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A.4 : - Analysis I
A.5 : - Analysis II
A.6 : Foundations
A.8 : Fabrication
A.9 : Installation
A.10 : Superstructures I
.11 : - Superstructures II
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore platform structures, and to explain where the
basic structural requirements for design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in the
development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts
(jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating). The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication
and installation. Special attention is given to some principles of topside design.
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The contribution of offshore oil production in
the year 1988 to the world energy consumption was 9% and is estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day ($/B/D) and the production costs (OPEX)
per barrel are depicted in the table below.
Conventional
Offshore
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly indicate the challenge for the offshore designer:
a growing contribution is required from offshore exploitation, a very capital intensive activity.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major contribution to the world offshore
hydrocarbons. It also indicates the onshore fields in England, the Netherlands and Germany.
2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all built in steel (see Slides 1 and 2).
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is employed in the North Sea in the Norwegian
and British sectors.
A third type is the floating production unit.
2.2 Environment
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance (airgap) usually is taken at approximately
1,50 m, but should be increased if reservoir depletion will create significant subsidence.
2.3 Construction
The environment as well as financial aspects require that a high degree of prefabrication must be performed onshore. It is
necessary to design to limit offshore work to a minimum. The overall cost of a man-hour offshore is approximately five times
that of an onshore man-hour. The cost of construction equipment required to handle loads, and the cost for logistics are also
a magnitude higher offshore.
These factors combined with the size and weight of the items, require that a designer must carefully consider all
construction activities between shop fabrication and offshore installation.
2.4 Codes
Structural design has to comply with specific offshore structural codes. The worldwide leading structural code is the API-
RP2A [1]. The recently issued Lloyds rules [2] and the DnV rules [3] are also important.
Specific government requirements have to be complied with, e.g. in the rules of Department of Energy (DoE), Norwegian
Petroleum Direktorate (NPD). For the detail design of the topside structure the AISC-code [4] is frequently used, and the
AWS-code [5] is used for welding.
In the UK the Piper alpha diaster has led to a completely new approach to regulation offshore. The responsibility for
regulatory control has been moved to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the operator has to produce a formal
safety assessment (TSA) himself instead of complying with detailed regulations.
Government authorities require that recognized bodies appraise the aspects of structural integrity and issue a certificate to
that purpose.
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be reviewed by warranty surveyors before
acceptance. The warranty surveyors apply standards, if available, on a confidential basis.
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an offshore development are summarized in [9].
After several initial phases which include seismic field surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-up drilling
rigs are used for this purpose for water depths up to 100 - 120 m; for deeper water floating rigs are used. The results are
studied and the economics and risks of different development plans are evaluated. Factors involved in the evaluation may
include number of wells required, fixed or floated production facilities, number of such facilities, and pipeline or tanker off-
loading.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical activities, prior to production:
The drilling and construction interaction is described below for two typical fixed platform concepts.
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit standing close by with a cantilever rig
extending over the jacket. Slide 3 shows a jack-up drilling unit with a cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged in
exploratory drilling and is therefore working in isolation.)
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling, allowing production to start soon after deck
installation. For further wells, the jack-up drilling unit will be called once again and will reach over the well area of the
production deck.
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate wellhead platform, linked by a bridge to
the production platform (see Slide 1).
The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2). Drilling starts after the platform is built and
completely installed. Consequently production starts between one and two years after platform installation.
In recent years pre-drilled wells have been used to allow an earlier start of the production. In this case the platform has to be
installed exactly above the pre-drilled wells.
4.1 Introduction
Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it stable above the waves.
They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the pipeline riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the design.
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters up to 2m. The piles are driven
approximately 40 - 80 m, and in some cases 120 m deep into the seabed.
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):
Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in guides attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles
can be grouped in clusters around each of the jacket legs.
Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all other guides are deleted. This arrangement
results in reduced structural weight and easier pile driving. In contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at the bottom,
thus providing a stiffer structure.
Axial load resistance is required for bearing as well as for tension. The pile accumulates both skin friction as well as end
bearing resistance.
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces. These forces lead to significant bending of
the pile near to the seabed.
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the environmental loads and the soil conditions at
the location.
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the jacket as well as the upper part of the piles in
soil is by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. A sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a
zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel tube and welded on to the structures. Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight
is applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness of 12 mm to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
well control
support for well work-over equipment
separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g. water, parafines/waxes and sand
support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore
power generation
accommodation for operating and maintenance staff.
There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized topside which are positioned either on a
jacket or on a concrete gravity substructure.
5.2.1 Concepts
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity of crane vessels and the load-out capacity
at the yards:
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and helideck) being moved from its assembly
building.
For the smaller decks, up to approximately 100 MN weight, the support structure consists of trusses or portal frames with
deletion of diagonals.
The moderate vertical load and shear per column allows the topside to be supported by vertical columns (deck legs) only,
down to the top of the piles (situated at approximately +4 m to +6 m L.A.T. (Low Astronomic Tide).
A major modularized topside weighs 200 to 400 MN. In this case the MSF is a heavy tubular structure (Figure 4), with lateral
bracing down to the top of jacket.
The topsides to be supported by a gravity-based substructure (see Figure 2) are in a weight range of 200 MN up to 500 MN.
The backbone of the structure is a system of heavy box-girders with a height of approximately 10 m and a width of
approximately 12 - 15 m (see Figure 5).
The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts as a beam supporting the deck modules.
This connection introduces wave-induced fatigue in the deck structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian
Troll platform, is to provide a flexible connection between the deck and concrete column, thus eliminating fatigue in the deck
[10].
Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or two intermediate floors.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and grating for intermediate floors.
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and several doors must be provided in the outer
walls. This requirement can interfere seriously with truss arrangements. Floors are flat or stiffened plate.
Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be distinguished:
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the design and the actual design development
should be monitored against the construction strategy.
The jacket is built in the vertical (smaller jackets) or horizontal position (bigger jackets) on a quay of a fabrication site.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location the barge is moored alongside an
offshore crane vessel.
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set down onto the seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven into the seabed. Fixing the piles to the jacket
completes the installation.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight track of steel beams, and pulled onto the
barge (Slide 5).
Slide 5 : Jacket being loaded onto barge by skidding
At the offshore location the jacket is slid off the barge. It immerses deeply into the water and assumes a floating position
afterwards (see Figure 6).
Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of taking the support reactions during
launching. To reduce forces and moments in the jacket, rocker arms are attached to the stern of the barge.
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the buoyancy tanks and then set down onto the
seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a vertical position after the launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing completes
the installation.
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is then taken by a barge of such dimensions
as to fit between the columns of the temporary support and between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a deep
floating condition in a sheltered site, e.g. a Norwegian fjord. The barge is positioned between the columns and the GBS is
then deballasted to mate with and to take over the deck from the barge. The floating GBS with deck is then towed to the
offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
For topsides up to approximately 120 MN, the topside may be installed in one lift. Slide 6 shows a 60 MN topside being
installed by floating cranes.
For the modularized topside, first the MSF will be installed, immediately followed by the modules.
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and spectacular construction activities requiring a
focus on the problem when concepts are developed. Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions, are
required for these operations.
Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7 provides information on a typical big, dual
crane vessel. Table 1 (page 16) lists some of the major offshore crane vessels.
7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest in the four-point hook of the crane vessel,
(see Figure 8). The heaviest sling available now has a diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of approximately
48 MN, and a safe working load (SWL) of 16 MN. Shackles are available up to 10 MN SWL to connect the padeyes installed
at the module's columns. Due to the space required, connecting more than one shackle to the same column is not very
attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10 MN, padears become an option.
Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels
Notes:
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of the crane vessel.
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions in rough seas. The sea fastening concept
is determined by the positions of the framing in the module as well as of the "hard points" in the barge.
7.5 Load-out
7.5.1 Introduction
skidding
platform trailers
shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a series of steel beams, acting as track, on
which a group of skids with each approximately 6 MN load capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a hydraulic jack
to control the reaction.
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for loads up to 60 - 75 MN. The wheels are
individually suspended and integrated jacks allow adjustment up to 300 mm.
The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to 85 kN/sq.m.
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller decks (up to 10 - 12 MN) can be loaded out
on the decklegs pre-positioned on the barge, thus allowing deck and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal depends strongly on the regulations of the
local authorities. Provision for removal should be considered in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for total system behaviour. Dynamic analysis
is performed for the system behaviour under wave-attack if the natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can
exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g. compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-pedestals, slender jacket members,
conductors.
Survival state, under wave/current/wind attack with 50 or 100 years recurrence period.
Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years recurrence period, under full operation.
Fatigue assessment.
Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments at damaged structures, e.g. with one
member deleted, and assessments of collision situations are occasionally performed.
The major phases of construction when structural integrity may be endangered are:
Load-out
Sea transport
Upending of jackets
Lifting.
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital expenditure (CAPEX), tax, royalties,
operational expenditure (OPEX).
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the platform, one third on the drilling of wells and
one third on the pipelines.
Cost estimates are usually prepared in a deterministic approach. Recently cost-estimating using a probabilistic approach
has been developed and adopted in major offshore projects.
In the North Sea approximately 20 percent of OPEX are required for offshore inspection, maintenance and repair (IMR).
The amount to be spent on IMR over the project life can add up to approximately half the original investment.
IMR is the area in which the structural engineer makes a contribution by effort in design, selection of material, improved
corrosion protection, accessibility, basic provisions for scaffolding, avoiding jacket attachments dangerous to divers, etc.
Deep water introduces a wide range of extra difficulties for the operator, the designer and constructor of offshore platforms.
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e. "Bullwinkle" developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf of
Mexico location. The jacket weighed nearly 500 MN.
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately 220 m at present. The development of the
Troll field situated in approximately 305 m deep water is planned for 1993.
In the Gulf of Mexico and offshore California several fixed platforms in water depths of 250 - 350 m are in operation
(Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon has a guyed tower platform (Lena) in operation in 300 m deep water.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby (approximately maximum 10 km) fixed
platform at a smaller water depth. Alternatively subsea wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating production unit.
Subsea wells are now feasible for 300 - 900 m deep water. The deepest wells have been developed off Brasil in moderate
weather conditions.
The tension leg platform (TLP) seems to be the most promising deepwater production unit (Figure 11). It consists of a semi-
submersible pontoon, tied to the seabed by vertical prestressed tethers. The first TLP was Hutton in the North Sea and
recently TLP-Jolliet was installed at a 530 m deep location in the Gulf of Mexico. Norwegian Snorre and Heidrun fields have
been developed with TLPs as well.
11. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon exploitation, the basic steps in
the development process (from seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major
structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating).
The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases are briefly explained: design,
fabrication and installation. Special attention is given to the principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced within a glossary.
AIR GAP Clearance between the top of maximum wave and underside of the topside.
CONDUCTORS The tubular protecting and guiding the drill string from the topside down to 40 to 100m under the sea
bottom. After drilling it protects the well casing.
G.B.S. Gravity based structure, sitting flatly on the sea bottom, stable through its weight.
JACKET Tubular sub-structure under a topside, standing in the water and pile founded.
LOAD-OUT The operation of bringing the object (module, jacket, deck) from the quay onto the transportation barge.
PADEARS (TRUNNIONS) Thick-walled tubular stubs, directly receiving slings and transversely welded to the main structure.
PADEYES Thick-walled plate with hole, receiving the pin of the shackle, welded to the main structure.
PIPELINE RISER The piping section which rises from the sea bed to topside level.
SEA-FASTENING The structure to keep the object rigidly connected to the barge during transport.
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end resting in the crane hook.
SUMPS Vertical pipes from topside down to 5-10 m below water level for intake or discharge.
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries, positioned above the waves.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea bottom.
WEATHER WINDOW
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore marine operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including the valves mounted on its top.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore platforms.
American Petroleum Institute 18th ed. 1989.
[4] AISC: Specification for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steel for buildings.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine operations.
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore platforms.
2. DoE Offshore installations: Guidance on design and construction, U.K. Department of Energy 1990.
7. G. I. Claum et al: Offshore Structures: Vol 1: Conceptual Design and Hydri-mechanics; Vol 2 - Strength and Safety
for Structural design.
10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of offshore structures.
11. D.I. Karsan et al: An economic study on parameters influencing the cost of fixed platforms.
To introduce the types of loads for which a fixed steel offshore structure must be designed. To present briefly the loads
generated by environmental factors.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
The categories of load for which a pile supported steel offshore platform must be designed are introduced and then the
different types of environmental loads are presented. The loads include: wind, wave, current, earthquake, ice and snow,
temperature, sea bed movement, marine growth and tide generated loads. Loads due to wind, waves and earthquake are
discussed in more detail together with their idealizations for the various types of analyses. Frequent references are made to
the codes of practice recommended by the American Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, the British Standards
Institution and the British Department of Energy, as well as to the relevant regulations of the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the following categories:
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and operating loads, the design of
offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads, especially waves, and the loads arising in the various stages of
construction and installation. This lecture deals with environmental loads, whilst the other loadings are treated in Lecture
15A.3.
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads (see Eurocode 8 [1]), but in offshore engineering
they are treated as environmental loads. This practice is followed in the two lectures dealing with loads, Lectures
15A.2 and 15A.3.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves, current, tides, earthquakes,
temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their characteristic parameters, defining design load values, are
determined in special studies on the basis of available data. According to US and Norwegian regulations (or codes of
practice), the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years, while according to the British
rules it should be 50 years or greater. Details of design criteria, simplifying assumptions, required data, etc., can be found in
the regulations and codes of practice listed in [1] - [8].
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any equipment, housing, derrick, etc. located
on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to wind data is the time interval over which wind speeds are averaged. For
averaging intervals less than one minute, wind speeds are classified as gusts. For averaging intervals of one minute or
longer they are classified as sustained wind speeds.
The wind velocity profile may be taken from API-RP2A [2]:
where:
VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time interval. It is approximately
equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an exposed area A(m2) can be
computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2) r V2 Cs A (2)
where:
Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical sections and Cs = 1,0 for total
projected area of platform).
Shielding and solidity effects can be accounted for, in the judgement of the designer, using appropriate coefficients.
For combination with wave loads, the DNV [4] and DOE-OG [7] rules recommend the most unfavourable of the following two
loadings:
b. 3-second gusts.
API-RP2A [2] distinguishes between global and local wind load effects. For the first case it gives guideline values of mean 1-
hour average wind speeds to be combined with extreme waves and current. For the second case it gives values of extreme
wind speeds to be used without regard to waves.
Wind loads are generally taken as static. When, however, the ratio of height to the least horizontal dimension of the wind
exposed object (or structure) is greater than 5, then this object (or structure) could be wind sensitive. API-RP2A requires the
dynamic effects of the wind to be taken into account in this case and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due to vortex
shedding must be investigated.
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental loadings for which the structure
must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the water due to the waves which are generated
by the action of the wind on the surface of the sea. Determination of these forces requires the solution of two separate,
though interrelated problems. The first is the sea state computed using an idealisation of the wave surface profile and the
wave kinematics given by an appropriate wave theory. The second is the computation of the wave forces on individual
members and on the total structure, from the fluid motion.
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In particular, they serve to
calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the
waves. The waves are assumed to be long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and are
characterized by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d) as shown in Figure 1.
Different wave theories of varying complexity, developed on the basis of simplifying assumptions, are appropriate for
different ranges of the wave parameters. Among the most common theories are: the linear Airy theory, the Stokes fifth-order
theory, the solitary wave theory, the cnoidal theory, Dean's stream function theory and the numerical theory by Chappelear.
For the selection of the most appropriate theory, the graph shown in Figure 2 may be consulted. As an example, Table 1
presents results of the linear wave theory for finite depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding particle paths are
illustrated in Figures 3 and 4. Note the strong influence of the water depth on the wave kinematics. Results from high-order
wave theories can be found in the literature, e.g. see [9].
2.2.2 Wave Statistics
In reality waves do not occur as regular waves, but as irregular sea states. The irregular appearance results from the linear
superposition of an infinite number of regular waves with varying frequency (Figure 5). The best means to describe a
random sea state is using the wave energy density spectrum S(f), usually called the wave spectrum for simplicity. It is
formulated as a function of the wave frequency f using the parameters: significant wave height Hs (i.e. the mean of the
highest third of all waves present in a wave train) and mean wave period (zero-upcrossing period) To. As an additional
parameter the spectral width can be taken into account.
Wave directionality can be introduced by means of a directional spreading function D(f,s), where s is the angle of the wave
approach direction (Figure 6). A directional wave spectrum S (f,s) can then be defined as:
For long-term statistics, a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure is needed. It can be obtained from
measurements over a long period or be deduced from weather observations in the region (the so-called hindcast method).
The scatter diagram contains the joint probability of occurrence of pairs of significant wave height and mean wave period.
For every pair of parameters the wave spectrum is calculated by a standard formula, e.g. Pierson-Moskowitz (Figure 6),
yielding finally the desired response spectrum. For fatigue analysis the total number and amplitude of load cycles during the
life-time of the structure can be derived in this way. For structures with substantial dynamic response to the wave excitation,
the maximum forces and motions have to be calculated by statistical methods or a time-domain analysis.
Structures exposed to waves experience substantial forces much higher than wind loadings. The forces result from the
dynamic pressure and the water particle motions. Two different cases can be distinguished:
Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave field by diffraction and
reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined by costly numerical calculations based on diffraction
theory.
Slender, hydrodynamically transparent structures have no significant influence on the wave field. The forces can
be calculated in a straight-forward manner with Morison's equation. As a rule, Morison's equation may be applied
when D/L £ 0.2, where D is the member diameter and L is the wave length.
The steel jackets of offshore structures can usually be regarded as hydrodynamically transparent. The wave forces on the
submerged members can therefore be calculated by Morison's equation, which expresses the wave force as the sum of an
inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration and a non-linear drag force proportional to the square of the particle
velocity: (4)
where
v, |v| are water particle velocity normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at the cylinder axis (m/s)
are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at the cylinder axis (m/s 2)
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion response of a structure it has to be
modified to account for the motion of the cylinder [10]. The values of CD and CM depend on the wave theory used, surface
roughness and the flow parameters. According to API-RP2A, CD » 0,6 to 1,2 and CM »1,3 to 2,0. Additional information can
be found in the DNV rules [4].
The total wave force on each member is obtained by numerical integration over the length of the member. The fluid
velocities and accelerations at the integration points are found by direct application of the selected wave theory.
According to Morison's equation the drag force is non-linear. This non-linear formulation is used in the design wave concept.
However, for the determination of a transfer function needed for frequency domain calculations, the drag force has to be
linearized in a suitable way [9]. Thus, frequency domain solutions are appropriate for fatigue life calculations, for which the
forces due to the operational level waves are dominated by the linear inertia term. The nonlinear formulation and hence time
domain solutions are required for dynamic analyses of deepwater structures under extreme, storm waves, for which the drag
portion of the force is the dominant part [10].
In addition to the forces given by Morison's equation, the lift forces FD and the slamming forces FS, typically neglected in
global response computations, can be important for local member design. For a member section of unit length, these forces
can be estimated as follows:
where CL, CS are the lift and slamming coefficients respectively, and the rest of the symbols are as defined in Morison's
equation. Lift forces are perpendicular to the member axis and the fluid velocity v and are related to the vortex shedding
frequency. Slamming forces acting on the underside of horizontal members near the mean water level are impulsive and
nearly vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by taking CL » 1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs » p.
There are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal current profile typical of the Gulf of
Mexico. When insufficient field measurements are available, current velocities may be obtained from various sources, e.g.
Appendix A of DNV [4]. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account by adding
the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the square of the velocity, this addition can
greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender members, cyclic loads induced by vortex shedding may also be
important and should be examined.
Offshore structures in seismic regions are typically designed for two levels of earthquake intensity: the strength level and the
ductility level earthquake. For the strength level earthquake, defined as having a "reasonable likelihood of not being
exceeded during the platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to respond
elastically. For the ductility level earthquake, defined as close to the "maximum credible earthquake" at the site, the structure
is designed for inelastic response and to have adequate reserve strength to avoid collapse.
For strength level design, the seismic loading may be specified either by sets of accelerograms (Figure 8) or by means of
design response spectra (Figure 9). Use of design spectra has a number of advantages over time history solutions (base
acceleration input). For this reason design response spectra are the preferable approach for strength level designs. If the
design spectral intensity, characteristic of the seismic hazard at the site, is denoted by amax, then API-RP2A recommends
using amax for the two principal horizontal directions and 0,5amax for the vertical direction. The DNV rules, on the other hand,
recommend amax and 0,7 amax for the two horizontal directions (two different combinations) and 0,5 amax for the vertical. The
value of amax and often the spectral shapes are determined by site specific seismological studies.
Designs for ductility level earthquakes will normally require inelastic analyses for which the seismic input must be specified
by sets of 3-component accelerograms, real or artificial, representative of the extreme ground motions that could shake the
platform site. The characteristics of such motions, however, may still be prescribed by means of design spectra, which are
usually the result of a site specific seismotectonic study. More detail of the analysis of earthquakes is given in the Lectures
17: Seismic Design.
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation and expansion can generate
large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds
and waves with speeds that can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA (7)
where:
Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with usual values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work are required to develop
reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind loads, the latter by increasing
areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information on snow loads may be found in Eurocode 1 [8].
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal stresses. To take account of such
stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the life of the structure must be
estimated. Relevant data for the North Sea are given in BS6235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources, human factors
can also generate thermal loads, e.g. through accidental release of cryogenic material, which must be taken into account in
design as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced must also be considered.
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave forces on the members by
increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness. In addition, it
increases the unit mass of the member, resulting in higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending upon
geographic location, the thickness of marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted for in design through
appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged members.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the sea surface. The tides are
classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and (b) storm
surges - caused by the combined action of wind and barometric pressure differentials during a storm. The combined effect
of the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide dependent water levels and the associated definitions, as used in
platform design, are shown in Figure 10. The astronomical tide range depends on the geographic location and the phase of
the moon. Its maximum, the spring tide, occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimetres to several metres and may
be obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and their range is on the order of
1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves are superimposed on the still water level (see Figure 10),
while for design considerations such as levels for boat landing places, barge fenders, upper limits of marine growth, etc., the
daily variations of the astronomical tide are used.
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave pressures, earthquakes, pressure
reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads generated by such movements affect, not only the design of the piles,
but the jacket as well. Such forces are determined by special geotechnical studies and investigations.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many aspects of platform design.
The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice and snow, temperature variations,
marine growth, tides and seafloor movements.
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values for most environmental loads.
For major structures, specification of environmental design loads requires specific studies.
Some environmental loads can be highly uncertain.
The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis used in the design.
4. REFERENCES
[2] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms", American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[3] OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United States Geologic Survey, National
Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
[4] DNV, "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske Veritas, Oslo, 1977 (with
corrections 1982).
[5] NPD, "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of Petroleum Resources",
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1985.
[6] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution, London, 1982.
[7] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K., Dept. of Energy, London 1985.
[8] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation).
[9] Clauss, G. T. et al: "Offshore Structures, Vol 1 - Conceptual Design and Hydromechanics", Springer, London 1992.
[10] Anagnostopoulos, S.A., "Dynamic Response of Offshore Structures to Extreme Waves including Fluid - Structure
Interaction", Engr. Structures, Vol. 4, pp.179-185, 1982.
[11] Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
[12] Graff, W.J., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
[13] Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Velocity potential q
za cos q za cos q
Surface elevation z
pdyn =
za w ekz cos q
horizontal u =
za w ekz sin q
vertical w =
za w2 ekz sin q
horizontal u' =
Wave celerity c = c=
co =
Group velocity cgr= cgr = cgr =
w= w=
Circular frequencyw =
Lo =
Wave length L = L=
ko =
Wave number k = kd tanh kd =
Where z a =
A.3: Loads (II) - Other Loads
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and briefly describe all loads, except environmental loads, and the load combinations for which a fixed offshore
structure must be designed.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
The various categories of loads, except environmental, for which a pile-supported steel offshore platform must be designed
are presented. These categories include permanent (dead) loads, operating (live) loads, loads generated during fabrication
and installation (due to lifts, loadout, transportation, launching and upending) and accidental loads. In addition, the different
load combinations for all types of loads, including environmental, as required (or suggested) by applicable regulations (or
codes of practice) are given.
The major categories of environmental loads are not included. They are dealt with in Lecture 15A.2.
a. Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of grout and ballast, if necessary.
b. Weights of equipment, attachments or associated structures which are permanently mounted on the platform.
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures.
Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or non-flooded.
Operating loads arise from the operations on the platform and include the weight of all non-permanent equipment or material,
as well as forces generated during operation of equipment. More specifically, operating loads include the following:
a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities (e.g. living quarters, furniture, life support
systems, heliport, etc), consumable supplies, liquids, etc.
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter landing, crane operations, etc.
The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the operator and the equipment manufacturers.
The data need to be critically evaluated by the designer. An example of detailed live load specification is given in Table 1
where the values in the first and second columns are for design of the portions of the structure directly affected by the loads
and the reduced values in the last column are for the structure as a whole. In the absence of such data, the following values
are recommended in BS6235 [1]:
where
g is the specific weight of stored materials, not to be taken less than 6,87KN/m3,
Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and must be treated as such. For example,
according to the BS6235 rules, two types of helicopter landing should be considered, heavy and emergency landing. The
impact load in the first case is to be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-off weight, while in the second case this factor
becomes 2,5. In addition, a horizontal load applied at the points of impact and taken equal to half the maximum take-off
weight must be considered. Loads from rotating machinery, drilling equipment, etc. may normally be treated as harmonic
forces. For vessel mooring, design forces are computed for the largest ship likely to approach at operational speeds.
According to BS6235, the minimum impact to be considered is of a vessel of 2500 tonnes at 0,5 m/s.
These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the platform or its components. During fabrication,
erection lifts of various structural components generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces are generated
during platform loadout, transportation to the site, launching and upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
According to the DNV rules [2], the return period for computing design environmental conditions for installation as well as
fabrication should normally be three times the duration of the corresponding phase. API-RP2A, on the other hand [3], leaves
this design return period up to the owner, while the BS6235 rules [1] recommend a minimum recurrence interval of 10 years
for the design environmental loads associated with transportation of the structure to the offshore site.
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted, the number and location of lifting eyes used
for the lift, the angle between each sling and the vertical axis and the conditions under which the lift is performed (Figure 1).
All members and connections of a lifted component must be designed for the forces resulting from static equilibrium of the
lifted weight and the sling tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to compensate for any side movements,
lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting structural members should be designed for the combined action of the
static sling load and a horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye at the centre of the pin
hole. All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts are performed in the fabrication yard. If, however, the lifting
derrick or the structure to be lifted is on a floating vessel, then dynamic load factors should be applied to the static lifting
forces. In particular, for lifts made offshore API-RP2A recommends two minimum values of dynamic load factors: 2,0 and
1,35. The first is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end connections framing the joint where the
padeye is attached, while the second is for all other members transmitting lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations,
the corresponding minimum load factors for the two groups of structural components become, according to API-RP2A, 1,5
and 1,15, respectively.
3.2 Loadout Forces
These are forces generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto the barge. If the loadout is carried out
by direct lift, then, unless the lifting arrangement is different from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not be
computed, because lifting in the open sea creates a more severe loading condition which requires higher dynamic load
factors. If loadout is done by skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading conditions must be considered,
with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions arise from the different positions of the jacket during the
loadout phases, (as shown in Figure 2), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic or change of
draft, and from possible support settlements. Since movement of the jacket is slow, all loading conditions can be taken as
static. Typical values of friction coefficients for calculation of skidding forces are the following:
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are transported offshore on barges or self-floating.
They depend upon the weight, geometry and support conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and also on the
environmental conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are encountered during transportation. The types of motion that a
floating structure may experience are shown schematically in Figure 3.
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the fabrication yard to the platform site, it is
important to plan the operation carefully by considering, according to API-RP2A [3], the following:
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and supporting barge. They are determined
from the design winds, waves and currents. If the structure is self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According to
API-RP2A [3], towing analyses must be based on the results of model basin tests or appropriate analytical methods and
must consider wind and wave directions parallel, perpendicular and at 45° to the tow axis. Inertial loads may be computed
from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with heave motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude of
the sea state and experience make such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, the following may be
considered as typical design values:
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary design consideration because of the high
centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover, the relative stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into account
together with the wave slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the tow (Figure 4) when structural
analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down braces and the jacket members affected by the induced loads. Special
computer programs are available to compute the transportation loads in the structure-barge system and the resulting
stresses for any specified environmental condition.
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea and during the subsequent upending
into its proper vertical position to rest on the seabed. A schematic view of these operations can be seen in Figure 5.
There are five stages in a launch-upending operation:
e. Jacket is upended by a combination of controlled flooding and simultaneous lifting by a derrick barge.
The loads, static as well as dynamic, induced during each of these stages and the force required to set the jacket into
motion can be evaluated by appropriate analyses, which also consider the action of wind, waves and currents expected
during the operation.
To start the launch, the barge must be ballasted to an appropriate draft and trim angle and subsequently the jacket must be
pulled towards the stern by a winch. Sliding of the jacket starts as soon as the downward force (gravity component and
winch pull) exceeds the friction force. As the jacket slides, its weight is supported on the two legs that are part of the launch
trusses. The support length keeps decreasing and reaches a minimum, equal to the length of the rocker beams, when
rotation starts. It is generally at this instant that the most severe launching forces develop as reactions to the weight of the
jacket. During stages (d) and (e), variable hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members affected.
Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully controlled, stable motion. Computer
programs are available to perform the stress analyses required for launching and upending and also to portray the whole
operation graphically.
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
According to the DNV rules [2], accidental loads are loads, ill-defined with respect to intensity and frequency, which may
occur as a result of accident or exceptional circumstances. Accidental loads are also specified as a separate category in the
NPD regulations [4], but not in API-RP2A [3], BS6235 [1] or the DOE-OG rules [5]. Examples of accidental loads are loads
due to collision with vessels, fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of bouyancy tanks. Special
measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental loads. For example, protection of wellheads or other critical
equipment from a dropped object can be provided by specially designed, impact resistant covers. According to the NPD
regulations [4], an accidental load can be disregarded if its annual probability of occurrence is less than 10 -4. This number is
meant as an order of magnitude estimate and is extremely difficult to compute. Earthquakes are treated as an environmental
load in offshore structure design.
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load combinations used for designing fixed offshore structures depend upon the design method used, i.e. whether limit
state or allowable stress design is employed. The load combinations recommended for use with allowable stress procedures
are:
a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
b. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads, appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
c. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads, appropriate for combining with extreme
conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads, appropriate for combining with extreme
conditions.
Moreover, environmental loads, with the exception of earthquake loads, should be combined in a manner consistent with
their joint probability of occurrence during the loading condition considered. Earthquake loads, if applicable, are to be
imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e., not to be combined with waves, wind, etc. Operating environmental
conditions are defined as representative of severe but not necessarily limiting conditions that, if exceeded, would require
cessation of platform operations.
The DNV rules [2] permit allowable stress design but recommend the semi-probabilistic limit state design method, which the
NPD rules also require [4]. BS6235 permits both methods but the design equations it gives are for the allowable stress
method [1]. API-RP2A is very specific in recommending not to apply limit state methods. According to the DNV and the NPD
rules for limit state design, four limit states must be checked:
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live), Deformation (e.g., temperature, differential
settlement) and Environmental loads respectively. For well controlled dead and live loads during fabrication and
installation, the load factor 1,3 may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for structures that are unmanned during storm
conditions and which are not used for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for environmental loads - except
earthquakes - may be reduced to 1,15.
The so-called characteristic values of the loads used in the above combinations and limit states are summarized in Table 2,
taken from the NPD rules.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
In addition to environmental loads, an offshore structure must be designed for dead and live loads, fabrication and
installation loads as well as accidental loads.
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually followed for specifying such loads.
The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads depend upon the methods and
sequences used for the corresponding phases.
Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of appropriate dynamic load factors.
Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and probability of occurrence. They will typically
require special protective measures.
Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be used. API-RP2A is based on allowable
stress design and recommends against limit state design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV and
NPD recommend limit state design.
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution, London, 1982.
[2] "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Oslo, 1977 (with
corrections 1982).
[3] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms", American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[4] "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of Petroleum Resources",
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 1985.
[5] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K. Department of Energy, London 1985.
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1. OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United States Geologic Survey,
National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
2. Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
3. Graff, W.G., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
4. Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Loads to be taken into account (kN/m2) For portions of the structure For the structure as a whole
STORAGE
Delivery zone 10 10 5
Non-attributed area 6 4 3
(1) Accumulated with a point load equal to the weight of the heaviest part likely to be removed, with a minimum value of 5
kN. Point loads are assumed as being applied to a 0,3m ´ 0,3m surface.
(3) This column gives the loads to be taken into account for the structure's overall calculation. These values are the input for
the computer runs.
LOAD TYPE LIMIT STATES FOR TEMPORARY PHASES LIMIT STATES FOR
Progressive Collapse
Abnormal Damage
Serviceability Fatigue Ultimate Serviceability Fatigue Ult
effects condition
DEAD EXPECTED VALUE
LIVE SPECIFIED VALUE
DEFORMATION EXPECTED EXTREME VALUE
ENVIRONMENTAL Dependent on Expected Value dependent on measures taken Dependent on Expected Annua
operational load operational load history excee
requirements history requirements probab
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
Analytical models used in offshore engineering are briefly described. Acceptance criteria for the verification of offshore
structures are presented.
Simple rules for preliminary member sizing are given and procedures for static in-place and dynamic analysis are described.
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration of the different stages, i.e. execution,
installation, and in-service stages, during its life. Many disciplines, e.g. structural, geotechnical, naval architecture,
metallurgy are involved.
This lecture and Lecture 15A.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of available analysis procedures and
providing benchmarks for the reader to appreciate the validity of his assumptions and results. They primarily address jackets,
which are more unusual structures compared to decks and modules, and which more closely resemble onshore petro-
chemical plants.
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to those adopted for other types of steel
structures. Only the salient features of offshore models are presented here.
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor adjustments being made to suit the specific
conditions, e.g. at supports in particular, relating to each analysis.
Stick models (beam elements assembled in frames) are used extensively for tubular structures (jackets, bridges, flare
booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).
2.1.1 Joints
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model.
If more accuracy is required, particularly for the assessment of natural vibration modes, local flexibility of the connections
may be represented by a joint stiffness matrix.
2.1.2 Members
In addition to its geometrical and material properties, each member is characterised by hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g.
relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to allow wave forces to be automatically generated.
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are described by plate elements. The
characteristics assumed for the plate elements depend on the principal state of stress which they are subjected to.
Membrane stresses are taken when the element is subjected merely to axial load and shear. Plate stresses are adopted
when bending and lateral pressure are to be taken into account.
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s) to a design force or stress. It includes:
a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield strength of the element,
a stability check for elements in compression where the characteristic resistance relates to the buckling limit of the
element.
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and midspan) against resistance and
buckling. This verification also includes the effect of water pressure for deepwater structures.
Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These checks may indicate the need for local
reinforcement of the chord using overthickness or internal ring-stiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or durability wherever relevant.
The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the characteristic resistance to obtain an allowable stress
as follows:
Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the element, reflecting the amount of
confidence placed in the design value of each parameter and the degree of risk accepted under a limit state, i.e:
corresponds to an ultimate event considering the structural resistance with appropriate reserve.
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal conditions.
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant operator).
P L D E A
P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast, hydrostatic pressure).
The material partial factors for steel is normally taken equal to 1,15 for ULS and 1,00 for PLS and SLS design.
Guidance for classifying typical conditions into typical limit states is given in the following table:
P/L E D A Criterion
Construction P ULS,SLS
Launch P ULS
Lifting P ULS
The analysis of a structure is an iterative process which requires progressive adjustment of the member sizes with respect to
the forces they transmit, until a safe and economical design is achieved.
It is therefore of the utmost importance to start the main analysis from a model which is close to the final optimized one.
The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selecting realistic sizes for the main elements of offshore structures in
moderate water depth (up to 80m) where dynamic effects are negligible.
calculate the vertical resultant (dead weight, live loads, buoyancy), the overall shear and the overturning moment
(environmental forces) at the mudline.
assuming that the jacket behaves as a rigid body, derive the maximum axial and shear force at the top of the pile.
select a pile diameter in accordance with the expected leg diameter and the capacity of pile driving equipment.
derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams.
assuming an equivalent soil subgrade modulus and full fixity at the base of the jacket, calculate the maximum
moment in the pile and derive its wall thickness.
select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameter ratio between 30 and 40.
calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shear and the local bending caused by the wave assuming
partial or total end restraint.
derive the thickness such that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20 and 70 and eliminate any hydrostatic
buckle tendency by imposing D/t<170/3ÖH (H is the depth of member below the free surface).
The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses. The structure is modelled as it stands
during its operational life, and subjected to pseudo-static loads.
This analysis is always carried at the very early stage of the project, often from a simplified model, to size the main elements
of the structure.
Typical models for North Sea jackets may feature over 800 nodes and 4000 members.
5.1.2 Appurtenances
The contribution of appurtenances (risers, J-tubes, caissons, conductors, boat-fenders, etc.) to the overall stiffness of the
structure is normally neglected.
They are therefore analysed separately and their reactions applied as loads at the interfaces with the main structure.
Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysed separately from the structural model.
They are represented by an equivalent load-dependent secant stiffness matrix; coefficients are determined by an iterative
process where the forces and displacements at the common boundaries of structural and foundation models are equated.
This matrix may need to be adjusted to the mean reaction corresponding to each loading condition.
5.2 Loadings
This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are described in more detail in Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
Depending on the area of structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to produce the most severe configuration
(compression or tension); this may occur for instance when positioning the drilling rig.
Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumed to act simultaneously in the same direction.
In general eight wave incidences are selected; for each the position of the crest relative to the platform must be established
such that the maximum overturning moment and/or shear are produced at the mudline.
The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads are approximated by their pseudo-static
equivalent.
The basic loads relevant to a given condition are multiplied by the appropriate load factors and combined to produce the
most severe effect in each individual element of the structure.
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure, but can be restricted to the main modes in the case
of stiff structures.
6.1 Dynamic Model
The dynamic model of the structure is derived from the main static model.
The governing dynamic equations of multi-degrees-of-freedom systems can be expressed in the matrix form:
where
X, X', X'' are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors (function
of time).
P(t) is the time dependent force vector; in the most general case it may depend on the displacements of the structure also
(i.e. relative motion of the structure with respect to the wave velocity in Morison equation).
6.2.1 Mass
The mass matrix represents the distribution of masses over the structure.
Masses include that of the structure itself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in legs or tanks, the added mass of water
(mass of water displaced by the member and determined from potential flow theory) and the mass of marine growth.
Masses are generally lumped at discrete points of the model. The mass matrix consequently becomes diagonal but local
modes of vibration of single members are ignored (these modes may be important for certain members subjected to an
earthquake). The selection of lumping points may significantly affect the ensuing solution.
As a further simplification to larger models involving considerable degrees-of-freedom, the system can be condensed to a
few freedoms while still retaining its basic energy distribution.
6.2.2 Damping
Damping is the most difficult to estimate among all parameters governing the dynamic response of a structure.
Structural Damping
Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the material.
It increases with the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain energy involved in each.
Hydrodynamic Damping
Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to the former, but may alternatively be
accounted as part of the forcing function when vibrations are close to resonance (vortex-shedding in particular).
Representation of Damping
Viscous damping represents the most common and simple form of damping. It may have one of the following
representations:
modal damping: a specific damping ratio z expressing the percentage to critical associated with each mode
(typically z = 0,5% structural; z = 1,5% hydrodynamic)
proportional damping: defined as a linear combination of stiffness and mass matrices.
All other types of non-viscous damping should preferably be expressed as an equivalent viscous damping matrix.
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffness matrix is in all aspects similar to the one used in static analyses.
The first step in a dynamic analysis consists of determining the principal natural vibration mode shapes and frequencies of
the undamped, multi-degree-of-freedom structure up to a given order (30th to 50th).
KX = l MX
For rigid structures having a fundamental vibration period well below the range of wave periods (typically less than 3 s), the
dynamic behaviour is simply accounted for by multiplying the time-dependent loads by a dynamic amplification factor (DAF):
DAF =
where b = TN/T is the ratio of the period of the structure to the wave period.
A convenient technique consists of uncoupling the equations through the normal modes of the system.
The total response is obtained by summing the responses of the individual single-degree-of-freedom oscillators associated
to each normal mode of the structure.
This method offers the advantage that the eigen modes provide substantial insight into the problem, and can be re-used for
as many subsequent response calculations as needed at later stages.
It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes is required to represent the response accurately.
Therefore:
the simple superposition method (mode-displacement) is applied to a truncated number of lowest modes for
predicting earthquake response.
it must be corrected by the static contribution of the higher modes (mode-acceleration method) for wave loadings.
Such analysis is most appropriate for evaluating the steady-state response of a system subjected to cyclic loadings, as the
transient part of the response vanishes rapidly under the effect of damping.
p(t) =
The plot of the amplitudes pj versus the circular frequencies wj is called the amplitude power spectra of the loading. Usually,
significant values of pj only occur within a narrow range of frequencies and the analysis can be restricted to it.
The relationship between response and force vectors is expressed by the transfer matrix H, such as:
H = [-M w2 + i x C w + K]
Hj,k =
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most efficient algorithm associated with this kind of analysis.
The response of the i-th mode may alternatively be determined by resorting to Duhamel's integral:
Xj(t) =
The overall response is then obtained by summing at each time step the individual responses over all significant modes.
Direct step-by-step integration of the equations of motion is the most general method and is applicable to:
All available integration techniques are characterised by their stability (i.e. the tendency for uncontrolled divergence of
amplitude to occur with increasing time steps). Unconditionally stable methods are always to be preferred (for instance
Newmark-beta with b = 1/4 or Wilson-theta with q = 1,4).
7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
To present the analysis procedures for offshore structures relating to fatigue, abnormal and accident conditions, load-out
and transportation, installation and local design.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
Methods of fatigue analysis are described including the fatigue model (structural, hydrodynamic loading, and joint stress
models) and the methods of fatigue damage assessment.
Abnormal and accidental conditions are considered relating to earthquake, impact and progressive collapse.
Analyses required for load-out and transportation and for installation are outlined. Local analysis for specific parts of the
structure which are better treated by dedicated models outside of the global analysis are identified.
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic loadings such as:
Quasi-static analysis is often chosen; it permits all local stresses to be comprehensively represented. The dynamic effects
are accounted for by factoring the loads by the relevant DAF.
Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may also overlook important local response
modes, particularly near the waterline where direct wave action causes high out-of-plane bending (see Section 5.2). The
mode - acceleration method may overcome this problem.
A very large number of computer runs may be necessary to evaluate the stress range at the joints. The wave is repeatedly
generated for:
different blocks of wave heights (typically from 2 to 28m in steps of 2m), each associated with a characteristic
wave and zero-upcrossing period.
different incidences (typically eight).
different phases to determine the stress range for a given wave at each joint.
Nominal joint stresses are calculated for eight points around the circumference of the brace. The maximum local (hot spot)
stress is obtained by multiplying the former by a stress concentration factor (SCF) given by parametric formulae which are
functions of the joint geometry and the load pattern (balanced/unbalanced).
The fatigue failure of joints in offshore structures primarily depends on the stress ranges and their number of occurrences,
formulated by S-N curves:
The number of cycles to failure Ni corresponds to a stress range. The effect of the constant stresses, mainly welding
residual stresses, is implicitly accounted for in this formulation.
The cumulative damage caused by ni cycles of stress Dsi, over the operational life of the platform (30 to 50 years) is
obtained by the Palmgren-Miner rule:
D=
The limit of this ratio depends on the position of the joint with respect to the splash zone (typically +/-4m on either side of the
mean sea level). The ratio should normally not exceed:
1,0 above,
0,1 within,
0,3 below the splash zone.
D=
where
k is a long-term distribution parameter, depending on the position of the joint in the structure.
A minimum of four regular waves described in terms of height and associated period are considered for each heading angle.
Waves of a given height are not characterised by a unique frequency, but rather by a range of frequencies. If this range
corresponds to a peak in the structural response, the fatigue life predicted by the deterministic method can be seriously
distorted.
This problem is overcome by using a scatter diagram, in which the joint occurrence of wave height and period is quantified.
Wave directionality may also be accounted for. Eventually the most thorough representation of a sea state consists of:
the frequency spectrum constructed from the significant wave heights and mean zero-crossing periods.
the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associated spreading function.
This approach requires that the physical process be approximately linear (or properly linearised) and stationary. Transfer
functions TF are determined from time-domain analyses involving various wave heights, each with different period and
incidence:
The response has normally a narrow-banded spectrum and can be described by a Rayleigh distribution.
Tz =
The significant stress range is readily obtained for each sea state as:
ssig =
The fatigue damage caused by the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender structures like flare booms and bridges is
usually predicted by spectral methods.
The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherence functions accounting for the spanwise correlation of
forces.
Within a specific range of fluid velocities, eddies are shed at a frequency close to the resonant frequency of the member.
This phenomenon involves forced displacements, which can be determined by models such as those suggested in [1].
This type of analysis addresses conditions which may considerably affect the integrity of the structure, but only have a
limited risk of occurrence.
Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-4 threshold are disregarded.
2.1.1 Model
foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the structure) shall accurately represent load-
deflection behaviour. As a general rule the lateral foundation behaviour is essentially controlled by horizontal
ground motions of shallow soil layers.
modal damping (in general taken as 5% and 7% of critical for ULS and PLS analyses respectively).
The seismic forces in a structure are highly dependent on its dynamic characteristics. Design recommendations are given by
API to determine an efficient geometry. The recommendations call for:
Earthquake analyses can be carried out according to the general methods presented in Lecture 15A.4.
However their distinctive feature is that they represent essentially a base motion problem and that the seismic loads are
therefore dependent on the dynamic characteristics of the structure.
Modal spectral response analysis is normally used. It consists of a superposition of maximum mode response and forms a
response spectrum curve characteristic of the input motion. This spectrum is the result of time-histories of a SDOF system
for different natural periods of vibration and damping.
Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerograms adapted to the site.
2.2 Impact
The analysis of impact loads on structures is carried out locally using simple plastic models [2].
Should a more sophisticated analysis be required, it can be accomplished using time-domain techniques presented in
Section 6 of Lecture 15A.4.
The whole energy must be absorbed within acceptable deformations.
When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube (jacket leg, fender) is crushed by a supply boat, two
load/deformation mechanisms occur simultaneously:
Owing to the current lack of definitive guidance regarding explosions and fire, the behaviour of structures in such events has
so far been only predicted by simple models based on:
equivalent static overpressure and plastic deformation of plates for blast analysis.
the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperature increase.
In the aftermath of recent mishaps however, more accurate analyses may become mandatory, based on a better
understanding of the pressure-time histories and the effective resistance and response of structures to explosions and fire.
Some elements of the structure (legs, bracings, bulkheads) may partially or completely loose their strength as a result of
accidental damage.
The purpose of such analysis is to ensure that the spare resistance of the remaining structure is sufficient to allow the loads
to redistribute.
Since such a configuration is only temporary (mobilisation period prior to repairs) and that operations will also be restricted
around the damaged area, reduced live and environmental loads are generally accepted.
In this analysis, the damaged elements are removed from the model. Their residual strength may be represented by forces
applied at the boundary nodes with the intact structure.
3.1 Load-Out
The load-out procedure consists in moving the jacket or module from its construction site to the transportation barge by
skidding, or by using trailers underneath it.
The barge may be floating and is continuously deballasted as the package progresses onto it, or grounded on the bottom of
the harbour.
3.1.1 Skidding
The most severe configuration during skidding occurs when the part of the structure is cantilevering out:
The analysis should also investigate the possibility of high local reactions being the result of settlement of the skidway or
errors in the ballasting procedure.
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers
As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant, analysis of load-out by trailers only requires a single step to determine
the optimal distribution of trailers.
3.2 Transportation
The model consists of the rigid-body assembly of the barge and the structure.
Barges are in general characterised by a low length/beam ratio and a high beam/draught ratio, as well as sharp corners
which introduce heavy viscous damping.
For jacket transport, particular care shall be taken in the representation of overhanging parts (legs, buoyancy tanks) which
contribute significantly to the righting moment.
Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply represented by their mass and moments of inertia.
This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerations and displacements of the structure to be entered in the
structural model as inertia forces, and also the partition and intensity of buoyancy and slamming forces.
The jacket model is a simplified version of the in-place model, from which eccentricities and local reinforcements may be
omitted.
The barge is modelled as a plane grid, with members having the equivalent properties of the longitudinal and transversal
bulkheads.
As the barge passes over a wave trough or a crest, a portion only of the barge is supported by buoyancy (long barges may
be spanning over a whole trough or be half-cantilevered).
The model therefore represents the jacket and the barge as two structures coupled together by the seafastening members.
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
A three dimensional analysis is carried out to evaluate the global forces acting on the jacket at various time steps during the
launch sequence.
At each time step, the jacket/barge rigid body system is repositioned to equilibrate the internal and external forces produced
by:
The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just starts rotating about the rocker hinge.
The rocker arm is also represented as a vertical beam hinged approximately at midspan. Interface loads obtained by the
rigid body analysis are input at boundary conditions on the launch legs. All interface members must remain in compression,
otherwise they are inactivated and the analysis restarted for that step.
Once the tilting phase has begun, the jacket is analysed at least for each main leg node being at the vertical of the rocker
arm pivot.
4.2 Upending
No dedicated structural analysis is required for this phase, which is essentially a naval architecture problem.
4.3 Docking
Docking of a jacket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysed for local impact. The same requirement
applied for bumpers to aid the installation of modules.
The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is analysed for the design installation wave.
The stability of the jacket as a whole (overturning tendency) is investigated, together with the resistance of the mudmats
against soil pressure.
4.5 Piling
The piles are checked during driving for the dynamic stresses caused by the impact wave of the hammer blow. The
maximum cantilevered (stick-up) length of pile must be established for the self-weight of the pile and hammer combined,
accounting for first and second order moments arising from the pile batter. Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater
driving.
Elements in the vicinity of the piles (guides, sleeves) shall also be checked, see Section 5.1.
4.6 Lifting
4.6.1 Model
The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consists of the in-place model plus the representation of the rigging
arrangement (slings, spreader frames).
For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole vertical support in the model and shall be located
exactly on the vertical through the centre of gracity (CoG) of the model.
For heavier dual-crane lifts, the CoG shall be contained in the vertical plane defined by the two hook joints.
The mathematical instability of the model with respect to horizontal forces is avoided by using soft horizontal springs at the
padeyes. The force and elongation in these springs should always remain small.
Different factors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects during lifting operations.
4.6.2.1 Skew Load Factor (SKL)
This factor represents the effect of fabrication tolerances and lack-of-fit of the slings on the load repartition in a statically
undetermined rigging arrangement (4 slings or more). Skew factors may either be directly computed by applying to a pair of
opposite slings a temperature difference such that their elongation/shortening corresponds to the mismatch, or determined
arbitrarily (typically 1/3 - 2/3 repartition).
This factor accounts for global dynamic effects normally experienced during lifting operations. DnV [24] recommends
minimum values as follows:
Lifted Weight W (tonnes) up to 100 t 100 t to 1000t 1000 t to 2500t more than 2500
t
This factor accounts for additional sling loading caused by the rotation of the lifted object about a horizontal axis and by the
longitudinal deviation of the hooks from their theoretical position in the case of a multi-hook lift. It shall normally be based on
5° and 3° tilt respectively depending on whether cranes are on different vessels or not.
This factor accounts for the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal to 1,05 typically).
Forces in elements checked under lift conditions are multiplied by a factor reflecting the consequence a failure of that
specific element would have on the integrity of the overall structure:
1,30 for spreader frames, lifting points (padeyes) and their attachment to the structure.
1,15 for all members transferring the load to the lifting points.
1,00 for other elements.
Local analyses address specific parts of the structure which are better treated by dedicated models outside the global
analysis.
The list of analyses below is not exhaustive and more information can be found in [1-24] which provide a complete design
procedure in each particular case.
Underwater pile/sleeve connection is usually achieved by grouting the annulus between the outside of the pile and the inner
sleeve.
Horizontal members (conductor guide frames in particular) located within the splash zone (+/-5m on either side of the mean-
sea-level approximately) shall be analysed for fatigue caused by repeated wave slamming.
Typical straightened nodes (ring-stiffened nodes, bottle legs nodes with diaphragms) are analysed by finite-elements models,
from which parametric envelope formulae are drawn and applied to all nodes representative of the same class.
5.4 Appurtenances
Risers, caissons and J-tubes are verified either by structural or piping programs for the action of environmental forces,
internal pressure and temperature. Particular attention is paid to the bends not always satisfactorily represented by
structural programs and the location of the touch-down point now known a-priori.
A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess the fatigue damage to the clamps and the attachments to the jacket.
Pull-In
J-tubes are empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside. They are verified by empirical plastic
models against the forces generated during pull-in by the friction of the cable and the deformation of the pull head, see [22].
5.4.2 Conductors
Conductors are analysed in-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports, these being provided by the horizontal
framing of the jacket (typically 20 to 25 m span).
The installation sequence of the different casings must be considered to assess the distribution of stresses in the different
tubes forming the overall composite section.
Also the portion of compression force in the conductor caused by the hanging casings is regarded as an internal force
(similar to prestressing) which therefore does not induce any buckling tendency, see [23].
5.5 Helidecks
The helideck is normally designed to resist an impact load equal to 2,5 times the take-off weight of the heaviest helicopter
factored by a DAF of 1,30.
Plastic theories are applicable for designing the plate and stiffeners, while the main framing is analysed elastically.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet harsher environments, more elaborate
theories are necessary to analyse complex situations. There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to rely
on the sole results of computer analyses at the expense of sound design practice.
To retain enough control of the process of analysis, the following recommendations are given:
× check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of the input/output.
× verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a simplified model, which can also be used to
assess the influence of a particular parameter.
× make full use of "good engineering judgement" to criticise the unexpected results of an analysis.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced Vibrations of Offshore Structures/OTC paper
1843, May 1973.
[2] De Oliveira J.G., The Behaviour of Steel Offshore Structures under Accidental Collisions/OTC paper 4136, May 1981.
[3] API-RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms/18th edition,
September1989.
[4] DnV, Rules for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures, September 1989.
[5] DnV, Standard for Insurance Warranty Surveys in Marine Operations, June 1985.
[6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing Structures Intended for Exploitation of Petroleum Resources,
October1984 and Veiledning om Utforming, Beregning og Dimensjonering av Stalkonstruksjoner i Petroleumsvirksomheten,
December1989.
[7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction/London, April 1984.
[8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore Platforms/Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986.
[9] UEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/CIRIA Report UR22, 1984.
[10] Hallam M.G., Heaf N.J. & Wootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/ CIRIA Report UR8 (2nd edition), October 1978.
[12] Clough R.W. & Penzien J., Dynamics of Structures/McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
[13] Newland D.E., Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis/Longman Scientific (2nd edition), 1984.
[14] Zienkiewicz O.C., Lewis R.W. & Stagg K.G., Numerical Methods in Offshore Engineering/Wiley Interscience, 1978.
[15] Davenport A.G., The Response of Slender Line-Like Structures to a Gusty Wind/ICE Vol.23, 1962.
[16] Williams A.K. & Rhinne J.E., Fatigue Analysis of Steel Offshore Structures/ICE Vol.60, November 1976.
[17] Anagnostopoulos S.A., Wave and Earthquake Response of Offshore Structures: Evaluation of Modal Solutions/ASCE J.
of the Structural Div., vol. 108, No ST10, October 1982.
[18] Chianis J.W. & Mangiavacchi A., A Critical Review of Transportation Analysis Procedures/OTC paper 4617, May1983.
[19] Kaplan P. Jiang C.W. & Bentson J, Hydrodynamic Analysis of Barge-Platform Systems in Waves/Royal Inst. of Naval
Architects, London, April 1982.
[20] Hambro L., Jacket Launching Simulation by Differentiation of Constraints/ Applied Ocean Research, Vol.4 No.3, 1982.
[21] Bunce J.W. & Wyatt T.A., Development of Unified Design Criteria for Heavy Lift Operations Offshore/OTC paper 4192,
May 1982.
[22] Walker A.C. & Davies P., A Design Basis for the J-Tube Method of Riser Installation/J. of Energy Resources
Technology, pp. 263-270, September 1983.
[23] Stahl B. & Baur M.P., Design Methodology for Offshore Platform Conductors/J. of Petroleum Technology, November
1983.
[24] DnV - Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, January 1989.
A.6: Foundations
OBJECTIVE\SCOPE
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
A general knowledge of design in offshore structures and an understanding of offshore installation are also required.
SUMMARY
In this lecture piled foundations for offshore structures are presented. The lecture starts with the classification of soil. The
main steps in the design of piles are then explained. The different kinds of piles and hammers are described. The three main
execution phases are briefly discussed: fabrication, transport and installation.
1. INTRODUCTION
The stratigraphy of the sea bed results from a complex geological process during which various materials were deposited,
remoulded and pressed together.
Soil texture consists of small mineral or organic particles basically characterized by their grain size and mutual interaction
(friction, cohesion).
density.
water content.
over consolidation ratio.
For design purposes the influence of these factors on soil behaviour is expressed in terms of two fundamental parameters:
friction angle.
undrained shear strength Cu.
Since the least significant of either of these parameters is often neglected, soils can be classified within "ideal" categories:
granular soils.
cohesive soils.
1.2 Granular Soils
Granular soils are non-plastic soils with negligible cohesion between particles. They include:
sands : characterized by large to medium particle sizes (1mm to 0,05mm) offering a high permeability,
silts : characterized by particle sizes between 0,05 and 0,02mm; they are generally over-consolidated; they may
exhibit some cohesion.
Clays are plastic soils with particle sizes less than 0,002mm which tend to stick together; their permeability is low.
The nature and characteristics of the soil surrounding a pile generally vary with the depth. For analysis purposes, the soil is
divided into several layers, each having constant properties throughout. The number of layers depends on the precision
required of the analysis.
2. DESIGN
Steel offshore platforms are usually founded on piles, driven deep into the soil (Figure 1). The piles have to transfer the
loads acting on the jacket into the sea bed. In this section theoretical aspects of the design of piles are presented. Checking
of the pile itself is described in detail in the Worked Example.
These loads are those transferred from the jacket to the foundation. They are calculated at the mudline.
Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically horizontal. Their resultant at mudline
consists of:
The basic gravity and environmental loads multiplied by relevant load factors are combined in order to produce the most
severe effect(s) at mudline, resulting in:
The overall resistance of the pile against axial force is the sum of shaft friction and end bearing.
Skin friction is mobilized along the shaft of the tubular pile (and possibly also along the inner wall when the soil plug is not
removed).
End bearing is the resultant of bearing pressure over the gross end area of the pile, i.e. with or without the area of plug if
relevant.
The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generate enough friction and bearing resistance against the maximum design
compression multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety. No bearing resistance can be mobilized against pull-out: the
friction available must be equated to the pull out force multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety.
P-y curves represent the lateral soil resistance versus deflection. The shape of these curves varies with the depth and the
type of soil at the considered elevation. The general shape of the curves for increasing displacement features:
For analysis purposes, the soil is modelled as lumped non-linear springs distributed along the pile. The fourth order
differential equation which expresses the pile deformation is integrated by successive iterations, the secant stiffness of the
soil springs being updated at each step.
For large deformations, the second order contribution of the axial compression to the bending moment (P-Delta effect) shall
be taken into account.
Piles installed by driving are forced into the soil by a ram hitting the top. The impact is transmitted along the pile in the form
of a wave, which reflects on the pile tip. The energy is progressively lost by plastic friction on the sides and bearing at the tip
of the pile.
A considerable number of empirical formulae exist to predict pile driveability. Each formula is generally limited to a particular
type of soil and hammer.
This method of analysing the driving process consists of representing the ensemble of pile/soil/hammer as a one-
dimensional assembly of masses, springs and dashpots:
The plastic displacement of the tip relative to the soil is the set achieved by the blow. Curves can be drawn to represent the
number of blows per unit length required to drive the pile at different penetrations.
The wave equation, though representing the most rigorous assessment to date of the driving process, still suffers a lack of
accuracy, mostly caused by the inaccuracies in the soil model.
Driven piles are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore structures.
As shown in Figure 2, the following alternatives may be chosen when driving proves impractical:
insert piles.
drilled and grouted piles.
belled piles.
3.1 Driven Piles
Piles are usually made up in segments. After placing and driving the first long segment, extension segments called add-ons
are set on piece by piece as driving proceeds until the overall design length is achieved.
In recent years one-piece piles have been widely used in the North Sea since the offshore work is considerably reduced.
in sections from mudline down to a specified depth within which bending stresses are especially high,
at the pile tip (driving shoe) to resist local bearing stresses while driving.
Uniform wall thickness is however preferable thus avoiding construction and installation problems.
Insert piles are smaller diameter piles driven through the main pile from which the soil plug has been previously drilled out.
They are therefore not subjected to skin friction over the length of the main pile and can reach substantial additional
penetration.
The insert pile is welded to the main pile at the top of the jacket and the annular space between the tubes is grouted.
in a preplanned situation: performance is good although material and installation costs are higher than for normal
driven piles.
as an emergency procedure: when scheduled piles cannot be driven to the required penetration, resulting
therefore in one of the following drawbacks.
× a thicker wall section of the main pile will be within the jacket height instead of below the mudline.
× difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting, i.e. the concern is the leakage of grout or the
impossibility to fill with the calculated volume of grout.
This procedure is the only means of installing piles with tension resistance in hard soils or soft rocks; it resembles that for
drilling a conductor well.
An oversized hole is initially drilled to the proposed pile penetration depth. The pile is then lowered down, sometimes
centred in the hole by spacers and the annular space between the pile shaft and the surrounding soil is grouted.
hard soil formation softens when exposed to the water or mud used during drilling and exhibits lower skin friction
resistance.
in case of calcareous sand, external grouting just crushes the sand, slightly extending the effective pile diameter
but not increasing the friction significantly.
The main pile, normally driven, serves here as a casing through which a rig drills a slightly oversized hole ahead. A belling
tool (underreamer) then enlarges the socket to a conical bell with a base diameter a few times that of the main pile. A heavy
reinforcement cage is lowered inside the bell which is subsequently filled with concrete made using fine aggregate
(maximum size 10mm).
4.1 Fabrication
The piles are usually made up of "cans" - cylinders of rolled plate with a longitudinal seam. Single cans are typically 1,5m
long or more. Longitudinal seams of two adjacent segments are rotated 90° apart at least.
Bevelling is mandatory should the wall thickness difference exceed 3mm between adjacent cans. Maximum deviation from
straightness is specified (0.1% in length).
The outside surface of grouted piles should be free of mill scale and varnished.
In certain instances, steel piles are protected underwater by sacrificial anodes or by impressed current. In the splash zone
additional thickness to allow for corrosion (3mm for example) and epoxy or rubberized coating, monel or copper-nickel
sheeting are provided.
4.2 Transportation
Pile segments are choked and fastened to the barge to prevent them from falling overboard under severe seastates. Pile
plate should be thick enough to prevent any deformation caused by stacking.
This method is attractive where long segments of pile are to be lifted and set in guides far below the sea surface (skirt piles
for example).
The ends of the piles are sealed by steel closure plates or rubber diaphragms which should be able to resist wave slamming
during the tow.
The piles are pre-set inside the main legs or in the guides/sleeves, generating additional weight and possibly buoyancy (if
closed). They are held in place by shims which prevent them from escaping from their guides during launch and uprighting
of the jacket.
Several piles are driven immediately after the jacket has touched down, providing initial stability against the action of waves
and current.
4.3 Hammers
either inside the jacket legs, extending the full height of the jacket,
or encased in sleeves protruding at the bottom of the jacket, running vertical or parallel to the legs (typical batter
1/12 to 1/6).
Piles can then be driven using any type of hammer (or a combination of types). Hammers are illustrated in Figure 3.
Steam hammers are widely used for offshore installation of jackets. They are generally single acting with rates of up to 40
blows/minute. Energies of current hammers range from 60 000 to 1 250 000 ft lb/blow. (82KNm to 1725KNm per blow).
During driving, the hammer with attached driving head rides the pile rather than being supported by leads. The hammer line
from the crane boom is slackened so as to prevent transmission of impact and vibration into the boom.
Diesel hammers are much used at offshore terminals. They are lighter to handle and less energy consuming than steam
hammers, but their effective energy is limited.
Hydraulic hammers are dedicated to underwater driving (skirt piles terminating far below the sea surface).
Menck hydraulic hammers are widely used. They utilize a solid steel ram and a flexible steel pile cap to limit impact forces.
They are double acting. Hydraulic fluid under high pressure is used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn, the ram up
and down.
Properties of some hammers used offshore are shown in Table 1. A selection of large offshore pile driving hammers driving
on heavy piles is also shown in Table 2.
Typical values of pile sizes, wall thicknesses, and hammer energies for steam hammers are shown in Table 3.
4.4 Installation
Figure 4 shows the different ways of providing lifting points for positioning pile sections. Padeyes are generally used (welded
in the fabrication yard; their design should take into account the changes in load direction during lifting). Padeyes are then
carefully cut before lowering the next pile section.
Sketch E shows the different steps for the positioning of pile sections:
pile or add-on lifted from the barge deck.
rotation of the crane to position add-on.
installing and lowering of the pile add-on.
either by welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored, segments held temporarily by internal or
external stabbing guides as shown in Figure 4. Welding time depends upon:
- pile wall thickness: 3 hours for 1in. thick (25,4mm); 16 hours for 3in. thick, (76,2mm) (typical).
- number and qualification of the welders.
- environmental conditions.
Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure during installation and in-place conditions.
4.4.4 Driving
Some penetration under the self weight of the pile is normal. For soft soil conditions, particular measures are taken to avoid
an uncontrolled run.
Pile refusal is defined as the minimum rate of penetration beyond which further advancement of the pile is no longer
achievable because of the time required and the possible damage to the pile or to the hammer. A widely accepted rate for
defining refusal is 300 blows/foot (980 blows/metre).
The shims are inserted at the top of the pile within the annulus between the pile and jacket leg (see Figure 6) and welded
afterwards.
4.5.3 Grouting
This hybrid connection is the most commonly used for connecting piles to the main structure (in the mudline area). Forces
are transmitted by shear through the grout.
Figure 8 shows the two types of packers commonly used. The expansive, non-shrinking grout must fill completely the
annulus between the pile and leg (or sleeve).
Bonding should be excellent; it is improved by shear connectors (shear keys, strips or weld beads disposed on the surface
of the sleeve and pile in contact with the grout).
The width of the annulus between pile and sleeve should be maintained constant by use of centralizers and be limited to:
Packers are used to confine the grout and prevent it from escaping at the base of the sleeve. Packers are often damaged
during piling and are therefore:
Thorough filling should be checked by suitable devices, e.g. electrical resistance gauges, radioactive tracers, well-logging
devices or overflow pipes checked by divers.
Contingency documents should provide back-up solutions in case "unforeseen" events occur such as:
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms", American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. McClelland, B. and Reifel, M. D., Planning and design of fixed offshore platforms, Von Mostrand Reinhold
Company (1982).
2. Bowles, J. E., Foundation analysis and design, MacGraw Hill Book Company (4th edition 1988).
3. Bowles, J. E., Analytical and computer methods in Foundation Engineering, MacGraw Hill Book Company (1983).
4. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H., Pile foundation analysis and design, John Wiley and Sons (1980).
5. Graff, W. J., Introduction to offshore structures, Gulf Publishing Company (1981).
6. Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance des sols en mer pour l'implantation des ouvrages Pétroliens, Technip (1976)
7. Pieux dans les formatines carbonates - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
8. Capacité patante des pieux - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
9. Dawson, T. H., Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc (1983).
10. Gerwick, Ben C., Construction of Offshore Structures, John Wiley and Sons (1986).
A. Air/Steam Hammers
Make Model Rated Ram Max. Std. Typical Rated Steam Air Hose Rated
Pilecap Operating
Energy Weight Stroke Hammer Consumption Consumption ST/F BPM
Weight Weight Pressure
(ft-lbs) (kips) (m) (lbs ht) (lbs ht) .....
(kips) (w/leads) (psi)
(kips)
Menck 12500 1.582.220 275,58 69 154,32 853 171 53.910 26.500 2@6 36
OS-
20
C. Hydraulic Hammers
Note 1: With the heavier hammers in the range given, the wall thicknesses must be near the upper range of those listed in
order to prevent overstress (yielding) in the pile under hard driving.
Note 2: With diesel hammers, the effective hammer energy is from one-half to two-thirds the values generally listed by the
manufacturers and the above table must be adjusted accordingly. Diesel hammers would normally only be used on 36-in. or
less diameter piles.
Note 3: Hydraulic hammers have a more sustained blow, and hence the above table can be modified to fit the stress wave
pattern.
TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes, wall thickness and hammer energies
A.7: Tubular Joints in Offshore
Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on offshore structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It presents the classifications for T, Y, X, N, K
and KT joints and discusses the significance of gaps, overlaps, multiplanar joints and the details of joint arrangements. It
describes design methods for static and fatigue strength, presenting some detailed information on stress concentration
factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of a topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module support frame and modules. Commonly
tubular lattice frames are present, however a significant amount of rolled and built up sections are also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively offshore, particularly for jacket structures.
Connection of I-shape sections or boxed beams whether rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore
structures. Refer to the corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a tubular joint. These are:
The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple assessment of fatigue behaviour shows
this will not be a problem. The joint designer must therefore always be "fatigue minded".
2. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for clarification):
The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily a through member. The other tubulars
are welded to it, without piercing through the chord at the intersection.
Other tubulars belonging to the joint assembly may be as large as the chord, but they can never be larger.
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They physically terminate on the chord skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane containing the brace and
chord.
SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses the plane perpendicular to the plane
containing the brace and chord, which also contains the brace axis.
Refer to Figure 1
t is the brace wall thickness (where there are several braces, a subscript identifies the brace)
e is the eccentricity × Positive when opposite to the brace side, Negative when on the brace side
3. CLASSIFICATION
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The following classification is used, see Figure 2.
3.1 T and Y Joints
These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or inclined to it (Y joints).
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same diameter and thickness. In fact, other
considerations such as brace length, which can be very different on each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different
braces. Angles may be slightly different as well.
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force in one brace is far higher than the one in
the other brace, the joint may be classified as a Y (or a T) joint rather than an X joint.
These joints include two braces. One of them may be perpendicular to the chord (N joint) or both inclined (K joint).
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in the braces, i.e. net force into chord
member is low.
3.4 KT Joints
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be balanced within the braces, i.e. net force
into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios given in Section 2.2 have limitations. Table
3.1 shows these limits and their typical ranges.
min max
12 - 20 10 30
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as well as the geometry. Engineering
judgement must therefore be used to classify a joint. For example a geometrical K joint may be classified as.
4.1 Definitions
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces (Figure 3).
The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two braces, measured on the line where they
cross the chord outer surface. The real gap is the one measured at the corresponding location, between actual weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
4.2 Limitations
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds clashing. This is important because the gap is a
highly stressed zone.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress concentration.
1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a quarter of the chord diameter, whichever is
the greater, from the nearest point of a brace-chord connection.
2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace diameter, whichever is the greatest,
from the nearest point of the brace-chord connection.
3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers use a 70 or 75mm theoretical gap.
4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter. When higher values can not be
avoided, secondary moments have to be introduced in the structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
5. Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker wall.
6. STATIC STRENGTH
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-plane bending moment and the out-of-plane
bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually neglected since unlike the preceding loads,
these loads do not induce bending in the chord wall. Nevertheless, their presence must never be forgotten and in some
specific cases, their effects must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-plane bending moments are normally the
dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace load.
vp = t f sin q
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the brace (punching shear for each kept
separate), see Figure 5.
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They are performed for a single load-case
(axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane bending).
The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in terms of punching shear, as defined
above.
Statistical treatment of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable punching shear stress.
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2]. The following method is presented in
API RP2A [2]:
A. Principle
This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened joint. When the joint includes several
braces, each brace connection is checked independently.
Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and out of plane bending) is calculated
and compared to the allowable punching shear stress for the appropriate load and geometry.
Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three punching shear ratio calculated for each
component.
B. Allowable punching shear stress
The allowable punching shear stress for each load component is:
Vpa = Qq Qf
Qq is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Qf = 1 - l g
fAX, fIPB, fOPB are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending stresses in the chord
Acting punching shear Vpx = t fax sin q Vp = t fby sin q Vp = t fbz sin q
Qq K joints
T & Y Joints
w diaphragm
Table 6.1 Values of Qq for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
C. Loading Combination
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following equations shall be satisfied:
and
ax
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for non-overlapping joints with no internal
reinforcement. These formulae cannot be used for overlapping joints.
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the other through the overlapping section,
without that part of the load transferring through the chord. The static strength of an overlapping joint is higher than a similar
joint without an overlap.
API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to be added to the punching shear capacity of
the brace-chord connection, see Figure 7.
The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P^ (in Newtons) should be taken to be:
where:
vpa is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l1 is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
vwa is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
tw is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace (mm).
l2 is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured perpendicular to the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual reinforcement consists of ring stiffening
inside the chord.
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large diameter chords which would otherwise require
an un-economic chord wall thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord. Therefore there are no parametric formulae
available for these designs. Specific analyses must therefore be carried out for an accurate solution. This may involve finite
element analysis.
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when calculating the forces acting on the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various publications, the best known being
published by Roark [3].
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform along the connecting surface of a brace and
chord. Figure 8 shows an example of the stress distribution in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinity of the
brace chord intersection.
7.1 Stress concentration factor
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the connection (or hot spot stress f HS) to
the nominal brace stress fNOM:
SCF = fHS/fNOM
This approximate formula can be used for rapidly assessing SCF, for preliminary analyses.
fHS/vp = 1,8 √g
SCF parametric formulae have been determined based on a large number of finite element analyses and cross-checked
with either full scale or model tests. They are based on many man years of work by numerous research teams.
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to 7.3.3 give, as an example, the most
commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and ascertaining any limitations that apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at reduced scale) or finite element analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones published to date concern non-stiffened,
non overlapping joints.
Axial load
Out-of-plane bending
SCFCHORD = 1,024 g1,014 t0,889 b0,787 sin1,557 q 0,3 £ b £ 0,55
In-plane bending
Validity range
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint parameters within the following limits:
8,333 £ g £ 33,3
0,20 £ t £ 0,8
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress analyses.
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A simple form of a wave histogram is as follows:
4,5-6 5 000
6-8 800
8-10 20
1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will be calculated. Different wave directions
need to be considered with a minimum of three "blocks" per wave direction.
2. For each block one representative wave is chosen, whose action is supposed to represent the action of the whole
block. The highest wave of the block is normally chosen.
3. Nominal stresses for each joint component are then calculated for different phase angles of the chosen wave, for
one complete cycle (360°). The nominal stress range for the joint component is defined as the difference between
the highest and the lowest stress obtained for a full wave cycle. Four to twelve phase angles per wave are usually
considered.
Hot spot stress ranges are then evaluated for each chosen joint location by applying parametric formulae [4] (or by applying
the SCF calculated from a detailed analysis).
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and out of plane bending) have to be distinct
throughout the calculations, as the SCF formulae apply individually for each load component.
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen around the intersection line. For each of these
locations the stress response for each sea state should be computed, giving adequate consideration to both global and local
stress effects.
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations [1,2]. APIRP2A uses the curves shown in
Figure 9.
The X and X1 curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable stress concentration factors. The
permissible number of cycles is obtained from the S-N curve by taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the adjoining base metal. For weld without such
profile control, the X¢ curve is applicable.
D=
where
N is the number of cycles to cause failure for the given stress range (obtained from appropriate S-N curve).
In general the design fatigue life of each joint and member should be at least twice the intended service life of the structure,
i.e. a safety factor of 2,0.
For critical elements whose sole failure would be catastrophic, use of a larger safety factor should be considered.
9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised for tubular joints.
The presence of gaps and overlaps significantly influence joint behaviour.
Determination of static strength is generally based on the concept of punching shear, with the allowance of
overlapping joints.
Special analysis are required for reinforced joints.
Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring joints.
Determination of fatigue strength is based on nominal stress range multiplied by appropriate SCF.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification. Fourth Edition, HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth
Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5, Lloyds Register of Shipping-Offshore
Division.
A.8: Fabrication
OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket fabrication. To discuss the various stages of operation from material selection,
through erection, including construction practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The construction philosophy and definition of the construction phases of the fabrication of offshore structures are described.
The overall execution plan and the contractor's organisation for its implementation are introduced and constructability i.e. the
more general aspects of design - the size and transportability of components, welding access considerations, construction
tolerance, is discussed.
The fabrication of nodes and reinforced tubulars, including the fabrication procedure for a typical node is described together
with jacket assembly and erection and the procedures for "big lift".
1. INTRODUCTION
Procurement
The technical and commercial activities required to supply material and specialised products to enable the execution of
construction activities.
Fabrication
The processes normally carried out in a fabrication shop to produce relatively small units. Thus fabrication includes
processes such as cutting, rolling, pressing, fitting, welding, stress relieving on such items as welded tubulars, beams,
nodes, girders, cones, supports, clamps, etc.
Assembly
The processes normally performed outside the fabrication shop but at ground level in order to assemble groups of shop
fabricated items into an (assembled) unit for subsequent erection in accordance with a construction sequence.
Erection
The processes required to install assembled and shop fabricated items together in their final configuration. These processes
include fitting and welding. However the emphasis is on the transportation and lifting of heavy assemblies.
The design of a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launched or self-floating jacket, is determined primarily by the offshore installation
equipment available and the intended water depth. In general the preference is to lift the jacket in place. The size of such
jackets has being increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to 14,000 tonnes,
jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates for lifting into position.
For jackets destined for shallow water, where the height is of the same order as the plan dimensions, erection is usually
carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted or skidded onto the barge.
Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side. Such jackets are loaded by skidding out onto a barge.
Historically most large jackets have been barge launched. This method of construction usually involves additional flotation
tanks and extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs to be flooded for ballasting the jacket into the vertical position
on site. This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25,000 tonnes. Very large jackets, in excess of
this, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock and towed offshore subsequent to flooding the dock.
In considering the construction philosophy and contract strategy, the objectives of achieving quality requirements and
efficiency are of fundamental importance. An offshore jacket goes through a series of very distinct stages as it moves from
fabrication to load-out. These stages range from operations which are almost totally automatic under very controlled
conditions, e.g. steel production, automatic welding, to operations which are almost totally manual in very variable conditions,
e.g. yard erection, offshore activities. Thus decreasing efficiency occurs as progress through these operations advances. In
addition, the stable conditions in repetitive processes of the early operations are more conducive to the maintenance of high
quality. A third basic consideration is that risk increases with each progressive stage. These general trends during
construction are shown in Table 1.
It is clear therefore that, as a general principle, as much work as possible should be undertaken in the earlier more
productive, higher quality, less risky phases of the project.
Some of the principles which reduce the time and cost of construction are:
Subdivision into as large components and modules as it is possible to fabricate and assemble.
Concurrent fabrication of major components in the most favourable location and under the most favourable
conditions applicable to each component.
Planning the flow of components to their assembly site. Providing adequate facilities and equipment for assembly,
including such items as synchrolifts, and heavy-lift cranes.
Simplification of configurations and standardisation of details, grades and sizes. Avoidance of excessively tight
tolerances.
Selection of structural systems that utilise skills and trades on a relatively continuous and uniform basis.
Avoidance of procedures that are overly sensitive to weather conditions; ensuring that processes which are
weather sensitive are completed during shop fabrication, e.g. protective coating.
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all aspects of offshore fabrication. Essentially it involves ensuring
that what is produced is what is needed. The requirements for documentation, hold point, audits, reviews and corrective
actions are part of the quality assurance process. They are crucial tools for controlling the project execution and providing
verifiable evidence of the fabricator's competence.
Quality control, inspection and testing should be performed during all phases of construction to ensure that specified
requirements are being met. The most effective quality scheme is one which prevents the introduction of defective materials
and workmanship into a structure, rather than finding problems after they occur.
A general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is included in Appendix 1. It is applicable to this lecture and
also to Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
Engineering of execution, 'construction engineering', entails the work required during each phase of execution to ensure that
the design requirements are fulfilled. A general method of execution is envisaged at the jacket design stage. Since the
shape of the jacket, its form and properties require quite specific methods of load-out, offshore transportation and installation
(which are construction activities executed under contractor responsibility), there is considerable interfacing of engineering
requirements in these phases. In the earlier phases, i.e. procurement through assembly and erection, the contractor, while
being limited by design specification requirements, has freedom of choice with regard to the exact method of execution
adopted. However, in all phases the contractor is required to demonstrate that the methods which he adopts are compatible
with the specification requirements and do not affect the integrity of the structure.
Each phase of execution has its own specific engineering requirements which are determined by the processes executed
during that phase. These processes range from those which are largely repetitive early in execution to one-off activities in
the latter phases. Accordingly the engineering which supports procurement and shop fabrication is voluminous but repetitive,
e.g. material take-offs, shop drawings, cutting plans, etc. The assembly and erection phases are supported by a mix of
repetitive engineering, e.g. scaffolding, and specific studies for limited series of activities.
The volume of contractor construction engineering on a large jacket is typically 130,000/150,000 hours. The typical
organisation of a contractor's technical documents is shown in Table 2.
When designing larger components consideration must be given to their subdivision into elements which will not distort
when fabricated and which can be relatively easily assembled without welding/dimensional problems. For instance, nodes
are categorised as either complex or simple from the execution viewpoint based on the number of separate fitting-welding-
NDT (non-destructive testing) cycles required during fabrication and the possibility of automatic welding between the node
can and the tubular during sub-assembly. The number of fitting-welding-NDT cycles depends on the existence of ring
stiffeners and the number and disposition of stubs. For reasons relating to weld distortion and to allow automatic welding, it
is almost essential that ring stiffeners be installed prior to fitting/welding of stubs. This adds an extra cycle to the fabrication
of the node. Thus ring stiffeners are best avoided. Where this is not possible, care should be taken to define them at an
early stage on critical nodes.
Node stubs can be classified as simple or overlapping. Overlapping stubs add at least one complete cycle to node
fabrication and should therefore be avoided where possible. The minimum separation between the weld toes of adjacent
simple stubs is typically specified as 50mm, see API RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 [1]. However this distance is too small to allow
simultaneous welding of adjacent stubs - 150mm is a more practical distance.
3. FABRICATION
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer. They are usually based on one or more
of the well known codes, with additional requirements dictated by the specific design, client standards, statutory rules, etc.
Two recognised codes which are used extensively for establishing general requirements are the API RP2A Recommended
Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, [1] and AISC Specification for the Design,
Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings [2].
For larger jackets, the nodes tend to be fabricated separately under highly controlled shop conditions. Alternatively cast
steel nodes may be used in order to eliminate critical welding details.
Recent experience, both in the laboratory and as a result of in-service inspection, has prompted increasingly greater
attention to the welding aspects of fabrication. In particular greater attention has been focused on the importance of
complete joint penetration groove welds, elimination of "notch effects" at the root and especially the cap of node welds, and
achieving the required weld profile. Welds which are critical for fatigue endurance may be required to be ground to a smooth
curve. This process reduces the probability of brittle failure. However it also implies increasingly sophisticated and stringent
fabrication and quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding details from API RP2A [1], showing
tubular members framing into or overlapping another member with access from one side only, are shown in Figure 1.
However, a lot of emphasis is placed on designing stubs which can be welded from both sides. For instance, in the weld
details for the Bouri jacket, Figure 2, most stubs are accessible from both sides.
Welding procedures are required, detailing steel grades, joint design, welding consumables, etc. Welds are typically subject
to 100% visual, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) and ultrasonic test (UT) inspection. The weld acceptance criteria, e.g.
maximum weld undercut length (t/2 or 10mm), and maximum depth (t/20 or 0,25mm), imply an exceptionally high quality of
welding. In addition all welders should be qualified for the type of work assigned to them and certified accordingly.
The location and orientation of circumferential and longitudinal welds during construction is based on minimising
interferences and ensuring the minimum distance between circumferential welds. Special attention is required on items such
as pile sleeve shear plates, launch runners, mudmats, etc. where planned avoidance of weld interference is critical.
All temporary plates and fittings should be subjected to the same requirements for weld testing as the member to which they
are being affixed. There is also an overriding necessity to ensure that such attachments are located at a safe distance from
main structural welds in order to minimise the risk of defect propagation. This is not unduly conservative - the "Alexander
Kielland" capsized due to a fatigue crack initiated at the attachment of a sonar device to a principal structural member.
Temporary cut-outs should be of sufficient size to allow sound replacement. Corners should be rounded to minimise stress
concentrations.
Where welds are found to be defective, they should be rectified by grinding, machining or welding as required. Welds of
insufficient strength, ductility or notch toughness should be completely removed prior to repair.
In general, sub-assemblies are executed so that at least one of the two edges which will mate during subsequent
assembly/erection has a cut-off allowance. This procedure provides flexibility in that the sub-assemblies can be sent to the
field with the cut-off allowance in place and cut to fit on location. Alternatively they can be cut to exact dimensions during
sub-assembly where the as-built dimension has already been determined.
The primary structure nodes are frequently geometrically complex. Accordingly their fabrication presents particular problems,
especially from the points of view of welding and dimensional control.
On a complex jacket the designer may specify the node cans, or the whole node including stubs and ring stiffeners, in
material with specified through-thickness properties. This requirement is introduced because of tearing or punching effects
likely to be sustained by these elements during their design life and indeed during fabrication. The designer may also
"thicken" or reinforce the cans to withstand local stresses. Finally, in an effort to ensure that node welds contain minimal
levels of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress relieving or post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) of the heavier more
restrained welds may be prescribed. This is frequently a requirement for thicker walled North Sea jackets.
API RP2A [1] provides specific tolerances for final fabrication. The contractor must work within tolerances which preserve
dimensional compatibility and observe weight control requirements at each phase of construction. Bearing these
requirements in mind, node fabrication tolerances are tight, e.g. typical working points within 6mm of theoretical, stub angle
within 1 minute, all braces within 12mm of the design dimension.
The typical fabrication process for a conventional node, assuming that the can (with or without ring stiffeners) has already
been fabricated, commences with profiling of stubs and terminates with UT inspection of the finished node after PWHT.
The intermediate stages can be performed in several different ways, some of which depend on the specific geometry of the
node and many of which depend on fabricator preference. Some fabricators prefer to orient the can upright, maintaining that
it enables more stubs to be fitted simultaneously. However the majority of fabricators tend to fit the stubs to a can placed on
horizontal rollers. The sequential steps in the fabrication of a typical node are as follows:
Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can. Cut and profile the stubs. Touch up bevels and trace
generators onto the stubs. Trace node locations onto the can surface and grind or blast areas. UT the cleaned
areas to ensure that the steel is free from laminations. Particular care is required where shrinkage strains in the
through-thickness direction may lead to lamellar tearing in highly restrained joints.
Assemble one or two adjacent stubs in the same plane on the can. Tack-weld in position. Verify dimensional
control and weld preparations around stub.
Weld according to predetermined sequence to limit deformation. The welding processes used are usually shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) or flux cored arc welding (FCAW), see Lecture 3.4 Welding Processes. If the weld is
double-sided, after 3 or 4 passes, back-grind and clean weld roots from opposite side. Perform MPI test on ground
roots. Complete weld body. Deposit weld bead for cap profiling. Toe-grind profiles if required. Grind weld beads at
base metal to remove undercut. Allow welds to cool. Visually inspect finished welds. MPI and UT finished welds.
Repeat previous steps for successive stubs.
When all stubs have been fitted and welded out perform post weld heat treatment (PWHT) as required, blast or
grind welds and perform NDT re-test on all welds.
Cut any required off-cuts on cans or stubs. Perform final dimensional control of node.
Sub-assembly can be considered as an intermediate stage between standard shop fabrication, i.e. nodes, tubulars, beams
etc. and assembly or erection. The emphasis is on performing the maximum number of welds in the shop. This ensures the
highest weld quality since many node and tubular welds can be double-sided and/or automatic when performed in the
fabrication shop.
When defining sub-assemblies, the principal factors to be borne in mind are the following:
Of all the areas of quality control (QC) which require attention, that of dimensional control, as emphasised in the code and
specifications, tends to be exaggerated. However, it is clear that attention must be paid to the dimensions which have
structural significance, e.g. the straightness of elements, ovality of tubulars, eccentricities at node joints, etc. It is also clear
that on a jacket the global alignment/verticality of items such as pile sleeves, conductor guides, launch runners, etc. are also
important. Finally dimensional control of items which are intended for "mating" or "removal" offshore, for example piles/pile
sleeves, jacket top/MSF base, buoyancy tank/supports, etc. is vital to the efficiency of offshore installation. There are
therefore, many aspects where the attention to dimensional control is justified even if the overall design might occasionally
benefit if the designer did not always require that everything fitted so tightly.
The principal reason for requiring such accurate dimensional control of nodes and tubulars during fabrication is not because
of the structural consequences of out-of-tolerance but rather because the parts may not fit together in the yard. It is one of
the most vexing incongruities of the tubular steel jacket concept that the theoretical tolerances on node stub eccentricity are
generous from the structural viewpoint while the actual tolerances are very tight because of considerations regarding the
fitting together of components during subsequent phases of construction.
The dimensional control of node fabrication, in particular, involves potentially intricate calculations in the shop. However, the
most successful systems simply involve the inclusion on the shop drawings of several additional "checking" measurements
and the correct marking of the node can and stub generators and offsets.
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and loose items are incorporated into assemblies which constitute the major lifts of the
erection sequence. Thus for a large jacket, the assemblies are typically of four types:
The assembly and erection phases are based on the following objectives:
Maximise on-the-ground assembly (as opposed to erection) and maximise access around the jacket during
execution.
Minimise erection joints in principal structural elements, such as jacket legs, launch runners, rows, levels. Align
critical areas such as conductor guides, pile sleeves, launch runners.
Sub-assemble principal structural elements of jacket such as jacket legs, rows, levels. Sub-assemble, and where
possible pre-test, systems such as grouting, ballasting. Include maximum quantity of secondary items such as
anodes, risers, J-tubes, caissons. Coat or paint required areas (top of jacket, risers) prior to erection.
Minimise the use of temporary items which require subsequent removal, such as scaffolding, walkways, lifting aids,
etc. and pre-install such aids where they are necessary.
The assembly of a jacket frame, often having a spread at the base of 50m or more, places severe demands on field layout
and survey and on temporary support and adjustment bracing. Such large dimensions mean that the thermal changes can
be significant. Temperature differences may be as great as 30°C between dawn and afternoon and as much as 15°C
between various parts of the structure, resulting in several centimetres distortion. However, the practice of 'using the sun' to
fit elements which are not dimensionally in-tolerance is common in the field. This procedure in itself tends to induce residual
stresses in the structure. Because of the difficulty associated with thermal distortion, it is normal to "correct" all
measurements to a standard temperature, e.g. 20° C.
Elastic deflections are also a source of difficulty in maintaining tolerances in the location of nodes. Foundation
displacements under the skid beams and temporary erection skids must be carefully calculated and monitored.
The overall assembly sequence and programme requires that each assembly be completed prior to lifting. It is normal to
determine the exact location, orientation and attitude, i.e. face-up or face-down, of each assembly in the field in anticipation
of its lifting procedure.
Assembly layout drawings are usually prepared showing central co-ordinates for each assembly. The central co-ordinates
are then used as local bench marks with the object of defining the assembly, the sub-assemblies, loose items,
appurtenances and temporary attachments which comprise, field welds, overall dimensions, weight, reference drawings, etc.
Dimensional control of the assembly both prior to and after welding, can be by means of a series of self-checking
measurements on the structure itself. Provided cross checks are adequate, the time consuming exercise of referring
measurements to an external bench mark can be avoided.
Normally the assembly is tacked in position to theoretical dimensions using allowable positive tolerances to compensate for
weld shrinkage. Perhaps the most fundamental rule in fitting is the avoidance of "force-fitting" of members prior to welding or
to force stresses into unwelded members through the welding sequence since such conditions cannot have been foreseen
by the designer.
In this phase assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are incorporated into the final
structure according to the sequence outlined in Figure 3a - 3e.
Jacket frames are typically laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler cranes. Co-ordinating such a rigging and lifting
operation requires thoroughly developed three-dimensional layouts, firm and level foundations for the cranes and
experienced, well rehearsed operators.
Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the erection of platform Cerveza, which was 300m
long.
For the Magnus platform and Bouri DP3, a different procedure known as "toast rack" was used. Here the jacket horizontal
levels were fabricated, erected in place and tied in to complete the jacket.
For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest, sections of the jacket were fabricated in Japan, transported by barge to
Texas and assembled using jacking towers which rolled up the sections to heights as great as 140m.
For jackets destined for shallow water erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude as the final
installation. Such jackets may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads and
braces must be provided under the columns to distribute the loads for skidding.
The structural analysis associated with the erection procedure for a given assembly usually involves a computer model with
all relevant structural characteristics. The assembly is analysed for a number of load cases which correspond (approximately)
to the support conditions of the assembly at its presumed critical attitudes, i.e. the locations of the cranes, bogies, saddles,
etc. when the panel is being transported and when it is in horizontal and vertical attitudes. The structural analysis for
lift/transport identifies the worst cases from the point of view of structural response. These cases are then analysed to
determine the maximum stresses and displacements. The calculations should show that global and local stresses are within
allowable limits according to API/AISC codes.
Frequently, a structural analysis computer programme is used for this purpose. The analysis will indicate where bending
stresses are high and/or crane, bogie or support loads inadmissible. Thus modifications can be made to redistribute
structural stresses and loads at "supports" to optimise both and ensure that neither the cranes nor the structure can be
overloaded during erection.
An outline sequence for the erection of all major components would be:
Technical appraisal of lift methods. Calculations for crane configuration, rigging accessories, etc.
Preparation of cranes for lift. Preparation for rigging. Transport assembly to lift location. Roll-up into position with
scaffolding and staging in position, if possible.
Preparation of fixing system and wind bracing (usually done by means of guy wires and turnbuckles). Weldout at
least sufficient to allow crane release.
Crane release. Removal of rigging and temporary attachments.
Jacket structural completion is followed by a short phase during which all the jacket systems, both permanent and those
required during installation, are completed and rendered functional. The load-out operations are covered in Lecture 15A.9:
Installation.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The design of a jacket is determined primarily by the offshore installation equipment available and the intended
water depth.
In general, the preference is to lift the jacket in place. Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on
their side.
As a general principle, as much of the execution as possible should be undertaken in the early phases of
fabrication.
Each phase of execution has its own engineering requirements which are determined by the processes executed
during that phase.
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the designer and are usually based on one
or more of the well known codes.
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and hose items are incorporated into assemblies which constitute the major lifts
of the erection sequence.
Assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose items, are incorporated into the final
structure in a sequence which takes account of structural analyses of bending stresses, and crane, bogie and
support loads.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations, latest
edition.
Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the development of offshore oil resources.
[2] AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, latest edition.
API code refers to this specification for calculations of basic allowable stresses of all jacket members.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
[1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting (June 1985).
All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by the API code to be undertaken in accordance with this
code.
[3] Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977.
[4] Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations, 1989.
APPENDIX 1
It is becoming increasingly common for operators to specify that the quality of construction for offshore structures be
controlled by a recognised quality system management standard.
ISO 9000/EN 29000, Standard for Quality Systems Management, is recognised as the accepted standard in such situations.
These standards set down the requirements that a soundly based quality management system must fulfil if it is to assist in
properly defining and controlling product quality. Because the standards deal with the quality system, and are not product
standards, they are applicable to many sectors of industry including offshore construction. They apply in any situation where
management wish to adopt a clearly defined policy and an orderly approach to providing a quality product.
QA Management Complexity
The overall programme for a jacket construction, shows that there are a very considerable number of offshore activities in
many different locations within a very short period of time. The evaluation of the performance of such a range of activities
and at a number of centres is a major QA/QC undertaking.
It is difficult to fully appreciate the scope of documentation on a jacket construction project. Consider the documentation
which is expected to flow from one location to another in respect to a single node. From the time the plate is manufactured
until it is located in the final structure, a dossier must be compiled. This documentation could commence with copies of
certificates from the steel plate manufacturer and progress through several welding, NDT, dimensional control phases at a
number of successive locations, culminating in the issue of a Release Note at the node fabrication shop.
Clearly this is necessary on some items, e.g. steel, welds, NDT Certificates for the jacket primary structure, risers, etc.
These documents may be useful during maintenance of the platform enabling many in-service problems to be traced to
abnormalities which occurred during construction. Construction of a large jacket typically involves thousands of steel plates.
Each plate inevitably becomes an individual as it is allocated a unique number corresponding to a Material Utilisation
Schedule or Cutting Plan. The individual number of pieces of plate could be in excess of 20,000 items. The primary object of
material control is to ensure that, at any stage of construction, the origin of each and every item can be traced back to a
material certificate which in turn corresponds to a set of test/chemical composition etc. as contained in the Data Dossier.
However, voluminous as this documentation may be, it constitutes less than half of the total documentation produced for a
complete jacket. Consider for instance the number of welds in a complex buoyancy tank, the walkways on top of the jacket,
the anodes, launch runners, grout lines, etc. Each of these must be welded, several must be individually inspected. However
the requirement to produce sophisticated documentation in respect of each is questionable. For this reason it is important
that agreement is reached at an early stage as to the individual items which require identification, that these be kept to a
minimum and that the identification system be simple. In actual practice it has proven to be very difficult to make all
materials really traceable. Much more could be done to structure such documentation in such a way that it would really be of
help throughout the platform life.
Within the Contractor's organisation QA/QC procedures must be developed for the project, many of which will be specifically
for jacket construction. These are divided into Management Procedures (e.g. Management of Non Conformities,
Management of Jacket Completion Onshore, etc.) and Control Procedures (e.g. Procedure for Ultrasonic Testing of welds at
Jacket Yard, Dimensional Control Procedure for Node Fabrication at factory etc.). Construction Procedures/Specifications
are also required (e.g. Jacket Assembly and Erection Procedure, Pile Installation Procedure, etc.) in addition to a vast
number of weld procedure specifications and qualifications, welder qualifications and inspection plans.
Even if the number of specific procedures required from each subcontractor is minimised, a fabrication subcontractor will still
be required to develop procedure and specifications for the following typical functions/activities: subcontract organisation,
material control, fabrication method/sequence, procedures for cutting, forming, pre-heating, post-weld heat treatment along
with the more obvious welding and NDT procedures and Inspection Plans. Typically hundreds of procedures/specifications
must be developed by jacket subcontractors.
Certification
On most offshore projects, the underwriters normally agree to insure the plant during its operating life provided it is designed,
constructed and maintained to predetermined standards and certified as such. This certification is also almost invariably
required by the state authorities in whose waters the plant is installed. It is normally performed by one of the traditional ship
classification societies known as the Certifying Authority (CA). In the widest sense, certification requires that the CA carry
out independent surveillance to ensure that the standards chosen for the project are satisfactory and that the project is
performed in accordance with them. Formerly this meant that the CA inspected every activity likely to influence the
adequacy of the final product - an enormous task. More recently with the advent of QA, the certification function can mean
audits of the construction so that, rather than inspect everything, the CA satisfies himself that the manner in which the
construction is being managed and performed (based on incomplete but comprehensive inspection) is likely to lead to a
satisfactory product.
1 Shop Drawings, Cutting Plan Welding standards, nodes, tubulars, piles, pile sleeves, clusters,
conductor guide frames, launch runners, buoyancy tanks, cathodic
protection system, protective coating systems, risers, j-tubes,
caissons, boat landings, boat bumpers, walkways, grouting systems,
ballasting system, installation aids, as-built drawings.
2 Method and Temporary Works Subassemblies, assemblies, supports, access, scaffolding, lifting and
Drawings transportation onshore, test and commission, identification.
3 Quality Assurance Procedures Documentation identification, distribution and approval, witness and
hold points, technical modifications and non-conformance
management, material control, material identification and traceability,
procurement and subcontracting, weld parameter control,
management of specific problem areas.
4 Quality Control Procedures NDT methods (visual, UT, x-ray, dye penetrant, MPI), dimensional
control, destructive testing methods, NDT operator training and
qualification, calibration of inspection equipment, pressure testing,
miscellaneous testing.
- repair procedures.
7 Design Reports, Reviews and Quay design, skidway design, mooring system design, soil
Specifications improvement spec., skidding system spec., dredging spec.,
transportation of jacket and piles, buoyancy tanks, jacket launching
and emplacement, on-bottom stability, pile driveability, jacket levelling
study.
To describe the general methods of jacket installation. To discuss the various stages of operation from loadout through
offshore positioning and installation, including construction practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally
involved.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
SUMMARY
The phases of installation of a steel jacket - loadout, seafastening, offshore transportation and installation - are described
and the associated analyses are indicated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Loadout - Comprises the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore.
Seafastening - Comprises fitting and welding sufficient structure between the structure and the barge to prevent the jacket
shifting during transit to the offshore site.
Offshore Transportation - Comprises the tow to the location offshore and arrival of the barge at the offshore site with the
seafastened structure.
Installation - Comprises the series of activities required to place the structure in the final offshore location. These activities
include jacket lift and upending, positioning, pile installation, jacket levelling and grouting, together with support services for
these activities.
In deciding how best to fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted, launched or self-floating) a given jacket, the
options are principally determined by the installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth. In general,
the preference is to lift the jacket into location. The motivation for this installation method, rather than the more traditional
barge-launching, is a reluctance to spend money on jacket steelwork which will only be used during the temporary
installation phase. The size of such lifted jackets has been increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern
lifting capacity now up to 14000 tonnes (see Table 1), jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now candidates for
lifting into position.
Figure 1 shows how the 6000 tonne jacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Sea was lifted from the barge into the water
and up-ended in a continuous operation, ending with the jacket on the seabed ready for piling. The advantage of this
approach is that the jacket, being lowered into the water, does not require the launch frames necessary for launching from a
barge. Also, since the weight of the jacket is taken by the cranes throughout, there is no need for special buoyancy tanks
and deballasting systems.
Jackets destined for deeper water are heavier and are usually erected on their side and launched from a barge (Figure 2).
This method of construction is currently applicable for jackets up to 25000 tonnes. A launched jacket usually requires
additional buoyancy tanks with extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs and tanks to be flooded in order to ballast
the jacket into the vertical position on site. For instance, in the case of the Brae 'B' jacket (a large 19000 tonne jacket
installed in 100m water depth in the North Sea) it was necessary to provide 11000 tonnes of additional buoyancy. This
buoyancy was primarily to limit the jacket trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the sea bed) but was also essential
for maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending. The additional buoyancy took the form of two 'saddle' tanks, two pairs of
twin 'piggy-bank tanks' and twelve 'cigar' tubes installed down the pile guides (Figure 3). Altogether the auxiliary buoyancy
added about 3,300 tonnes additional weight to the jacket.
Very large jackets, in excess of launch capacity, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock, towed offshore
subsequent to flooding the dock, and installed on location by means of controlled flooding of the legs (see Figure 4).
1.3 Installation Planning
The installation of a jacket consists of loading out, seafastening and transporting the structure to the installation site,
positioning the jacket on the site and achieving a stable structure in accordance with the design drawings and specifications,
in anticipation of installation of the platform topsides.
An important aspect is the avoidance of unacceptable risk during offshore activities from loadout through to platform
completion. It is recognised that the potential cost to the project associated with failure to successfully execute marine
activities is particularly high. Normally therefore the contractor is obliged to produce procedures for these activities which
demonstrate that the risk of failure has been reduced to acceptable levels. He is also required to demonstrate that, prior to
the commencement of an activity, all the necessary preparations have been completed.
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. The plan will include the method and procedures developed for
the loadout, seafastening and transportation and for the complete installation of the jacket, piles, superstructure and
equipment. Depending on the complexity of the installation, detailed procedures and instructions may be needed for special
items such as grouting, diving, welding inspections, etc. Limitations on the various operations due to factors such as
environmental conditions, barge stability, lifting capacity, etc. must be defined. The installation plan is normally subdivided
into phases, e.g., loadout, seafastening, transportation and installation.
Installation drawings, specifications and procedures must be prepared showing all the pertinent information necessary for
construction of the total facility on location at sea. These drawings typically include details of all inspection aids such as
lifting eyes, launch runners or trusses, jacking brackets, stabbing points, etc. For jackets installed by flotation or launching,
drawings showing launching, up-ending and flotation procedures must be prepared. In addition, details are also provided for
piping, valving and controls of the flotation system, etc. as well as barge arrangements and tie-down details.
The engineering input into an offshore installation project also involves the design of all temporary bracing, seafastenings,
rigging, slings, shackles and installation aids, etc. These must be designed in accordance with an approved offshore design
code, e.g. API RP2A [1].
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all offshore installation projects. A general note on Quality
Assurance for Offshore Construction is appended toLecture 15A.8 : Fabrication. It is equally applicable to an offshore
installation project.
Loadout entails the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore. Seafastening entails
fitting and welding sufficient ties between the jacket and the barge to prevent the jacket shifting while in transit to the
offshore site.
Jackets which have been fabricated on their side are usually loaded by skidding the entire structure onto a cargo or launch
barge. During loadout, the jacket is supported on the skid ways, usually on two inner legs of the jacket, see Fig. 9 of Lecture
15A.1. The legs function as the bottom chord of a large truss, which can span between points of support, especially when
part of the jacket is on the barge and part still on the skid ways.
Where jackets are fabricated in the vertical, i.e. in the same attitude as the final installation, they may be lifted onto the
barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads and braces must be provided under the columns to
distribute the loads during skidding.
Initial friction of the jacket on the skid ways may be as high as 15 per cent, especially if the jacket has been erected with its
weight bearing continuously on the skid way. In some cases the jacket is initially fabricated slightly above the skid ways
using hydraulic or sand jacks. Then, at the time of loadout, the jacket is lowered onto the skid ways. To reduce the sliding
friction, grease on hardwood, or heavy lubricating oil on steel, or even fibre-filled Teflon faced pads, are used. Values of
sliding friction as low as 3 per cent are usually attained.
The barge should be of adequate size and structural strength to ensure that the stability and static and dynamic stresses in
the barge and seafastenings due to the loading operation and during transportation remain within acceptable limits. The
barge must also have the capability to launch the jacket, if this is required, without the use of a derrick barge. For a barge
which floats during the loadout, the ballast system must be capable of compensating the changes in tide and loading. It is
usual in this case to load out on a rising tide so that the tide assists the ballast system. In the case of a barge which will be
grounded during loadout, the barge must have sufficient structural strength to distribute the concentrated deck loads to the
supporting foundation material.
The jacket must be loaded in such a manner that the barge is in a balanced and stable condition. Barge stability can be
determined in accordance with regulations such as those published by Noble Denton, The American Bureau of Shipping, or
the US Coast Guard. Allowable static and dynamic stresses in the barge hull and framing due to loadout, transportation and
launching must not be exceeded.
A simplified check list for the operations relating to jacket loadout might be:
1. Is the jacket complete? Has the structure been analysed for loadout stresses on the basis of the actual structure
as fabricated at the time of loadout?
2. Is the launch barge securely moored to the loadout dock, so that it won't move out during the loading? Is the barge
properly moored against sideways movement?
3. If compression struts are used between the barge skid ways and those on shore, are they accurately aligned and
supported so they won't kick out during loadout? Have the pull lines, shackles, and pad eyes been inspected to
ensure they are properly installed and can't foul during loadout?
4. Can the barge be properly ballasted? If the tide will vary during loadout, are ballasting arrangements adequate?
Will ballast be adjusted as the weight of the jacket goes onto the barge? Are there proper controls? Is there an
adequate standby ballast system? Are there back-up systems to pull the jacket back to shore if anything goes
wrong during loadout? If the ballast correction is to be made iteratively, step-by-step as the jacket is loaded, are
there clear paint marks so that each step can be clearly identified?
5. Have clear lines of supervision and control been established? Are the voice radio channels checked? Have the
marine surveyors been notified so that they can be present? Owner's representatives? Certifying Authority? Have
their approvals been received?
Once the jacket is on the barge, the barge must be ballasted for transportation. During loadout, many tanks will be partially
full, in order to control deck elevation and trim. However, with the jacket fully supported on the barge, these considerations
are no longer relevant and the tanks can be ballasted to suit the demands of the sea voyage. Ballast tanks should normally
either be full or completely empty, to eliminate free surface and sloshing effects. The draft and freeboard will have been
carefully selected to maximise stability, and especially to minimise submersion of projecting members of the jacket during
the tow and the consequent slamming, buoyancy and collapse forces.
Large jacket launch and cargo barges are relatively flexible structures in that the jacket structure is normally (much) stiffer.
Therefore, ballasting the barge to obtain the required draft and trim should preferably be done at the dock side before
seafastenings are attached. If one scheme of ballasting is to be used for a sheltered channel tow and another for the open
sea, the seafastenings should be freed during the reballasting to avoid imposing undue stresses on the jacket legs or,
alternatively, calculations should be performed to demonstrate that freeing is not required by the reballasting procedure.
Seafastenings are installed after loadout and must be completed prior to sailaway. They are major structural systems,
subjected to both static and dynamic loads. When the barge is on the high seas it must be assumed that it can encounter
conditions which are "as bad as could have been statistically foreseen". Accordingly, the gravity and inertial forces involved
must be calculated for all anticipated barge accelerations and angles of roll and pitch during the design sea conditions
adopted for the tow (usually the 10-year return storm for that season and location). In determining this criteria, the reliability
of the short term weather forecast should be considered. Since the loads are dynamic, impact must be minimised.
Seafastenings should be attached to the jacket only at locations approved by the designer. They should be attached to the
barge at locations which are capable of distributing the load to the barge internal framing. They should also be designed to
facilitate easy removal on location. Seafastenings are normally subject to the same code requirements for fabrication as the
jacket.
3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTATION
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is a critical activity. It is especially so in
the case of the jacket since the behaviour of the unit usually influences the verification of barge strength, the design of
seafastenings, and indeed the design of the jacket itself. Also there are the practical aspects of tug selection, tow route, etc.
to be considered.
The size and power requirements of the towing vessels and the design of the towing arrangement must be calculated or
determined from past experience. Tug selection involves such considerations as length of tow route, proximity of safe
harbours and the anticipated weather conditions and sea states. As a minimum the tugs should be capable of maintaining
station in a 15 metre/second wind with accompanying waves. However, this criterion depends on the location. For instance,
the requirement in the Mediterranean is typically that the main tug should maintain station against a 20 metre/second wind,
5,0m significant sea-state and 0,5 metre/second current, acting simultaneously. Weather forecasting is provided throughout
the tow so that, if exceptional weather threatens, a pre-arranged port of refuge may be sought.
Experience has shown that the first phase of transportation is the most treacherous. There are several reasons for this. In
the harbour area a big tug can normally exercise very little control even with a shortened towline. With a short towline
between two considerable masses, the large tug and the much larger barge/jacket, the risk of snapping is high. Thus it is
standard practice to lengthen the towline once out of the port. Also, because of the nature of many ports, close control is
essential in order to avoid the possibility of running aground. Normally, therefore, the harbour tugs take the barge out under
the guidance of a pilot who knows the port. When the barge is out of the port the problems are not totally solved since it
must be assumed that the worst can happen, i.e. the towline may break.
The tug must have sufficient time to pick up the emergency towline and control the barge before it drifts into shallow water.
Thus the departure is normally subject to strict weather forecast conditions for a period which assumes that the speed of the
tow is between 1 and 2 knots for the first 100 nautical miles from the coast. Consequently, as a minimum, a favourable 48-
hour weather forecast is required, e.g. Force 5 and decreasing.
Once the tow is under way, trim will be adjusted to optimise tow speed and give directional stability during tow. Usually the
barge will be trimmed down by the stern.
The behaviour of the jacket seafastened to the barge must be satisfactory both from the point of view of static and dynamic
stability. Both are verified by means of numerical analyses. However, particularly for larger structures, the sensitivity of the
dynamic analysis will usually warrant verification by model testing.
The intact static stability criteria usually adopted is that the righting arm be positive throughout a range of 36° about any axis.
The so-called dynamic stability of wind overturning criteria simply ensure that for a given wind, the energy which tends to
overturn the barge is at least 40% less than that which is available due to the inherent righting stability of the barge.
In considering the motions of the jacket and barge it is intuitively plausible that roll will be the most problematical motion
(from the point of view of body accelerations) and that the largest roll will be caused by a beam sea. It may be less obvious,
but nevertheless true, that if the barge width and, to a lesser extent the length, are reduced, the roll will diminish and if the
barge is set at a (much) deeper draft, the roll will also diminish. All of these considerations reflect static properties of the
jacket and barge. Improvements can occasionally be made by choosing a narrower barge (although obviously stability will
suffer) or increasing the draft (although in this case stability may again suffer and parts of the structure which were
previously 'dry' may now be subjected to 'slamming'). Incorrect "balancing" of these aspects can have very serious cost/risk
implications in overall project terms. Thus, for a large jacket, the barge selection process is normally performed at a very
early stage of the design process.
4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
This section is concerned with the stages of jacket installation commencing with removal of the jacket from the barge to its
placing on the sea bed and temporary on-bottom stability. Lecture 15A.6: Foundations covers the subject of pile installation.
Unless a jacket is a self floater, it must first be removed from the transportation barge. There are two basic methods used:
launch
lift
4.1.1 Launch
The launch site is normally at or near the installation location. With heavy jackets in shallow water it may be necessary to
launch the jacket in deep water at some distance from the installation location and tow the jacket to site.
Immediately prior to launch, the seafastening securing the jacket to the barge is cut. The jacket is then pulled along the
barge skid ways (which were used for loadout) by winches. As the jacket moves towards the stern of the barge, the barge
start to tilt and a point is reached when the jacket is self sliding. An initial tilt to the barge may have been provided by
ballasting immediately prior to launch. A stern trim of approximately 5° is usually aimed for.
The skid ways terminate in rocker arms at the stern of the barge. As the jacket moves along the skid ways its centre of
gravity reaches a point where it is vertically above the rocker arm pivot. Further movement causes the rocker arm and jacket
to rotate. The jacket will then slide under its own self weight into the water. Various stages in the launch of a jacket are
shown in Figure 1a to 1d.
Once in the water the self floating jacket is brought under control with lines from tugs and/or the installation vessel.
The jacket must be designed and fabricated to withstand the stresses caused by the launch. This can be achieved either by
strengthening those members which might be over-stressed by the launching operation, or designing into the jacket a
special truss, commonly referred to as a launch truss. Spacing between jacket members or launch trusses will be dictated by
the spacing between launch skid ways. Thus a jacket will generally be designed from the outset for installation by a specific
barge.
Once launched the jacket must float with a reserve of buoyancy in order to stop the downward momentum of the jacket. This
requires the jacket to be water tight. It is common practice to gain additional buoyancy by sealing jacket legs and pile
sleeves with removable rubber diaphragms. However, there is frequently a need for even more buoyancy. This is achieved
by adding buoyancy tanks. These need to be removable and are located where they give most benefit. Buoyancy tanks from
previous launches are often used.
The launch of a jacket is clearly a critical phase in the life of the jacket. Considerable design effort is required in order to
ensure that the launch sequence is feasible. A jacket launch naval analysis is required in order to:
ensure that an adequate sliding velocity is maintained during the rocker arm rotation;
verify that the trajectory followed has a safe seabed clearance;
determine the jacket behaviour during launch;
define operational requirements during launch, including ballast configuration;
check the stability of the jacket during launch and when free floating.
The plots shown in Figures 1a to 1d are extracted from such an analysis. The jacket weight was 14,000 tonnes and was
being installed in 105 metres of water. The analysis showed that it should take approximately 2 minutes between start of self
sliding (Figure 1a) and the jacket reaching its final floating position (Figure 1d).
4.1.2 Lift
An increasing number of jackets are being installed by direct lift. This trend has been encouraged by the availability of large
crane vessels such as the Micoperi 7000. Curves showing load capacity against lifting radius are shown in Figure 2. Another
factor tending to increase direct lift jackets are savings in weight that are being achieved in jacket design.
In a direct lift the jacket is lifted off the barge completely in air. A second form of lift is the buoyancy assisted lift. In this case
the barge is flooded and hence submerged. This results in part of the jacket being buoyant, reducing hook loads. Buoyancy
tanks may be added to the jacket if required.
Shallow water jackets may be lifted in the vertical position. In this case no up-ending is required and installation is straight
forward. Deep water jackets will in general be lifted on their side. Two cranes will normally be used, noting that large derrick
barges such as the Micoperi 7000 are fitted with two cranes as standard. When considering a tandem lift it should be noted
that it is unlikely that both hooks will carry the same load, and that the maximum permissible jacket weight will be less than
the sum of the two crane capacities. It should also be noted that cranes are frequently guyed back to give maximum lift
capacity and carry less load if they are revolving. This can further reduce the apparent lift capacity. Finally, the weight of
lifting slings need to be considered, these contributing as much as 7% of the lift weight.
When the jacket is to be removed from the transportation barge by lifting, it is normal for the installation vessel to be
correctly moored and positioned so that up-ending and set-down may proceed as one integral lift operation.
The selection of a suitable installation vessel is clearly essential. In addition to lift capacity, it is also necessary to consider
stability and motion response characteristics. In the harsh North Sea environments installation vessels are usually semi-
submersibles such as the Micoperi 7000. In more moderate waters they are often flat bottomed barges. In intermediate
environments, e.g., the Gulf of Mexico, ship-shaped vessels may be used.
The large semi-submersible crane vessels used in the North Sea have full dynamic positioning systems for locating
themselves on site. They also have sophisticated computer controlled ballast systems to keep the vessel level during lifting
operations. During a lift the ballast system is also used to counteract heel and increase hoisting and lowering speeds during
the crucial lift-off and set-down operations.
The natural period of large installation vessels in roll, pitch and heave tend to be close to the typical peak periods of the sea
spectra encountered offshore. These motions therefore predominate. Normally this means that beam seas should be
avoided since this excites roll which is the most disruptive motion. However, the "best attitude" is not always possible since it
depends on the work that the vessel is required to perform. Accordingly vessel operators perform extensive studies to
determine permissible sea states for specific operations and vessel captains invariably "experiment" with different headings
in a particular sea in order to minimise motions and maximise workability.
The first stages in lifting a jacket from the transportation barge involve positioning the barge and connecting the slings to the
hook. The barge will normally be controlled by tugs. Once everything is ready for lift to proceed the seafastenings will be cut.
The next stage is to transfer the weight of the jacket from the barge to the crane. The general requirement here is to lift as
rapidly as possible. However, careful control and phasing with barge and crane vessel motions is required in order to ensure
that once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge it does not hit the barge as a subsequent wave passes through. The same lift
procedure is adopted in both a direct and buoyancy assisted lift.
Once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge, the barge is removed by tugs. Up-ending of the jacket will then normally proceed
directly.
Unless a jacket is transported and lifted in its upright position, it will be necessary to up-end the jacket at the installation
location. Up-ending may be achieved by controlled flooding of buoyancy tanks, by using a crane vessel or by a combination
of both.
A large crane vessel will not normally be required for either a launched or self-floating jacket. Upending is therefore achieved
by controlled flooding. A small installation vessel will usually be required for the installation of piles once the jacket has been
set-down, so this is used as the platform from which to control the various flooding operations. This installation vessel will
also be used to help position the jacket.
Figure 3 shows a sketch of the Brae 'B' jacket showing the auxiliary buoyancy tanks. In this case the flooding system
involved 42 primary and 22 contingency subsea valves under direct hydraulic control. The nitrogen power source and
associated control panels were contained in watertight capsules.
Figure 4 shows a sequence of sketches indicating how a self floating jacket is upended. In step 1 the waterline
compartments at one end of the jacket are flooded. More water line tanks are flooded in step 2 until by step 3 the upper
frame of the jacket reaches waterline and may also be flooded. The jacket is then allowed to rotate until all legs are equally
flooded as in step 4. The jackets natural position will then be floating upright as in step 5. Further flooding of the jacket as in
step 6 will enable the jacket to be lowered onto the sea bed in a controlled manner.
The up-ending of a launched jacket will be similar to that shown in Figure 4. The main difference is that there may be less
excess buoyancy with which to control the operation. In this case a combination of flooding and lift, as shown in Figure 5,
may be used to up-end and set-down the jacket.
The crane and ballasting operations need to be clearly defined before the operation begins. This involves careful naval
analysis of the free floating position of the jacket at various stages during the up-ending procedure. A feature of these
analyses is the need to consider what happens in the event of buoyancy tanks being accidentally flooded, or of flooding
valves failing to operate. Contingency procedures and equipment must be provided.
Figure 5 shows the most simple use of a crane to up-end and set-down a jacket. This is acceptable for jackets that are
launched. For horizontally oriented jackets that are lifted directly the procedure is more involved.
A horizontally lifted jacket may be upended in one of two ways. Perhaps the most straight forward is to lower the jacket into
the water so that it floats. Slings can then be removed and new slings attached at the top of the jacket. The jacket may then
be up-ended as shown in Figure 5. This may require closures to legs and some additional buoyancy.
A second method is to up-end directly, as shown in Figure 6. This requires special padears so that the necessary rotation
between slings and jacket can occur. Careful naval analysis is also required in order to carefully determine hook loads and
to ensure that the jacket remains stable.
Once up-ended the jacket can be set-down on the sea-bed. Since the lifting points are submerged divers may be required to
disconnect the slings from the jacket.
Although two crane hooks are shown in Figure 6, it should be noted that for light weight jackets it is possible to up-end using
a single crane. In this case the main and auxiliary hooks are used together, for example the main hook taking the weight of
the jacket with the auxiliary hook providing the upending force.
An increasing trend is to install a jacket over an existing well or wells. A pre-drilling template will have been used to position
the wells, the same template being used to position the jacket. It is necessary to ensure that the well heads are protected
from damage due to accidental contact with the jacket.
Once set-down the jacket should be positioned at or near grade and levelled within the tolerances specified in the
installation plan. Once level, care should be exercised to maintain grade and levelness of the jacket during subsequent
operations. Levelling the jacket after all piles have been installed should be avoided if at all possible as it is costly and
frequently ineffective. If necessary, levelling should take place after a minimum number of piles have been driven by jacking
or lifting. In this instance procedures should be used to minimise bending stresses in the piles.
Once set-down on the sea bed, it is normal for piling to proceed as rapidly as possible. However, this far into the installation
procedure the weather and hence sea conditions may be detioriating. This is a result of long term weather forecasting being
less reliable than short term forecasting. It should also be noted that any problems encountered during the installation
procedure will result in delay and that it may be some time before the jacket is adequately fixed to the sea bed by piling.
It is necessary for the jacket to be stable and level during piling. A separate on-bottom stability analysis is therefore carried
out. Three conditions need to be met:
In carrying out the above analyses it is necessary to use an appropriate sea-state to generate hydro-dynamic loading. This
should be the maximum statistical wave which may occur prior to piling being completed. Assuming installation to occur in
the summer months, a typical criteria may be a 1 year summer storm wave.
The provisions that need to be made to ensure on-bottom stability vary greatly depending on jacket location, height and on
sea-bed soil conditions. For example, with good soil conditions the jacket may be able to be supported directly on existing
jacket steel with no extra provision made. However, with poor soil conditions large 'mudmats' may be required in order to
spread the load. These can influence launch and installation dynamics.
For many jackets it is not possible to achieve stability against sliding and overturning using flat mudmats. In these
circumstances mudmats with skirts may be used. Skirts considerably improve the resistance to sliding, and in silty or clay
soils can allow nominal tension loading to resist overturning. Another option frequently used is to stab a number of piles as
soon as the jacket is set-down. These will penetrate some distance under self weight providing additional sliding resistance.
Since most piles are inclined, the piles also provide a degree of resistance to over turning.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
There are broadly four phases to the installation of a steel jacket - loadout, seafastening, offshore transportation
and installation offshore.
In deciding how best to fabricate and install a given jacket, the options are principally determined by the
installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth.
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. Loadout entails the movement of the completed
structure onto the barge which will transport it offshore.
Seafastening entails fitting and welding sufficient ties between the jacket and the barge to prevent shifting while in
transit to the offshore site.
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site is a critical activity requiring
careful calculation and planning.
Removal of the jacket from the barge is accomplished either by direct lifting with a derrick barge and lowering into
position, or by launching. A number of engineering studies are required for jacket launch and set-down.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations, latest
edition. Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the development of offshore oil resources.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Det Norske Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting (June 1985). Principles and good
practice for offshore heavy lifts.
2. AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings, latest edition. API
code refers to this specification for calculation of basic allowable stresses of all jacket members.
3. AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88. All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by
the API code to be undertaken in accordance with this code.
4. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures, 1977. Rules for
construction and installation of steel jackets as required by DNV.
5. Lloyds Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations, 1989.
Based on Lloyd's experience from certification of over 500 platforms world-wide.
Rev 1820
Rev 2450
Rev 3800
Rev 1450
Rev 2450
To introduce the functional requirements; to identify major interfaces with the process, equipment, logistics, and safety; to
introduce the structural concepts for jacket and gravity based structure (GBS) topsides; to elaborate on structural design for
deck floors.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
The topside lay-out is discussed, referring to API-RP2G [1], and to general aspects of interface control and weight control.
The different types of topside structures (relevant to the type of substructure, jacket or GBS) are introduced and described.
These types are:
1. integrated deck.
2. module support frame.
3. modules.
Floor concepts are presented and several aspects of the plate floor design are addressed.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the overall aspects of the design of offshore topsides.
The topside of an offshore structure accommodates the equipment and supports modules and accessories such as living
quarters, helideck, flare stack or flare boom, microwave tower, and crane pedestals.
The structural concept for the deck is influenced greatly by the type of substructure (jacket or GBS) and the method of
construction, see Figures 1 and 2.
Heavy decks, over 10,000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a number of modules are placed.
Smaller decks, such as those located in the southern North Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment in one
lift to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated deck such as is shown in Figures 3 and
4.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation with the other disciplines.
The first step in developing a new design concept is to consider all the requirements for the deck structure. The design
requirements and their impact on the structural system are discussed below.
The lay-out of the deck is influenced by the type of hydrocarbon processing to be undertaken.
The area required for the equipment, piping and cable routings, the vertical clearance as well as the access/egress
requirements determine the deck area and deck elevations.
The elevation on the lowest decks depends on the environmental conditions. The elevation of the cellar deck, i.e. the lowest
deck, is based on the maximum elevation of the design wave crest, including tide and storm sway, plus an air gap of 1,5m
minimum.
The vertical distance between the decks of the topside is generally in the range 6 - 9m in the North Sea.
Consideration of the prevailing wind direction is very important in determining the position of various components on the
platform, such as the vent of the flare, cranes, helideck; and the logistic and safety provisions.
Wells: the position of the wells depends heavily on whether the wells will be drilled and worked with a separate cantilevered
jack-up rig or with a platform-based rig. In the first case the wells must be close to the platform edge and require significant
deck area above free of obstacles. In the second case a pair of heavy beams to support the drill rig must be provided.
Equipment, piping and cable-supports: all devices to treat the oil or gas shall comply with the requirements of API-RP2G
[1].
Living quarters and helideck: the helideck should be in the vicinity of the living quarters to enable fast evacuation. Usually
the helideck is located in the obstacle free area on top of the living quarters.
Gas compressor module: the pressure in gas reservoirs declines due to production. Future compression may be needed
in order to achieve acceptable gas flow through the export pipeline.
Water or gas injection module: oil production declines after some years of operation. The reservoir then requires
stimulation by, for example, injection of water.
Deck crane: the location of the crane should be selected so as to obtain maximum deck coverage and to enable the crane
operator to keep eye contact with the lifted object and the supply vessel. The location of the deck crane should be outside
the obstacle free area of the helideck and should not interfere with future facilities.
Vent/flare boom or stack: a vent discharges gaseous products in the air without burning them; a flare discharges and
burns these products. Both vents and flares should be located outside hazardous areas and away from the helideck. The tip
shall exceed the elevation of the helideck by at least 100 feet. Heat radiation shall be checked.
Microwave tower: A high mounting is required to provide obstacle free support for microwave antennae. A stiff support is
required in order to comply with the stringent deflection criteria.
Survival capsules and man-overboard crane: the supporting structures for these items usually cantilever from the main
structure. Shock loading and dynamic amplification increases the support reactions during operation.
Walkways, ladders and stairs: these items should be kept obstacle free, be non-slippery and have sufficient width to allow
evacuation of personnel on stretchers.
Cladding, walls, doors and louvres: the type of cladding depends on the operational requirements and the preference of
the oil company. For safety reasons, walls and doors may have to satisfy specified explosion and fire resistance
requirements. Louvres may be used to allow natural ventilation, whilst preventing entry of rain, snow and birds.
Lay down areas for equipment, spares and consumables: these areas are provided by cantilevering from the main
structure in order to allow access to the lower deck levels by the deck crane, without providing hatches through the decks.
Hatches: access to the lower decks within reach of the crane is required to enable maintenance, repair and platform
modification. The hatches should be identified early in the design.
Risers, caissons, sumps: the riser section of the pipeline rises from the seabed to the deck. It introduces vertical and
horizontal loads (environmental and operational) in the deck structure. Caissons for pumps and sumps for discharge are
hung from the cellar deck and introduce significant vertical and horizontal loads in the deck.
Drainage provisions: provision is required for spillage in drip pans under the equipment and for collecting oil-polluted
rainwater to prevent spilling into the sea.
Deck penetrations: pipes connecting process-items on different decks and, vessels, cable routings, etc. can require
significant areas to be clear of structural members. The major penetrations should be identified early in the design and
coordinated with major structural members.
Other provisions: items such as monorails and inspection gangways may also be required.
2.3 Loads
In Lecture 15A.3 the different types of loads have been identified and partly quantified.
Dead weight, tankful live load and wind load are discussed here. Dead weight includes the weight of structure, equipment,
piping, cables, machinery, and architectural outfitting. Tankful live load covers weight of potable water, diesel fuel, helifuel,
glycol, methanol, well-kill mud, lubrication oil, waste, etc.
Live load also covers all sorts of miscellaneous loads such as bagged or palletized consumables, spare parts, maintenance
equipment, etc.
The application of live load is typical for topsides. For design considerable engineering judgement is required concerning:
the area to which live load is to be applied. This area is described in the code as the non-occupied area.
For local strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as non-occupied by equipment and are thus loaded by
live load.
For overall strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as occupied (kept clear for evacuation) and
consequently no live load is applied.
the arrangement of loads that generates maximum stress. A policy on this item should be prepared for each
project, stating both variation of loads over one deck, and variation over various decks.
Wind loads should be properly assessed. For overall structural integrity, the complex shape of the platform creates problems
in assessing the effective area for wind load. Special elements such as communication towers and flare booms require
consideration as wind sensitive structures.
To control the design process, weight engineering as explained in Section 2.5 below, shall be performed by the project
management staff. Any structural analysis must be linked to the latest available information in the weight report. This
requires that the load file for the structural analysis and the weight report are compatible with respect to total weight, weight
distribution and centres of gravity.
The many functions of the topside result in the involvement of many disciplines in the design.
Due to the high cost of providing platform space, the facility must be designed to be very compact. This requirement leads to
several major areas of interdisciplinary control.
Space allocation: the structure should not use space allocated for equipment or access routes. Overhead
clearance between piping, cable routes, equipment and the floor overhead should be respected.
Direct interface control; pumps, vessels and piping require support by the steel structure.
Interface between drilling and workover operations.
Interface between platform crane and helideck, deckhouse, drilling rig, and flare stack.
Interface with the export riser.
Interface between the deck and modules.
Interface between the topside and bridge from adjacent platform.
Interface with the substructure.
The weight of the overall facility as well as its major components is critical. Lack of weight control can lead to costly design
changes as well as to major provisions in order to keep within the limits of the construction strategy.
weight prognosis
weight reporting
weight control
weighing
Weight prognosis is the methodology which applies an uncertainty surcharge as high as +30% in the conceptual design
phase, to +5% in the final fabrication phase, see Figure 5.
3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1. Discipline non-interference - ++
4. Automated fabrication - ++
5. Construction depth ++ 0
6. Inspection - ++
7. Maintenance - +
8. Weight of structure + 0
9. Strength reserve + ++
The selection of the topside main structure concept, truss or portal frame, is linked with the decision of the position of the
longitudinal structure in the cross-section. In a 20-25m wide deck, trusses will generally be arranged in longitudinal rows:
centre line and both outer walls (Figure 6).
In such decks, however, portal frames will be arranged in 2 longitudinal rows, approximately 14-16m apart, allowing floor
cantilevers of approximately 5m (Figure 3).
Topsides of gravity based concrete structures (GBS) are quite different from the jacket based topsides, see Lecture 15A.1.
The topside structure is an important element in the overall portal-type system. Gravity based substructures have been built
with one to four shafts. A rectangular or a T-arrangement of four shafts has been adopted. The basic form is a modularized
topside with a grid of heavy box girders.
A few elements only of the GBS-topside structural design are indicated below:
due to portal frame action, the deck is subject to fatigue; a design case difficult to control in topside design.
equipment lay out optimization, piping and cable routes, logistic and emergency routes require many big openings
and perforations of plate walls, thus creating stress concentrations.
attachment of secondary structures and of equipment/pipe/cable supports to the main structure must be strictly
controlled, to avoid fatigue problems.
the connection area with the concrete shaft must provide the transition from circular (shaft) to square (deck). It
accommodates high strength anchor bars, temporary crushing devices for deckmating, and requires tolerances on
deck and substructure dimensions.
inspection and repair options must be planned carefully, especially as fatigue may occur.
The material used at present is high strength steel typically of 355 MPa yield stress. There is a trend to use higher strength
steel (420-460 MPa).
The concept for the floor-system in offshore structures is conventional: hot rolled beams, typically at 1000-1200mm centres,
are covered by a chequered or flat steel plate 6-10mm thick.
The conventional steel floor contributes approximately half of the weight of the steel structure of an offshore deck.
Steel gratings, especially with the plate type, could gain increased application as their weight per sq.m. is attractive.
Aluminium has attracted much interest recently; current development in Norway will show its real potential.
Orthotropic decks in steel have found application in helidecks. Further study is required to assess their actual feasibility for
floors of offshore modules.
Corrugated steel plate (approximately 1-3mm thick) as sub-flooring has been used in living quarters.
In summary, the floor concept used for a typical floor of an offshore deck of a module is a conventional steel floor or steel
grating.
The floor panel, defined as the assembly of the floor plate and the stringer, can be connected to the overall structure in two
ways:
All elevations and overhead clearances are involved in the choice of arrangement. Clearances are very important for
equipment height, pipe routing, pipe stress, cable routing, etc. The single most important structural aspect is the amount of
prefabrication that can be carried out away from the main fabrication yard. The cost is also a very important factor.
The deck structure requires lateral stabilization of each floor with respect to:
There is a clear preference for the stabilization by the floor plate. Where underfloor bracing is adopted, there are two
configuration options (see Figure 11). The rhomboid solution should be chosen for the upper deck, due to congestion at the
column by the padeyes for lifting. The underfloor bracing under a plate floor does create a very unclear structural situation.
The bracing is assumed completely to perform the stabilizing function, but in practice the floor plate is much too stiff to allow
that. It is common practice in the structural analysis for underfloor bracing to neglect completely the floor plate.
4. DECK FLOORING DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
The selection of the main deck dimensions have been considered above in relation to lay-out requirements.
The interactive process of conceptual design of the jacket and deck yields the spacing of the columns. In the Dutch sector of
the North Sea, transverse column spacings are typically 9m for a wellhead platform to 15m for a production platform.
Longitudinally spacings are typically 15m.
A principle for economic design of steel structures is that the load-paths should be short.
1. floor plate 1m
2. stringer (longitudinal) 5m
3. deck beam (transversal) 15m
4. main structure (longitudinal) 15m
5. column
Design
Options are to choose between flat plate, chequered plate or tear plate. Another option for providing slip resistance is to coat
with a sand finish. The floor plate thickness is usually 8-10mm and 6mm for lighter loaded floors, although welding distortion
may rule out the 6 mm thickness.
In practice the floor plate acts as horizontal bracing between the columns.
Special attention is required to ensure that all welds between the floor plate and the underlying structure do not form brittle
points. Failure of such welds could lead to crack initiation in the rest of the structure.
The same attention applies to the buckling of the floor plate by stresses which are picked up unintentionally.
The strength of the floor plate is very high both for uniform as well as concentrated loads.
API-RP2A (2) does not specify live loads. They are specified by the operator.
p = 20kN/sqm, or
Det Norske Veritas [3] presents an expression for the required plate thickness t, which incorporates membrane effects and is
of special interest for design for local loads.
Equipment and containers are regularly offloaded by the crane in some deck areas, such as lay-down areas and food
container platforms. An increased plate thickness may be required in these areas due to larger concentrated loads (1).
4.3 Stringers
The typical stringer for a production platform is an IPE 240-270 or HE 240-280A profile positioned at approximately 1m
centres and spanning 5m.
It is important to choose, especially for stacked floor panels, a profile which allows selection of heavier sections with
practically identical depth to accommodate local heavy equipment.
Designers should avoid choosing deeper sections or reinforcing them to accommodate late extra load requirements by
welding another section underneath. Interference with small diameter, hard piping or with cable trays then is quite likely.
Joining floor plate and stringers requires welding. Intermittent welding is generally not accepted. A continuous thin weld (a =
4 mm) is usually specified. The shear in this weld is generally quite low.
The joint between the stringer and the deck beam differs with the floor panel concept chosen.
stacked floors have a continuous fillet weld around the flange contact area and generally do not have web
stiffening of the stringers.
If the top of the deck beam becomes inaccessible for maintenance, some operators will require seal plates to be welded
between the deck beam and the floor plate. This is quite expensive. A typical joint is depicted in Figure 7.
The decision on the type of stringer joint should preferably be made prior to material ordering.
flush floors. Welding the floor between deck beams requires removal of the top-flange of the stringer near its end
and perfect fit between the deck beams and floor. Deck beam prefabrication is also required.
4.4 Deck Beams
Deck beams supporting the floor panels or providing direct support to major equipment are generally provided as HE 800-
1000 beams, though HL 1000 (400mm wide) or HX 1000 (450mm wide) are also used for heavier loads or greater spans.
The major joint in the deck beam is that with the main structure.
The joint configuration is strongly determined by the prefabrication concept and elevation of the flanges. It is different for the
stacked and for the flush concept.
The lower flange, typically 40mm thick, can only be welded to the web, typically 20-25mm thick, if alignment of both flanges
is ensured.
The lower flange of the main structure should be at least 250mm underneath, to enable back welding of the root.
For the less suitable partially stacked concept (Figure 8), where only the transverse main beam is positioned lower,
connection for the top flange of the transverse deck beam is more difficult. Direct welding of the top flange of the deck beam
to the web should be rejected. Options are shown in Figure 9 with detail (a) haunching and detail (b) slotting the top flange
through the web.
Again it is apparent that a decision on joint configuration is required prior to material ordering.
If the deck panel is prefabricated as an assembly of plate, stringer and deck beam, the detail shown in Figure 10a is the
more appropriate.
To allow top flange welding a strip of the floor plate is fitted and welded last.
If the deck panel is fabricated as an assembly of plate and stringer only, the detail Figure 10b will be the most feasible.
In Section 3.5 the preference for the floor plate to act as horizontal bracing was indicated.
If however separate bracing members are required, the elevation must be chosen carefully. The bracing members have to
pass with sufficient clearance under the stringers, penetrate the web of the deck beams at sufficient distance from the lower
flange. They also require good access for welding of the joint.
These requirements generate the elevation and the maximum feasible diameter of the brace (Figure 11).
Horizontal bracing can easily clash with vertical piping and major hatches.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The topside lay-out was discussed, referring to API-RP2G, together with general aspects of interface control and
weight control.
Based on the type of substructure, jacket and GBS, the different types of topside structure were introduced and
described. These types are:
integrated deck.
module support frame.
modules.
6. REFERENCES
[2] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed platforms.
Practical approach for economic floor plate design under static load.
7. ADDITIONAL READING
2. D. v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
3. P. Gjerde et al: Design of steel deckstructures for deepwater multishaft gravity concrete platform.
4. P. Dubas & c.s.: Behaviour and design of steel plated structures, IABSE Surveys S 31/1985, August 1985, pp 17-
44.
To elaborate on structural steel concepts for integrated decks, module support frames, and modules. To show principles and
methods of construction (from yard to offshore site).
PRE-REQUISITES
SUMMARY
Structural systems for each type of topside structure are introduced, i.e. truss, portal frame, box girder, and stressed skin.
Some special topics of design are addressed and the different construction phases are presented in more detail, i.e.:
1. fabrication
2. weighing
3. load out
4. sea transport
5. offshore installation especially deckmating
6. module installation
7. hook-up
8. commissioning.
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concludes this lecture.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the structural design of jacket-based offshore deck structures, following the introduction in Lecture
15A.10.
Heavy decks, over 10.000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto which a number of modules are placed,
see Lecture 15A.1, Figs. 4 and 5. Smaller decks, such as those located in the southern North Sea, are nowadays installed
complete with all equipment in one lift to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated deck
as described in Lecture 15A.10.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation with the other disciplines.
For the design of the deck structure, the in-place condition has to be considered, together with the various previous stages
such as fabrication, load-out, transport and installation.
A structural system for a deck structure comprises several of the following elements:
Primary girders }
Vertical trusses or bracing } Discussed in
Deck legs } this lecture
2.1 Introduction
A portal frame design has been used in recent major projects in the Dutch sector such as Amoco P15, Placid K12 [5] and
Penzoil L8.
The main girder/column joint, as shown in Figure 1, is very important in determining the height. It is most practical to position
the longitudinal and transverse main girder flanges at the same elevation.
Haunching of the transverse main girder , which is more lightly loaded-in-plane, however is not an option as these girders
become highly loaded during transport.
The severe restraint of welding a tubular in a diaphragm requires the selection of TTP steel for the column section.
Due to the high importance of the diaphragm plates in the overall integrity of the structure and the welding constraints on the
web plates in between, TTP-steel is chosen also for the diaphragm.
Another option is to weld the girders directly onto the unstiffened can section of the column. The assessment of ultimate
resistance as well as fatigue strength has been the subject of recent research (see Lecture 15A.12).
Further improvement of the theoretical and experimental background is required. For lighter loaded truss structures, this
non-stiffened type of joint has been used successfully.
A third solution is to weld the girders directly to the can section of the column, which is internally stiffened by rings. Its most
severe disadvantage is the difficulty of inspecting the column interior.
The disadvantage of both direct girder-column joints is that the girder sizing is governed by the very high moments at the
column/beam transition point.
Cast steel nodes form an alternative to the welded designs.
Member selection for portal frame structures with increasing section moduli usually includes:
The plate girder of course provides the greatest flexibility for design, material selection and procurement, though its cost per
tonne is approximately twice that of a rolled beam.
Most offshore structures of moderate size have been provided with a truss-type structure. Typically such trusses consist of
rolled beams as chords and tubulars as diagonals.
Truss design requires several choices which affect the structural efficiency and have impact on other disciplines:
Figure 2 shows different arrangements of braces (basically N or W-type) obtained by variation of the number of nodes. It
should be kept in mind that all diagonals and verticals form obstructions for piping and cable routings of all kinds.
For the transverse trusses, transparency is even more important, especially near the well area. The number of members
required should therefore be reduced to a minimum.
Providing a W-truss with light verticals should be evaluated against choosing a heavier chord section.
If a joint, e.g. at the top deck, is subject to severe moments due to lifting, ventstack, or crane pedestal for example, much of
the bracing stress would result from unintended bending. Generally the deck leg restraint creates a similar problem in the
lower deck. An evaluation should yield a preferred location therefore for the node of the end brace.
The truss deflects under its vertical load which leads to restraint of the chord in the column and to bending of the chord. Both
effects can quite severely effect the efficiency. The chord section should be kept compact therefore and not given too much
height.
Tubulars (circular, square or rectangular) or rolled sections can be chosen for the braces.
The choice depends primarily on the loads and the chord width. A chord width of 300mm can accommodate a 10 in. brace
only. Thus a wider chord flange is preferred.
A third major structural option is the stressed skin concept, where full height plate walls take the function of the truss or the
frame.
Modules for living quarters are frequently built to this concept. Other types of modules have not been built with stressed skin
since the obstruction they cause during construction is severe.
For smaller stressed skin modules, trapezoid corrugated plate can be used to provide a wall in a frame of square hollow
sections.
For bigger modules, flat plate stiffened with through-stiffeners is used for the walls.
The detailed design can only be made with a clear plan for assembling the module which shows the panels that must be
prefabricated.
Blast or fire walls are provided in offshore platforms. Due to their function full welding to the main structure is often
unavoidable, see Figure 3a.
Special attention is required concerning:
the capability of the walls to comply with the deformation of the main structure during load-out, sea transport, lifting
and in-service.
the strength of welds to the main structure being stronger than the plate to avoid rupture and potential crack
initiation of the main structure.
One solution is to provide a flexible detail, see Figure 3b and 3c, with stiffeners falling short.
It is structurally economical to put the crane pedestal on top of a main column. For a truss type the main structure will be
close to the platform periphery so a moderate length of crane boom is sufficient.
For a portal frame type with columns closer to the outer periphery, the pedestal requires a special column in order to avoid
using a crane with large boom length. Figure 4 depicts such a solution.
The functions of the main structure with respect to the crane pedestal are:
Bending restraint by deck beams and/or main structure girders is not required and should be reduced where possible.
Torsion caused by slewing of the crane should preferably be resisted by the floor plate, the stiffest element.
It has become practice to include the tapered top section of the pedestal in the supply package of the crane. The top section
contains the large flange for the slewing bearing.
Fatigue due to crane operations is a design criterion and requires careful detailing of the pedestal and the adjoining
structure.
3. ANALYSIS OF DECK STRUCTURES
3.1 Introduction
Although the analysis of deck structures is a standard task, several aspects require special attention:
Design of plate girders requires selection of many dimensional variables and of approaches for assessing load-carrying
resistance. Lectures 8.4 deal in more detail with plate girder design.
Web buckling due to bending, normal force and shear restricts the slenderness of the web which is expressed as the height
of the web (h) divided by the web thickness (t).
API-RP2A [2] refers to the AISC manual [3] which gives the figures below for material with yield-stress of 355 MPa:
Instead of the above approach, more recent research, [3] and [6], allows use of the post-buckling strength. The
depth/thickness limits given above do not then apply.
the ring stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column.
the non-stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular column.
the tubular brace joint to single web beams.
the non-overlapped tubular joint.
The effect of lifting points on deck design is considerable. For example the local forces that act on the lifting points (Figure 5)
have to be transmitted safely through to the deck structure.
There are two types of lifting points, trunnions and padeye, Figure 6.
Trunnions, though favourable from other points of view, see Section 4, can generate considerable offset of the sling force
with respect to the topdeck system points. Significant bending is generated which is transferred to the topdeck girders to the
extent that they contribute to joint stiffness. It is most efficient to leave these bending moments in the column, by providing
stiff columns.
Padeyes generally provide a good opportunity to minimize or eliminate offset, as far as they can be situated on top of the
column. The requirement of recessed padeyes (recessed padeyes are those which are positioned between the top and
bottom flange elevation) or the presence of other structures on the top deck can lead to very eccentric positioning and
resulting heavy moments. For this reason the lifting concept must be developed in the concept phase of the structural
development.
API-RP2A [1] requires larger load factors to be used for members direct-loaded by padeyes or trunnions.
There are several ways to model the plate. The most direct is to choose a computer-program which allows selection of plate
elements. A second option is to define representative members which model the plate stiffness by diagonals.
The deck plate is often positioned in the model at the elevation of the centre line, i.e. the mid height of the main structure
girders, in order to save nodes in the model. It should however be recognised that this "error" of elevation, amounting to 0,5
- 1m, can affect the results. A separate evaluation should then be performed on the effect to this deliberate "error" at least at
some critical points.
Modules and deck structures interact structurally. API-RP2A [1] requires that modules are modelled as elastic structures for
the analysis of the supporting deck. In the 1970's major difficulties arose in the decks for concrete gravity structures,
because modules were represented as a set of loads for the different load cases, acting at the support points, and
neglecting structural interaction. The basic phenomenon of this interaction is that the distribution of the support reactions of
the module is quite unequal and varies with the load case. Dimensional control of the module as well as the support, with
corrective measures, further provide control over the module - deck interaction. Some modules, such as living quarter
modules, gas compressor and injection modules, are often placed on anti-vibration pads in order to isolate them from
vibrations.
4. CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Introduction
In Lecture 15A.1 the principal aspects of construction of offshore structures and their major equipment was introduced.
4.2 Fabrication
4.2.1 Operations
The design should allow efficient prefabrication of major sections. Prefabrication will avoid congestion in one working area
and it speeds up the whole construction process.
Prefabrication and assembly shall properly incorporate the aspects of installation of major and smaller mechanical
equipment, as well as outfitting with piping, electrical and instrument cables and lines. It should be recognized that major
mechanical and electrical equipment is often not available at the start of assembly and must be brought in during fabrication.
Since the overhead space is well covered by extensive piping routes as well as cable trays during construction, "late"
structural work should preferably not be positioned overhead in that underfloor area.
The prefabrication concept and joint detailing should maximize welding productivity with many horizontal welds preferably
made using SMAW technology.
Support to the topside during construction should be well controlled to avoid settlement and to keep within construction
tolerances.
Special consideration should be given to the selection of materials suitable for the fabrication. Where thick-walled elements
are involved requiring Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT), the design should position such welding and the PWHT in the
prefabrication phase.
The topside must be kept under strict weight control, as explained in Lecture 15A.10. To that end the topside is usually
weighed prior to load out. The basic design of a weighing system usually consists of a set of hydraulic jacks with electrical
load cells on top, installed between the topside and the shop floor. The accuracy of such systems is typically 0,5-1%.
Accuracy is necessary in order to check the actual position of the centre of gravity. Knowledge of the position is vital for the
installation.
The system for support of the topside should be similar to the anticipated method of load out.
4.4.1 Operations
moving the topside from the fabrication hall to the nearby quay.
moving the topside from the quay onto the barge.
The short journey on land can be complicated when the track is not flat or curves have to be taken.
The most preferred option for load out is therefore to use a platform trailer with individual suspended wheels, see Figure 7
and Slide 1.
Slide 1 : General arrangement of a load out through skidding
The trailer drives from the quay over a rocker flap resting on the quay and the barge and then slowly onto the barge. The
barge is kept in right trim by ballast pumping.
When it reached the right position, the topside is set down on the beam grid of the sea fastening.
When using platform trailers the lower deck should be designed to meet three basic load-out requirements:
the bottom flange plates of the transverse beams should all be in one plane.
the distance of transverse beams should not exceed approximately 7 m.
the lower deck should be able to take an upward reaction typically in the range of 50-60 kN/m2 of ground area.
A uniform distribution of loads is assumed for platform trailers. Skid systems which are not provided with a proper load
sharing system will lead to a non-uniform load distribution.
4.5.1 Operations
Sea transport is a very critical operation, especially for topsides (see Slide 2).
After completion of the load out and full fastening to the barge, the barge is ballasted to its target draft and cleared for the
transport.
The barge is towed by one or two tugs to the offshore location. There the barge is positioned close alongside the crane
vessel.
Prior to lifting, the sea fastening is cut free.
identification of critical clearances, e.g. (harbour depth, width of bridges or locks, etc inshore)
barge selection (a.o. stability, dynamic behaviour, location of bulkends).
evaluation of sea route (weather, length of tow).
assessment of barge motions in sea state.
development of a sea fastening concept.
assessment of deck/module integrity.
assessment of barge integrity.
There is also the option with some crane vessels to transport the top side on board. Usually an extra take over is required as
the draft of the crane vessel exceeds the depth at the fabricator's quay. The advantage however is that sea fastening
requires less effort. Furthermore, the offshore operation is simpler and quicker, as the most critical and weather sensitive
operation - lift off the barge- is avoided.
Several elements of the structure are dominated by the load condition during transport, see Lecture 15A.1.
All equipment in or on the topside is also subject to heavy loads, e.g. control panels, generator skids, platform crane, during
transport.
Internal bracing of a topside for transport is not favoured since it creates obstacles and risk of damage or fire to cables,
instruments, piping and equipment during subsequent removal. External bracing is also not without problems. The width of
the topside requires an extra wide barge. It is difficult to find "strong" points on the topside exterior. The basic concept is
therefore to fix the topside to the barge by its columns only.
The designer should be aware that the bending stiffness of the topside often exceeds that of the barge. Considerable
"composite" action can result when the barge deflects in heavy head-on seas.
It is very important for any sea fastening concept to consider aspects of de-seafastening, i.e. cutting free, prior to lift off, and
the need to remain safe in a moderate sea state.
De-seafastening should not require any handling by cranes. Braces cut loose at one end should therefore remain stable and
safe while fixed at one end only.
Design of the sea fastening should not require any welding in the column joint, since the topside would not then be ready for
immediate set down onto the jacket.
When the tow is more than one or two days long, fatigue may have to be considered on critical nodes.
4.6 Installation
4.6.1 Operations
Deck mating is a floating operation in a sheltered location, e.g. a Norwegian fjord or Scottish loch. Deck mating requires that
the deck is temporarily supported with the final supports free. This requirement creates a very awkward load situation for the
deck structure.
Lifting is the usual installation method for jacket-based topsides. During development of a platform concept, the lift strategy
should be defined as part of the overall construction strategy. The lifting capacity of crane vessels is defined by hook-load
and reach.
The required reach is determined mainly by the width of the topside and/or the transport barge.
Crane vessels were listed in Lecture 15A.1. Slings are available up to over 400mm nominal diameter with safe working
loads of 20-25 MN.
A basic element in all elevations is the inevitable tolerance in sling length which leads to an unequal distribution of sling
forces (typically 25%-75%) in a four sling lift. The unequal sling forces lead to significant stresses in the module (see Figure
8).
The use of spreader bars leads to a fully balanced lift without distorting the module. However the spreader bar is quite
expensive and usually leads to a requirement for a higher hook elevation.
The use of a spreader frame should only be considered in exceptional cases and does not prevent module distortion. The
padeye/shackle option is limited by the safe working load (maximum 10MN) of the biggest shackle. The trunnion can
accommodate higher loads.
4.7 Hook up
For economic reasons, the overall construction strategy should keep hook up work to a minimum. Critical hook up work is
the work required immediately to secure the object in order to survive the next storm.
4.8 Commissioning
These activities are a major source of operational expenditure, OPEX, as introduced in Lecture 15A.1.
4.10 Removal
Removal requirements are different from country to country. In some depths of water full removal is required in some
countries from the mudline upward. Elsewhere only the structure 75 m or more above the mudline must be removed.
Extensive engineering of removal is required to achieve a safe and effective operation. In the Gulf of Mexico removed
structures are dumped in the form of reefs. It is very difficult and inefficient at present to include conceptual removal
engineering in the design phase. When re-use of the facility is planned, then removal engineering should be developed early
in the design.
5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Structural systems for each type of topside structure were introduced, i.e. truss, portal, box girder, and stressed
skin systems.
In the section on design some topics were addressed in more detail.
In the section on construction the different phases were presented in more detail, i.e.
i. fabrication
ii. weighing
iii. load out
iv. sea transport
v. offshore installation especially deckmating
vi. module installation
vii. hook-up
viii. commissioning
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concluded the lecture.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed platforms.
[5] D.v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production platform.
Bouwen met Staal, nr.24 1979. Presentation of seafastening design for GBS topside.
A.12: Connections in Offshore
Deck Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To outline and explain the best methods for forming structural connections in offshore deck structures; to discuss the
importance of a proper choice of connection type to achieve both the required strength and stiffness, and ease of fabrication.
PREREQUISITES
SUMMARY
Various forms of structural connections in steel offshore deck structures are discussed; these cover the connections
between deck stringers and main beams, between main beams themselves, between main beams and deck legs, truss
connections and connections between columns and beams. The importance of designing and dimensioning to minimise
fabrication and maintenance is emphasised.
1. INTRODUCTION
Large offshore deck structures have traditionally been built up using modular components, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11;
a module support frame is built on top of the deck legs of the jacket structure on which the various modules are installed.
With the high lifting capacities currently available, the topsides of light to medium offshore structures can now be installed in
one lift. This development has had a considerable influence on the fabrication and design of deck structures, and has
resulted in heavier modules, constructed of larger and heavier members, with consequences for the connections.
Another aspect influencing fabrication, and thus the design, was the development of cleaner steels, with modified chemical
compositions and good through-thickness properties. This so-called TTP steel (i.e. steel with through-thickness properties,
see Lecture 2.4) has a low sulphur content to avoid lamellar tearing. Furthermore, if the carbon and carbon equivalent (CEV)
is low, the preheat temperature of the steel can be lowered, resulting in easier welding (without preheating) which again
influences the connection design.
The increase in lifting capacity, and the exploration for gas and oil in deeper water, have both resulted in larger structures,
and have stimulated the use of higher strength steels, with yield strengths above 355 N/mm2.
The joints have to be designed to withstand the various loading conditions (see Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3) experienced
during fabrication, load-out, transport, installation and the in-place condition (operation and storm). In order to allow
redistribution of stresses it is important that the joints are stronger than the connected members; if this is not the case the
joints themselves must have sufficient deformation/rotation capacity.
The connection design should take account of all the aforementioned aspects and should be considered as an interactive
procedure involving the choice of the structural layout, the fabrication sequence and the steel grades and qualities to be
used. Other aspects such as inspection and corrosion protection requirements must also be considered.
Since the fabrication costs are mainly governed by the costs of welding, the connections should be simple, and where
possible, avoid the use of stiffeners.
The type of connections used in offshore deck modules depends directly on the type of structure involved:
truss types
frame types
stressed skin
As discussed in more detail in Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11, the structural system for a deck includes several of the
following elements:
Depending on their function, loading, and availability of sections, these elements can be made of rolled I or H-sections,
rolled circular or rectangular hollow sections, or welded sections; for the larger sizes, welded I or box plate girders, or
welded tubular members are used.
These elements have to be connected together; since the modules are generally fabricated under controlled conditions at
the fabrication yard, welded connections are common practice. The main connection types are discussed more in detail
below. Although it is common practice in offshore design to use the API-RP2A [1] or the AISC rules [2], the basic joint
behaviour is discussed in this lecture without reference to the safety factors to be used.
The deck floor structure can be designed as a floor plate with stringers, or as an orthotropic plate. The floor plate with
stringers is the most common type as it gives design flexibility for later changes (local loads, deck penetrations, etc).
Orthotropic plate structures, are generally used in helidecks, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11.
The use of stacked stringers, as shown in Figure 1, facilitates fabrication and is, therefore to be preferred to the use of
continuous connections, as shown in Figure 2.
For ease of fabrication, stiffeners should be avoided if possible. This means that the vertical loads have to be transmitted by
the webs, as shown in Figure 1, over a length ls for the stringer, and lb for the deck beam; web crippling failure is also
possible and should be checked. These are a common details which are dealt with in Eurocode 3 [3] and other codes.
For the continuous connections, shown in Figure 2, the moment is assumed to be transferred by the flange connection and
the shear by the web connection.
The type of full penetration weld at the top flange for continuous connections depends on the fabrication sequence and
should be decided by the fabricator. The bottom flange and web can generally be connected by fillet welds. A full
penetration weld of the flange, without a 'mouse hole', is preferred because of corrosion protection although this results in a
small weld defect at the neck between flange and web. However, even under fatigue loading such a defect can be accepted
[4] the same is also valid for static loading. Only in cases where very high strength steel (fy > 500N/mm2) is used and a high
yield to ultimate stress ratio, e.g. fy/fu > 0,9 occurs should this detail be evaluated rigorously. Since all loading cases are not
always checked, the welds have to be designed to have at least the same strength as the connected parts, i.e. as the flange
or web.
It should be recognized that the shear stress distribution (Figure 2) for a detail with a 'mouse hole' is more severe than that
without a 'mouse hole'. Special attention should be given to the unsupported upper side of the web in Figure 2b, as local
buckling may be a problem, see Lecture 6.2 and [5].
The connection between the deck beams is most convenient if these beams have the same height, as shown in Figure 3b.
Here the flanges are connected with full penetration welds, and the web by fillet welds or a full penetration weld depending
on the thickness. Tolerance control is necessary to avoid differences at the deck floor level, between stringers. The shear
loads are generally too high to allow a single or double sided notch as shown in Figure 3b since this results in a higher shear
stress, see Figure 2. In case of equal heights, no TTP requirements are necessary for the beams. For the connection of
beams with unequal heights, however, as shown in Figure 3a, the web of the main beam should have a TTP quality due to
the loads being transferred through the web thickness. Furthermore, to satisfy the requirements for avoidance of cold
cracking, etc., either the flange thickness of the intermediate beam should be less than 1,5 times the web thickness of the
main beam, or the material should have a low carbon content (see Lecture 2.5).
As an expensive alternative solution, a plate connecting the flanges can be slotted through the web, as shown in Figure 4.
Haunched alternatives are given in Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11.
All welds should be designed to have the strength of the connected parts.
As a consequence the connection is as strong as the member; only in case of large 'mouse holes' the shear stress and
possible local buckling of the unsupported web part [5] have to be checked.
The main beams, either rolled H sections or plate girders, must be connected to the deck legs, which are normally fabricated
tubular members. For a frame type structure, this connection should be rigid and capable of transmitting the yield moment
resistance of the connected beams. These connections, or nodes, are generally prefabricated, consisting of a tubular "can"
with surrounding "diamond" (diaphragm) plates for the connection with the beams, as shown in Figure 5. This type of
connection requires special material specifications and special welding procedures.
Stiffened Connections
The shear loads are transferred by the connection of the web plates to the tube walls. The moment is transmitted by the
diamond plate in combination with an effective ring width of the tubular "can". The design resistance, for factored loading, is
normally checked with the experimental Kamba formula, which is simplified by Kurobane [6] as follows:
NRd =
where:
NRd is the design resistance for the flange for factored loading
bf¢ =
Validity ranges:
The axial force in the flange N, is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 - t1) (see Figure 5). This formula is based on the test results for a
ring-stiffened joint with two opposite loads; more detailed research is currently being carried out [7]. In the case of multi-
planar loading, for four loads acting in the same sense, the joint strength will be greater. However, if the two loads in one
direction are tensile and the two in the direction perpendicular to that are compressive, the joint strength may be decreased.
Reference [7] reports that this decrease was found to be a maximum of 30%. Furthermore, if the deck leg is loaded by axial
compressive stress amounting to 60% of the yield value, the strength of the connection has to be reduced by 20%.
Non-Stiffened Connections
For truss type frames, the beam to deck leg connection has to transfer mainly axial loading and an unstiffened connection,
as shown in Figure 6, could be used; this is, however, not yet common practice. If sufficient deformation capacity exists, the
secondary bending moments can be neglected for static loading. If fatigue loading has to be checked, however, care should
be taken with these secondary bending moments, because the stress concentration factors at the flange to tubular
connection are rather high. For practical cases these stress concentration factors can be in the order of 10
NRd =
where:
NRd is the design strength for the flange for factored loading
Validity ranges:
0,4 £ b £ 1,0
For bending moments in-plane, the axial force N is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 -t1) as shown in Figure 5.
For an axial loading the flange connections can interact such that the connection strength (I to tubular) is not twice the
strength of one flange connection but:
NRd .
NSd £ NRd
Currently, for multi-planar loading with loads and moments acting in the opposite sense, the same 30% reduction in joint
strength as before is recommended, although initial investigations indicate that this may be conservative [10]. No reduction
has to be applied if the loads are acting in the same sense.
Columns between decks are necessary where external surfaces of the modules are clad, or where cantilevers or laydown
areas are provided. The connection with the deck beams can be flexible in the longitudinal direction if these columns have
only to withstand lateral loading. If, however, they are used to transfer loadings from cantilevers to both decks, the
connections should have the same strength as the column or they should have sufficient deformation capacity.
Figure 7 shows a possible full strength detail for columns connected to a plate girder, with possible connecting side beams
and an extended cantilever. Here the web of the plate girder is ended before the flange to allow a tubular section to be
welded between the flanges. I-beam sections, even with different depths, can be easily welded to this tubular section, and
the columns can be welded to the flanges.
The "joint can" should have about the same diameter and thickness as the column. In Figure 7 longitudinal beams and a
cantilever beam are also connected to this can. The bending moment resistance is here determined by the connection of the
bottom flange to the tubular can, similarly as discussed in Section 5.
7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Since the chords of the trusses are part of the deck floors, they are almost always made from an I or H-section; in
exceptional cases, welded box sections are used. The diagonals are tubular, rectangular hollow sections, or H sections; all
have their advantages and disadvantages with regard to material costs, maintenance and fabrication. Where these
diagonals are connected to an I section chord, the chord should be stiffened to obtain a full strength connection; it should be
kept in mind that intermediate beams may have to be connected to the chord at this location. The connection should be
designed in such a way that fabrication and inspection will be easily possible.
From a fabrication point of view, the connections with a gap between the braces are preferred. However the connections
with overlapped braces as shown in Figures 8c and 8d are stronger.
The connection strength may be governed by various criteria, depending on the geometry, i.e:
Within the scope of this lecture it is not possible to deal with all connections in detail, however one example is given for a
connection between tubular braces and an I-section chord as shown in Figure 9.
The strength of the connection for axial loads at the chord intersection (cross-section A) is governed by the effective width
area:
Aeff.c = 2 (bm1 tp + bm2 tw)
and
The effective widths bm1, bm2, be1 and be2 are given in Eurocode 3 (6.6.8 and Appendix K, Table K.8.2).
As an additional check the chord cross-section between the braces has to be checked for shear and shear in combination
with axial loading and bending moments, see Table K.8.2 of Eurocode 3.
The chord and braces have furthermore to satisfy the limits for d/t and h/t to avoid local buckling.
Weld failure and lamellar tearing should always be avoided by choosing full strength welds and proper selection of the steel
grade and quality.
In these cases where the joint strength is lower than the brace member strength, sufficient rotation capacity should be
available if the bending moments are neglected. Since it is difficult to show that sufficient deformation capacity exists due to
a lack of research evidence, either the bending moments have to be incorporated in the strength assessment or the joint is
stiffened to such an extent that the joint strength is larger than the brace member strength, e.g. as shown in Figure 10.
8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
The previous sections dealt with the most common types of connection; however, depending on the platform layout, other
types of connections may be necessary. Figure 11, for example, shows the connection between two panels of stiffened
plates. Here both panels are made by (semi) automatic welding processes. Allowance is made for welding tolerances by
welding the ends of the stringers after the fitting together of the panels. This procedure can be used for modules which are
designed using the stressed skin method.
Special provisions are necessary for lifting the modules; padeyes or trunnions, for example, can be provided for this purpose,
as shown in Figure 12; nowadays these devices are sometimes made of cast steel. It is important that these lifting devices
are designed in such a way that they can be connected to the deck structure at a later stage when the precise location of the
centre of gravity of the module, and the lifting method, are known.
Strength of padeyes is often assessed by means of "Lloyds" formulae, which are presented in the SWL (safe working load)
format.
N1 = 0,60 (a tL + 2 b tE) fy
N2 = 1,08 (c tL + (D - d) tE) fy
1,0 £ £ 8,0
and if £ 1,0
Tubular connections are not dealt with in this lecture since these are discussed in more detail in Lectures 13.2 and 13.3.
For offshore deck structures, built up from stiffened plate panels, reference should be made to Lectures 8.3 and 8.4.
For living quarters and helicopter decks, use can be made of the information in the previous sections.
9. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
The optimal design of offshore deck structures depends, to a large extent, on the coordination between the
specialists for the various disciplines; for the layout, coordination between structural, mechanical, electrical,
fabrication, load out and installation engineers is important.
The structural designer has to consider the fabrication sequence; the conditions for welding and inspection (e.g.
can it be welded properly?); the consequences of the choice of material grade and quality on the fabrication; and
the various load conditions.
In general, most connections can be designed with the basic formulae used for tubular connections and beam-to-
column connections. Background information is given in [1, 2, 9, 11 - 15].
Recently a study has been carried out to investigate the use of RHS in deck structures [16]. This shows that the
use of RHS, instead of beams, for deck trusses can be economical. However, due to restrictions in available sizes,
economical solutions are mainly found for smaller platform sizes and for secondary steelwork such as staircase
towers, access platforms and equipment supports.
10. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms". American
Petroleum Institute, 18th Edition, 1989
[2] AISC "Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings". American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago, 1980
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[4] Dijkstra, O.D., Wardenier, J. "The Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Splices with and without Mouseholes in IPE 400 and
HEM 320 beams". Paper 14 Int. Conference Weld Failures, November 1988, London
[5] Lindner, F. and Gietzeit, R. "Zur Tragfähigkeit ausgeklinkter Träger" Stahlbauwz. 1985.
[6] Kurobane, Y. "New Developments and Practices in Tubular Joint Design". IIW doc. XV-488-81/XIII-1004-81, International
Institute of Welding, 1981
[7] Rink, H.D., Wardenier, J. and Winkel, G.D. de "Numerical Investigation into the Static Strength of Stiffened I-Beam to
Column Connections". Proceedings International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Delft, June 1991. Delft University Press.
[8] Hertogs, A.A., Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "Stress Concentration Factors in Plate to Tube Connections". Proceedings
ASME/OMAE Conference, March 1989, Vol. II, pp. 719-727
[9] Wardenier, J. "Hollow Section Joints". Delft University Press, Delft, 1982
[10] Broek, T.J. van der, Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "The Influence of Multiplanar Loading on the Strength and Stiffness
of Plate to Tubular Column Connections". Proceedings International Conference "Welded Structures 90", London, UK,
November 1990
[11] DNV "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Fixed offshore Structures" 1977 (with corrections 1982)
[12] Lloyd's Register "Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Installation". London, July 1988
[13] IIW-XV-E "Design Recommendations for Hollow Section Joints - Predominantly Statically Loaded - 2nd edition". 1989,
IIW doc XV-701-89
[14] UEG "Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures". UEG, London, 1985 (3 volumes)
[15] Voss, R.P. "Lasteinleitung in geschweisste Vollwandträger aus Stahl im Hinblick auf die Bemessung von Lagersteifen".
Ph.D-Thesis, TU Berlin D83, 1983
[16] Guy, H.D. "Structural Hollow Sections for Topside Constructions". Steel Construction Today, 1990, 4
1. Marshall, P.W. "Design of Welded Tubular Connections: Basis and Use of AWS Provisions". Elsvier, 1991
2. Schaap, D., Pal, A.H.M. v.d., Vries, A. de., Dague. D. and Wardenier,J. "The Design of Amoco's 'Rijn' Production
Platform". Proceedings of the International Conference on Steel and Aluminium Structures, Cardiff, UK, 8-10 July
1987, Vol. Steel Structures
3. Paul, J.C., Valk, C.A.C. v.d., and Wardenier, J. "The Static Strength of Circular Multiplanar X-joints". Proceedings
of the third IIW International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Lappeenranta, September 1989