g , p o r tio n of
p ip e lin e suction B A R 2H0 pip e w a s san d -b agg ed
[P h il li p s ' o r b a c k c o v e re d .
1 3 i^ I O H S ^ U 'e 1 ;р е 1 |Г ц -7 m ia iy S lS , C1IIU iv lc th O v j^

pipelines is illustrated in the ca se of the A G A -O K I pipeline offshore

Japan. In that case, the fishery a s s o c ia t io n required th a t the pipeline be
buried to about 8 ft below the seabed, th a t the pipeline be m e ch a n ica lly
backfilled, and th at the general c o n s t r u c t i o n area on the seabed be
leveled to e lim in a te any a n c h o r m a r k s or gouges from co n s tru ctio n
activities to decrease the possibility of d am ag e to fishing traw ls working
the seabed along the pipeline route. As a result, the pipeline was jetted
down to that depth, an L-shaped scrap e r w as used to backfill the trench,
and a chain sw eep er and a flat scraper were later used to level the seabed.
T h e cost of the entire o peration, needless to say, w as very high.
In co n c lu s io n , pipelines installed in the Gulf of M e x ic o m u st be
buried to 3 ft below the seabed ou t to the 2 0 0 -f t depth co n to u r. Pipelines
w hich cro ss an a n ch o rag e area or a fairway generally require a 10-ft
burial depth. In m o s t o th e r cases, the burial req u ire m e n ts are decided by
the a u th o ritie s on a ca se -b y -ca se basis, based on a detailed e valu ation of
the various hazards to w h ich the pipeline m a y he subjected and the
degree to w h ic h b u n a l w ou ld allev iate these hazards.
 Pipe Connection and Positioning Systems

6.1 General

Subsea pipeline c o n n e c t i o n s arc needed during new pipeline c o n ­

str u c tio n s , repairs, or lateral addition to a m ain carrier line. C o n n e c ­
tio ns c a n be m a d e for pipeline tie-in to a riser or b etw een a pipe and a
su bs ea-tap a sse m b ly or a subsea manifold C o n n e c t i o n s can also be
m a d e b e tw ee n pipe s e g m e n ts to m a k e a c o n tin u o u s pipeline, s u c h as in
the c a se of a repair w h e re pipe s e g m e n ts are layed by different vessels or
w hen pipeline s e g m e n ts are to w ed to lo catio n from a distan t m ak e -u p
site.
C o n n e c ti o n s can be done on the surface by lifting pipes to a surface
vessel, m a k in g the c o n n e c t io n , th en low ering pipes to the seabed.
Subsea c o n n e c t i o n s can be m ade by hyperbaric welding, flanges, or
m e c h a n ic a l d evices. In-line c o n n e c t io n m e t h o d s w h ich c o n n e c t tw o
pipe s e g m e n ts c a n generally be ex te n d e d to c o n n e c t the pipe and the
riser. O t h e r m e t h o d s to c o n n e c t pipe and riser include J-tube and
bending sh oe. T h e s e will be d iscussed in C h a p te r 8 on riser m e th o d s.
An im p o r ta n t a sp e ct of pipe c o n n e c t io n s is the p ositioning of the ends
to be c o n n e c te d , th u s facilitatin g the co n n e c t io n process. T h is is usually
done by spool pipe pieces to bridge the gap. H o w ever, positioning
m e th o d s w h ic h e li m in a te the spool piece have been developed. T h e se
m e th o d s are m a in ly em p lo ye d for pipe c o n n e c t io n to a riser, wellhead,
subsea manifold, or o th e r subsea facility.

6.2 Pipeline Connection Systems

Various m e t h o d s e xist for joining ends of subsea pipelines. T h e se

m e t h o d s in clude the following:
 ipt'ii! ' .11411. . ' . / S I S , .. — VffellK___

■ Flanged c o n n e c tio n
■ A tm o s p h e r ic welding
■ H v p e rb a n c welding
* M c t h a n i c a l c o n n e c to rs

As stated earlier, o th e r c o n n e c t io n m e th o d s e x is t w h ic h are lim ited to

pipe and u s e r co n n e c t io n s ; th ese are d iscu ssed in C h a p te r S.

6.21 Flanged Method

Flanges are preinstalled on e a c h pipe end during laying. T h e pipe ends

are p o sitioned a p p ro xim ately in line w ith the flanges 5 0 - 2 0 0 tt apart.
An adjustable fixture (tem p late) is lo w ered to the seabed and te m p o r a r ­
ily a tt a c h e d to the flanges. T h e fix tu re is lo ck e d in position, released,
and raised to the su rface. A rigid pipe spool is prepared to m a t c h the
e x a c t d im e n s io n s of the fixture, lo w ered to th e seabed, and bolted into
place.
A sw iv el-rin g flange is used on one spool end to fa c ilita te a lig n m e n t of
the bolt ho les 111 the flanges. T h i s m e t h o d is generally lim ited to
ap plicatio ns involving relatively sm a ll d ia m e t e r s and sh a llo w water,
although flanges have been used to a t least 3 6 -i n . d ia m e t e r and in 50 0 -ft
w ater depths in the N o r th Sea.
Flanges are low in co s t, but th ey c a n tak e a long tim e to install and
m a y leak durin g pressure testing. A le ak in g flange c a n be difficult to
diagnose. In one installation, it took 2 w e e k s to lo ca te the s o u rce of a
sm all leak during a h y dro test, w h i c h w as due to a leak in g flange.
H ow ev er, flanges are co n sid ered trouble-free o n c e th ey h ave been in ­
stalled and tested. Flanges are s o m e t i m e s used at the foot of risers to
facilitate re p la ce m e n t of a riser.
T h e process of tig h te n in g large ilanges has been m a d e considerably
easier and faster by the use of a h ydraulic b o lt-te n s io n m g tool. T h e
H y d ra-T ig h t tool, sold 111 the U.S. by F le x a ta lic G a s k e t C o ., has been
used in the N o r th Sea for several years. It c o n s is ts of a series of
h ydraulically operated ten sio n ers w h ic h are a tt a c h e d to p ro tru d in g en d s
of the flange studs. H yd rau lic p ow er provided fro m the surface cau ses
the ten sio n e rs to tension e a c h stu d u n ifo rm ly . T h e n u ts m a y th en be
tightened in as little as 3 hr using the H y d ra-T ig h t tool. T h e prim ary
ad v antage, h o w ev er, is u n ifo rm ten sio n in g of th e studs. T h i s reduces
the likelihood ot a leak, especially for large flanges.
A va ria tio n of the flanged spool th a t is g aining w ider a c c e p t a n c e is the
use of a ball flange to a c c o m m o d a t e an g ular m i s a lig n m e n t. Small-
 P ip e C o n n e c tio n a n d P o s itio n in g S yste m s | 135

d ia m e t e r lines ( 1 0 - 1 2 in. or less) in 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 ft of w a t e r m a y often be

lifted to the surface to m a k e a c o n n e c t io n using a ball c o n n e c t o r . T h e
pipe is dew atered, if n e ce ssary , and one end is raised by o n e or m o re
lifting points. A b a ll- c o n n e c to r half is welded to this first pipe end. A
joint or tw o of pipe are first w elded on to bridge any gap b e tw e e n th e tw o
pipe ends.
T h e first pipe end is low ered to the seabed so th a t it o verlaps the
seco n d pipe end. A m e a s u r e m e n t is tak en on b o tto m , and th e seco n d
pipe en d is raised to the surface. T h e pipe is cu t, the s eco n d ball half is
welded on th e pipe, and the pipe is low ered to the seabed. T h e tw o pipe
ends arc th e n lifted slightly and the ball halves are m a te d . T h e c o n ­
n e c te d pipe is lo w ered to the seabed and the bolts are tig h te n ed to lock
and seal the ball joint.
If the pipes m u s t be d ew atered for lifting, te m p o r a ry end cap s arc-
a tt a c h e d to the ball halves before the pipe ends are low ered. A fte r the
pipes are flooded, the te m p o ra ry cap s arc re m o ve d .
T h e ball c o n n e c t o r s m a y also be used in pairs at the en ds of a rigid
spool for new c o n s t r u c t i o n or for a long spool repair w h e re pipe ends can
be lifted to the su rface. M e a s u r e m e n t of the required spool length m u s t
be a c c u r a te l y m ad e sin ce the ball c o n n e c t o r s will provide o n ly lim ited
len gth ad ju s tm e n t. M oreo v er, an axial m o v e m e n t of ab o ut o n e pipe
d ia m e t e r is needed to m a t e the halves of a ball joint.

6.22 Atmospheric Welding

A t m o s p h e r ic welding of pipe ends can be done u nder a tm o s p h e r i c

pressure on the surface usin g a surface vessel or done subsea using an
a tm o s p h e r i c ch a m b e r. T h e advantage of a tm o s p h e r i c w elding is the
a pplication of o n sho re welding procedures u n d erw ater, th u s resu ltin g in
b e tte r quality welds th an those of hyperbaric welding.
Surface welding is w h e re tw o pipe ends are lifted to th e surfacc,
welded together, and low ered to the seabed. T h is m e th o d requires a pipe
lay barge to lift the pipe ends on davits and hold the ends in positio n
w hile a pup or spool is welded into the line. T h i s m e t h o d is lim ite d to
sn ia ll-d ia m e te r pipe and relatively shallow w ater. T h e largest c o n n e c ­
tion of this type was on a 32 -in . oil line in about 3 5 0 ft of w a te r. In this
ease, tw o barges w ere used. Surface welding is generally a preferred
c o n n e c t io n m e th o d w h ere it is practical, unless flanges are to be used to
fa cilitate possible futu re repairs at a riser or tap valve.
Pipes are lifted to the surface a ccord in g to p red ete rm in e d pick-u p
sch ed ules. T h e s e sch ed u les show a step-by-step p ro ced ure for pipe
1: ' u iis i ipeli sign ysis, ‘ 'vieih'.

lifting by e ach davit such th at pipe stresses are m ain ta in e d w ithin a safe
lim it.
In ca se s w here pipe lifting to the surface is not feasible, su ch as in deep
w ater, subsca a tm o s p h e ric welding ca n be used. T h r e e main m odules
are used: a w elding base w ith a plug sy s te m , a support m od u le, and a
transfer m od u le. T h e w elding base and plug s y s te m are positioned over
the pipe ends to be c o n n e c t e d . T h e support m o d u le is th en hauled dow n
over the w elding base. O n e -a t m o s p h e r e o p eratio ns begin inside the
welding ch a m b e r, in clu d in g preparation of pipes and the spool piece,
positioning the spool piece, welding, and testing. Pipe repairs c a n also be
made w ith this m e th o d .

6.23 Hyperbaric Welding

M any ot the lo n g -d ista n ce N o r th Sea pipelines have been laid by

m ore than one lay barge, and hyperbaric welding has been used to join
pipe lengths. T h e pipe ends are laid on the seabed and overlap. After
pipes are flooded, the en ds are c u t. E a ch pipe end is raised about 3 ft off of
the b o tto m and is supported by sandbags. T h e span length m ay be 3 0 0 to
6 0 0 ft or m ore, depending on pipe stiffness and weight.
A large alig n m e n t fram e is placed over the pipe ends, and the ends are
lacked into a lig n m e n t. A w elding h abitat is th en placed over the pipe
ends and sealed to th e m . Inflatable stoppers are placed in the ends of
ea ch pipe, and the h abitat is p um ped dry.
W elder-divers e n te r the habitat, dry the pipe, and saw c u t the pipe
ends to the e x a c t required length . A prepared pup joint 3 to \ it long is
positioned and welded into place. If a span of m o r e than about 4 ft
b e tw ee n the pipe ends is to be bridged, a 4 0 to 50-ft-lon g spool is first
welded to one pipe end; then a 3-ft pup is used to join the second pipe end
to the spool. W elds are co d e quality and X -ray inspected
Hyperbaric w elding is favored by m a n y N o r th Sea operators w hen a
co n tin u o u s -w e ld e d pipeline is desired and the pipe ends c a n n o t be
raised for surface welding. T h i s m e t h o d is perform ed from a lay barge,
derrick barge, or a large special-purpose vessel, as the requited align­
m e n t tr a m c m a y be 6 0 ft or m ore in length and weigh up to 173 tons.
Hyperbaric welding is presently lim ited to 3 6 -in . pipe (about 42 m. O D
with c o n c r e te co ating ) and has been d e m o n stra te d in w ater depths
e xceed in g 1 ,0 0 0 ft.
H yperbaric w elding is tim e c o n s u m i n g and e xp en siv e because of the
tim e required to align the pipe ends precisely. M oreover, three or m o re
welds are n o rm ally required to join a spool piece to the pipe ends, and
 P ip e C o n n e c tio n a n d P o s itio n in g S ystem s | 137

the welding h abitat m u s t be repositioned at e a c h end of the spool for

welding. T h e high day rates of vessels large en oug h to handle the
a lig n m e n t fram e also co n tri b u te to the high co s t. S a tu ratio n diving is
typ ically used for jobs in over 2 0 0 -f t w ater depths.
C onsiderable a d v a n ce planning is n ecessary for perfo rm in g h yper­
baric welding. W elding p roce d u res m u s t be prepared and approved.
W elders m u s t be cu rre n tly certified. A ch ange in a n y one of a host of
factors, su ch as w elding rod and p ip e-m aterial grade and wall th ick n ess,
ca n c au se n ew proced ures to be required. O p e rato rs also differ in their
specific re q u ire m e n ts for hyperbaric welding procedures.
C o n t r a c to r s offering h y perbaric-w eld in g serv ice in clude BO C /S ub
O ce an Services, C o m c x , M c D e r m o t t , O cea n e erin g, Seaway Diving,
Solus O ce a n S y ste m s , and T a y lo r Diving, a Brown &. Root affiliate.

6.24 Mechanical Connectors

S ev eral m e c h a n i c a l - c o n n c c t o r s y s t e m s are av aila b le for in-line

pipeline c o n n e c t i o n s . T h e s e in clu d e the Big Inch M arine S y s tem s
(FlexiForge), the C a m e r o n c o n n e c t i o n s y s te m , the G n p p e r c o n n e c to r
sy ste m , and the FlydroBall/I lydrocouple sy s te m by H y d ro T e c h S y stem s
Inc. O th e r c o n n e c t io n s y s te m s include G ray lo c c o n n e c t o r s by Gray
T o o l Co. and the Z a p -L o k c o n n e c t i o n sy ste m developed by Z apata
Pipeline Inc. M e c h a n ic a l-s le e v e -ty p e c o n n e c t o r s used for pipe repair
include D asp it P e rm a -L o k and l’ l.I D C O c la m p c o n n e c t o r
M e c h a n i c a l-c o n n c c to r s y s te m s are taster and have a low er installcd-
co s t altern a tiv e th a n hyperbaric welding. 1 hey can be also less co stly to
install than surface tie-in m e t h o d s but require about the sa m e a m o u n t
of tim e to co m p le te . T h e m stallat ion is also l e s s w e a th e r sen sitive than
surface welding, an im p o rtan t ad vantage in b ad -w e ath er seasons.
M e c h a n i c a l - c o n n c c t o r sy s te m s c o n sist ot a m e a n s tor a tt a c h i n g the
c o n n e c t o r to th e pipe on the seabed, provisions ior axial [length) adjust­
m en t, ball |oints, and a rigid pipe spool A m e an s of m an ip u la tin g the
co n n e c t o r a s sem b lie s m a y be provided by the in stallatio n c o n t r a c t o r or
by the m an u fa ctu re r.
T h e m an ip u la tin g eq u ip m e n t c an take a variety of f o r m s ; the c h o ic e is
n orm a lly m ad e by the in stallatio n co n tra c to r. It the pipe-lay c o n tr a c t o r
uses his lay barge as a w ork platform, the barge davits can be used in
good w e ath er. In deep w a te r with little current, inflatable air bags can be
used to buoy the c o n n e c t o r assem bly off b o tto m .
For sm all pipe sizes up to about 12 in., a sim ple A-fram e m a y be used
with " c o m c - a l o n g s " to m a n e u v e r the assem bly into position. For large
pipe sires, a subm ersible hydraulic c ra n c m a y be used. T h e cran e is
h ydraulically operated by a diver. O n e su ch cran e, m a n u fa ctu re d by Sea
Horse, has been used in the N o r th Sea.
G ripper and H y d ro T e ch offer special b o tto m -m a n ip u la tin g equip­
m e n t tor use w ith their c o n n e c t o r s y s te m s . Very large a lig n m e n t
frames, as used for hyperbaric welding, are not required w ith th ese
m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s y s te m s b ecause p recise alig n m e n t of the pipe
ends is not n ecessary.

6.241 Big-Inch Marine Systems

Big Inch is best k now n for its Flexiforge end c o n n e c t o r , a m e a n s for

cold forging a fitting o n to the end of a pipe on the seabed. H ow ever,
Big-Inch has also developed a c o m p le t e c o n n e c t o r s y s t e m for new
c o n s tr u c ti o n . Ih is in cludes e ith er c o n v e n tio n a l ring joint flanges or
holtless flanges to c o n n e c t the s y s te m to th e pipe ends, ball joints, and
slip joints. All c o m p o n e n t s have m c t a l - t o - m e t a l seals. E a ch co m p o n e n t
m a y be d isassem b led on the seabed by u n b o ltin g if it b e c o m e s n ecessary
to r e m o v e the s y s te m . T h e Big-Inch s y s te m is illu strated in Figure 6.1
B oth the B o h l e s s Flange and M isa lig n m e n t Ball Joint b o th use the sam e
se ttin g and lo ck in g m e c h a n is m .

6.242 Cameron

T h e C a m e r o n in line c o n n e c t io n s y s te m in clu d es tw o co lle t c o n n e c ­

tors w ith integral or separate a c tu a to r s and positioners, four pipeline
swivels, and tw o rigid pipe spools. A m a t in g C a m e r o n hub and a tie-in
base is p re a tta c h c d to each pipe end to be joined. T e m p o r a r y end caps are
requited for each pipe end to retain air in the pipelines during laying and
positioning. T h e s e m a y be a tt a c h e d by m e a n s of C a m e r o n clam p s.
T h e s y s te m may be operated from a w o r k vessel equipped w ith a cran e
or o th e r eq u ip m e n t to lift the spool a sse m b ly . G uide cab les are a tta ch ed
to e a ch tie-in base. T h e spool is m a d e to the c o r r e c t length w i th sw ivels
and co llet c o n n e c t o r s welded in place. T h e spool a sse m b ly is atta c h e d to
a sp reader bar and lowered on the guide w ire s to th e seabed.
O n c e the asse m b ly is on b o tto m and the c o n n e c t o r s are landed on the
tw o tie m bases, a diver o p erates c o n tro l s to p osition e a ch c o n n c c t o r and
a c t u a t e the co lle t fingers to grip the m a t in g hub and effect the seal. T h e
seal m ad e by e ach c o n n e c t o r is th en p retes te d to co n fir m in tegrity of the
 P ip e C o o n e iJ iL ';' a n d P o s itio n in g S yste m s | 1

(i. I />1л -I n c h m a r i n e e n d c o n n e c t o r { c i i u r t e w Hi.k l:i, h ,\1,miie S y s t e m s Inc.)

c o n n e c t io n , and the a c t u a t o r s and support e q u ip m e n t are retrieved tor

reuse.
Four sw ivels arc n o rm a lly used to provide the required axial m o v e ­
m e n t of the c o n n e c t o r s and to a c c o m m o d a t e m i s a lig n m e n t. T h e spool is
n o rm ally about 15 0 ft long.
A C a m e r o n c o n n e c t o r s y s te m is illustrated in Figure 6 .2 .

6.243 Gripper

C n p p c r offers the C r i p and Seal M ech an ica l C o u p lin g (G SM C ) and

Gripper Ball C o n n e c to r -F la n g c Lok (GRCFL) d ev ice s for n ew co n s tru c -
' ' ' ' ■ , ' ■ i
1‘ - , lm isi ipein — „ s ig n , y s is . - Je th c ^

P ip e C o n n e c tio n a n d P o s itio n in g S yste m s | 141

tion and repairs. T h e G S M C unit in co rp o ra te s m e ta l ten sio n and c o m ­

pression gripping collars and soil p ackin g in a cylinder w h ich slips over
a pipe end. It is set and .sealed by tightening a series of stud nuts, and
it m ay be rem o v ed from the pipe by loosening the n u ts T h e G B C F L unit
is a ball-joint flange with m e t a l-to - m e ta l seals.
T h e Gripper M e ta l Seated C o u p lin g (G M SC ) unit is a m e t a l-to - m e ta l
seated version of the G S M C u nit. It slips over and seals against the c u t
end of a pipe. T h e G M S C u n it has no provision for length a d ju stm e n t. It
is intended for riser repairs w h ere the riser pipe can be m a c h i n e c u t to
provide a s m o o t h sealing surface. It cou ld also be used to a t t a c h a flange
or fitting to a pipe on the seabed, provided that the pipe end were
m a c h in e cut.
T h e Grip per M e c h a n ic a l Pipe C ap d evice is a variation of the G M S C
unit, w ith an end cap and soft p ackin g gland.
T h e Gripper Pipe L ength C o m p e n s a t o r (G PL C ) d ev ice is a slip joint
intended for new c o n s tr u c ti o n . M e tal seals arc set against a m a ch in e d
cy lind rical surface. T h e G P L C unit is used in a spool, w ith a G B C F L unit
S ection , C ollet Connector, 6" through 20"
at e a ch end.
An illu stratio n of the Gripper m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r is s h o w n in
Figure 6 .3 .

6.244 HydroTech

H y d ro T e c h m a n u fa c tu re s several p ro d ucts for pipeline c o n n e c tio n s .

T h e m a in p ro d ucts include the I ly d ro B a ll/H y d ro C o u p le sy ste m , the
m isalign in g flange |MAF), and the HydroBall swivel and b ias-cu t flange.
Different c o m b in a ti o n s oi th ese p rod ucts can be used to suit the specific
application.
T h e early H y d ro B a ll/H y d ro C o u p le (H B /H C ) s y s te m w as a device
in corp o ratin g tw o c o n n e c t o r s on c it h e r side ot a separable ball joint. T he
H yd ro C o u p le c o n n e c t o r s were slipped over the en ds of the pipes to be
joined. E la s to m e r seals in the H y d ro C o u p le c o n n e c t o r s were set against
the O D of th e pipe, and the HydroBall unit was set and sealed in place.
T h e n the lo ck in g ten sio n and c o m p re ssio n slips were set. T h i s se q uen ce
was required because the early H y d ro C o u p le units co u ld not be re ­
m o v ed from the pipe after the slips were set, sin ce epoxy w as used as the
Section, C ollet Connector, 22" and L arg er se ttin g fluid. T h e early Mark I and M ark II H B /H C u n its were used in the
Phillips' Ekofisk c o m p le x , w h ich in cludes p la tfo rm s in the Ekofisk,
6 .2 С л п п е го п ci>llet c o n n e c t o r ( c o u r t e s y C a m e r o n Iron W o r k s)
W e st Ekofisk, Albuskjel, Cod, Edda, and Eldfisk Fields. T h e c o m p le x
lies in 2 3 0 - to 2 4 0 -f t w a te r depths.
Ekofisk w as originally developed using H y d r o T e c h 's m e c h a n ic a l
I O ffs h o re Pipeline u e s ig n , Analysis, ana M e th o a s

Gripper Inc.)
Gripper grip and seal con n ector (courtesy
6.3
 P ip e C o n n e c t i o n a n d P o s itio n in g Syste m s | 14

c o n n e c t o r s for riser tie-in and subsea c o n n e c t io n s . A n u m b e r of these

c o n n e c t o r s exp erien ced leak s and w e re re m o v e d . T h e s e leaks related
p rincipally to the " h o t o i l " p ro b lem . T h e oil pip elines operated at
2 3 0 - 240°F. and w ere not o rigin ally designed to a c c o m m o d a t e the high
degree of th e rm a l e xp an s io n e x p e rie n ce d . In addition, c y c li n g of various
lines ca u sed th e seals in th e original M a rk II H C u n i ts to fail.
S u b seq u ent p ro d u ct m o d if ic a tio n s h a v e resu lted in th e M a rk IV and
M a rk V H y d ro C o u p le units. T h e M a rk IV H C u n its in clu d e im proved
gripping and sealing m e c h a n i s m s , a lo n g w i t h te m p e r a tu re c o m p e n s a ­
tion, and h ave not e xp erie n c ed leakage. T h e M ark IV u n it is hydraulic
se t, w i t h s e p a r a t e t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n slip s. T h e s e a ls are
sep arately a ctu a te d m e t a l - c o n t a m e d e la s t o m e r s . T h e M a rk IV tool is
illu strated in Figure 6 .4 .
T h e M a rk V u nit is a m o r e - c o m p a c t tool w i th in te r a c tin g ten sio n and
c o m p re s s i o n slips and m e t a l- c o n t a i n e d seals. T h e slips and seals are set
s im u lta n e o u s ly by tig htening a ring of bolts.

6.25 Comparison of Connection Methods

A specific co m p a riso n of th e c o m p e t i n g in-line c o n n e c t i o n m ethod s

c a n on ly be m ad e w h e n the p a rtic u la rs of a given in stallatio n are known.
T h e s e include the following factors:

■ L o ca tio n , including w a te r depth.

■ P ip e s i z e a n d m a t e r i a l grade.
■ C o n t e n t s of the pipeline.
■ O p e ratin g pressure and te m p e r a tu r e ranges.
■ Pipeline in sta llatio n m e th o d .
■ C o n t r a c t o r and eq u ip m e n t availability.
■ P o te n tia l for d am ag e after in sta lla tio n and ease of repair in case of
dam age.
■ R e q u ir e m e n ts for pigging the line.
* L o c a tio n of c o n n e c t io n w i th re sp e ct to s tr u c t u r e s and pipeline
restrain ts.
■ R e q u ir e m e n ts for tren ch in g the line.
■ E x p e cte d op erating lifetim e of pipeline.
■ Prior (good or poor) e x p e rie n ce w ith a c o n n e c t i o n m e th o d .

S u c h factors often re strict the c h o i c e of a c o n n e c t i o n m e t h o d to one or

a few altern a tiv e s. O t h e r factors w h ic h are th e n co n sid e re d in a s e le c­
tion of c o n n e c t io n m e th o d include e c o n o m y , reliability, sim plicity,
service, and availability.
 a i| | | 0 f j| r j a i o i j s u Q
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T E M P E R A TO R E C O M P E U S A T /O U O P T /O U

6.4a Mark IV HydioCouple'MAF connect o r (hydraulic set) (courtesy НуdroTech- Hughes, Inc.)

MHNfri

- COLLAPSIBLE A L l& tJ M E N T
АнЫ1ЛП> TC1T \ SPACERS
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- PORT
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6.4b Mark V HydroCouple MAF connector Ibolt tightening) (courtesy HvdroTech-Hughes, Inc.)
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14G | u it s h o ie P ip e lin e u e s ig n . A n a ly s is , a n a M e th o d s

E c o n o m i c rankings of candidate c o n n e c t io n m e th o d s vary, depending

on the particulars of an in stallation. In deep w ater, surface w eld in g is
im possible, and m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o rs m ay h ave the lo w e s t installed
co st. However, the total lifetime c o s t of m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s is not
yet k now n with any c erta in ty .
T h ere is not yet c o n c lu siv e e xp e rien ce that m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s
are as reliable as a weld over the 2 0 - 3 0 - y e a r life tim e of a pipeline. T h i s
can ch a n g e in the future as the level of c o n n e c t o r o p era tin g e x p e rie n c e
in creases and as in stallation m e th o d s are refined.

6.3 End Positioning Methods

6.31 General

In all p ip e -c o n n e c tio n s y stem s, pipe ends m u s t be p ositio n ed w ith in

c e rta in to lera n ce s to m a k e the c o n n e c t io n . T h e a m o u n t of to l e ra n c e s
depends on pipe size, w ater depth, and the specific c o n n e c t i o n m e th o d .
End p o sitioning is critical w here diverless c o n n e c t io n s are to be m a d e in
d ee p w a te r in stallation s.
M e th o d s e x ist of pipc-end positio ning w ith various s tag e s of use or
d e v elo p m en t T h e se m e th o d s include:
1. P ositio n in g during pipe in itiatio n and te r m in a tio n .
2. Straight-in tow.
3 . P ipe-deflection m eth o d s.
B e ca u se of difficulties in m a in ta in in g the su rface-sup p o rt vessel on
lo c atio n m deep w ater, end to leran ce s generally in volve m o r e c o m p l e x
p ro ced ures th a n in shallow w a te r. In deep w ate r, the a c c u r a c y of
in s tr u m e n t a tio n used to lo c a te pipe ends on b o t t o m is an i m p o r ta n t part
of the c o n n e c t i o n procedure. In s tr u m e n ta tio n e x is ts w i t h the use of
b o tto m transponders for a c c u ra te positioning.

6.32 Initiation and Termination Method

T h e in itiatio n m e th o d , also k n o w n as the lay -aw ay m e t h o d , uses a

p red eterm in ed point on the seafloor as an a n c h o r position. A cable is
run fro m the a n c h o r to the pipe-lay vessel and c o n n e c t e d to a pull head
on the first pipe joint, as sh o w n in Figure 6 .5 . T h i s cable is used to
provide the back tension required to c o n tro l the pipe sagbend stre sses
u ntil sufficient pipe is on the seafloor.
 P ip e C o n n e c tio n a n d P o s it io n in g System s | I

6./i Pipeline initiation

T e r m i n a t i o n o f a p i p e l i n e f r o m a l a y i n g v e s s e l is a c c o m p l i s h e d by
w e l d i n g a p u l l h e a d t o t h e l ast p i p e ] o m t |Figure 6 . 6) . A c a b l e f r o m t h e
v e s s e l ' s a h a n d o n c n t / r e t n e v a l w i n c h is c o n n e c t e d to t h e pu ll he a d, and
the vessel m o v e s forw ard u s in g the w i n c h to m a i n t a i n required ten s io n
T o l e r a n c e s of e n d p o s i t i o n s c a n be in t h e ran g e of 1 0 0 t o 1 5 0 ft. T h e s e
tolerances are a f fe c t e d In w ater depth, pipe sire, accuracy of the
t r a n s p o n d e r s y s t e m , s u r f a c e m o t i o n o f t h e l a y i n g v e s s e l , a n d s t r e t c h in
the laying cable.
D e p e n d in g o n th e t ie - m m e t h o d and m a te r ia l s to be used, tighter
tolerances may be required T olerances can be im p r o v e d in sevcial
w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n w a y is t o a t t a c h s e v e r a l c a b l e s , e v e n l y s p a c e d
o v e r a l e n g t h o f 2 0 0 t o 4 0 0 ft f r o m t h e p i p e e n d , a n d l i f t t h e p i p e o f f o f t h e
s e a tlo oi. B y m o v i n g t h e l a y v e s s e l o n its a n c h o r s , t h e e n d o f t h e pipe
m a y be rep ositio ned .
S e v e r a l v e s s e l m o v e m e n t s , e a c h r e q u i r i n g r e p o s i t i o n i n g o n t h e lift
c a b l e s o n t h e p i p e and/or v e s s e l a n c h o r s , m a y be r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n final
t c i t e r a n c e s o f 15 t o 2 0 f t. S m a l l e r i n c r e m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s c a n b e m a d e
b y u s i n g a s i n g l e c a b l e a t t a c h e d t o t h e p i p e l a y - d o w n h e a d . T h e l av
v e s s e l ' s a b a n d o n m e n t / r e t r i e v a l w i n c h is u s e d t o p i c k u p t h e p i p e , a n d
t h e v e s s e l r e p o s i t i o n s to m o v e t h e pi pe end.
P r e p a r a t i o n e f f o r t s f or t o l e r a n c e i m p r o v e m e n t s c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l e
a n d s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d o n a c a s e - b y - c a s e b a s i s . T h e i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t f or
o b t a in i n g relatively tight to le ra n ce s can o u t w e i g h b e n e fits that m ig h t
be o b t a i n e d f r o m a s p e c i f i c t ie -i n s y s t e m r e q u i r i n g t h e t ig h t t o l e r a n c e .
 ^ io t ipell: iiy il, /SlS. ' /iriirii

6.6 Pipe termination pull head

In itiation of a line by J-tube pull results in a zero to le ra n c e but

requires sp ecial c o n sid e ra tio n s in the pipeline design as well as in the
p latform design. T h e p la tfo rm m u s t include provisions for m o u n tin g
the pull w i n c h and supp o rtin g the pull loads. T h e w in ch is the " a n c h o r "
poin t for this tech n iq u e .
A cable is run from the w in c h , th ro u g h the J-tube, and to the lay vessel
and is c o n n e c t e d to a pull head on the first joint of pipe. T h e lay vessel
re m ain s s ta tio n a ry as pipe joints are added to the line. T h e p la tfo rm
w in c h provides the pull force to bring the line1 to the p latform and up
through the J-tube. After the pipe has been pulled to the desired po sitio n
on the p latform , the pull is ended and the lay vessel begins n o rm a l
operations.

6.33 Straight-ln Tow Method

T h e stra ig h t-in tow m e t h o d (Figure 6.71 is p rim arily used in c o n j u n c ­

tion w ith b o t t o m or o ff-b o tto m tow in stallation s. It requires a detailed
 Pip e C o n n e c ti o n a n d P o s itio n in g S ys te m s | 149

survey of b o tto m and n e a r-b o tt o m cu rren ts, b o tto m topography, and

b o tto m sod conditio n s, as well as a s o p h istica te d su rve y /p ositio n in g
sy ste m . T h e tow ro u te is layed out so the leading end of the pipe string
passes over the target point for the trailing end.
E n d p o s i t i o n i n g b y t h i s m e t h o d is a f f e c t e d b y t h e s i z e o f t h e p i p e ,
b o t t o m cu rren ts, b o t t o m soil c o n d it io n s , and the pipe's e x t e r io r coating.
G r o s s a x i a l e n d p o s i t i o n t o l e r a n c e s o f 1 0 0 - I SO ft f o r b o t h e n d s o t t h e
s t r i n g c a n be e x p e c t e d by t h i s m e t h o d

6.34 Deflection with Buoyancy

T h is m e t h o d of end p ositio n in g w as developed p rim arily for c o m p le ­

tion of subsea tie-ins using b a y o n n e t-ty p e c o n n e c t o r s ; h ow ever, it is
adaptable to m o s t o th e r tie-in sy ste m s . T h e m e th o d does n o t require
support from a lay or derrick barge.
It has also been developed for use w ith o u t diving support. H ow ever, it
does require a su b m a rin e or a r e m o te -c o n tro l v eh icle and positioning-
s y s te m support. A sim u la tio n model can also be useful for system
! .i r „ II ■ I, - ■■o'i.x

design and operational planning. An illustration of this m ethod is

s h o w n in F i g u r e 6 . 8.
T h i e e w i n c h e s a r e u s e d t o p r o v i d e a lateral d e f l e c t i o n f o r c e , a h o l d ­
b a c k iorce, and axial m o v e m e n t . S h e a v e s a n c h o r e d to the seabed and

6.8 n e lh 'i'tiu n w i t h h u o v o n c y
 P ip e C o n n e c ti o n a n d P o s itio n in g S y ste m s | 1

m o u n te d on the pulling sled and m a tin g tie-in point provide directional

co n tro l. If pipe is installed by o th e r th an an o ff-b o tto m to w in g m ethod , a
length of the flowline is buoyed off the sea floor, using off-bottom
to w in g te ch n o lo g y to co n tro l the vertical position. T h e len g th requiring
b u o y a n cy depends on the specific application.
T h i s m e th o d has been su cce ssfu lly d e m o n s tra t e d on th e in stallation
of a flowline bundle in P a n a r c tic O il's D rake Field. T h e bundle was
installed by b o t t o m pull and co n n e c t e d to a subsea w ellh ead in about
1 8 0 ft of w a te r. M odel s im u la tio n w as used to d e te rm in e o perating
pro ced ures and to identify and solve p o ten tial p ro b le m areas.
B ec au se the p ip e -strin g en d is in a sta te of n eutral b u o y a n cy , relatively
sm a ll fo rce s are required tor d e f le c t io n s and are w ell w i th in the
capabilities of available w in ch e s. Lateral c u rre n ts do n o t significantly
affect stress levels or d eflection loads. H o w e v er, lateral c u rre n ts may
c a u se significant deflection of the sled and the pipe leading end. Tie-ins
using this m e th o d require th at the lateral cu r r e n t be very small.
A m o d ifica tio n of this te ch n iq u e , using v ertical d eflection of the pipe,
has been investigated Indications are th at this ap p ro ach can also be a
te ch n ica lly feasible process for subsea tie-ins. T h i s tech n iq u e is illus­
trated in Figure 6 .9 .
E T l’M and C o m e x Seal developed a v a ria tio n of th is te ch n iq u e for
co m p le t in g in stalla tio n s of surface or n ear-su rface to w ed pipelines or
bundles. T h i s draw d o w n te ch n iq u e (Figure 6 .1 0 ) req u ires sh eaves on
J-tubes to be m o u n te d on the su b s e a -c o n n e c t io n point. T w o sets of
cables are ru n from e ach end of the line: o n e set is run th rou gh the
sh eaves to the surface and one is set direct to the pull w in ch . Cables
through the sh eav es provide the d o w n w a rd te n sio n and the d ire ct cables
provide the h o rizon tal tension required for stability. As the line is drawn
tow ard the seafloor, it rea ch es a w a t e r d epth w h ere th e sh eave cab les can
provide su fficient horizon tal force to m a in ta in the c a te n a r y . W h e n this
depth is reached, the direct cab les are s lack en ed , d is c o n n e c te d fr o m the
w in ch es, and fastened to b u o y an cy floats. T h e a c c u r a t e a d ju stm e n ts of
the lines ends are provided by the s e a -b o tt o m s tr u c t u r e s ' guiding de
vices and a c c u r a te d istrib ution of tloats. After the ends of the line are in
position, the floats are released.
15 2 | O ffs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

6.9 Vertical deflection

 P ip e C o n n e c ti o n a n d P o s it io n in g System s \ 1

T o w to site an d
ru n d r a w - d o w n
cables

P r e p a r e fo r
d raw -d ow n ,
re le a s e e n d floats

Draw -dow n
phase II, pulling
only on sheave
cables

D raw -dow n
co m p le tio n , line
co n n e cte d to sea­
bed structure, then
floats released
a llo w in g pipe to
ie on seabed

6 .1 0 L )rd \v ih n v n te c h n iq u e
 Subsea Pipeline Repair Systems

7.1 General

T h e e c o n o m i c im p a c t of a pipe failure c an a m o u n t to a substantial

loss of revenue, p articularly for large-d iam eter pipelines. A fast response
to a repair e m e r g e n c y is o ften required. Various s y s te m s e x ist for subsea
pipe repair, and no o n e repair m eth o d is appropriate in all cases.
Preplanning is lim ited to sp e cificatio n ot types of responses tor general
kinds of failures. C o m p o n e n t s needed tot so m e types of repairs are
stocked by m a n y o p erato rs and by groups ot operators.
S ubsea-pipelm e repairs m a y be required during c o n s tr u c ti o n , as in the
repair of buckles, alter a h y d ro te st tailure, or if the pipeline is damaged
a ft e r i n s t a l l a t i o n and b e fo re c o m m i s s i o n i n g . H o w e v e r , p ip e lin e
o perators are m o s t c o n c e rn e d w ith those repairs required to be made on
an o p erating pip eline as a result of corrosion, sto rm s, seabed m o v e ­
m e n ts, or d am ag e ic s u ltin g tro m m arin e operations, e.g., fishing, c o n ­
stru ctio n , supply a ctiv ities, etc.
Repairs during c o n s t r u c t i o n are usually made by the laying vessel.
Pipe is retrieved to the surface w h ere the damaged sectio n is cut, a new
pipe is welded, and laying re su m es. In co n tra st, subsea pipeline repairs
w h ich could e m p lo y a fu ll-e n e ircle m e n t sleeve or re m o v a l of a damaged
pipe se ctio n and re p la c e m e n t w ith a spool piece to bridge the resulting
gap involve m o re c o m p l e x repair procedures.
Selection of a repair m e t h o d depends on various c i r c u m s t a n c e s which
include the following:

■ Pipe size and pressure rating.

■ W ater depth.
■ Duty, e.g., trunk or g ath ering lines.

154
 S u b s e a P ip e lin e R e p a ir S y ste m s | 1

■ C o n t e n t s of the pipeline, e.g., gas or oil.

■ C a u s e of failure (m a n u factu re defect, c o n s t r u c t i o n a ccid e n t, hyd­
rotest, m o v e m e n t ,e tc .).
■ T y p e an d e x t e n t of dam age (co n crete dam age, flattening, leak, etc.).
■ L o c a tio n of the failure point with respect to re stra in in g po in ts of the
pipeline, s u c h as p la tfo rm s and subsea lateral tie-ins.
■ P ro te c t io n , buried or exposed.
■ T i m e of y e a r ; th ro u gh pu t demand.
■ A vailab ility of su itab le c o n s tr u c ti o n e q u ip m e n t and repair tools.

Tire im p o r ta n c e of th ese factors varies from c a s e to ca se ; h ow ever,

e q u ip m e n t availability is often an overridin g c o n c e r n .
W h e n d a m a g e to an o p erating pipeline o c c u rs , the line is im m e d ia te ly
sh u t d o w n and the to ta l e x t e n t of the p ro b le m is d e te rm in e d . T h is
in clu d es field and office ev alu atio n of the pip eline design, function,
service, size, w a t e r depth, p ro tectio n , and c a u s e of failure. A diver team
and su rface-sup p o rt eq u ip m e n t are sent to th e site to ev a lu a te the type
of d am age, e x te n t, and lo catio n . C o n t r a c to r s in th e area are co n ta c te d to
d e t e r m i n e th e a v a il a b i lity of s u ita b le e q u i p m e n t . G e n e r a l ly , the
o p era to r will ev a lu a te the c o m p le te situ a tio n in the office and in the
field w ith in Д to 7 d a y s after the dam age lias been reported.

7.2 Repair Methods and Practices

Several m e th o d s have been used tor e m e r g e n c y repair of offshore

pipelines. T h e s e m e t h o d s can be divided in to surface and subsurface
repair m e th o d s. Subsurface repair m e th o d s in clu d e hyperbaric welding,
split-sleeve clam p s, and m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t io n of a spool piece. T hese
m e th o d s have been used for repairing m idpoint d a m a g e in the pipeline
and d am ag e near the riser. T h e su rface-w eld in g repair tech n iq u e is
c o m m o n l y used in areas su ch as the Gulf of M e x ic o , w h e re pipeline
d ia m e te rs are relativ ely small, w ater depths are m o d e ra te , and w ea th e r
c o n d itio n s are often favorable.
H yperbaric w elding is m ore c o m m o n l y used m the N o r t h Sea, where
the large pipeline d ia m e te rs gicat w ater depths, and severe w eath er
e n v ir o n m e n t lim it the sateiy ot In tm g the pipe ends to the surface to
m a k e a repair.
M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o r s asailable tor new c o n s t r u c t i o n are also used
for pipeline repairs T h e following are brief d e s c r ip ti o n s of these
m e th o d s as used for a spool piece repan.
15 6 | O ffs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

7.21 Surface Welding

T h e surface-w eld in g m e t h o d uses su rface-w eld in g e q u ip m e n t o n a

w ork barge, c o m m o n l y a pipe-lay vessel. T h is m e t h o d in v o lv es lifting
th e pipe en ds to th e surface by use of davits, th en hand fittin g and
w elding a spool piece to bridge the gap b etw een the pipe ends, insp ectin g
the welds, an d low erin g the pipe to the b o tto m . T h i s m e t h o d , used for a
m id p o in t repair, in volves the following steps:

■ Survey and in sp ect d am ag e to the pipeline.

■ Plan tlie repair procedure. T h is ite m c a n be c ritic a l for large-
d ia m e te r pip elines and for w a te r depths greater th a n 3 0 0 ft, w here
the lifting p rocedure m u s t be carefully planned to lim it the stresses
in the pipe to a safe level during lifting.
■ M obilize bargc(s) to the site and m o o r in the p ro x im ity of the
d am aged area of the pipeline.
■ Inspect the pipeline d am ag e and, if the pipe is buried, unbury a
se c ti o n ot about 5 0 0 ft o n e ither side of the d a m ag e using hand jets.
■ C u t out the d am aged area of the pipe, d e w a te r the pipeline if
n ecessary, and retrieve the d am aged pipe.
■ A t ta c h lilting cables to e ach s ectio n of the pipe on the b o tto m .
■ Lift both pipe ends to the surface by pulling on the davit cables
a cco rd in g to ,i preplanned lifting schedule.
■ C u t and clea n pipe ends.
■ Fabricate a straig h t or a curved spool piece to fit b etw een the tw o
pipe ends. Weld the spool piece to the pipe ends, X -ray, and co a t the
field |oints.
■ L o w er the pipe to the b o tto m while m o v in g the barge laterally on its
m o o rin g lines to the port or the starboard d irection until the pipe is
on the b o tto m .
■ H yd ro sta tic a lly test the pipeline and rebury if n ecessary.

If d a m ag e is done to a pipeline riser and the pipe n ear the riser, then a
modified surface-repair m e th o d is used. T h e m e th o d in volves lifting one
end of the pipe to the surface using s o m e or all of the barge davits, then
welding the low er s ectio n of the riser to the pipe and low ering the pipe
and riser as new se ctio n s of riser are added. If a significant length of the
pipeline is also damaged, it is first rem oved. T h e re m a in in g end of the
pipeline is lifted to the surface and new pipe is laid up to the platform.
T h e riser-setting o p eratio n then proceeds as described earlier.
T h e su rtacc-w e ld in g m e th o d of repair is m o s t effective in w ater
depths up to about 3 0 0 ft anti c an be used for g reater w a te r depths if the
 Subi,ea P i f j f i ' i i e R e p a ir System s \

pipeline d ia m e t e r is s m a ll or if b u o ya n cy d e v ice s are a tta ch ed to the pipe

to co n tro l pipe stre sses in the sagbend during the lifting operation. For
very larg e-d ia m ete r pipelines, it m a y be n ecessary to e m p lo y tow barges
to lift the tw o pipe ends to the surface sim u lta n e o u sly .

7.22 Hyperbaric Welding

In the h y p e rb a ric-w e ld in g m e th o d , the d am ag ed pipe sectio n is c u t

out by divers and retrieved . A spool piece of the required length is
fabricated on the s u rfa ce vessel T h e spool piece is lowered to the seabed
and tw o pup joints are used to c o n n e c t the spool piece to e ach end of the
pipeline. W elding is done inside a welding habitat under am b ien t
b o tto m pressure in a dry e n v ir o n m e n t. T h i s m e th o d is used in deeper
w ater w h ere s u rface w e ld in g is im p r a c tic a l or w h en the pipe ends are
restrained by a riser, tap valve, or pipeline cro ssing
T y p ically, an a lig n m e n t fram e, a welding habitat, and a transfer bell
are used to a c c o m p l i s h the pip eline repair by hyperbaric welding T he
surface-sup p ort vessel m a y be a w ork barge or a vessel especially
equipped for this w o rk . T h i s repair process in volves the tollowing steps:

■ Survey and in sp ect d a m a g e to the pipeline.

■ 1’lan the repair p roced ure.
■ Mobilize a w ork vessel to the site and m o o r in proxim ity of the
d am aged area of the pipeline.
■ It the pipeline is buried, unluiry a se ction ot pipe on either side ot the
d am aged s e c tio n .
■ Inspect the d a m a g e d pipe and to rch c u t and retrieve the damaged
section of the pipe.
■ M easure the required length ol the spool piece.
■ Lower the spool piece to the seabed by e ith er a crane or davits and
position it b e tw e e n the tw o pipe ends.
■ Lower the a li g n m e n t fram e and p osition it over the first pipe end to
be welded; align the tw o pipe ends to be joined and hold th e m in
position.
■ Low er the w eld in g h ab itat and place it on top of the a lig n m e n t frame
and over the pipe ends to be c o n n e c te d
■ P um p the h abitat dry. W elder-divers then e n ter the habitat, cut and
prepare the pipe ends, and position a 3-ft-lo n g pup joint for welding;
m a k e welds in a dry e n v iro n m e n t, X -ray, and apply protective
coating.
15 8 | O ffs h o re P ip e lin e D e s ig n , A n a ly s is , a n d M e th o d s

■ Repeat the p roced ure to c o n n e c t the spool piece to the o th e r pipe

end,
■ H y d ro statically te st th e pipeline and rebury if n ecessary.

A modified pro ced ure is used if the d am age is near the riser on a
p latfo rm . In th a t case, a n ew riser is first installed on the platform (if th e
riser is damaged), th en a spool piece is low ered and c o n n e c t e d to the pipe
and th en to the riser by hyperbaric welding, as in a typical m id p o in t
repair. T h i s m e t h o d of repair has been applied m o s t widely in the N o r th
Sea and is suitable for larg e -d ia m eter pipe. W ater-d ep th capability is
lim ited by d iver-depth lim itatio n s, and the m e th o d has been d e m o n ­
strated at w a t e r depths greater th an 1 ,0 0 0 ft.

7.23 Mechanical Connectors

M e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s are also used to join the pipe ends during a

repair o p eration. Several co m p e ti n g m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s are pro­
m o te d for subsea-pipeline repairs. A m o n g th e m are the Flexiforge
c o n n e c t o r m a n u fa ctu re d by Big-Inch M arine S y stem s, Gripper and
H y d r o T e c h c o n n e c t o r s , and the P c rm a -K u p l m a n u fa ctu re d by Daspit
Bros. M arine D iv eis Inc. A rigid spool piece is used along with tw o
m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s to bridge the gap b e tw e en the tw o pipe ends.
T h e m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s are s y s te m s th at include a m e a n s of
a t t a c h m e n t to the pipeline ends, p rovisions tor axial length ad ju stm e n t,
and (except Daspit) sw ivels to a c c o m m o d a t e angular m is a lig n m e n t.
T h e p rim ary eq u ip m e n t needed to m a k e a repair using m e c h a n ic a l
c o n n e c t o r s includes a 2 0 0 to 25 0 -f t-lo n g surface vessel w ith m o o rin g
capabilities, diving support, surface pipe-w elding facilities, a lifting
cran e, and b o tto m -m a n ip u la tin g eq u ip m en t.
T h e repair p ro cess typ ically p roceed s as follows:

■ Survey and in sp ect d a m ag e to the pipeline

■ Plan the repair procedure.
■ M obilize the e q u ip m e n t spread and m o o r in the p ro x im ity of the
d am aged area of th e pipeline.
■ If pipe is buried, unbury a sec tio n of pipe on either side of the
d am aged sectio n .
■ C u t o u t and retriev e the d am aged s e c tio n of pipe.
■ A tta c h lifting c la m p s of a m a n ip u latin g fram e or A-fram e to ea ch
s e ction of the pipe.
 S u b s e a Pip e lin e R e p a ir S ys te m s \ 1 5

■ Lift the pipe ends slightly off the b o t t o m and prepare th e m for
c o n n e c t io n by re m o v in g any c o a tin g s o n the pipe.
■ Place c o n n e c t o r h a lv es on ea ch pipe end.
■ M e asu re the required length of th e spool piece and fabricate the
spool on the su rfa ce vessel.
* Low er th e spool piece, line up th e c o n n e c t o r s w i th m a t in g halves on
the pipe, engage the c o n n e c t o r h alves and set th e m , set the c o n n e c ­
tors on the pipe ends, and test the c o n n e c t o r s .
■ L o w er the pipe to the seabed.
■ H y d ro s ta tic a lly te st the pipeline and rebury if n ecessary .

T h e p ro ced u re is s im ila r il the pipeline is d am a g ed near a riser at a

platform If the riser has been damaged, th en a c o n n e c t o r half m a y be
preinstalled at the foot of the r e p la c e m e n t riser sectio n prior to riser
setting.
A typical repair a r r a n g e m e n t using the Rig-Inch Flexiforge c o n n e c to r
is sh ow n in Figure 7.1 T h e G ripper a rr a n g e m e n t is s h ow n in Figure 7.2,

End co n n e cto r
P rocedure

1) P i p e e n d s a r e c u t a n d c l e a n e d

2) E n d f l a n g e c o n n e c t o r s are low ered a n d f o r g e d to p ip e e n d s

3) S p o o l p i e c e c o n s i s t i n g o f 1 slip j o in t a n d 2 ball jo in ts is m a d e

and low ered

4) F la n g e s o n e n d c o n n e c t o r s a n d s p o o l a r e lin e d u p , b o lts are,

in s e r te d a n d t i g h t e n e d . B o lt le s s f l a n g e c a n b e u sed w h e r e th e

t w o f l a n g e s a r e c o m p r e s s e d a n d c o n n e c t e d by h y d r a u l ic power.

1.1 Suli\Cil rt'jhlir h v n, 'Xil t>r^e n u t l u m i c d l c n m u ’ct<ir\

 ...... ...... .. •■ ' - I
i 'о ' ; п ы |1 : ,je in "i . .,ig n . ',s is , ‘ <etno _ _

O' ‘^ °.

P ro c e d u re

1) P ip e e n d s are cu t nnd c le a n e d .

2) C o n n e c to r c o u p lin g s w ith c o n n e c to r b a lls a re lo w e re d a nd

s ta b b e d o v e r e a ch end-

31 S p o o l is m a d e w ith th e ball c o n n e c to r cu p s.

4) S p o o l is lo w e re d n nd c o n n e c to r b a lls are s ta b b e d in
s p o o l c u p s and b a ll c o n n e c tio n is m a d e up a n d te ste d.

5) C o u p lin g s are n e xt a c tu a te d a n d te ste d.

7.2 Su/>sviJ r e p a i r b v (.,'ni m ech a n ic a l connectors

and the H y d ro C o u p le arr a n g e m e n t is s h o w n in Figure 7.3. V aria tio n s in

the installation procedures are noted on th ese figures.
In H y d ro T e c h 's design, axial a d ju s tm e n ts can be ob tain ed by slipping
the HydroCouple- unit over the pipe prior to sealing. A s im ila r arra n g e­
m e n t e x ists m C.rippet's C r ip and Seal co u p lin g design. In c o n tra s t,
Big-Inch provides a slip joint for axial a d ju stm en ts. In the Big-Inch slip
joint design, a length of only one pipe d ia m e t e r needs to be cle an ed and
prepared to stab and forge the c o n n e c to r.
A length of th ree pipe d ia m ete rs m u s t be cle an e d and prepared for
co n n e c t o r stabbing and ad ju stm e n ts in the c a se of H y d ro T e c h or G rip ­
per designs. A n g u lar a d ju stm en ts are ob tain ed by the use of the m is-
 S u b s o il P ip v h n e R e p a ir S y s te m s |

A x ia l

M is a lig n in g fla ng e h o u sin g

P ro ced ure:

1) Pipe e nd s are c u t and cleaned

2) H yd ro C o u p le c o n n e c to r s are low ered in a m a n ip u la tin g frame

3) H y d ro C o u p le c o n n e c to r s are stabbed over pipe ends.

4) S p oo l piece is fa bricate d w ith a ball on each end

5) S p oo l piece is low e re d and co n n e c te d to М АГ (c o n n e c tio n s

can be made by in se rtin g and tig h te n in g b o l b )

6) C o n n e c tio n s are sealed and tested

7 J S u b s i ’it r e p a n bv H v d m le c h m e t I i .h ih j/ o .n ::a

aligning flange in H y d r o T e c h 's design, by use oi a C.ripper ball c o n n e c t o r

flange lo c k in Gripper'» design, and by use ot a ioekm g-ball joint in the
Big-Inch design.
P e rm a -K u p l's c o n n e c t o r s c o n s tit u t e a su bstan tially different co n c ep t
than the o th e r m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o rs . After the pipe is prepared, a
Pertna-K upl c o n n e c t o r is asse m b le d on the pipe. The pressure sleeve
in co rp o ra te s soft packing. After the o u te r casing, w h ich resem bles a
Plidco c la m p , is asse m b le d over the joint, the an nu lar space is pumped
full of grout. O n e P erm a-K u p l c o n n e c t o r can be used fo ra sh o rt repair, or
tw o m a y be used at the en ds of a spool piece.
S in a ll-d ia m c te r lines |10- 12 m. or less! in 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 ft of w a t e r may
often be lifted to the surface for a repair using a ball joint. T h e pipe is
d ew atered, if n e cessary , and raised by one or m o re lifting points. A
b a ll-c o n n e cto r half is welded to the first pipe end. A joint or tw o of pipe
m ay liist he welded on to bridge the o n -b o tto m gap b etw een the pipe
ends.
T h e pipe with the ball half atta ch e d is low ered to the seabed so that it
overlaps the second pipe end. A m e a s u r e m e n t is tak en on b o tto m , and
the second pipe end is raised to the surface. T h e second ball hall is
welded on and the pipe is lowered. T h e tw o pipe ends are raised slightly
and the ball halves are mated. T h e pipe is lowered to the seabed, and the
bolts are tightened to lock and seal the ball joint.

7.24 Full Encirclement Sleeves (Clamps)

F u ll- e n c i rc lc m e n t split sleeves, or c la m p s , are m ade by Pipeline

I )e v c lo p m e n t C o. (I’lidcol, Daspit, Gripper, and H y d ro T e ch . T h e I’hdco
split sleeve is sold for on shore and offshore pipeline repairs. T hese
sleeves are rarely considered an a lte rn ativ e to the repair m eth o d covered
previously T h e a p p e a l s of the split sleeve are s im p licity and low cost.
T o perform a repair with one of th ese sleeves, the pipeline m u s t first
be c o m p le te ly exposed by ictting. T h e s e sleeves are split in halt axially
and held to g eth er by a n u m b er of studs and nuts. U n its tor sub-.ea
in sta llation s are hinged to facilitate asse m b ly o n to the pipe. T he sleeve
is lowered on guide w ires to the seabed in an op ened position, closed
around the clean ed pipe, and positioned o v er the leak. Studs and nuts
are then in setted and tightened to force the soft p a ck in g against the
pipe OI ">
I he split sleeve is a low cost way to repair a small leak or a weak spot
m pipe. A lth o u g h Plulco and D asp it sto ck standard lengths, m any
o p eiato is m a i n t a in a s to ck of split sleeves to m e e t their anticipated
req u irem ents.

7.25 Flexible Pipe Repair

Flexible pipe, as m a n u fa ctu re d by C oflexip, can also be used for

subsea pipeline repairs. C o flexip pipe is available w ith flanged end
c o n n e c t io n s or with plain ends w h ich could be welded to a m e ch a n ica l
c o n n e c t o r. L en gth s of pipe m u s t be prepared o n land to the required
lengths. In a repair situation , the required length of a spool c a n n o t be
know n until the dam aged pipe has been in sp ected and cu t. As a result, it
is either necessary to supply m o r e than en o ug h flexible pipe, or to add a
rigid spool on site to give gross length a d ju stm e n ts.
 S u h s e n Pip a h n e R e p a ir Sys te m s |

C o flex ip pipe provides large axial and an gular a d ju s tm e n ts , w h ich can

preclu d e the need to reposition the pipeline ends prior to m a k in g a
c o n n e c t io n . M o reo v e r, the C oflexip pipe re m a in s p e rm a n e n tly flexible.
T h i s ca n be an ad v an tag e in cases w h ere a pipe failure o c c u r s due to
pressu re or th e rm a l effects or due to seabed m o v e m e n t s .

7.3 Stocking Programs for Mechanical Repair Tools

M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o r sets have p in d u cn o n lead ti m e s of up to 4 or 6

m o n t h s for the larger pipe sizes C o n n e c to r s tor e m e r g e n c y pipeline
re p a ir s m u s t he p ro d u c e d and sto re d in a n t i c i p a t i o n of n eed. A
d ifferent-sized c o n n e c t o r is required tor e ach pipe size. M any of the large
pipeline o p e rato rs have such stock in g p rogram s.
T h i r te e n gas- tr a n sm is sio n c o m p a n ie s o p erating in the C u l t of M e x ico
have joined in a p rogram to s to ck c o n n e c to rs for use in m a k in g repairs.
T h e R U P E p rogram , " R e s p o n s e to U n d e iw a t e r Pipeline E m e r g e n c ie s ,"
c o v e rs p ip e lm e-re p air re q u ire m e n ts trom 6 -in. th ro u g h 36 -in . d ia m e ­
ters. T h r e e m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s and ac c e s s o rie s in e a c h pipe size
(excep t '22-in. and 2K-m.) are stm ked. v , ripper c o n n e c t o r s are sto ck ed up
th rou gh 2 0-in . H y d ro T e c h tools .ire stocked in the larger sizes.
R U P E has re ce n tly added split s ic . \es to i ts s to c k in g program . Plidco
u nits are s to ck e d through 12-m . si;-, Gripper in 14-in. th ro u g h 20-in.,
and H y d ro T e c h over 2 0 in
T h i s p rogram is only viewed .is .,n, ihi i repair o p tio n . O t h e r repair
m e t h o d s are a lso c o n sid e ic d w hen .i icpaii e m e r g e n c y arises, and the
one b est suited is used.

7.4 Comparison of Repair Methods

R elativ e m e r its and disadvantages o f surface welding, hyperbaric

welding, and m e c h a n i c a l - c o n n e c t o r repair m e t h o d s are con sid ered and
e v alu ated in this se ctio n . In m a n y cases, the relative ti m e req u ire m en ts,
in stallation co s ts, and availabilitv o t eq u ip m e n t in tlu e n c e the selection
of the m e t h o d for repair of a particular pipeline.
Surface w elding and h yp e rb aric-w cid m g m e t h o d s provide a c o n t i n u ­
ous welded pipeline, w h ich is considered to he a definite ad vantage by
m o s t o p erato rs. In general, m e c h a n ic a l- c o n n e c to r repairs are the least
c o s tly and m o s t rapidly com pleted, especially m deep w ater. Surface
welding is m o r e e xp en siv e and ot s o m e w h a t longer d uratio n than
repairs m ad e by m e c h a n ic a l u .u n e c t o i s T h e suifaee welding m ethod
io t ' . 11 s по . ,i e l i n t ___ gn. / ..is, a . j I hoi

also has greater w eath er sen sitiv ity and is limited to w a te r depths ot
about 3 0 0 ft, depending on pipe size.
Hyperbaric welding is the m o s t exp ensive and m o s t tim e -c o n s u m in g
repair m ethod . It requires skilled welder-divers and a lay barge or special
vessel to handle the required m a n ip u la tin g fram e and welding habitat.
Approved welding procedures are required for the specific pipe to be
repaired regarding wall th ick n ess, m a te rial grade, welding rod, gas
m ix tu re , etc.

7.41 Technical Features

Weldin g m e th o d s require e xp e n siv e surface-support eq uipm ent. T h e

surface repair of a la r g e-d iam cte r pipeline in deep w ater m ay require tw o
pipe-lay barges to lift and support the pipe safely during the w elding
operation Repairs using m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s can be performed from
a sm all w o rk barge or a large w ork boat.
T h e h y perbaric-w eld in g m e th o d requires very specialized eq uipm ent,
a large a lig n m e n t fram e, and a w e ld in g habitat. T h e re q u irem en ts for
m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s depend upon the m a n u fa c tu re r and can include
special rigging and A -fram es to support the c o n n e c t o r s during in stalla­
tion on the b o tto m .
T h e su rface -w e ld in g m e t h o d is m o s t lim ite d m te r m s of pipe d i a m e ­
ters and w ater depths. A lth o u g h th is m e t h o d has been used tor repairs to
pipes larger than 3 0 - in. in d ia m e t e r and in w a te r depths e xc ee d in g 3 0 0 ft,
it is m o s t c o m m o n l y em p lo ye d for pipes up to about 16-in. in d ia m e te r
and w a te r d epths of less th an 3 0 0 ft. T h e e x a c t lim ita tio n s for this
m e th o d depend heavily upon the size and capabilities of the surface
vessel(s), w e a th e r con ditio n s, and subm erged w eight of the pipe to be
lifted to the surface. T h e pipe is c o m m o n l y d ew atered before lifting.
Hyperbaric w eld in g has been d e m o n s tra t e d in the N o r th Sea at w ater
depths e xce e d in g 1 ,0 0 0 ft. T h e in sta lla tio n of m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s is
basically lim ited by diver depth capabilities.
T h e p rim ary disadvantage of the su rface-w eld in g m eth o d is th at if the
pipeline is buried, it is ne cessa ry to u n c o v e r long lengths (5 0 0 ft or more)
of pipe on e ith e r side of the b reak to lift the pipe ends to the surface.
T h e n , it the pipeline is to be reburied, a long length of pipe m u s t be
trenched.
T h e p rim ary disadvantages of hy perbaric w elding arc its high c o s t and
the ti m e required for repair by this m e th o d . T h e p rim ary disadvantage of
the m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r m e t h o d is the need to have a sto ck of
 S u b s e a P ip e lin e R e p a ir System s j

c o n n e c t o rs in the size of pipe to be repaired, sin ce the tim e required to

produce c o n n e c t o rs can be m a n y m o n th s . Such a delay would e lim in a te
the m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s from co n sid eratio n for repair of an operating
pipeline. A s u m m a r y of the te c h n ic a l co m p a riso n s of e m e r g e n c y repair
m e th o d s is given in T a b le 7.1.

Table 7.1 Com parison of Pipe Em ergency Repair Methods

Wc l i hi d! Sll r f cl ll' llvjierhtiiic Mi ' chi i ni cul

IW4: Welding IVe/i i i /i g C'onnectois

Siirl.b о Lay b a r r e l s I Lav barge or W o r k barge

equipment l arge speci al - or boat
pu r po s e vess el

Spe' i . i l Karge d a vi t s A l i g n m e n t t r a me , 1depends on

equipment w e l d i n g ha b i t a t m a n u t . u turei

1 mill.тип-. S h a l l o w w a t e r ur Л6 in d i . n u c l e i . 4.1- m d i a m e t e r
small diam eteis 1,1100 It • W l ) . di ver c a pa b i l i t i e s

Weather I ligh Moderate Low

sensitivity

. VI 1, .m tage-. Highest-quahty We l d e d l e p a n Last l ow- c os t

we l d

I Jisadvantages U n b u r y l ung M o s t e x p e n s i v e , l ong M u s t s t o c k eon

l e n g t h s ot pi pe mi repai r t i m e ; r e q u i r e s n e c t o i s til cor-
e i l h e r si de of s k i l l e d we l de r - d i ve r s , l eet size
break; ex pe n si v e appr ove d w e l di ng
pniicdmes

7 .4 2 E x p e r i e n c e

E xperience in clu d es the general c o n t r a c t o r s e xp erie n ce reli.ibility

and prior o p erator e x p e rie n c e w ith a specific repair m ethod . Most
m idline repairs in the Gulf of M e x ic o have been done using surface
welding and m e c h a n i c a l - c o n n e c t i o n m eth o d s In the case of pipe and
riser repair, m o s t e x p e rie n c e has been by the surface-w elding me th o d for
s m a ll-d ta m e te r pipe or s h a llo w -w a te r depth. In relatively deep watei
! 150 tt or greater) and for la r g e-d ia m cte r pipe, riser repairs have been
made using the m e c h a n i c a l - c o n n e c t i o n m ethod .
^6 ^ .IоI о ' „ g ii, / -is . ai - !..jin o d ~

7.43 Weather Sensitivity

T h e surface-weldin g m e th o d is m o s t sen sitive to w e a th e r during the

repair operation. T his is because both ends of the pipe m u st be lifted
to the surface, leaving the suspended portions exposed to various
hydrody n am ic forces. In general, the su rface-w elding m e th o d can be
used in very calm w e a th e r only, particularly w h ere tw o barges are used
to lift the pipe.
S ub sca -rep a u m e th o d s, including m e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t i o n and h y p er­
baric welding, are less sen sitive to w e a th e r c o n d itio n s than su rface
w e l d i n g . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , m o s t v e s s e l s p e r f o r m i n g s u b s e a
m e c h a n ic a l- c o n n e c ti o n repairs are sm a lle r th an the full-sized barges
required for surface repair and th u s ca n be sen sitiv e to w e a th e r in w a te r
depths g reater th an 2 0 0 tt.

7.44 Availability

M ajor pipe-lay c o n tr a c t o r s have the e q u ip m e n t to p erfo rm surface

w elding repairs Surface welding requires detailed stress an alysis to
co n firm that the pipe ends can be safely lifted to th e surface. Lifting
schedules can be prepared as the barge is being mobilized.
Hyperbaric welding requires m o b iliz a tio n of the a lig n m e n t frame,
h abitat, and satu ra tio n -d iv in g e q u ip m e n t. If n ew w eld in g pro ced ures
are required or it w eldei-divers m u s t be requalified, the s ta rt of the work
m ay be delayed M e c h a n i c a l-c o n n e c to r hardw are m u s t be available in
sto ck because production lead ti m e s c a n be 3 or 4 m o n th s . T h i s m u c h
d e la y w o u ld e l i m i n a t e c o n n e c t o r s fro m c o n s i d e r a t i o n for m a n y
e m e r g e n cy pipeline repairs.

7.45 Time and Costs

In general, surface w elding and m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s are the fastest

m ethods t o r pipe repair. I lyperbaric-w elding repairs c o n s u m e m u c h
m ore tim e t o perform, l c s u l t m g i n higher c o sts. M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o rs
are usually the le ast-costly m e th o d of repair. Surface w elding would be
m o s t exp en siv e if tw o barges are required to lift the pipe ends to the
surface as can be required tor large -d iam e ter pipe and in deep water.
Both tu n e e s ti m a te s and co st e s t i m a t e s will depend h eavily on the
c i r c u m s t a n c e s of an actu al repair s itu a tion , in clu d in g the e q u ip m en t
 S u b s e a P ip e lin e R e p a ir Sys te m s |

used, the skill of the c o n s tr u c ti o n c re w (including divers), w a t e r depth,

w e a t h e r co n dition s, and oth ei facto rs w h ic h are s itu a tio n dependent.
T h e im p o r ta n c e of a short in s talla tio n tim e is m agnified in bad-
w e a t h e r seasons, w here w e a th e r w in d o w s of 7 days or less m a y exist
b e tw ee n s to r m s . If a repair c a n be m a d e by one m e t h o d in the span of a
sh o rt w e a th e r w ind ow , both the tim e and co s t a d v an ta g es will be
magnified.
 Pipeline Risers

8.1 General

An im p o rtan t co n sid e ratio n in the design of offshore pipelines is

c o n n e c t io n to surface facilities. Often, the pipeline on the seabed is
co n n e c t e d to a riser w h ic h e x te n d s to a surface p roducing facility.
M a n y types of pipeline risers h ave been used in the past, inclu ding
risers that can be set on site and preinstalled risers th at can be c o n ­
n ecte d to th e pipe on the seabed by a subsea tie-in a rra n g e m e n t.
S election of a p articu la r installation m e th o d is influenced by several
factors, including w a te r depth, project schedule, e c o n o m ic s , and p la t­
form design. Specialized analysis of the pipeline and riser arc needed to
en sure flexibility of the c o n n e c t io n and safety of the sy s te m .
T h e various s y s te m s of pipeline-riser in stallatio n s and c o n n e c t io n s
are described m this ch apter. A co m p a riso n of th ese s y s te m s and
d iscu ssion of sy s te m flexibility are also presented.

8.2 Riser Systems

Several m e th o d s e xist for c o n n e c tin g a subsea pipeline to a p rein ­

stalled (existing) riser on a platform. T h e se m e th o d s are sim ilar to
m id p o in t pipeline c o n n e c t io n s described in C h a p te r 6 and in clude the
following:

■ Flanged c o n n e c tio n s .
■ Hyp erb aric welding.
■ M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o rs .
■ Subsea a tm o s p h e r i c welding.

168
 P ip e lin e Risers |

M e th o d s used for in stallin g risers on site include the following:

■ Surface welding m e th o d .
■ J-tube.
■ Reverse J-tube.
■ Bending sh oe.
■ Barefoot riser.

8.21 Flanged Connections

Flanged c o n n e c t io n s are w idely used for pip eline-riser tie-ins. Long

pipe spools, fabricated in a jig aboard a work vessel, a rc usually used
w ith flanges. A ltern a tiv ely , sw ivels have been used to a c c o m m o d a t e
angular m i s a lig n m e n ts b e tw e e n the pipe and riser. T h e spools n orm ally
have right-angle or Z -b end s to provide flexibility in a c c o m m o d a t in g
th e rm a l and pressure exp a n sio n . In s o m e cases, p articularly in large-
d ia m e t e r pipelines, ro ta tin g flanges are used to ease the in stallation.
S o m e o p erato rs favor flanges, while oth ers favor hyperbaric welding
T h e a d v an tage of flanges is th at they p e rm it easier repairs in the ev e n t of
pipeline/riser d am ag e or corrosion . T h e re have been s o m e reports of
leaks, and they ca n ta k e a long tim e to lo cate. But this is not generally
regarded as a m ajor factor for elim in a tin g flanges.

8.22 Hyperbaric Welding

Hyp erb aric w elding has been used m o stly for pip eline-riser tie-ins in
the deep w a te rs of the N o r th Sea. H y p erb aric-w eld in g c o n tra c t o rs
include T a y lo r Diving, C o m e x , BOC/'SSOS, and Stolt Nielson.
T h e m e th o d in volves w elding pups b etw een the riser and a spool and
b etw een th e spool and the pipeline. T h e average duratio n for co m p le tin g
a hyperbaric welded riser is 2 0 days, with 12 w ork days needed for the
tour welds required for a typical riser. T h e hyperbaric w ork c h a m b e r and
a lig n m e n t fr a m e are n o rm a lly handled by a pipe-lay barge, a derrick
barge, or a large w o r k vessel.

8.23 Mechanical Connectors

As stated in C h a p te r 6, these c o n n e c t o rs in clude th o se of Big-Inch

M arine S y ste m s w h ich m a k e s the Flexiforge rise r-eo n n ectio n system ,
t /С, , - J ls h o .._ , ,.)oiuic . g n , a i . ^ ...e ih o c ^

C a m e ro n collet c o n n e c t o r sy ste m , Gripper riser sy ste m , and H y d ro ­

T e c h riser tie-in s ystem . Several ris e r-c o n n e c tio n c o n c e p ts use these
co n necto rs.

8.24 Subsea Atmospheric Welding

Lockheed P e tro le u m S ervices (LPS) has a pipeline riser c o n n e c t o r

jPRC) sy s te m {Figure 8.1) w h ic h provides a welded c o n n e c t io n betw een
pipe and riser at the seabed under a tm o s p h e ri c pressure. As a result, a
higher quality weld can be obtained th an in hyperbaric welding. T h e
sy stem co n sists oi л h abitat c h a m b e r w h ic h is a p e rm a n e n t part oi the
platform and into w h ic h pipe is pulled. A fter pipe is pulled into the
ch am b e r, the c h a m b e r is sealed and p um ped dry. A pup joint is welded to
the pipe and riser under a tm o s p h e ric pressure.
T h e m e th o d is ad vantageous w h en a bundle of several lines are to be
joined inside one ch a m b e r. It has been used to m a k e th ree m a m
c o n n e c t io n s in the T h i s tle Field in 1 9 7 6 and for several tlow line c o n n e c ­
tions in Brazil. A lth o u g h in stallatio n s perform ed so far have used diver
a ssistance, the s y s te m has the p o ten tial for use as a " d iv e r le s s " c o n n e c ­
tion system .

8.25 Surface Welding

T h e surf ace-w eld mg m e th o d is used tor s im u l ta n e o u s in stallation of a

pipeline and riser. It is m o s t widely e m p lo y ed for pipelines up to about
TO in m d ia m e te r and in w a t e r depths to ab o ut 3 5 0 ft.
In tins m ethod , pipe is first laid on b o tto m near the platform. I he lay
barge lifts the pipe to the surface usin g davits, b u o y an cy devices, ui
both. A carefully planned pick-u p p roced ure is used so that pipe is safely
lifted w ith o u t overstressing. An illu stration of pick-up steps is sh ow n m
Figure 8 2. T h e riser elbow (Figure 8.31 is welded to the pipe end, and pipe
is gradually lowered to the seabed w ith additional v ertical pipe s ectio n s
stalked on and welded to the pipe. T h i s p rocedure is illustrated m
Figures 8 .4 and 8 .5 . T h e u se r is th en set in to position n e xt to the
p latform leg, and c la m p s are installed to fasten the riser to the platform
leg, as sh ow n m Figure 8.6. A typical c la m p is sh o w n in Figure 8.7.

8.26 J-Tube Method

M e t h o d s of p i p e l i n e - r i s e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u ite d to
d e ep w a te r in s ta lla tio n s in clu d e th e J-tu be and reverse J-tube pull
 Pip eline Risers \

К. I Lui k l h ’Ctl riM 'i 111ni]i ’i'' 11 ‘ii w o- ;;;

m e th o d s . Thu J-tube pull m e th o d involves c o n n e c t i n g a cable threaded

through a preinstalled (-tube Irom the platform to a pull head on the
leading end of the pipe. T h e cable is c o n n e c t e d to a su rtacc cran e or a
pulling w inch m o u n te d on the p latform or the lay vessel. As the cable is
w in ch ed in, the pipe e n te rs the ) tube and is p lastically deform ed as it is
1.1.x u t ! Хип!-» I 'T 'l'il f И
.■) Riser settin g c o n t in u e s
 P ip e lin e Risers

H.6 Riser damped position

pulled th ro u g h th e tu b e to th e su rface . T h e m e t h o d is illu strated u

Figure 8 .8 .
T h e J-tu be m o u t h is u su a lly p lace d a tew feet above the seabed, am
th e pipe sp ans fr o m th e m o u t h to the seabed. T h i s a llo w s for fu tu n
p la tf o rm s e t t l e m e n t s and re d u c e s pipe bending at the m o u t h of tin
J-tubc. C o r r o s io n p r o t e c t i o n of the pipe inside the J-tube is vieweii
as a p ro b le m by s o m e o p e ra to r s , p a rticu la rly the g a s -tra n s m is s m i
c o m p a n ie s .
о ' >tK jr( ппе I ,ч, a i an. ’ 'n o d 's

8 .7 R iser c la m p

D e e p w a te r p la tfo rm s frequ en tly inclu de a n u m b e r of " s p a r e " J-tubes

to provide for possible fu tu re re q u ire m e n ts for pipeline in stallation s.
J-tubes are e sp ecially su ited to in sta lla tio n of flowline bundles, s in c e a
bundle of several lines m a y be pulled at one tim e . A n im p o r ta n t a sp ect
for a p plication of th e J-tube m e t h o d to large -d iam e ter pipeline risers is
the a c c u r a te d e te r m in a tio n of the pulling loads and the forces e x erte d
on t h e p latfo rm str u c t u r e by th e J-tube. An in d ustry -sp o n sored p ro gram
c o n d u c te d by Applied Offshore T e c h n o lo g y Inc. of H o u s to n h a s resu lted
in th e d e v elo p m en t, p hysical verifications, and fie ld -m e a su re m e n t v er­
ifications of a detailed c o m p u t e r p rogram for a n alysis of the J-tube pull
problem.

8.27 Reverse J-Tube

In the reverse J-tube m e th o d , the pipe is in itiated at the p latfo rm d eck

and low ered th rou g h the J-tube. T h e pipe is held in po sitio n and fed into
 P ip e lin e Risers \ 1

the tube by a gripper m a c h in e on the p latform deck. If a downward

pulling force is needed, a cable m a y e x te n d Irom the pull head on the
pipe, go dow n th ro u gh the J-tube, e xit at the b o tto m , and c o n n e c t to a
pulling w in c h at the surface. T h e pull force m a y be provided by a surface
vessel or by a n o th e r pulling a rra n g e m e n t.
T h e reverse J-tube m e t h o d has been used for E x x o n 's Hondo Field
pipeline risers. T h e pipe is m ad e up in a vertical position on the platform
deck and pulled p rogressively d o w n and through the J-tube as additional
loints ot pipe are added to the trailing end of the pipeline. Since only one
welding sta tio n is used, the installation is very slow. Pipe make-u p
disrupts o th e r a c ti v itie s on the p latform deck, su ch as drilling
Since the pipe c a n n o t be weight coated, the reverse ( tube m ethod is
lim ited to ab o ut 12-in. d ia m e t e r pipe. T h i s size and sm aller pipe can be
I w iis fio r u n p e lm e u e s ig n , A fid iy s is , a n u iv ie th o d s

m ad e sutHciently heavy to be stable on the seabed w hen filled w ith air

w ith o u t use of w eight coating.

8.28 Bending Shoe

T h e bending shoe m e t h o d of in stallatio n involves laying then te r ­

m in a tin g the pipeline on the seabed w ith a length e x te n d e d past the
platform. T h e free end of pipe is th en pulled by a crane w i n c h and/or
against the bending shoe, a p reinstalled support of fixed radius near the
base of the platform, until the pipeline is bent into a v e rtica l position.
T h e riser is then secu red by tig h te n in g preinstalled c la m p s on the
p latform leg.
T h e bendin g-shoe m e t h o d w as developed by Shell Oil C o. Shell used
this s y s te m su cce ssfu lly in the B rent Field of the N o r th Sea and in the
M aui Field off N e w Z ealan d. T h e bending-shoe riser is available for
diverless in stallation of larg c-d iam e ter, d eep w a ter c o n c r e te - c o a te d ris­
ers. C o rro sio n p ro te c t io n ca n be a cc o m p li s h e d using anodes and iso la t­
ing the c la m p s from th e p latform . T h e r m a l exp ansion and soil m o v e ­
m e n ts are a c c o m m o d a t e d by a llow in g the pipe to expand a w a y fro m the
bending shi)e during operation.

8.29 Barefoot Riser

T h is m e th o d was a lso developed by Shell Oil Co. T h e pipe is laid to

the p latto rm and set in to preinstalled cla m p s as additional pipe is
stalked o n to the riser. E x t r e m e ca re is tak en using this m e th o d so pipe
does not b uckle as it is set in place. T o date, this m e th o d has n ot been
used.

8.210 Comparison of Methods

8.2101 Technical Comparison

In the U.S. Gulf of M e x ic y , m o s t risers have been surface set or

flanged | tubes have also been widely used in deeper w ater. Hyperbaric
w elding is available but has not often been used because of its high cost.
 P ip e lin e Risers | 179

M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o r s have been used for a few riser tie-ins, p rim arily

to gain e x p e rie n ce w ith th e m . W ater depths h ave ex ce e d e d 4 0 0 ft in only
a few cases, so so p h isticated riser tie-in m e th o d s h ave no t b een required.
T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y em p lo y ed m e th o d s for c o n n e c t i n g pipeline
risers in the N o r th Sea are w ith flanges, hyperbaric welding, or a
c o m b i n a t i o n of the tw o. R e c e n t installation s include p ro v isio ns for
th e r m a l e xp an sio n and platform m o v e m e n t as appropriate, e.g., right-
angle bends, Z -bends, and swivels. Spools are often 1 0 0 ft o r m o r e long.
Flanged c o n n e c t io n s are co s t effective and offer relativ ely easy re­
p la c e m e n t of corroded or d am aged sectio ns of pipe. S w ivels in th e spool
will speed alig n m e n t
H y p e rb a n c w elding is co stly at great depths. T h e m e t h o d has been
d e m o n s tra t e d at m o r e than 1 , 0 0 0 - ft w ater depth for 3 6 - in. pipe. Pipeline
in teg rity is good, but later repairs are exp ensive.
M e c h a n i c a l c o n n e c t o r s a i e favored by op erators for sp ecialized riser
tie-ins. T h e Phillips e x p e rie n ce w i t h early -m od el H y d ro C o u p le s was
poor, but later m o d els h a v e g i v e n g o o d service.
T h e bending-shoe r i s e r h a s b e e n u s e d o n ce by Shell on B ren t A field
and on M au i A field i n N e w Z e a l a n d . R e s u l t s have been favorable, and
this m e th o d m a y be g o o d toi l a r g e d iam eter, d e ep -w ate r in stallation s.
T h e J-tube has been used only tor pipe d ia m e te rs up to 12 in. T his
m e t h o d is fast and cost effective but has not yet been a c tu a lly done for
large d ia m e te rs. Provisions tor th erm al gro w th and c a th o d ic p ro te ctio n
m a y be difficult to appl\, but th ese p roblem s have been solved for
specific cases.
Surface welded and s r a l k e d risei installatio n s have no d eepw ater
applicatio ns. T h i s m e th o d is not a suitable c h o ic e for larg c-d iam e te r
d ee p w ate r applications.
T h e N o r th Sea e x p e r i e n c e w i t h p i p e l i n e riser in stallatio n s illustrates
a broad range of solut i o n s applicable t o u n i q u e situ a tio n s. N early cvcrv
p latform illu strates a r a n g e oi problems, w h ich p reven ts ap plicatio n ot a
" s t o c k " so lu tion to the p r o b l e m o t u se r design T h e im p o rta n t vatiahles
are

■ P latform design
■ Pipeline d ia m e t e r and m aterial
■ C o n te n ts----co m p *s itio n and tc m p c r a tu ic .
• Design o p erating l i f e t i m e o t i n s t a l l a t i o n .
■ In co rp o ration of piovtsunis lot lepairs.
■ A v a i l a b i l i t y ot a p r o v e n , c o s t e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n .
■ Project tim in g
180 I Offshore Pipeline Design, Analysis, and Methods

8.2102 Economics

Surface set and flanged risers have usually the lo w e st c o st for risers in
up to about 3 0 0 ft w a t e r depths, a lth o u g h J-tubes m a y be less exp ensive
for 12-in. and sm a lle r sizes.
T h e following are a p p r o x im a te order of in creasin g c o sts for the m o s t
c o m m o n d e ep -w ate r pipeline-riser in sta llatio n m e th o d s

■ J-tube.
■ Flanged.
■ M ec h a n ical c o n n e c t o r .
■ Hyperbaric welding.

Riser in stallatio n and c o n n e c t i o n c o s ts vary widely. Im p orta n t vari­

ables include pipe size, w a t e r depth, geographic area, c o n t r a c t o r w ork
load, and w e a th e r season. It is n e ce ss a ry to ev a lu a te the c o s ts of
riser-in stallation a lte rn a tiv e s for a specific project to d e te rm in e the
lo w e s t-c o s t altern a tiv e . E ven th en , the lo w e s t-c o s t m e th o d m a y be
passed over in favor of a n o th e r m e t h o d w h ic h offers apparently low er
lifetim e cost, low er risk, or ready availability.

8.3 Riser-Pipeline Flexibility

A pipeline and riser s y s te m should be designed to re m ain flexible

d urin g o p e ra tio n . V a r io u s s y s t e m s are a v a ilab le to a c c o m m o d a t e
pipeline m o v e m e n t s due to pressu re and th e rm a l effects. T h e s e sy s te m s
include exp ansion loops, flexible risers, and th e rm a l g ro w th riser s y s ­
te m s usin g C a m e r o n flexible swivels.
Various forces m a y be im posed on a subsea pipeline, ca u sin g it to
m o v e axially, e.g., to grow and c o n tr a c t . O t h e r forces will tend to
restrain the pipe m o v e m e n t , due to the following effects.

8.31 Internal Pressure

Subsea pipelines are laid filled with air at a tm o s p h e ric pressure.

Pressurizing the line ca u se s the pipe to gfow longitudinally. T h e r e s u lt­
ing forces generated at the ends of the pipeline depend upon the size and
wall th ick n e ss of the pipe and c a n be great for large d iam eter, heavy-
wall pipes.
 P ip e lin e Risers [

8.32 Water Temperature

A t the tim e of laying, the pipe wall a s s u m e s the te m p e ratu re of the

s u rro u n ding w ater, usually around 5 0" to 7 0 ,JF. As the seasons change,
the w a t e r te m p e r a tu re will rise and fall, ca u sin g the pipe to grow or
c o n tr a c t . T h is effect a c ts over the entire pipe length.

8.33 Contents Temperature

W h e n fluid tlows into a pipeline at a te m p e r a tu re different from the

su rrou n ding w a te r te m p e ra tu re , heat is transferred into or out of the
pipe. T h i s ca u se s the m e ta l te m p e r a tu re to rise above or fall below the
a m b ie n t w a te r tem p era tu re . The ch an g e in m e t a l te m p e r a tu re causes
g ro w th or c o n tr a c t io n of the pipe.
T h e elfect of a te m p e r a tu re differential d im in ish e s with d istan ce from
the origin T h e effect is greater for oil than for gas pipelines. G as will
usually reach the su rrou n ding w a te r te m p e r a tu re w ith in 1 or 2 miles
from the origin. T he th e rm a l effects of h o t oil m a y e x te n d for m any
miles. A detailed analysis of the heat transfer is required to d eterm in e
the lo g a r ith m ic te m p e r a tu re prolile along the pipeline for e a c h specific
case and the resulting gro w th or c o n t r a c t i o n of the pipe.

8.34 Residual Tension

After pipe is laid on the seabed, residual te n sio n re m a in s in the line

due to ten sion laying re q u ire m e n ts. S uch te n sio n affects the exp ansion
and c o n tr a c t io n c h a r a c te r is tic s of the line d uring o peration.

8.35 Soil Friction

Exp a n sion forces arc resisted by pip e-to-seabed friction, w h ich limits
the a m o u n t of m o v e m e n t actually observed at the pipe ends. Many
pipelines do not m o v e appreciably at the ends b e c a u s e the soil friction
can be significant relative to the net effects of the o th e r factors.

8.36 Design Options

T h e p ip elin e/riser designer has m any possible op tio n s for dealing

with the p roblem s of pipe and riser m o v e m e n t s . T h e first step is a
 Г о " С ~ ^ 7 .. Л !'■ ' ’ :> 'Ч С ;

detailed analysis of in sta llatio n and o perating co n ditio n s to d eterm in e

the range of possible pipe and riser m o v e m e n t s . T h e n , various possible
riser designs are analyzed to d e te rm in e if pipe and riser stresses can be
m aintain ed within allowable lim its.
O p tions open to th e designer, if stresse s are found to be e xcessive,
include:

■ E lim in atin g lower riser c la m p s or o th e rw ise increasing the flexibil­

ity ot the riser.
■ S trengthening of the riser and c la m p s to resist m o v e m e n t .
■ A n ch o rin g the pipe to the seabed near the riser.
■ Installing a flexible link, e.g., a dogleg or Z-bend, b etw een the
pipeline and the riser. T h e flexible link m a y be hard pipe or flexible
pipe, or it m a y in corp o rate m o v a b le swivels.
■ Installing a safety joint to m i n i m iz e d am a g e to the riser or cla m p s in
ca se of a c a ta s t ro p h i c seabed m o v e m e n t .

T h e m eth o d c h o s e n d epends upon the a m o u n t of pipe m o v e m e n t

e xp ecte d and the m e t h o d s of pipeline and riser in stallation.
O th e r im p o rtan t c o n s id e ra tio n s include:

■ S im p licity and ease of installatio n .

■ C om p atib ility of the m e t h o d w ith the pipe and riser installation
m e th o d and capabilities of available eq u ip m en t.
■ T o ta l installed co s t of the riser and c o n n e c t io n sy ste m

8.4 Typical North Sea Installations

E xten siv e e xp e rie n ce in la r g e-d ia m e ter su b m a rin e-riser in stallation s

can be gathered from N o r t h Sea installation s. T h is info rm atio n can be
useful in p lanning and designing large-diam eter, d eep w a ter risers in
o th e r areas of the world.

8.41 Amoco Montrose

T h e M o n tro se p latform is a steel s tr u c t u r e standing in 3 0 0 ft of water.

T w o 10 in. oil-loading lines have been c o n n e c te d to the p latform using
j-tu bes T h e first line w a s installed in late 1 9 7 5 by Rrown & Root Inc.'s
BAR 3 2 3 . N o exp an sio n provisions w ere m ade for the installation. T h e
line was co a te d w ith th m - film epoxy.
T h e second j-tube pull w as done in spring 1 9 7 6 by the N eth e rlan d s
Offshore O R C A . A lth o u g h w e a th e r c o n d itio n s w ere unfavorable, the
 Pip e lin e Risers | 183

ship-shaped hull w as m u c h less se n sitiv e to sea s ta t e s and enabled this

vessel to c o m p le te the pull in a re latively sh o rt tim e .

8.42 BNOC Dunlin Tie-In

The BNOC 16-in. pipeline fro m T h i s tle to D u n lin w a s tied into

Shell's D u n lin p latform using a c o m b in a ti o n of flanged and swivel
c o n n e c to rs . S anta Fe w a s th e c o n tra c t o r.
T h e pipeline end was m ade up w ith a H y d ro T e c h H y d rob all/Flan ge
u nit and a pull head installed o v e r the ball. A right-angle spool piece had
a Hydroball c o n n e c t o r half on the pipeline end and a C a m e r o n swivel
and 16-in. flange at the riser end A fter pipe was laid o n the b o tto m , the
pull head was c u t off, exp o sin g the ball, and the spool piece was
c o n n e c t e d at e a c h end.
T h e prim ary advantage ot this a rr a n g e m e n t is to ease a lig n m e n t of the
pipeline end and riser. T h e c o m b in a ti o n of sw ivel joints also provides a
degree of flexibility in the line to a c c o m m o d a t e th e rm a l grow th .

8.43 BNOC Thistle

T h e T h is tle platform is a steel s tr u c tu r e in 5 3 0 ft of w a te r T he

p latform has 14 L o ck h ee d c h a m b e rs to a c c o m m o d a t e c o n n e c t io n s of
pipelines to the p latform risers T h r e e 1 6 -in. pipelines were co n n ected
during early to m i d - 1 9 7 7 using the L ock h ee d sy ste m .
T h e prim ary ad vantage of the L o ck h e ed s y s te m is the excellent-
quality (API 1 1 0 4 sp ecification ) w elding a ch ie v ed under a tm o sp h e ric
co n d itio n s on the seabed T h e L ock h e ed s y s te m is adaptable to pipelines
up to 3 6 -in d iam eter.

8.44 Elf/Norge Frigg Field

T h e Frigg Field includes tw o steel and th ree c o n c r e te platform s. All of

the prod uctio n is gas, and all risers are c o m p le t e ly welded. T h e risers to
the steel platform s were installed by hyperbaric welding.

8.45 BP Forties

T h e Forties Field co m p le x c o n sists oi tour steel p la tfo rm s in about 4 0 0

ft of w ater. Risers were installed in 1973 and 1 9 7 4 A 3 2 - in. oil trunk line
4 W. .о ,G ', P ' ' -J, dl ■\i iwd

e xte n d s from Forties to Cruden Bay. All pipeline risers are c o n v e n tio n a l
preinstalled and flanged.

8.46 Mobil Beryl and Statfjord

Both of these p latform s are c o n c r e te gravity s tr u c t u r e s . A 3 2 - in.

oil-loading line e x te n d s from the Brent A p latfo rm to an S P M base about
6 , 0 0 0 ft from the p latform . T h e riser tie-in e x te n d s fr o m the ce lla r deck
with a spool to the seabed c o n n e c t in g to the loading line. T a y l o r Diving
performed the hyperbar c welding in 1 9 7 5 .
T h e Statfjord Field has a 3 6 -in . loading line e x te n d in g from the A
platform to an SPM base 7 , 0 0 0 ft d istan t. T h e riser w a s p rein stalled on
the platform and c o n n e c te d at the seabed using h ype rb aric w elding with
a 9 0 ° ell spool piece. T h e pipeline w as b o tto m to w ed to th e p la tfo rm in
4 9 0 ft w ater depth and c o n n e c te d in the s u m m e r of 1 9 7 7 .

8.47 OXY Piper Field

T h e Piper platform is a steel s tr u c t u r e in a b o u t 4 7 0 ft of w ater.

M ech a n ica l c o n n e c t o r s and flanges h ave been used w i t h all of the
large-diam eter risers. T h e s e included a 3 0 -i n . riser for th e oil line to
O rkn ey Islands, a 16-in. gas line to C la y m o r e , and an 18-in. gas line to
the Frigg Field.
T h e 3 0 -in . line w as c o n n e c te d in 1 9 7 6 usin g a H y d ro b a ll/H y d ro ­
couple unit. A Hydropak unit was added later to im p r o v e sealing the
H ydrocouple unit. T h e oil e x its the p latfo rm a t a b o u t 2 0 0 ° F . T h e 16-in.
gas line to C la y m o r e was co n n e c t e d using a M a r k IV H yd ro cou p le
riser-installation unit T h e 18-in. gas line w a s in stalled in 1 9 7 8 using
C a m e ro n collet c o n n e c t o rs and tw o sw ivels in a spool piece.

8.48 Phillips Ekofisk Complex

T h e Ekofisk C o m p le x inclu des a n u m b e r of p la tf o rm s in the Ekofisk,

W est Ekofisk, Albuskjel, Cod, Edda, Eldfisk, and T o r Fields. T h e c o m ­
plex generally lies in 2 3 0 to 2 4 0 -f t w a t e r depth.
Ekofisk is n o te w o r th y in th at it w as o rigin ally developed using
H y d r o T e c h ’s m e c h a n ic a l c o n n e c t o r s for riser tie-in and subsea c o n n e c ­
tions. Phase I, an early pro d uctio n s y s te m in stalled in 1 9 7 1 , was sal­
vaged after the p e rm a n e n t p ro d u ctio n facilities w e r e installed. T h e
 P i p e l i n e H i;,ei:s j

P hase 11 and Phase 111 p e rm a n e n t facilities included 2 5 Hydroball/

H y d r o c o u p l e ( H B / H C ) an d H y d r o c o u p l e / R i s e r I n s t a l l a t i o n u n its
(H C /R IU ).
S o m e of th ese c o n n e c t o r s e x p e rie n ce d leakage. H ow ever, this was
related p rim arily to pipe e xp an sio n due to hot oil c o n te n ts . T h e oil lines
o p erate at 2 3 0 - 2 4 0 ° F . and w ere not originally designed to a c c o m m o d a t e
the high degree of th e rm a l e xp an sio n exp erie n ced . In addition, cycling
of various lines caused the seals in the original M ark II units to fail T he
n e w e r M a r k IV H C u n i ts in clu d e im p r o v e d gripping and sealing
m e c h a n is m s , along w ith te m p e r a tu re c o m p e n s a tio n and have not e x ­
p erienced leakage.

8.49 Shell Expro Brent System

T h e Brent S y stem in clu d es one platform e a ch m C o r m o r a n t and

D u n lin Fields and four p latfo rm s in Brent field. T h e r e are 14 pipelines m
the sy ste m . Risers were installed o v e r the period 1975 through 1978. All
risers on the steel p la tfo rm s w ere preinstalled. T h e early co n c re te
p la tfo rm s had preinstalled risers on the ou tsid e; the latest co n c re te
p la tfo rm s have risers inside the platform legs.
A 28-in. bendin g-shoe riser w as installed at Brent A in 19 77 . All of the
o th e r large-diam eter risers are hard flanged at the base of the platform s.
T h e lo w -pressure risers h a v e flanges at both ends of a spool piece T he
high-pressure risers have the spool piece joined to the pipeline end by
hyperbaric welding w ith a flange c o n n e c t in g the spool to the riser Л
n u m b e r of the c o n c re te p la tform s have | tu bes for s m a ll-d ia m e te r lines
(18 in. and less)
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 i

I
 Index

A di ai ; f o r c e s , .17
dr a w d o w n m e t h o d , 15.1
airlift, 119
dulled sampler, 11
Ai r y w a v e t h e o r y , .15. .tt\ . I 7
dr\ b u c k l e , 24
В
E
bal l c o n n e c t o r , 1)5
ci ho sounder , I1
b a r e f o o t ri ser, 1 7X
effective velocity, 40
bathymetry, 9, 1.1
el ector, I 19
beam method, X6, к ?
e rosi on, 6 9 , "’ I
bending shoe, I 7K
boomer, l7 F
buckle, 24
1.41Lire. 144
buckle anestois, 2,s. 2 4 >0
f iel d d e v e l o p m e n t , 5
buckle initiation, 17
finite e l e m e n t , 90
buckle modes, 2K
t i\ed p l a t f o r m , 5
bu ckl e propagation, 26
fl.tni;e s p o o l , 1.14, 1 6 9

С f l e x i b l e pi pe. 16 2
llexifoi^c, I .IS, 1 19
catenary, natural, fvs flotation, 5,1
c a t en ar y , st iff ened, Я9
flow iate, 1 16
c o e f f i c i e n t ot t r i c n o n , 41 flow r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t
collet co nn ecto r, 1ЛК, 1 4 0
tloulines, 6
c o n c r e i c соапп. ц. 9 1 19s
11 uidi-ia t i on, I 1,1
critical pressure. -’-I
G
D
I'.u h e т mi ; l i n e s . 6
1 Xt rcy e q u a t i o n . 116 Utah s. i i npl er , 12
deflection methods.
.main t r a n s p o r t , 7 ()
dian coefficient, i ’ I I I 1 v . u v i t v Hi rer, I I
 н р

h azard s, К
pipe connection, 133
h e a d loss, 1 1 (i
pipe design elements, 23
hydrjtight, 134
pipe initiation, 146, 147
h y d r o d y n a m i c forces, 33
pipe |oints, 74, 75
pipeline route, 19, 20
I
pipe make up, 99, 100
pipe pick-up, 135
п иш а cncllicicm , 3K pipe positioning, 146
inertia tuices. ,1,4 pipe properties formulas, 68
pipe protection methods, 21
J pipe stability, 53, 54
w n i i ; III) 111 pipe stiffness, 52, 86
I-tube I n' ). I "О, I 7 7 pipe stress
during laying, 80-85
К dynamic, 95
low depression, 61-64
Kculcg.imCarpenter number, 41
obstruction, 62, 65, 66, 95
kinem atic viscosity, 40
trenching, 117
Ku l lc nbcrg. I 1
pipe termination, 146, 148
pipe trenching
L
backfill, 106
l av barge 7 2 . "’3 burial depth, 106
h i t c oei .’ i c i e n t , 4 0 , 43 depth of cover, 106
l i l t (■ u c e 40 parameters, 106
l o a d m . ; 1п н -s spans, 61, 108
piston gravity corer, 11, 12
M plowing, 114
m a g i u t ic m i 4i i . i 1\ Is production facilities, 5
m agnetometer, l.s
propagation pressure, 27
m echatiual connectois, 1.17, 1.58,
R
li>9
mecliainc.il pump, 1 |9 reduced velocity, 51
m echanical trenching, 1 1 1 , 112 reel barge, 96-98
m o m e n t ot i n e r t i a , 68 residual tension, 181
M i n i h " i i e q u a t ion, .1 7 , . i s reverse j-tube, 176, 177
Reynolds number, 40, 44
N riser flexibility, 180, 182
natural п е в и ч к у , 49
riser setting, 172-176
risers, 168
О roughness coefficient, 40
RUPE, 163
ml N cis
exploration, 4 S
production. 2, 5
scour, 69
rights 2, 4
seafloor mapping, 14, 15
settlement, 53 RAT, 10 2
s id e - s c a n sonar, 13 surf ace, 101
sleeves, 162 t re n ch in g regulations, 121
s o i l f or c e , 57-60, 66 tren ch stability, 118
s oi l m o v e m e n t , 56 t run k lines, 7
soil resistance, 54 types of pipelines, 6
so i l s , 10
s o n a r f i s h, 9, 14
V
spoils, 118 vibrocores, 11
stinger, 7 7 -8 0 , 84 vortex frequenc y, 48
Strouhal number, 48-50
s u b b o t t o m prof i l e, 16
W
subsea sy s tem , 5, 6 wave ch ara cteri stics, 37
surface c o n n e c ti o n , 135, 1 5 6 wave par ameters, 35
s urve y, 8, 9 wave pressure, 55

T wave theories, 36
welding
template, 134 atmospheric, 156, 2 3 5
tolerances, 147 hyperfamc, 136, 157, 1 6 9
t ow , b o t t o m , 104 wet buckle, 24
tow installation, 9K
Z
t ow,
off b o t t o m , 111) Z -b e n d , 1К 2