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Algal Scoping Study Report PDF
Algal Scoping Study Report PDF
PREFACE
Context
This study takes into consideration the outcome of an algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and facilitated through
NNFCC on 12 November 2009 1. Chapter 1 of this document an overview of current and past activity on algal R&D in the
UK is a direct response to one of the key recommendations made by the report on the outcomes of the DECC meeting.
The other recommendations are part of the evidence base considered for all sections of this document. Amongst others,
the study also builds on findings from the following reports:
NREL Close-Out Report A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energys Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from
Algae (July 1998) 2
Report by the Algal Biotechnology for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre A Technology Review and Roadmap for
Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales (2008) 3
NERC Proof of Concept Study for Marine Bioenergy (2008) 4
The Algal Industry Survey 2008 (published February 2009) 5
FAO-Report Algae-based Biofuels: A Review of Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Countries (May
2009) 6
US Department of Energy National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap (May 2010) 7
FAO-Report Algae-based Biofuels: Applications and Co-products (July 2010) 8
IEA Bioenergy Task 39 Report Current Status and Potential for Algal Biofuels Production (August 2010) 9
European Science Foundation Marine Board Position Paper 15 Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy
for Europe (September 2010) 10
Milken Institute Financial Innovations Lab Report Turning Plants into Products Delivering on the Potential of
Industrial Biotechnology (April 2011) 11
Nuffield Council on Bioethics Report Biofuels: Ethical Issues (April 2011) 12
AquaFUELS close-out reports (July 2011) 13
available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
available at www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24190.pdf
3
available at www.algaektc.com/A4B Microalgal Biotechnology, Technology Review and Road Map.pdf
4
available from NERC upon request
5
available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf
6
available at www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/aquaticbiofuels/docs/0905_FAO_Review_Paper_on_Algae-based_Biofuels.pdf
7
available at www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/algal_biofuels_roadmap.pdf
8
available at www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/aquaticbiofuels/docs/1007_FAO_ABB_REPORT_2010.pdf
9
available at www.task39.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=MNJ4s1uBeEs%3d&tabid=4348&language=en-US
10
available at www.esf.org/research-areas/marine-sciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
11
available at www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/publications.taf?function=detail&ID=38801269&cat=finlab
12
available at www.nuffieldbioethics.org/biofuels
13
will shortly become available at www.aquafuels.eu
2
ii
Disclaimer
The report in Chapter 1 aims at establishing where in the UK algal research is being carried out, and what topics are being
investigated. The information presented is based on the responses received from participants in a questionnaire, and on
stakeholder engagement. The scope of the report did not allow for quality control of the stakeholder responses, and
hence no qualitative judgement is made of the participants.
While care has been taken to be fully inclusive in the report, the limits of scope and time mean that there will without
doubt be algal players who unintentionally have been overlooked, and information may have been misinterpreted. The
author would appreciate it if she could be notified of any omissions or corrections needed, so that the correct information
can be passed on to BBSRC.
Definition of Algae
Following the definition of RE Lee 14, the term algae in this report is used to refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the
latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria, which are anoxygenic, are not included.
14
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was conducted by Beatrix Schlarb-Ridley (InCrops Enterprise Hub and Cambridge Bioenergy Initiative), with
substantial input from Michele Stanley (SAMS & NERC/TSB AB-SIG) on macroalgae and questionnaire design, Saul Purton
(UCL) on future opportunities for algae, and Steve Skill (PML) on UK algal industries.
The author is indebted to all algal researchers who have responded to the questionnaire on which Section 1.2 and
Appendix C are based, to Suzy Stoodley for invaluable support with collating the databases, and to Matthew Ridley for
proof-reading.
The draft report was reviewed by Derek Bendall, Chris Howe and Alison Smith; their helpful comments and provision of
additional information are gratefully acknowledged.
A particular thank you goes to Duncan Eggar, who commissioned this study, for highly constructive interaction from
conception to completion, and to colleagues who provided advice and input on specific areas of the report at various
stages. These include David Baulcombe, John Day, Enid MacRobbie, Joe McDonald, Vitor Vieira and in particular Adrian
Higson and Claire Smith, who under subcontract provided the majority of the market data in Chapter 3.
Photobioreactor image (BioFence): courtesy of Joe McDonald, Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd
Electron micrograph (dinoflagellate Mesoporos perforates): courtesy of Ian Joint, PML
Seaweed image (Laminaria digitata in Dunstaffnage Bay): courtesy of John Day, SAMS
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
AB-SIG
AD
AFRC
CCAP
CER
DoE
EPS
ETS
FAME
fte
GHG
HABS
HACCP
HRJ
HTL
HVO
IP
LCA
NOC
PBR
Pers. comm.
RD&D
PML
SAMS
sLoLa
SWOT
TRL
USW
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
OVERVIEW
Over recent years, algae 15 have received much attention in the media on an international level, primarily as a potential
source of renewable transportation fuels. They have been highlighted as a feedstock that is not tainted with the ethical
dilemmas of current, food-based biofuels: they do not require arable land; need not compete for freshwater but can grow
in marine, brackish or nutrient-rich waste water; and in addition can be used to scrub CO2 and NOx from flue gasses.
Furthermore, growth rates tend to be considerably faster compared to land plants (doubling times as little as 8 hours), oil
yields per unit area for some species are more than 20x higher than e.g. for oil seed rape (Scott et al. 2010), and as a
group their tremendous metabolic diversity offers a wide spectrum of potential fuel molecules.
However, the potential of this immensely diverse group of organisms to address major global challenges extends far
beyond their use as an energy feedstock. Applications for food, animal feed, materials (e.g. replacements for
petrochemicals), speciality products and in bioremediation services are in several cases more advanced than fuel
applications, and often do not require the same scale of production. As a consequence, they are more attractive for
adoption in the UK where space is limited. Importantly, algae offer great potential for developing novel biotechnological
applications, to underpin building a bio-based economy.
In the light of the global interest in algae, BBSRC commissioned this study because it wishes to understand whether it
should address fundamental research into the biology of algae in the context of a feedstock for energy and other
products, and if so, how.
This study is split into two parts; in Part I, it takes stock of current and past algal activity in the UK (Chapter 1), gives an
overview of algal interests globally (Chapter 2), and reviews markets for algal products and services (Chapter 3).
Part II builds on this information to analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light of current and
emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of international competition. It firstly reviews potential
opportunities for algal R&D to progress in plant science and biotechnology in general, with an emphasis on underpinning
food, energy and material security, and progressing biotechnology (Chapter 4). It then assesses the strengths of the UK
research capability on the global algae stage (Chapter 5), and moves on to analyse gaps in algal research value chains in
the UK (Chapter 6). Levels of risk, reward and importance of areas of RD&D required to promote the development of an
algal economy are assessed in Chapter 7. Finally, in Chapter 8, the outcomes of this study are compared to a previous
DECC report from 2009, entitled Assessing the Potential for Algae in the UK 16; progress against the recommendations of
this report are considered, and further recommendations are made.
15
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term algae in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
16
available from www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
v
17
The report does not claim to be inclusive, and makes no judgement on the quality of the research expertise collated in this
chapter.
18
The methodology has clear weaknesses: Only the major funding bodies have public databases that can be searched, hence
researchers funded through smaller foundations, or through industry, would not have been captured unless they were known to
the group of stakeholders with whom the list was cross-checked. False positives were also observed. Despite the limitations, the
results obtained with this methodology provide a useful indication of the variety of algal expertise in the UK.
19
c.f. key outcomes of DECC report (www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk; p.3)
vi
20
with its Aquatic Species Programme (the close-out report of which is available at www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24190.pdf),
as well as pioneering nutraceutical companies
21
Examples of recent substantial funding support include $24 million awarded by the US Department of Energy in June 2010 to
three research consortia to address the existing difficulties in the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels. Source:
www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/news_detail.html?news_id=16122
vii
These include the EU programme AquaFUELS 22, the European Algal Biomass Association 23, the FAO Aquatic Biofuels
Working Group 24, the India-based information resource Oilgae 25 and the US-based Algae Industry Magazine 26.
22
The final version of the AquaFUELS Report on Main Stakeholders is available at www.eabaassociation.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html
23
The EABA is in a constant process of updating and expanding the AquaFUELS list, to deliver an EABA Whos Who Directory of
Algae Stakeholders
24
www.fao.org/bioenergy/aquaticbiofuels/aquaticbiofuels-home/jp/
25
www.oilgae.com
26
Free daily email updates can be subscribed to via www.algaeindustrymagazine.com
viii
Fig. E.1: Phylogenetic tree highlighting the diversity and distribution of algae (boxed groups; colours indicate the
diversity of pigmentation) across the domains of life27. For comparison animals and land plants are encircled in red and
green, respectively.
If constructively supported algal R&D will contribute to solving major challenges, such as security of food, materials and
energy, and benefit the progress of biological and biotechnological disciplines in general.
Algal genomes and metabolomes can be mined for useful traits 28, such as tolerance to extremes of temperature,
irradiation, drought and salinity; these can be introduced into other crops. Likewise, valuable algal metabolites (e.g.
omega-3 and -6 fatty acids, vitamins, antioxidants, pigments, platform chemicals, precursors for plastics, pharmaceuticals)
can either be expressed in algae and/or their expression pathways introduced into other systems.
The field of artificial photosynthesis and solar fuels draws heavily on the wide design spectrum of light harvesting
solutions from pro- and eukaryotic algae. It is founded on the principles of nature, and uses them as starting points for
biomimetic systems. This also includes solar H2 production and CO2 reduction. Furthermore, the diversity of algal light
harvesting systems is the basis for engineering improved photosynthetic organisms that will use the entire visible
spectrum.
In addition, algal R&D can inform aspects of health and animal science, such as diseases caused by defective cilia, and can
further progress of fundamental science especially in the field of evolution.
One of the most promising areas, however, is the development of algae as a novel platform for industrial biotechnology.
This would not only address several shortcomings of existing cell-based expression systems, but importantly has the
potential to become a disruptive technology for plant sciences, i.e. a step to enable synthetic biology approaches to be
established and used in other plants and crops. Advantages of algal expression platforms such as Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii include
fast growth
short life cycles
ease and low cost of culturing
compatibility with high-throughput screening
high expression levels and solubility of metabolites and proteins
choice of chloroplast-based (i.e. resembling prokaryotic) or nuclear (i.e. eukaryotic) expression
potential to secrete products into the vacuole or the medium
minimal interference with inserted expression pathways.
27
ix
Bottlenecks for this value chain have included scarcity of dedicated funding support and of mechanisms by which
researchers can interact with industry in a meaningful way. Such interaction would help to identify pathways of
conducting world-class science; science which has outputs that are of high relevance to industry, and hence the potential
to identify routes to commercialisation. Encouraging steps in this direction have been taken by the Synthetic Plant
Products for Industry Network (SPPI-Net), who organised an Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop in London in March 2011 31.
The second value chain is intimately connected to the scale-up of algal production and hence requires integrated multidisciplinary work across a spectrum of science and engineering disciplines. Laboratory-based biological and
biotechnological work is in most cases still essential; however, it has to be informed by the requirements imposed by the
entire pipeline (since improvements in one area may introduce difficulties in another), and needs to develop integrative
approaches underpinned by sound LCA and ecological assessments. Outputs are likely to be in the form of co-products
and include: base commodities such as biomass for energy generation and bulk animal feed; high value products such as
speciality feeds / foods, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals; and bioremediation services such as waste water clean-up and
CO2 / NOx scrubbing.
Bottlenecks for this value chain include a lack of trained personnel with a sound grasp of algal biology, ecology and
engineering (this is a global problem 32), and of solid data that can feed into modelling approaches (especially the allimportant life cycle and sustainability analyses). A key gap is the provision of funding opportunities that encourage
researchers to collaborate and develop synergies between their research activities. Such funding would best be delivered
under the umbrella of a strategic research agenda which has been developed with the buy-in of the research community.
To address the bottlenecks in both value chains, it is recommended that BBSRC together with other Research Councils and
funding bodies such as TSB, and in consultation with academia and industry, develop a joined-up strategy for algal value
chains in the UK. This would need to be followed up with integrated funding 33 appropriate to the various bodies involved.
A strategic approach to funding will ensure that the algal research strengths, which the UK undoubtedly possesses, will be
counted on the international stage, and that the benefit of this expertise will be felt in the UK directly through
underpinning the development of a national bio-based economy.
Strategic funding should include a cross-council Graduate Training Programme to build capacity in graduates and postdocs with a sound understanding of the biological, engineering and environmental challenges, the integrated solutions to
which are so crucial for successful commercialisation of algal technologies. Another priority area should be the
establishment of a peer-reviewed, open access database for information to feed into modelling studies and life cycle and
sustainability analyses.
31
Concerning RD&D that will further improve and optimise existing applications for energy, high value products and
bioremediation services, highest levels of reward and importance are ascribed to:
establishing test / pilot / demonstration sites for macro- and microalgal projects
capacity building for multidisciplinary work
achieving sustained growth of desired strains with stable desired characteristics
optimisation of growth on medium derived from AD liquid digestate.
The INTERREG initiatives BioMara and EnAlgae described in Chapter 1 34 will contribute to addressing these issues, but a
much larger coordinated effort across the UK is needed to fulfil the potential algae have to contribute to sustainable
economic growth.
In the medium and long term, the outputs of the RD&D areas described above should converge in the concept of an
integrated biorefinery, where algal biomass dedicated crops and/or residual biomass after extraction of high value
compounds from industrial biotechnology approaches would be fractionated into its useful components. Theoretically
these comprise
Caveats include that only a subset of end uses will be appropriate for any given feedstock, and that all developments need
to be underpinned by sound life cycle and sustainability analyses. With these in place, however, algae can be developed
into a highly versatile branch of the bio-based economy.
34
Section 1.2.3
The report is available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk.
36
ibid p. 7
37
c.f. Section 1.2.3; the future of the Carbon Trust ABC is uncertain, since public funding was withdrawn in March 2011
35
xii
The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group (AB-SIG) is intended to provide a centralised point for strategy
development, dissemination, information on funded projects and activity coordination 39. However funding for the
Director (0.2 FTE) and the three research fellows (together 2.5 FTE) is only secured for two years. This initiative is an
excellent start, and has the potential to make a significant impact. If the momentum is to be maintained, it is essential that
follow-up funding (certainly for the strategic leadership aspects of the project) is secured, and preferably at increased
levels; the challenge of high-level coordination of R&D across the UK cannot be met appropriately with a 0.2 FTE
appointment.
Concerning funding for wider algal research, the situation has worsened since 2009. The withdrawal of funding from the
Carbon Trust ABC 40 in April 2011 has been a blow not only to the 12 research teams involved, but also to the reputation of
the UK internationally, since this project had been portrayed as the UK flagship for applied algal RD&D. As the 2009 DECC
report stated, A combination of lack of leadership, focus and clear policy objectives has resulted in the UK missing
opportunities in algae development and it is clear the UK is now lagging behind other countries, most notably the USA39.
This gap has widened in the intervening time; it has to be recognised that it will grow to unsustainable levels unless steps
are taken to mitigate the recent loss of funding and the lack of cohesion between algal researchers.
Recommendations
To develop the algal R&D field as a whole, it is recommended that BBSRC should work with the other Research Councils,
the AB-SIG and stakeholders in academia and industry to assess which areas of algal research value chains the UK is best
placed to develop, and thereby formulate a strategy for algal R&D in the UK. This strategy would best be realised by
bringing the currently fragmented multidisciplinary algal research community together under the umbrella of a UK Virtual
Centre of Excellence on Algae, with core funding being provided from across the Councils and Industry. Research would be
funded e.g. through directed responsive mode grants and strategic longer and larger grants; a condition of such grants
would be that the grantholder works with the Centre in the promotion of algal bioscience.
In order to pull algal R&D outputs through to commercialisation and consequently make their benefits tangible for the
UKs emerging bio-economy, a joined-up approach across the Research Councils, TSB and all relevant Government
Departments is needed. The Government has recognised the importance of mechanisms that facilitate the translation of
the UKs world class research capabilities into economic benefit, and with the initiative to create Technology Innovation
Centres has provided a funding mechanism to do so. The Research Councils may want to cooperate in engaging with the
relevant Government Departments and TSB to create a national strategy on algae that spans research, development and
deployment, and may recommend to the Government the establishment of an algal Technology Innovation Centre.
The combination of a strategically funded academic Centre of Excellence on Algae with a Technology Innovation Centre
that takes step-changing research outputs through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong
pipeline. Such a pipeline would guarantee high impact of UK algal research. It would provide direct benefit to the UK by
both determining and realising the potential that algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy: it will in
the short to medium term develop tangible solutions, and at the same time ensure that underpinning science is being put
in place to address the long term challenges to mankind.
38
c.f. meeting report of SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop on 24 March 2011, available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
39
2009 DECC Report Assessing the Potential for Algae in the UK, p. 3; available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-thepotential-for-algae-in-the-uk
40
www.carbontrust.co.uk/emerging-technologies/current-focus-areas/algae-biofuels-challenge/pages/algae-biofuelschallenge.aspx
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. ii
BBSRC Statement of Intent ........................................................................................................................................... ii
Context .......................................................................................................................................................................... ii
Disclaimer..................................................................................................................................................................... iii
Definition of Algae ....................................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................................... iv
Images on Title Page .................................................................................................................................................... iv
Glossary of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................ iv
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... v
1. Current and Past Algal Activity in the UK ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 History of Academic Algal Research Excellence in the UK ...................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Underpinning the Progress of General Bioscience .......................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Laying Foundations for Algal Bioscience .......................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Current Algal Academic Expertise in the UK ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 Collation of Directory of Algal Researchers in the UK...................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Questionnaire of Algal Researchers in the UK: Analysis of Responses ............................................................ 5
1.2.2.1 Statistics of keywords on research interests ............................................................................................ 5
1.2.2.2 Spectrum of Algal Expertise at Academic Institutions in the UK .............................................................. 6
1.2.2.3 Past and Present Funders of Algal R&D in the UK .................................................................................. 10
1.2.2.4 Key Challenges and Opportunities for Algal R&D, as Seen by Participants ............................................ 11
1.2.3 Named Current Algal Initiatives and Clusters of Activity ............................................................................... 13
1.2.3.1 BioMara ................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.3.2 NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group.................................................................................. 14
1.2.3.3 INTERREG IVB NW Europe Strategic Initiative Energetic Algae ............................................................ 14
1.2.3.4 Algal Biotechnology Consortium ............................................................................................................. 15
1.2.3.5 Technology Innovation Centre at CPI...................................................................................................... 16
1.2.3.6 SURF / Oasis Network at Cranfield University ........................................................................................ 16
1.2.3.7 European Bioenergy Research Institute / Aston University ................................................................... 16
1.2.3.8 Carbon Trust Algae Biofuels Challenge ................................................................................................... 17
1.2.4 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.3 Past and Present Industrial Strengths on Algae in the UK .................................................................................... 19
1.3.1 Microalgae ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.3.1.1 History of Companies in the UK .............................................................................................................. 19
1.3.1.2 Companies Currently Operational .......................................................................................................... 21
1.3.2 Macroalgae .................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.2.1 History of Exploitation ............................................................................................................................ 22
1.3.2.2 Macroalgal UK Industries ........................................................................................................................ 22
xiv
xvi
PART I
TAKING STOCK ALGAL ACTIVITY IN THE UK & ELSEWHERE, AND RELEVANT MARKETS
BBSRC commissioned this study because it wishes to understand whether it should address fundamental research into the
biology of algae 41 in the context of a feedstock for energy and other products, and if so, how. To facilitate this, the study in
Part I takes stock of current and past algal activity in the UK (Chapter 1), then gives an overview of algal interests globally
(Chapter 2), and finally reviews markets for algal products and services (Chapter 3). Part II will build on this information to
analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the light of current and emerging opportunities for algal R&D,
and in the context of international competition.
With 23 pages, Chapter 1 makes up 40% of the entire report; an indication of the wealth of algae-related expertise in the
UK. Those for whom a detailed picture of past and present algal expertise in the UK is not of interest, may find it helpful to
read the overview of Chapter 1 in the executive summary, and move from there to the chapters that are of highest
relevance to their interests. Chapters are designed to be to a certain extent self-contained 42.
41
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term algae in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
42
This leads to a certain level of repetition; those who read the report in its entirety are kindly asked to be tolerant of that fact.
43
The report aims at giving representative examples of the spectrum of algal expertise, but due to the limit in scope and
available time cannot claim to be exhaustive. In particular, the scope did not allow for quality control of the stakeholder
responses, and hence no qualitative judgement is made of the participants.
Nitrogen fixation: The mechanisms of this important metabolic pathway have been studied using
cyanobacteria by e.g. GE Fogg FRS (Bangor) since the late 1950s (Fogg and Tun 1958) and William DP Stewart
FRS (Dundee) since the early 1960s (Stewart 1962) 44.
Ion transport: In the 1960s and 70s giant algal cells were used as a model organisms for ground-breaking work
elucidating protoplasmic streaming and ion transport physiology by e.g. the group of Enid AC MacRobbie FRS
(Cambridge) (Macrobbie EAC 1969).
Cell development: Major progress on understanding the mechanisms of Ca2+ signalling and cell development
using Fucus serratus has been made by Colin Brownlee and co-workers (Plymouth MBA) since the 1980s
(Brownlee 1986).
Photo protection: Major contributions to the understanding of photo protection through carotenoid
production have been made by Andrew J Young (Liverpool John Moores); this work now also underpins
commercial astaxanthin production internationally (Young 1991).
Structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus: Cyanobacteria and microalgae have been used for
many years as molecular-genetic systems for elucidating the structure and function of the electron-transfer
complexes involved in light-capture and energy transduction, and as source material for structural studies of
these complexes (e.g. the determination of the electron transfer pathway in Photosystem I by Mike Evans
and colleagues at UCL (Nugent 2003), and the crystal structure of Photosystem II by So Iwata and Jim Barber
at Imperial College (Iwata and Barber 2004)).
44
The latter is also an example of a brilliant phycologist who then moved on to gain national political influence, first as Head of
AFRC, and then as Chief Scientific Advisor to the Thatcher Government (1990-95).
2
Table 1.1: Examples of now-retired UK pioneers in algal biology who have contributed to the foundations of algal
biochemistry, physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy and ecology, often with high relevance to plant science more generally
(ordered chronologically by early publications)
Research area
Researcher
Organisation
Felix E Fritsch
John WG Lund
FRS
Algal photosynthesis
CP
Whittingham
Frank E Round
FT Walker
Algal photosynthesis
Dinoflagellates
Irene Manton
Donald H
Northcote FRS
Brian A
Whitton
Tony (AE)
Walsby, Peter
Fay
John Raven
Barry
Leadbeater
Manton and
Clarke 1950
Whittingham
1952
Round 1953
Walker 1954
Durham
London (Westfield) /
Bristol
Fay and
Walsby 1966
Dundee
Birmingham
Raven 1967
Leadbeater
and Dodge
1967
Hood and Carr
1969
Talling 1970
NG Carr
Freshwater Biological
Association
Leeds
John F (Jack)
Talling
Len V Evans,
AO Christie
David O Hall,
KK Rao
Carbon metabolism
Cyanobacterial toxins
A J Smith
GA Codd
Aberystwyth
Dundee
Mike Evans,
Jonathan
Nugent
Dave Adams
University College
London
John R Sargent
Stirling
Lund 1942
Northcote et
al. 1958
Whitton 1965
Biofouling
Early
publications
Fritsch 1903
Evans and
Christie 1970
Hall et al.
1971; Rao et
al. 1971
Smith 1973
Codd and
Stewart 1973
Evans et al.
1976; Nugent
et al. 1981
Adams and
Carr 1981
Sargent et al.
1985
The integration of photobioreactors with anaerobic digestion, established in 1983 by Steve Skill, Lancaster
University, as a consequence of BBSRC funded research.
The first tubular photobioreactors, designed by Prof. John Pirt, Queen Elizabeth College, London in 1986
now a very common design used for high value algal products.
A method of fuelling diesel engines with powdered microalgae, developed by Dr Paul Jenkins of the University
of the West of England in collaboration with Biotechna Ltd 48.
Early wall photobioreactors (Biofence) were adapted from the Biocoil design (Biotechna Ltd) by Dr Paul
Jenkins of the University of the West of England in 1995 49. The Biofence mantle has since been taken up by a
succession of companies including Applied Photosynthetics Ltd, Biosynthesis Ltd, CellPharm Ltd, Biofence Ltd
and latterly Varicon Aqua Ltd.
The examples from recent history given above highlight how R&D on algae carried out in the UK in the last century has
brought bioscience forward in general, and has laid strong foundations which both algal research and several industrial
applications are now building on world-wide.
45
cross-checked. False positives were also obtained 52. Despite these limitations, the results gained with this methodology
provide a useful indication of the variety of algal expertise in the UK, and in response to the recommendations of the
2009 DECC-report on algae 53 could be used as a starting point for establishing centralised access to information on
funded projects and research activities 54.
52
Several researchers indicated that, although they had been in receipt of a grant that contained one of the relevant keywords
mentioned in Footnote 6, algae were too peripheral to their research interest for them to participate in the questionnaire.
53
Report on algal stakeholder meeting called by DECC and facilitated through NNFCC on 12 November 2009
(http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk); p.3
54
The list of stakeholders has been assembled in collaboration with the Director of the NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special
Interest Group (AB-SIG), and will feed into that initiative.
5
Table 1.2: Summary of questionnaire responses: Number of researchers interested in each keyword, and subset for
whom this is a primary research interest.
Keyword
Macroalgae
Microalgae
Marine
Freshwater
Applied research
Fundamental Research
Environmental issues
Bioenergy
Algal communities
Algal productivity
Photosynthesis
Carbon capture
Food/feed
Waste water treatment
Bioremediation
Nutraceuticals
Platform chemicals
Integrated industrial growth
Photobioreactor design
Pharmaceuticals
Aquaculture
Biofouling
Synthetic biology
Bioprospecting
Cosmeceuticals
55
15
127
33
101
21
80
8
98
14
98
19
73
14
66
16
63
10
62
8
48
9
43
5
38
5
32
5
30
5
27
2
24
4
24
3
23
4
22
1
21
5
20
3
18
1
16
0
14
1
Other: algae/seaweed fly interactions, algal interface, bacteria-algae cross talk, beached wrack ecosystems, behaviour, being
able to generate sterile cultures of macroalgae to allow accurate sequencing of transcriptomes and genomes, benthic C
cycling, biodiversity (x3), biofilms, biofuels, biogeochemistry, biogeography, biological oceanography, biomass processing (x3),
calcification, cavitation for cell destruction, cell biology, (chemical) ecology (x3), chloroplast (x2), climate change (x2), cloud
formation and coastal regional climate, coastal particle formation, conservation, development, diseases, drinking water
supply, ecological impacts of surf raking, economic impact & analysis (x2), (eco)toxicology (x6), EPS production,
eutrophication control, evolution (x2), fertilizer recycling, financial viability, gene control of development, genomics (x4),
HABS, HTL, human health, impact of large algal fields on atmospheric chemistry (e.g. emissions of halocarbons), impact of
microalgal biopolymer exudate on the formation and properties of primary marine aerosol and their climate impacts, invasive
species, lichenized algae, life support systems, macroalgal emissions of iodine and impact on gaseous photochemistry,
metabolomics, microbial fuel cells, modelling, monitoring, motility, nature conservation, nutrition, ocean acidification,
palaeobiology, pathogens (x3), phenotypic plasticity, phylogenetics, polysaccharides (x2), predator-prey interaction,
reproductive biology, scaling up, soil crusts, speciation, taxonomy, temporal & spatial distribution, trace gases (x2), USW cell
filtration, viruses (x3)
Table 1.3: Algae-related research expertise at research institutions in the UK, as given by respondents to questionnaire
University /
Institute
Aberdeen
Spectrum of expertise
Bangor
bioactive natural products from marine organisms; deep time algal ecology ; algal culture; isotope
enrichment; fatty acid analysis; fate of algal material in marine ecosystems; oomycete-algae
interactions
chemical engineering applied to bioenergy and biofuels; bioenergy, intermediate pyrolysis, gasification,
biochar, algae
biology, physics and economics large scale algal biomass/biofuels production
Bath
Birmingham
algal bioadhesion and biofouling; plant development and evolution; environmental toxicology;
improved light delivery and photobioreactors
microalgal culture, physiological assessment, flow cytometry, metabolic stains
Aston
Bournemouth
Bristol
Cambridge
Cardiff
Centre for
Environment,
Fisheries and
Aquaculture Science
algal photosynthesis; impact of pesticides on biofilms; distribution patterns of macro and microalgae;
UK expert diatom taxonomy; use of algae to assess ecological status; freshwater polar algal ecology;
Polar microbiology, biogeochemistry, aquatic microbial ecology
molecular biology, biochemistry and evolution of biosynthetic pathways and photosynthesis in plants
and algae, bioenergy; functional genomics tools (RNAi); algal-bacterial symbiosis; freshwater ecology,
bioremediation; process engineering, carbon capture; biological physics, fluid dynamics, nonlinear
dynamics; artificial photosynthesis, solar fuels; algal biophotovoltaics; molecular genetics of algae;
eukaryotic flagellar dynamics and synchronization; colloidal physics; biological chemistry,
microdroplets, microfluidics; engineering/chemical engineering and reactors; evolutionary paleobiology
productivity, photophysiology, coastal erosion and biostability; lipid biochemistry and molecular
biology
flow cytometry, phytoplankton, productivity/biomass, North Sea
Cranfield
microbiology, biocatalysis; large scale production of biofuels, bioprocessing technology & innovation;
outdoor offshore microalgae mass cultivation for biofuel production systems: productivity modelling
and engineering; algae growth, harvesting and processing systems; environmental microbiology,
biological processes
freshwater diatom ecophysiology, taxonomy, morphology with interest in using diatoms as bioindicators and possibility of using algae as food & fuel source
Department for
Communities and
Local Government
Dundee
Durham
East Anglia
Edinburgh
Environmental
Research Institute
Essex
University /
Institute
Exeter
Glasgow
Greenwich
Imperial
Kings College
London
Lancaster
Environment Centre
Leeds
Liverpool
Liverpool John
Moores University
Loughborough
Manchester
atmospheric science, marine boundary layer chemistry, photochemistry, aerosol processes, aerosolcloud interactions; metal accumulation and remediation, calcium signalling; molecular genetics;
fermentation process development, biorefinery engineering; ultrasound standing wave cell filtration,
concentration and destruction
algal cell biology, phytoplankton molecular biology, algal development and signalling; isolation and
culturing of marine microalgae; molecular biology, virology
ecology and diversity of cyanobacteria, phylogenetics; algal physiology, algal culturing, gene expression;
algal systematics, phylogenetics, genomics and conservation; evolution, genomics, phylogenetics, gene
transfer, endosymbiosis
chemical engineering, intensification of downstream processes; algae chemical signalling; chemical
manipulation; growth and lipid production; bioactive metabolites; biogas; anaerobic digestion;
harvesting and dewatering; offshore production; seaweed fibre rheology and human gut function; algal
functional groups, intertidal macroalgal ecology, plant-animal interactions, algal defence mechanisms,
release of CDOM by macroalgae
bacterial cell-cell signalling, quorum sensing, cross-talk; chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments,
palaeolimnology, aquatic ecology; lichen ecology, nitrogen fixation in cyanobacterial lichens
isotopic fractionation in the calcareous nanoplankton; isotope geochemistry of algal biominerals and
organic components; algal remains as tracers of past climate change; ecological and biogeochemical
response to environmental change; chloroplast development; evolution of land plants; carbon
acquisition by marine algae, geochemistry of calcite and silica produced by algae, Rubisco kinetics and
CCM function, paleoclimate
macroalgal ecology, carbon sequestration, ocean acidification e.g. biophysics of photosynthesis; solar
conversion efficiency
molecular biology, protein chemistry, drug discovery; marine environmental research, phytoplankton,
algal, pigments, biotechnology; algal biochemistry and biotechnology; algal biochemistry and
biotechnology; optics, photosynthesis, primary production, phytoplankton biology, remote sensing;
algal molecular biology; algal virology; biofuel production; algae, algal viruses, bioprocessing,
biocatalysis
biogeochemistry, algae-nutrient interactions; molecular ecology; population biology/genetics; marine
aliens
cell biology, biophysics, regulation of photosynthesis, biogenesis and turnover
Marine Biological
Association
Natural History
Museum
Newcastle
Nottingham
Oxford
Plymouth
Plymouth Marine
Laboratory
Portsmouth
Queen Mary London
Queen's Belfast
algal systematics, life histories, some applications; physiological ecology of marine algae; applications
and aquaculture of seaweeds; economic exploitation of macroalgae; water movement and macroalgal
growth
8
University /
Institute
Reading
Rothamsted
Research
Royal Botanic
Garden Edinburgh
Scottish Association
for Marine Science
Scottish
Environment
Protection Agency
Scottish Crop
Research Institute
Sheffield
Southampton
(including National
Oceanography
Centre)
St Andrews
biology of microalgae, especially diatom systematics and evolution; desmids- ecology, community
ecology, taxonomy and climatic distribution, with a habitat focus on scottish blank mires
biological resources, algal biofuels, algal biotechnology, protistan cryopreservation, protozoan & algal
culturing; algal diseases and pathogens, algal functional and environmental genomics; oomycete-algae
interactions; biological resources, algal biofuels, algal biotechnology
taxonomy and ecology; monitoring of macroalgae for regulatory agency, including development of
monitoring tools
phytochemsitry of seaweeds related to health benefits
photosynthesis and primary metabolism in diatoms; metabolic engineering; synthetic biology; systems
biology; proteomics; bioreactor design, transport processes; enzymology, membrane assembly,
spectroscopy; algal growth, physiology, biotechnology
molecular biology of chloroplast development; photobiology; tetrapyrroles; algal biofuel,
photosynthesis in marine systems, structure/evolution of photosynthetic enzymes; algal bloom control,
marine taxonomy
Stirling
fisheries; bioactive products; microalgal defence; bioinformatics, genomics, phylogeny; diatoms, coastal
ecology, biodiversity and ecosystem function; coastal ecology and sediment dynamics
evolutionary ecology, conservation biology; underwater optics, remote sensing, cyanobacteria
Strathclyde
Surrey
Swansea
algal growth and nutrition (experimental and modelling); plankton predator-prey and hence biosecurity
issues etc. (experimental and modelling); microalgal biomass production (esp PBRs); algal
bioremediation; algal use in aquaculture; photo-bioreactor design; downstream processing of algal
biomass; algal biotechnology and physiology; biochemical engineering, membrane filtration; bioprocessing microalgal harvesting, disruption & fractionation; microalgal physiology
diatoms, lake processes & production
Ulster
University College
London
West of England
diatoms; ecology and palaeoecology; shallow lake and pond palaeolimnology, limnology;
palaeoecology, diatoms, wetlands, lakes; algal biotechnology, genetic engineering, orgenelle biology,
photosynthesis
molecular ecology of marine picocyanobacteria and photosynthetic picoeukaryotes; niche adaptation
mechanisms in marine picocyanobacteria; picocyanobacterial genomics and molecular biology; metal
homeostasis in cyanobacteria and other organisms, in particular zinc; bio-analytical chemistry including
elemental analysis and mass spectrometry; environmental microbiology, methylotrophy, trace gas
metabolism
microbiology, microbial fuel cells, microbial volatiles, robotics; molecular biology, biochemistry
Westminster
microalgal life cycles; dinoflagellates; taxonomy (traditional and molecular); isolation and culturing
York
Warwick
Analysis of expertise
Based on the outcome of the questionnaires, the UK has clear strength in ecological research the key word ecology
was mentioned by 26 institutions as part of their expertise, environmental by 11 institutions. Biological expertise was
similarly prevalent (biology mentioned by 20 institutions). Of the biological disciplines and research areas,
photosynthesis research, molecular biology and physiology were most widespread, followed by biochemistry, taxonomy,
metabolism, phytoplankton research and biotechnology.
Expertise in the marine environment appears to be more widespread than in fresh water (mentioned by 13 versus 3
institutions, respectively; indeed the decline of freshwater science in the UK was highlighted by several contributors, c.f.
Section 1.2.2.4 and Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3).
There is also considerable expertise in the more applied areas of biomass / biofuel production and chemical and
process engineering (mentioned by 7 and 6 institutions, respectively).
An overall assessment of how this wealth and diversity of expertise may be brought together to capitalise on its
strengths, and to address key challenges our society faces, is given in Section 1.2.4.
denoi t ne ms e m
i t f o r eb mu
70
60
50
40
30
20
Past
10
Present
Of past and present funders, NERC plays the most significant role in the responses received (mentioned 109 times in Table
C.3), followed by EU/EC funding (mentioned 58 times). BBSRC comes next, followed by EPSRC (mentioned 44 vs 33 times).
Significant funding is also provided by the Royal Society (mentioned 23 times), the Carbon Trust (pre-funding cuts;
mentioned 20 times) and the Leverhulme Trust (mentioned 14 times). Only a few groups have reported funding from ERC,
TSB and ESRC (mentioned 6, 5 and 1 times respectively). Industry plays a significant role in the funding landscape.
Based on the questionnaire results, the number of algal researchers receiving funding from NERC, the Royal Society, TSB
and ESRC has decreased, whereas the pool of those receiving funding from the EU/EC, EPSRC, Carbon Trust (pre funding
cuts) and ERC has increased. No change was seen in the number of algal researchers receiving funding from BBSRC and the
Leverhulme Trust. However, it needs to be stressed that this is based on the responses of 185 researchers only, and no
indication on the amount of funding in each case is given, hence this is a poor indicator of levels of, and commitment to,
funding for algal research.
The impact of the funding landscape, and in particular of the apparent lack of coherence and overall strategy on algae
across the spectrum of funders, has been commented on in the 2009 DECC report55, and is discussed further in Section
1.2.4.
55
1.2.2.4 Key Challenges and Opportunities for Algal R&D, as Seen by Participants
When asked in the questionnaire where they saw the key challenges and opportunities for algal research in the next 5 / 10
/ 25 years, participants provided a large body of data which is given in Appendix C (Tables C.4.1, C.4.2 and C.4.3,
respectively). A pictorial representation of the frequency with which key words were mentioned was obtained by feeding
the collated responses, after deleting the terms alga / algae / algal, into the online resource www.wordle.net see Figs 1.2
and 1.3 below. Size of the depicted words is correlated to the frequency with which they were mentioned; choice of
colours and colour-depth are arbitrary. The largest number of responses was received for the 5 year timescale (137),
fewer for the 10 year timescale (110) and fewest for the 25 year timescale (80). The answers provided have also been fed
into the SWOT analysis in Chapter 5 (Table 5.1), and into the overview of RD&D needed to develop algal products and
services (Chapter 7; Table 7.1).
Fig. 1.2: Wordle depiction of challenges for algal research given by participants on a timescale of 5 (top), 10 (middle)
and 25 (bottom) years
11
Fig. 1.3: Wordle depiction of opportunities for algal research given by participants on a timescale of 5 (top), 10 (middle)
and 25 (bottom) years
12
Analysis of Challenges
On the 5 year timescale, the most widely recognised 56 challenges included increasing understanding15x of algae through
research17x, and addressing energy issues ((bio)fuel(s)18x, (bio)energy7x). Funding17x was seen as a major issue, followed by
addressing environmental / climate change12x, efficiency and scale-up of production12x, and working in a systems11x
context (model / growth / environmental systems and systems biology).
Moving to the 10 year timescale, the energy sector was seen as the primary challenge ((bio)fuel(s)12x, (bio)energy6x),
followed by the effects of climate8x change, and developing efficient production8x systems. Maintaining, expanding,
integrating and applying the knowledge5x base were still seen as challenging, as were developing both systems and
synthetic biology6x.
Finally, on the 25 year timescale, the energy sector had firmly moved into 1st position ((bio)fuel(s)15x, (bio)energy6x),
followed by issues surrounding scale-up of production9x for industrial use, climate and environmental change7x, and
management5x of resources, wastes and processes.
Analysis of Opportunities
The opportunities given for the 5-year timescale to some extent mirrored the priorities of the challenges: novel research
outputs17x and increased understanding9x were seen as key opportunities, linked in with the development7x or discovery of
new12x models, strains, tools, technologies, networks, bioactives and products. Again the energy sector was rated highly
((bio)fuel(s)18x, energy7x), as was solving issues around production14x.
On the 10 year timescale, production10x at scale11x had become the most recognised opportunity, and followed by the
energy sector ((bio)fuel(s)11x, (bio)energy9x). In terms of research, marine, synthetic, molecular, systems and ecosystem
biology6x was given a high profile, so was the development of new products7x, strains5x and technologies5x.
In analogy to the challenges, on the 25 year timescale again the energy sector scored highest ((bio)fuel(s)10x, energy5x),
followed by production9x of chemical, food, feed, energy and bespoke products in a biorefining context and at scale6x.
Synthetic biology6x, and integration4x of production with other processes were also highlighted as areas of great potential
at this timescale.
In summary, on a short timescale the importance of increasing fundamental understanding through research was
highlighted; lack of funding, and of qualified personnel, was seen as a major threat. Production was a key issue
throughout, with the need for progression from the current RD&D stage through the different levels of scale-up to full
industrial scale. Likewise, mitigation of the effects of climate change, and addressing the energy challenge, played a major
role throughout, and were given increased relative importance with increasing timescale. In parallel to the development
of efficient and integrated production systems for low and high value products in the medium and long term, participants
emphasised the opportunities created by advancing research outputs, such as systems biology / omics, and synthetic
biology.
56
based on an analysis of the number of contributions mentioning each key word, given as superscripts to the key word
The scope of the report did not allow for quality control of the information provided on the quoted websites, and hence no
qualitative judgement is made of the indicated expertise.
13
57
2009 and will run to 2012. Its research investigates macro- and microalgae for their potential to provide sustainable fuel,
and studies the environmental, social and economic impacts of using marine biofuel.
The project is funded by the European Union (INTERREG IVA), the Governments of the Republic of Ireland, Northern
Ireland and Scotland, the Crown Estates and the Highlands & Islands Enterprise.
Participants and their research areas are:
Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) at the Scottish Marine Institute (www.sams.ac.uk; Lead Partner):
Analysis of microalgal strains (screening of microalgae cultures, development of gene probes for monitoring oil
production, analysis of oil content, optimising growth conditions, macroalgal cultivation, environmental impacts
of using storm caste seaweed for biofuel production, Anaerobic Digestion, bioethanol production)
The Centre for Renewable Energy at Dundalk Institute of Technology (CREDIT), Ireland
(ww2.dkit.ie/research/research_centres/credit): Biomass for Anaerobic Digestion and bioethanol production
(Anaerobic Digestion (AD), bioethanol production)
Fraser of Allander Institute, University of Strathclyde, Scotland (www.strath.ac.uk/fraser/): Economic, social and
techno-economic impacts of the generation of biofuel from marine algae (microeconomic cost-benefit analysis,
macroeconomic impacts of the development of a mari-fuels industry in Scotland and the North of Ireland, technoeconomic evaluation of systems and options)
Centre for Sustainable Technologies and Nanotechnology and Integrated Biotechnology Centre, University of
Ulster, Northern Ireland (www.nibec.ulster.ac.uk; www.cst.ulster.ac.uk/): Involved in economic, social and
techno-economic impacts; expertise also in pyrolysis of biomass to produce gas and oil, extraction of useful
chemicals from biomass
Institute of Technology, Sligo, Ireland (www.itsligo.ie): Involved in biomass for Anaerobic Digestion and bioethanol
production
The Questor Centre, The Queens University Belfast, Northern Ireland (http://questor.qub.ac.uk/): Development
of downstream processing (expertise in steam processing and reforming of hydrocarbons for bioenergy from
marine algae)
1.2.3.3 INTERREG IVB NW Europe Strategic Initiative Energetic Algae (EnAlgae; website to be announced shortly)
This initiative, funded from 2011 for 4.5 years, comprises 19 partners from the UK (7), Belgium (5), Germany (3), Ireland
(2), The Netherlands (1), and France (1), and is led by the UK (Swansea University).
Energetic Algae aims to reduce CO2 emissions and dependency on unsustainable energy sources in NW Europe, by
accelerating the development of sustainable technologies for algal biomass production, bioenergy and greenhouse gas
mitigation from pilot phase to application and marketable products, processes and services. This is achieved by bundling
know-how, finance and political support together. The project comprises three Work Packages:
WP1: To maximise the transnational value of pilot scale algal culture facilities across NW Europe, by creating an integrated
Network that incorporates an up-to-date inventory of current and planned pilots. Representative pilots collect and share
data and best practices in a standardised manner, and provide demonstrations to diverse project partners, observers and
stakeholders.
WP2: To identify the political, economic, social and technological opportunities to exploit algal biomass within the context
of NW Europe, delivering much needed information for policy makers, industry and investors on which algal production
systems, standards and end use markets are applicable in the region.
WP3: To combine information across the algal bioenergy delivery chain into an ICT tool that can guide decisions, identify
gaps in knowledge and capability and provide a roadmap to help stakeholders focus future actions in NW Europe.
UK partners in EnAlgae are:
Swansea University, Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Research (CSAR) (Lead Partner)
National Non-Food Crop Centre, York Science Park
14
Several scale-up facilities that are part of this initiative are, or will be, located in the UK:
The InCrops Enterprise Hub (www.incropsproject.co.uk) is working towards an Algal Innovation Centre to
collaborate with interested industries on implementing algal technologies across the entire value spectrum.
The Nottingham Algal Biorefinery Facility (NABF) is an existing commercial microalgal production and
biorefinery facility that is being co-developed by PML with industrial partner Boots. It will be a benchmark in
the EnAlgae Project. The facility employs a proprietary 32,000 L closed photobioreactor to propagate
microalgae utilising waste CO2 flue gas emissions directly from a gas fired power station. Microalgal strains
have been selected for development potential within the pharmaceutical, health care and cosmetics market.
The primary focus of the installation is on use of the lowest energy systems to cultivate, harvest and extract a
range of petroleum replacement products from the proprietary microalgal strains. 58
EnAlgae lead partner Swansea will upgrade its series of proprietary tubular photobioreactors (PBRs) devoted
to applied research on integrated technologies for microalgae production and effluent remediation (aqueous
effluents, industrial flue gases). This infrastructure comprises 2 x 600 L PBRs located in a climate controlled
greenhouse (with supplemental external lighting) adjacent to a large aquaculture research facility, plus 1 x
400 L volume PBR located in a fully controlled environment laboratory. These PBRs are integrated with
extensive laboratory and pilot scale bio-processing equipment, which will contribute key information to
stakeholders on nutrient recycling for microalgal production, and dewatering and downstream processing of
microalgal biomass. 59 The expanded facility will incorporate a new proprietary columnar PBR system,
designed to operate using recycled nutrients from anaerobic digestion, thereby levering EnAlgaes capacity to
address environmental sustainability issues surrounding algal bioenergy.59
Expansion and upgrading of existing micro- and macroalgal growth facilities will also be carried out at Queens
University Marine Laboratory, including installation and maintenance of new longlines in Strangford Lough
[]. The Lough is one of only three Marine Nature Reserves in the UK and is strongly tidal. [] (The upgrade)
will provide equipment that will monitor and model how hydrodynamic factors affect marine macroalgal
cultivation [] (and) enable the extension and improvement of the closed microalgal photobioreactor [].
Bioreactor capacity will be doubled and heterotrophic facilities added to allow and optimize the culturing of
microalgal strains native to NW Europe.59
The development of tools in algal molecular and synthetic biology for accumulation of desired products
The production of algal biomass, including sequestration of CO2 from flue gases, and treatment of wastewater
Use of microalgae for the production of bio-photovoltaic panels
Photosynthetic and biomimetic hydrogen production and CO2 reduction
The consortium is also actively involved in increasing both energy awareness and public understanding of the
opportunities and challenges biotechnology and bioenergy provide.
58
15
61
62
more cost-effective algal biofuel production. This is achieved by removing process steps, and by reducing the
energy requirements.
The Sonochemistry Centre at Coventry University (http://wwwm.coventry.ac.uk/researchnet/Sonochemistry):
The Centre has a long history of R&D in the use of ultrasound to control algal blooms, and has acquired
knowledge of the effects of ultrasound on algal cells. Based on this expertise, the Centres research endeavours to
find the correct combination of ultrasonic conditions and solvents in order to obtain oil from algae.
Swansea Universitys Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Research (CSAR) and Centre for Complex Fluids
Processing (CCFP), in collaboration with Bangor University (www.swansea.ac.uk/research/centresandinstitutes/
CentreforSustainableAquacultureResearch/): The project uses modelling to define the operational envelope for
the economic production of biofuels from microalgae. A combination of physical, biological and economic
modelling enables a cost-benefit analysis taking into account reactor specification and location, algal
ecophysiology, engineering costs of harvesting, dewatering and cell cracking, and nutrient recycling.
The University of Manchester (www.energy.manchester.ac.uk/newsandevents/algaebiofuels/; two projects): The
first project assesses algal culture conditions that give maximal cellular lipid content whilst maintaining a high cell
density. Metabolic and gene expression profiling of the algae are used to understand the molecular mechanisms
of lipid induction. The second project looks at ultrasonic techniques to disrupt the algal cells walls to enable the
extraction of oils.
The School of Ocean and Earth Science (SOES) at University of Southampton (www.southampton.ac.uk/soes/):
The project is developing cost-effective innovative low-energy methods for carbon enrichment. The efficiency of
these is matched to the demand for carbon in open channels at different flow depths and velocities. Carbon
demand and conversion efficiency are assessed in laboratory-scale rigs and pilot-scale raceways simulating
different surface areas and retention times.
The National Oceanographic Centre (NOC), located at the Universities of Liverpool and Southampton
(http://noc.ac.uk/): The project addresses the efficiency of photosynthetic conversion, which limits the
commercial productivity of algal biofuels. A team of NOC scientists with expertise in studying algae in nature are
applying novel technologies in the selection and manipulation of algae that maximise photosynthetic efficiency.
Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML; www.pml.ac.uk): The project aims to screen thousands of new algal strains by
using a combination of traditional and state-of-the-art methods to identify and isolate novel lipid-accumulating
algae for the production of biodiesel.
The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS; www.sams.ac.uk): The project Control of Grazers aims to
develop robust methodologies for the early detection of protozoan infection of algal mass-cultures. In addition,
management strategies are developed to prevent or reduce damage caused by protozoan grazing.
1.2.4 Conclusions
The overview presented in Section 1.2 represents but a sample of the entire algal UK research expertise, provided chiefly
by the 170 researchers who submitted their responses to the questionnaire. This sample alone already highlights the great
wealth and breadth of capability relevant to algal research that is currently resident in the UK. Some initiatives already
exist which bring several of the groups and institutions together (c.f. Section 1.2.3), and participants in these initiatives
have commented on the benefit they have derived from exchange and collaboration with other groups, including the
generation of patentable ideas in the very first meeting of one such cross-group initiative (pers. comm.; source
confidential). Overall, however, the community describes itself as disjointed, which can in part be attributed to a lack of
coherence in existing funding streams and absence of strategic leadership 63. Step changes could be expected if the
expertise of this community, whose excellent research overall has been limited in impact by lack of integration, were to
come together to apply their experience under the umbrella of a strategic framework. This would enable the UK to
capitalise on the strengths of the algal research community, to compete strongly on the global stage and to address some
of the key challenges which our society faces. Aspects of how algal research may contribute to solving challenges such as
food, energy and material security are discussed in Chapter 4.
63
1.3.1 Microalgae
The UK has been the birthplace of several microalgal biotechnologies through knowledge transfer from lab to business.
Innovative and quality-driven technologies for a wide range of microalgae have been developed through the years with
the emergence of new business. This section first reviews the history of microalgal companies in the UK, and then gives an
overview of currently active companies.
www.bbsrc.ac.uk/business/collaborative-research/industry-clubs/industry-clubs-index.aspx
Feasibility study for the development of an algal innovation centre in the East of England June 2010; report for the InCrops
Project (www.incropsproject.co.uk). Non-confidential sections can be made available on request.
66
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
19
65
initially constructed pilot Biocoil plants in Luton (for Spirulina 67 production) and Livingstone (for wastewater treatment
using Chlorella). In 1990, the company developed a 5000 L Biocoil PBR installation at Severn Trent's Stoke Bardolph
sewage treatment plant under Steve Skills leadership, demonstrating the use of flocculating consortia of microalgae for
wastewater treatment 68. A pilot plant coupling thermophilic AD of poultry manure with a Biocoil-based digested liquor
treatment by photosynthetic anaerobes, followed by a Chlorella/Scenedesmus consortium for nutrient polishing, was
established near Cork in Ireland. Biotechna also collaborated with
i.
Dr Paul Jenkins of the University of the West of England to jointly develop the concept of an Algal Power Station
by coupling Biocoil PBR algal biomass production on sewage, with direct combustion of the harvested biomass in
a modified Perkins diesel combined heat and power unit 69
ii.
the marketing company Green Cycle Ltd (High Wycombe, founded in 1993, closed in 1996) on the installation of a
two-stage pilot Biocoil PBR facility in Portugal to produce natural Beta Carotene from Dunaliella
iii.
the Olin Corporation (US) to apply Biocoil PBR technology to mitigate agricultural discharges which were causing
devastating Pfeisteria infestations in North Carolina water bodies
iv.
Prof. Bill Oswald (Berkeley), aimed at reducing the land area requirement of microalgae based Advanced
Integrated Ponding System for sewage treatment.
In 1994, Biotechna Ltd went public on the Alberta Stock Exchange raising $5.5m (Canadian). In 1997, the company was
taken over by a US concern and in 1998 the US leadership terminated all UK operations (and innovation).
Dr Paul Jenkins continued his work at UWE and incorporated the Biocoils main features into the Biofence PBR. Following
the untimely death of Dr Jenkins, Manchester Universitys Campus Ventures Ltd continued working on the Biofence PBR
and in 1996 a spin-out company Applied Photosynthetics Ltd (APL) was formed to market Biofence technology, managed
by Dr Jonathan Mortimer. APL constructed a multiple array of Biofences for wastewater treatment at the Earth Centre
near Doncaster in 1997, although not long after the facility went bankrupt.
After Dr Mortimer left APL, he formed a number of Biofence marketing companies based in Wales including; Biofence Ltd
(closed 2001), Biosynthesis Ltd (closed 2002), and CellPharm Ltd (closed 2007). In 2003, the Biofence rights were acquired
by Varicon Aqua Ltd, who continue to market the system today as research photobioreactors and in aquaculture as live
feed production systems.
In 1990 the PBL Group of companies (Reading, founded in March 1986, now closed) scaled up the first biofence tubular
photobioreactor, currently used by several aquaculture hatcheries and research applications. This system inspired the
large scale photobioreactor of Algatechnologies (Israel) and several others in Europe and around the world.
In 1999 Sherwood Forest Tilapia was established by Steve Skill, an intensive Tilapia farm with 100% water recycling
provided by a unique microalgal biofilm system. Since then, the microalgal biofilm process has been further developed as
a low cost method to convert sewage in to biofuel and fertiliser.
Seasalter Continuous Algal Production Systems (SeaCAPS; Kent, founded 2000, closed 2010) have developed an innovative
approach to economical Continuous Algal Production Systems. Technological advances developed over the past three
decades with these systems along with customized hatchery designs have been installed at both fish and shellfish farms in
15 countries. The parent company Seasalter Shellfish (Whitstable) Ltd (Kent, founded in 1986), under whose umbrella the
development of the Algal Production Systems started, are still operational; however, the companys involvement in algal
production is being phased out.
Oxford Algaetech, founded in March 2009 as a research and development organisation addressing bioenergy, pigments
and pharmaceutical applications of algae, closed in Oct 2010.
Some British phycological expertise has moved abroad, and has benefited algal industries internationally. Examples
include J Michael Armstrong, who headed Thallia Phamaceuticals - a company investigating pharmacologically active
products from algae, with pilot scale facilities in France. The company folded in 1999 due to conflicts of interest amongst
the shareholders; its Technical Director Dr Tony Hall then set up AquaArtis, a company focusing on cultivating and
screening fractionated extracts from microalgae and cyanobacteria for new pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products
such as zeaxanthin. The company folded in 2004 due to lack of investment 70.
67
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
68
featured in National Geographic, March 1994
69
featured on BBC Tomorrows World 1993, c.f. www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7N8uBV1byE
70
pers. comm. John Day, Olivier Lpine and Tony Hall
20
Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the term Spirulina internationally especially when
referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new nomenclature.
72
Reasons for production in New Zealand include extensive expertise in scaled growth at Cawthron Institute, Nelson NZ (from
where the PBR technology has been licensed) and NZ Government grant support (pers. comm. Mahesh Shah).
21
novel laboratory scale photobioreactors for testing and modelling algal productivity prior to outdoor pilot phase scale-up.
A second arm develops a molecular tool-kit for modified algal strains. The company collaborates with the Universities of
Cambridge and Cranfield.
Photobioreactor.co.uk (PBR-UK; Nottingham, founded 2010) develops micro-algae cultivation technology to capture
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and produce commodity biomolecules. The company also employs micro-algae cultivation
as a means to recycle wastewater. PBR-UK provide proprietary micro-algae cultivation engineering solutions either under
license or as joint ventures.
The company Enlightened Designs Ltd (Devon, founded 2010) is in early stages of developing a novel design of outdoor
photobioreactors. The thin flat panel PBRs aim to exploit the flashing light effect in sunlight, will use microporous
membranes to enhance gas transfer and will be constructed in light-weight polymers to reduce cost and enable a
manufacturing process which is linearly scalable. The company collaborates with Exeter University and PML and is
pursuing collaborations with the University of Plymouth, North Wyke/Rothamsted and the Eden Project.
A promising underpinning technology for algal screening and cultivation has been developed by Sphere Fluidics Ltd
(Cambridge, founded 2010). The Company is a spin-out from the ESPRC-funded Microdroplets collaboration between
Cambridge University and Imperial College. Their lab-on-a-chip technology can select, store and retrieve picodroplets
containing a unique, single cell from vast background populations. Algal colonies can be grown from these single cells in
their picodroplets, which can consequently be split, sorted and screened for e.g. growth characteristics, response to
changes in environment and metabolite profile. The technology can be applied to discovery of unique algae strains for
application in industries including: biofuels, food and cosmetics.
Finally, all major oil companies fund various levels of algal R&D in collaboration with universities; however, project topics
and partners are confidential.
1.3.2 Macroalgae 73
1.3.2.1 History of Exploitation
Harvesting of kelp dates back in Europe to before the 17th century where it was used extensively as a fertilizer. In the 16th
and 17th centuries, it was discovered in France that the soda and potash required for making glass and glazing pottery
could be produced from kelp (Neushul 1987). The industry spread to Scotland, the Orkney Islands and Norway. Kelp was
an ideal source of materials for explosives, the potash being an ingredient of gun powder and the acetone, another kelp
derivative, a key component of cordite, a smokeless powder used extensively by the British (Kelly and Dworjanyn 2008).
This was followed by the discovery that kelps contain alginates, which is still currently one of their main uses.
Within Europe the most common system for obtaining seaweed biomass is by harvesting natural stocks in tidal coastal
areas with rocky shores. Scotland potentially has Europes largest area of standing stock. Walker (1947- 1955) from the
Scottish Seaweed Research Association surveyed 8500 km of Scottish coast. From this he estimated that there was some
8000 km2 of seaweed habitat, with the main areas occurring round the Shetlands, the Outer Hebrides and Orkney (Kelly
and Dworjanyn 2008).
In Europe, knowledge of seaweed cultivation is scattered across several R&D groups and a few industrial groups with the
only seaweed cultivation in the UK.
73
Orkney Seaweed Company Ltd, founded in 1988, manufactures a range of products based on liquid extraction from
seaweed harvested off Orkney in Scotland. Their liquid seaweed products are used in both conventional and organic
horticulture and agriculture due to a range of plant growth promoting properties.
Bd Ayre Products Ltd (founded 2003, Shetland) processes seaweed hand-picked at the Shetland coast into organic
products including edible seaweed for human consumption, animal feed and plant fertiliser. The company runs two trial
seaweed cultivation farms, and collaborates with Leeds University on a TSB project for extraction of high value algal
ingredients for the cosmetics industry. Seaveg (Finest Quality Sea Vegetables), a Scottish company, are also offering handpicked seaweeds from the North West Coast of Ireland to the niche dietary supplement market.
In Northern Ireland, Irish Seaweed (previously Dolphin Sea Vegetable Company) was established in 1990 as a family run
business which hand harvests a range of different types of edible seaweeds from around the Irish coast.
An integrative approach is being taken by the salmon farm Loch Duart Ltd (Edinburgh, founded 1999), who are combining
sea urchin, seaweed and salmon farming in integrated aquaculture, and by Neo Argo Ltd (Essex, founded 2009) who are
investigating the use of macroalgae to filter out microalgae in ecologically sensitive areas (though adsorbtion or
repulsion).
To develop the commercial potential of macroalgae in the UK, the Crown Estate is now actively involved in discussions
(through their Macroalgal Forum) with researchers, the aquaculture industry and customer partners to move forward with
plans to establish a pilot commercial-scale cultivation of macroalgae for energy and other commercially valuable products.
Their first meeting took place in June 2010 at Stirling, a follow-up meeting occurred in March 2011. At this second
meeting the Crown Estate stated they were in the process of commissioning a study to investigate valorisation chains that
might be able to extract higher value compounds from macroalgae that would ultimately be destined for use as biofuels.
1.3.3 Conclusions
Over the past 30 years, the UK has produced a number of highly innovative algal companies whose work has driven the
algal field forward on an international level. Currently, a small number of UK companies are well established on an
international stage; those are either technology providers, or service the high value spectrum of algal products from
established species and strains. There are early beginnings of an algal biotechnology industry; either through biorefining
e.g. of macroalgal biomass (investigated by Bd Ayre Ltd), or by developing microalgae as a customised expression
platform (e.g. Spicer Biotech, and providers of underpinning technologies such as Sphere Fluidics Ltd). Hardly any
commercial activity exists in downstream processing.
In addition to the companies named above who are directly engaged in algal activities, there are many others who are
currently not directly involved, but are following the development of the field with a view to enter once suitable
opportunities arise. This includes particularly
technology providers (such as Eco-Solids International Ltd, NPM Heat Recovery and P&M Pumps Ltd) whose
expertise could be applied to parts of the algal production and processing value chain
AD companies with an interest in adding value to and reducing the need to store their liquid digestate
farming estates who are looking to either diversify their crops, or for integrated solutions for energy generation
and bioremediation
Two algal stakeholder meetings for algal industries (with an emphasis on those located in the East of England) were
organised in January and March 2011 by the InCrops Enterprise Hub. As a consequence of these meetings, industry
representatives have set up an UK Algal Biomass Association Group on the professional social networking site LinkedIn 74
(this has as yet no officially links with the European Algal Biomass Association, but serves as an informal discussion forum
for the industry, and is open to any interested party). Discussions on setting up a Trade Association for Algal Industries
were also started at these meetings (and were still under way when this report was finalised), in order to give the industry
a united voice and raise its profile towards decision makers.
Looking ahead to emerging opportunities for new industrial activities, considerable potential exists on the biological side
to build on the academic expertise in e.g. synthetic biology. Industrial biotechnology solutions could and are being
developed; these could then be commercialised through partnership with existing companies, or by forming university
spin-outs. On the engineering side, the greatest potential for the UK currently lies in the development of integrated
74
www.linkedin.com/groups?gid=3744614&trk=myg_ugrp_ovr
23
solutions for growth and processing, following the integrated biorefining concept; many academic groups and industrial
technology providers exist whose expertise could be drawn into further developing such integrated algal solutions, once
feasibility had been confirmed and the sector had gained momentum.
1.4 Summary
This Chapter has given an overview of current and past activity concerning algae in the UK both in the academic and
industrial arena. Academic algal research in the past has underpinned progress of bioscience in general, and laid solid
foundations for algal bioscience. The UK currently has a strong and diverse knowledge base of relevance to algae, with
clear strengths in ecology and fundamental biology. Overall, however, the community describes itself as disjointed, which
can in part be attributed to a lack of coherence in existing funding streams and absence of strategic leadership 75.
Industrial activity is slowly increasing. The turn-over of companies has been high, but valuable contributions to the field
have been made by now dissolved companies during their life time. Most of the currently active companies have some
existing collaborations with UK universities; this facilitates the translation of breakthroughs in fundamental academic
research into industrial applications. Step changes could be expected if the expertise of the academic and industrial
communities were to come together to apply their experience under a strategic framework, rather than on an ad hoc
basis, to address key challenges that our society faces.
75
76
e.g. Cognis 400 ha Dunaliella ponds (for -carotene) at Whyalla and Hutt Lagoon; c.f.
www.cognis.com/countries/Australia/en/Company+Profile/
77
for the production of Chlorella and Spirulina (Spirulina has been re-named Arthrospira; due to the still widespread use of the
term Spirulina internationally especially when referring to the nutraceutical product this report has not adopted the new
nomenclature)
78
e.g. Earthrise (c.f. www.spirulinasource.com/earthfoodorigin1.html) and Microbio Resources, both Imperial Valley, CA: they
produce Spirulina and Dunaliella, respectively; Cyanotech Co, Hawaii (www.cyanotech.com): their products are Spirulina and
astaxanthin
79
e.g. NBT Ltd, Eilat, who produce Dunaliella, and Seambiotic, Ashkelon: their products are Nannochloropsis (for omega-3 fatty
acids) and diatoms (for biofuels)
80
for examples see the AquaFUELS Report on Main Stakeholders, available at www.eabaassociation.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html
81
www.oilgae.com
82
This activity follows on from major investment into the Aquatic Species Programme, which the U.S. Department of Energys
Office of Fuels Development funded from 1978 to 1996 to develop renewable transportation fuels from algae. The close-out
report is available at www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/24190.pdf. Examples of recent substantial funding support include $24
million awarded by the US Department of Energy in June 2010 to three research consortia to address the existing difficulties in
the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels. The consortia are: 1. Sustainable Algal Biofuels Consortium (Mesa, Arizona): Led
by Arizona State University, this consortium will focus on testing the acceptability of algal biofuels as replacements for
petroleum-based fuels. Tasks include investigating biochemical conversion of algae to fuels and products, and analyzing physical
chemistry properties of algal fuels and fuel intermediates. (DOE share: up to $6 million). 2. Consortium for Algal Biofuels
Commercialization (San Diego, California): Led by the University of California, San Diego, this consortium will concentrate on
developing algae as a robust biofuels feedstock. Tasks include investigating new approaches for algal crop protection, algal
nutrient utilization and recycling, and developing genetic tools. (DOE funding: up to $9 million). 3. Cellana, LLC Consortium
(Kailua-Kona, Hawaii): Led by Cellana, LLC, this consortium will examine large-scale production of fuels and feed from microalgae
grown in seawater. Tasks include integrating new algal harvesting technologies with pilot-scale cultivation test beds, and
25
to spin-out companies 83. The BRIC countries are investing heavily in algal R&D and are rapidly catching up with the longerestablished centres of expertise in Israel, Australia and the EU. Israel has a 30 year track record of developing
biotechnological applications, and works e.g. on algal breeding programmes 84 for energy, food/feed and high value
applications, on the integration with bioremediation, and on photobioreactor design. The EU, like Israel, has extensive
expertise in photobioreactor design, and focuses mainly on high value algal applications, and on integrated solutions for
bioenergy generation. An overview of EU projects on algae that provides a more fine-grained picture of R&D interests is
given in Section 2.3.
A high level summary of the key interests various countries have in algal academic and industrial activity is given in Table
2.1. This is based on the spectrum of entries in existing directories of algal stakeholders (c.f. Section 2.4), and on personal
communication with UK and international stakeholders.
Table 2.1: High-level overview of international objectives for algal RD&D
Key countries
involved
EU
US
Canada
Israel
Australia
India / SE Asia
China
Brazil
Japan
Chile
pharmaceuticals; however, the center also works to expand the catalog of products that can be obtained from
microalgae: dietary supplements for human consumption, pharmaceutical compounds, food for aquaculture, animal
feed or production of biofertilizers and biofuels. A particular emphasis is placed on the development of a complete
production process of lutein for human use. Research projects study the whole process chain, starting with strain
selection, over production system with integrated removal of CO2 from flue gas, down to harvesting and product
purification.
CEVA - Centre d'Etude et de Valorisation des Algues (Pleubian, France) www.ceva.fr/en/ceva/domaines.html: Unlike
the previous two centres, which focused on production of microalgae, CEVA embraces both macro- and microalgae.
It was established in 1982 to assist local communities in dealing with undesirable accumulation of washed-up
seaweeds. Shortly after its inception, it refocused its activities towards companies wishing to make use of algae
instead. This change in direction resulted in the construction in 1987 of new premises in Pleubian (Ctes d'Armor Bretagne). It now provides services for companies interested in developing industrial products derived from marinebased ingredients (macroalgae, microalgae, marine plants and sea-water), and to the local municipalities faced with
the problems of increasing amounts of washed-up seaweeds and other sea plants. Their facilities include a 400 m
site for algae cultivation on land, and a 6 ha marine seaweed cultivation farm.
MBL - Microalgal Biotechnology Laboratory (Beer Sheva, Israel) http://bidr.bgu.ac.il/bidr/research/algal/About.htm:
The laboratory has been engaged in algae research since 1975, and has a record of commercializing algae production
systems for the feed and nutraceutical markets. The overall aim of research in the MBL is to develop the
biotechnology involved in mass production of microalgae for various commercial purposes, using brackish or sea
water, and the high temperature and solar irradiance that abound year round in the desert. Research topics include:
biosynthesis of natural products such as astaxanthin and PUFAs, and factors influencing their yield in scaled-up
production; limiting factors for biomass yields in outdoors growth, such as effect of high light and its interaction with
other environmental parameters; potential applications of N2-fixing cyanobacteria in bioremediation; and
photobioreactor design. MBLs outdoors facilities (> 2 ha) for large-scale the cultivation of microalgae include open
ponds as well as flat panels and airlift tubular photobioreactors.
SD-CAB - Center for Algae Biotechnology (San Diego, California, USA) http://algae.ucsd.edu/: The centre was
established in 2008 as a consortium of researchers from The Scripps Research Institute (TSRI), the University of
California, San Diego (UCSD), and Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), in partnership with private industry. Its
mission is to support development of innovative, sustainable, and commercially viable microalgae-based
biotechnology solutions for renewable energy, green chemistry, bio-products, water conservation, and CO2
abatement. The centre incorporates international research scientists from the fields of biology, chemistry,
engineering, economics, and policy. It also trains young scientists, educates the public, collaborates with private
sector partners, and facilitates discussion with regional, state and national policy makers regarding the use of algae
for energy independence and conservation of land and water. SD-CAB's test facility is located on 16 ha in California's
Imperial Valley. The facility includes 11 large raceway ponds (760 m3 of culture volume each), and 30 smaller-scale
raceways (400 L to 230 m3 each).
AzCATI Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (Mesa, Arizona, USA) www.azcati.com: Funding for
this centre was announced in late 2010; it is being built at Arizona State University's Polytechnic campus in Mesa. Its
stated aim is to partner with the rapidly growing microalgae industry, to propel Arizona to the forefront of innovation
in biofuels and bio-product research and development. AzCATI intends to: serve as a state-wide and international
intellectual and resource hub for algae-based goods; find innovative commercial uses for algae; operate as a learning
environment for next generation scientists; facilitate collaboration between higher education, industry and national
entities; and be a national "test bed" for algae technology.
PRAJ-Matrix - The Innovation Center (Pune, India) www.praj.net/matrix_innovation.asp: This R&D center (a division
of Praj Industries Ltd) was inaugurated in 2008. It includes an Algal Sciences Centre of Excellence with core expertise
in the isolation, characterization, preservation, cultivation and harvesting of microalgae. Research projects include:
novel cultivation techniques for lipid and carbohydrate production; algal technologies for bioremediation of polluted
environments; integration of algal systems with existing industrial plants; and production of value added chemicals,
nutrients and minerals from algal resources. Their facility includes algal cultivation systems that range from 15 L tanks
to 10,000 L raceway ponds.
In addition to these centres that are dedicated to developing algal technologies, many more divisions focusing on algal
research exist as part of centres for biofuels research. Examples include:
CABS Center for Advanced Biofuel Systems (Saint Louis, Missouri, USA) www.danforthcenter.org/cabs/: This
centre is situated at the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center and is one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers
that have been funded with a total of $777 million in 2009 for 5 years, through the U.S. Department of Energys
27
Office of Science 85. Its mission is to increase the thermodynamic properties and kinetic efficiency of biofuel
production in microalgae and the terrestrial oil crop camelina, using rational metabolic engineering approaches
coupled with the expression of enhanced enzyme complexes.
EBTIPLC Biofuel Research & Development Centre (Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India) www.ebtiplc.com: This centre (a
division of Enhanced Biofuels & Technologies India (P) Ltd) conducts research into both microalgae and the
terrestrial oil crop jatropha as feedstock for biofuels.
The work of international centres is referred to in following chapters, where relevant to the discussion of UK expertise.
85
Full Title
Acoustic Imaging of Macrophytes and Habitat Investigation
Production of coatings based on lipids from microalgae and at same time CO2
fixation
Exploitation and use of microalgae in Nutrition & Health
Industrial-scale Demonstration of Sustainable Algae Culture for Biofuels Production
Algae and aquatic biomass for a sustainable production of 2nd generation biofuels
Marine Water Quality Information Services
Applied simulations and Integrated modelling for the understanding of toxic and
harmful algal blooms
Enabling European SMEs to remediate wastes, reduce GHG emissions and produce
biofuels via microalgae cultivation
Physical aspects of the evolution of biological complexity
BIOfuel From Algae Technologies
Sustainable biofuels from marine biomass
BIOrefinera SOStenible
Development of an industrial process for the production of bioethanol from
microalgae by using flue gasses from a coal power station
Nuevas Utilizaciones Industriales Sostenibles del CO2
Development of a chemical-free water treatment system through integrating UV-C,
ultra sound and fibre filters
Water detoxification using innovative vi-nanocatalysts
Coccolithophores morphology, biogeography, genetic and ecology database
Chloroplast signals
Organization and Dynamics of Respiratory Electron Transport Complexes in
Cyanobacteria
The biophysics of cytoplasmic streaming in Chara corallina
Disease and immunity in marine brown algae
Direct biological conversion of solar energy to volatile hydrocarbon fuels by
engineered cyanobacteria
Start Date
08/11/2010
01/04/2008
2008
2011
01/01/2010
01/04/2010
01/12/2010
01/08/2010
01/01/2010
2011
2009
2010
2006
2008
01/07/2006
01/06/2009
18/08/2008
01/07/2008
01/08/2010
01/03/2008
01/09/2008
01/10/2010
Abbreviation
ECTOTOX
ENVICAT
EUREKA ALGANOL
EUREKA BIOFIX
EVO500
GIAVAP
GRACE
HARVEST
InteSusAl
LABONFOIL
MABFUEL
MAMBO
MAREX
MARPAH
MIDTAL
OCEANSAVER
PROTOOL
REPROSEED
SBO SUNLIGHT
SENS BIOSYN
SHAMASH
SHELLPLANT
SOLAR-H2
SUNBIOPATH
SUPRA-BIO
SYMBIOSE
VICI
WETSUS ALGAE
Start Date
01/10/2009
01/01/1970
01/01/2009
01/01/2006
01/10/2010
01/01/2011
01/09/2008
01/10/2009
2011
01/05/2008
01/06/2009
01/05/2009
01/08/2010
20/10/2008
01/09/2008
01/11/2004
01/09/2009
01/04/2010
2009
01/12/2006
01/01/2010
01/02/2008
10/02/2010
10/02/2010
2009
Italicised text in brackets added to original quotation of AquaFUELs report to increase clarity
29
Germany (12), France (11), Italy (8) and the Netherlands (7) rank first, but industrial partners can be found in most
European countries. [...] The vast majority of Non European Industrial main stakeholders can be found in the US (86), well
ahead of Australia (5), Israel (5), Japan (5), Taiwan (4), India (4) and Israel (4). [..] Most of the 164 European Researchers
and Academia are located in the United Kingdom (52 researchers) 87. As (was seen) 88 for industry players, Belgium (18),
France (16), Germany (15), Italy (14), Spain (14) and to a lesser extent Czech Republic and Ireland appear ahead of other
European countries. [] From the 43 Non European Research/Academia Stakeholders, the US (9), India (6) and Israel (6)
have the greatest number of stakeholders, even if research appears to be taking place in all continents (pp 20-22 of
AquaFUELs report).
The European Algal Biomass Association is constantly updating and expanding this list, to produce an EABA Whos
Who Directory of Algae Stakeholders. So far, two updates have been sent to EABA members (one in Dec 2010 with an
additional 300 entries, another in Feb 2011 with a further 234 entries). These documents appear not to be available on
the EABA website, but members have been invited to forward them and feedback questionnaires to their relevant
contacts; EABA also invites feedback and submissions for inclusion in the directory via their website 89. Updates on
activities (especially on the algal industrial side) can also be obtained from Algae Industry Magazine 90, and useful
information and discussion fora are provided by Oilgae 91. Further relevant information is often included in Biofuels
Digest 92.
Participants in the questionnaire described in Chapter 1 of this study have been made aware that their interest in
algae will be forwarded to EABA unless they object, for inclusion in the updated EABA directory. In general, all
stakeholders are invited to submit the EABA questionnaire available via http://eaba-association.eu/index.php in order to
get included in the directory. Up-to-date and accurate information in such directories will greatly help to display UK
expertise on the international stage, and should aid in building consortia e.g. for EU funding opportunities.
30
The majority of the market data in this chapter and in Table 3.1 has been provided under subcontract by Drs Claire Smith and
Adrian Hickson, NNFCC.
94
c.f. www.solazyme.com/media/2009-09-24
31
between experts had created valuable outputs. The withdrawal of funding for this project, which had been portrayed as
the UK flagship on algal biofuels R&D, has caused damage on an international level to the credibility of the UKs
commitment to produce sustainable transport fuels.
Bioenergy derived from algae could play a role in the UK as one of a range of products outputted from an integrated
biorefinery, where algal biomass is grown using, wherever possible, byproducts of the other industrial processes CO2
from flue gasses, nutrients from waste water streams, and low grade heat (to stabilise temperatures during winter
months). The integration of algal growth with Anaerobic Digestion (AD) is being actively pursued by the academic and
industrial community in the UK (c.f. Sections 1.2 and 1.3); storage of the liquid digestate during the months where
spreading as fertiliser is not possible can become a bottleneck for AD systems, and its transformation into an algal growth
medium could address this issue. The algal biomass could, in the simplest arrangement, be fed straight back into the AD
process for the production of biogas, or processed in a biorefining context for other bioenergy products. If higher value
products are included in the biorefinery outputs, their market size needs to be matched to avoid market saturation /
flooding and hence price decay.
Prices for bulk animal feed are between 50-1100 per tonne on a dry basis with pricing dependent on nutritional value.
Algal animal feed has to compete against a wide range of protein sources in the current animal feed market; its most
natural place is as a replacement for fishmeal, which is a highly sought after but unsustainable feed (traded at 1120 per
tonne). Macroalgal feed is already established (e.g. Ascophyllum, or Laminaria); several projects submitted to the recent
TSB Call on Sustainable Protein Production address the development of microalgae for animal feed. Regulatory restrictions
permitting, using whole cracked microalgae grown in conjunction with AD for animal feed is one of the most promising
areas of development for the UK.
The Milken Instute: Turning Plants into Products: Delivering on the Potential of Industrial Biotechnology, April 2011, available
at http://www.milkeninstitute.org/publications/publications.taf?function=detail&ID=38801269&cat=finlab
96
The major pigments include chlorophyll a, b and c, -carotene, phycocyanin, xanthophylls (astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, lutein)
and phycoerythrin. These pigments have existing applications in food, feeds, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and there is an
increasing demand for their use as natural colours in textiles and as printing dyes. The value of these pigments lies not only in
their colorant properties, but also as antioxidants with demonstrated health benefits. Source: Report by the Algal Biotechnology
for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales (2008), p.10
(available at www.algaektc.com/A4B Microalgal Biotechnology, Technology Review and Road Map.pdf)
97
The documented bioactive properties of microalgae have led to a well developed market for dried biomass as a human
nutritional supplement, sold in different forms such as capsules, tablets and liquids. The most important microalgae species for
this purpose are Dunaliella salina, Arthrospira sp, Chlorella sp and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. These are mainly produced in
32
the basis of their effect during use, and their value can depend on the application area. These products complete against
other effective products rather than fossil equivalents. Application areas include cosmetics, personal care and food
ingredients. Some types of animal feed ingredients fall into this area particularly feed for aquaculture e.g. astaxanthin 98
and live microalgae for hatcheries 99. Products in this category have a price of 5 to 300 per kilogram. Market volumes
will range from 1000 tonnes to 100,000 tonnes. Algal-derived products may carry a premium over synthetically-derived
alternatives, especially where there are tangible performance benefits (e.g. the increased antioxidant activity of the
naturally occurring 9-cis stereoisomer of beta carotene relative to the synthetic all-trans isomer; (BenAmotz and Levy
1996)). Most of the commercially available algal products to date fall into this category. In the UK, a small number of
companies work in this area (c.f. Section 1.3), although most of the biomass is currently grown abroad. An example is
Supreme Biotechnologies Ltd 100, a UK company specialising in algal astaxanthin production, whose production site is in
New Zealand; reasons include pre-existing collaboration with a research institute there (from which the PBR technology
has been licensed) and NZ Government grant support (pers. comm. Mahesh Shah). The development of industrial
biotechnology and integrated biorefineries could see production in the UK increase substantially, since the value of the
products would warrant artificial illumination.
A current EU project which addresses (amongst other things) the use of microalgae as feedstock for speciality products is
BioAlgaeSorb 101 UK partners include the Universities of Durham and Swansea, Varicon Aqua Solutions Ltd and the British
Trout Association.
3.4 Ceuticals
The ceuticals market includes a very diverse range of algal natural products used in small volumes but commanding very
high market values. This category includes pharmaceuticals and high-end nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals. The price of
products in this area reflects the research and development costs of bringing the product to market rather than
manufacturing costs. Products in this category have market prices above 2000 per kg. The research base in the UK,
through industrial biotechnology, bioprospecting and synthetic biology, is very well suited to develop the potential algae
have to contribute to this constantly evolving market.
UK pioneers in this field are PML Applications Ltd (PMLA). Since 2002, NERC, BBSRC and TSB have funded collaborative
projects with Boots PLC which have lead to the construction of the UKs first carbon capture biorefinery. Emissions from
outdoor ponds or shallow raceways, but also in closed photobioreactors at more northerly latitudes including Europe. Certain
cyanobacteria, for example Arthrospira platensis and A. maxina (formerly Spirulina) are also marketed as whole food, being
particularly protein-rich (up to 77% dry mass) and containing all essential amino acids, a number of important essential fatty
acids (EFAs) and vitamins of the B, C, D and E groups. [] The sector is currently maturing beyond basic and sometimes
unproven supplements to one of delivering more subtle benefits that aid absorption of nutrients, and prevent a range of
conditions relating to energy metabolism, such as diabetes. Source: Report by the Algal Biotechnology for Wales Knowledge
Transfer Centre A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales (2008), p.11 (available at
www.algaektc.com/A4B Microalgal Biotechnology, Technology Review and Road Map.pdf)
98
Astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are used e.g. for colouring the flesh of farmed salmon. Increasing demand for organically
farmed fish has expanded the market for microalgae-derived astaxanthin. Adapted from: Report by the Algal Biotechnology for
Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal Biotechnology in Wales (2008), p.11
(available at www.algaektc.com/A4B Microalgal Biotechnology, Technology Review and Road Map.pdf)
99
Microalgae are used ubiquitously as a feed source in the commercial hatchery production of juvenile marine fish and shellfish.
There are thousands of marine hatcheries globally, producing billions of juvenile fish and shellfish annually. A relatively small
number (~6-10) of easy-to-rear microalgae species have been adopted for this purpose. In most cases, the microalgae are
cultured on site by hatchery personnel and presented live to the fish / shellfish larvae. [] However, there is a growing trend for
hatcheries to purchase proprietary microalgae concentrates in order to simplify on-site operations. These concentrates are
supplied by companies specialising in the large scale production and processing of microalgae. [] There is further scope to
develop the sector by introducing better quality products, since it is widely acknowledged that existing concentrated products
still do not match live microalgae for hatchery applications (nutritional composition; physical attributes; product stability). Dried
microalgae biomass (especially Arthrospira) is also widely used as an ingredient in formulated feeds for aquaculture species and
terrestrial animals (farmed livestock, poultry, pets), where it has been demonstrated to have health promoting effects. Source:
Report by the Algal Biotechnology for Wales Knowledge Transfer Centre A Technology Review and Roadmap for Microalgal
Biotechnology in Wales (2008), p.9-10 (available at www.algaektc.com/A4B Microalgal Biotechnology, Technology Review and
Road Map.pdf)
100
c.f. www.supremebiotech.com/
101
c.f. www.bioalgaesorb.com/
33
Boots 15 MW gas turbine power plant are utilised as a carbon source in a 32,000 L PBR 102. In the PBR, PMLA cultivate a
proprietary robust strain of microalgae that delivers extracts with sun-screening, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and
other proprietary properties. Boots PLC and Cognis (BASF) are currently formulating these extracts into consumer
cosmeceutical products. As part of the project, PMLA have sequenced the algal strains genome and an efficient
transformation system has been developed. This molecular toolkit will enable both the up-regulation of targeted gene
sequences and the insertion of novel biosynthetic pathways into the strain in the near future.
102
TSB Technology Programme: Collaborative Research & Development, Autumn 2007. Biorefinery carbon capture and
conversion into industrial feedstocks as direct replacements for petrochemicals. (CCIF). S. Skill (PI). The photobioreactor
engineering design is licensed to the project from S. Skill.
34
Table 3.1: Overview of the key products that could be derived from algae, including (where currently available) their price, market values and key market players. Companies
actually providing algal products are highlighted in red; products that cannot be derived from algae, but are competing with algal products and are given as a price comparison are
highlighted in blue. Sources of information are given as numbered footnotes. Products in the same category are not necessarily equivalent, since many algal products serve
speciality markets (c.f. Sector Fertilisers).
Sector
Item
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
Bioenergy
Ethanol 103
Biomethane 104
58.2mn tonnes
(2009)
EU: 8.3 Mtoe /
25.2 TWh
(2009) 105
Chemicals
15.53mn tonnes
(2009)
EU: 60 mn
tonnes (2010)
Butanol 108
1100/tonne (2010)
$5bn (3mn
tonnes)
40bn L (2003)
1200-4000/tonne (2010)
<1000 tonnes
(2009)
285,000 tonnes
lactic acid
~90,000 tonnes
PLA
~30,000 tonnes
Ethanol102
Polyhydroxy-alkanoates
107
Lactic acid107
Succinic acid107
2000-3000/tonne (2010)
* Ethanol prices generally track the price of oil. Prices for 24 March 2011 varied from 66 to 73/hL (56 to 62/hL, or 715 to 790/tonne).
Biodiesel prices generally track the price of oil. Average prices for March 2011 were between 57 and 79/hl (632 to 884/tonne, assuming average density of 0.88 kg/L).
103
ICIS Chemical Business
104
UK National Statistics; Renewable Transport Fuel Certificate Value March 2011; DECC Renewable Heat Incentive Table of Tariffs, p. 52; roc http://www.eroc.co.uk/
http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/What%20we%20do/UK%20energy%20supply/Energy%20mix/Renewable%20energy/policy/renewableheat/1387-renewable-heat-incentive.pdf;
105
toe = tons of oil equivalent; data source: Biogas Barometer, a study carried out by EurObservER. SYSTMES SOLAIRES, le journal des nergies renouvelables N 200 (2010), 104-118
EnAgri Market Database
107
Based on ICIS Jet Kerosene Price Report plus adding a 10% premium for bio-based product (NNFCC DfT Study, in preparation).
108
Industry Source
106
Sector
Item
Food / Nutraceutical
Carotenoids 109
Astaxanthin107
Astaxanthin107
Price Estimates
Astaxanthin &
Canthaxanthin108
Lutein 110
$766mn ($1.07bn
2010)
$234mn (2007)
$234mn (2007)
$150mn
$105.1m (2006)
Tocopherol107
Beta carotene 111
21/kg (2011)
47/kg (2011)
(allo-)Phycocyanin107
Market (Global)
$18/kg (2011)
$247mn (2007),
$392 (2010)
$1,286mn (71,000
tonnes) (2008)
109
36
Sector
Item
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
1000M26
210/t (2011)
Fishmeal Pure112
Maize Gluten (imported
Pell/Meal) 112
Palm Kernal Expell Meal:
Milando112
Rapeseed Meal: home
produced112
Macroalgae: dried
Ascophyllum107
live microalgae paste107
Arramara Teo
dried Ascophyllum107
liquid algal fertiliser107
AD digestate 114
Compost 115
Inorganic fertiliser; blended
20.10.10 (a blend of nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium) 116
Aquaculture feed
Fertiliser
EU: 40,000 L of
12% paste
113
37
Sector
Item
Personal care
Price Estimates
Market (Global)
110bn
D-Panthenol: 5-6/kg (2010); Calcium Pantothenate: 15/kg
(2010)
Ascorbic Acid / Sodium Ascorbate (all 2010): 8/kg (Chinese
bulk 6/kg); Sodium Ascorbyl Phosphate: 60/kg; Ascorbyl
Glucoside: 280/kg; Ascorbyl Palmitate: 50/kg
Retinyl Palmitate: 60/kg (2010)
Tocopheryl acetate: 10/kg (2010)
$1bn (2010)
(110,000 tonnes,
2010)
Bioremediation
Services
Hydrocolloids
Agar 118
$18/kg (2009)
$173 Mn
Alginates117
$12/kg (2009)
$318 Mn
Carrageenans117
$10.5/kg (2009)
$527 Mn
116
WRAP
Frost & Sullivan Report "Vitamins in personal care - Is it a wrinkle-free future?" 2008
118
Bixler, H.J. & Porse, H. (2011). A decade of change in the seaweed hydrocolloids industry. Journal of Applied Phycology 23:321-335
117
38
PART II
WHAT NEXT: ASSESSMENT OF UK POTENTIAL FOR ALGAL R&D
Part I of this study has taken stock of algal 119 expertise in the UK, given an overview of algal interests globally, and
reviewed markets for algal products and services. Part II will analyse how the UK can best capitalise on its strengths in the
light of current and emerging opportunities for algal R&D, and in the context of international competition.
It will first review potential opportunities for algal R&D to progress plant science and biotechnology in general (Chapter 4),
then assess the strengths of the UK research capability on the global algae stage (Chapter 5), and move on to analyse gaps
in algal research value chains in the UK (Chapter 6). Chapter 7 will assess levels of risk, reward and importance of areas of
RD&D required to promote the development of an algal economy, and Chapter 8 will put the conclusions of this report
into the context of the 2009 DECC report on the potential of algae 120 and present scenarios of how BBSRC might address
the algal field in the future.
4. POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITIES
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN GENERAL
AND
BENEFITS
OF
ALGAL R&D
TO
PROGRESS
IN
PLANT SCIENCE
AND
As global (and UK) society needs to move away from its reliance on fossil resources, biomass once again becomes
resurgent as a principal feedstock Of the biological sciences, plant science and biotechnology in particular will need to
provide solutions to key challenges facing our planet. Algal R&D has already in the past provided step changes in both
disciplines (c.f. Section 1.1), and has the potential to accelerate the needed progress.
Evolution has led to immense diversity across all kingdoms of life, providing a cornucopia of bio-active molecules,
enzymes, pathways and traits that are all targets for potential biotechnological applications. In this diversity across all
forms of life, both animals and land plants occupy a rather narrow phylogenetic space (c.f. Fig. 4.1). Algae, however, are
represented in almost all domains of life, and therefore collectively provide a truly staggering richness of diversity a
resource that as yet has hardly been used.
The following paragraphs will outline how algal R&D by tapping into and developing this resource may contribute to
solving major challenges, such as security of food, energy and materials, and benefit the progress of biological and
biotechnological disciplines in general. Many aspects of this have also been discussed in detail in the European Science
Foundation Marine Board Position Paper 15 Marine Biotechnology: A New Vision and Strategy for Europe (September
2010) 121.
119
Following the definition of RE Lee (Phycology, 2008, Cambridge University Press, p.3), the term algae in this report is used to
refer to both macro- and microalgae, with the latter including prokaryotic algae (cyanobacteria). Purple photosynthetic bacteria,
which are anoxygenic, are not included.
120
available at www.nnfcc.co.uk/tools/assessing-the-potential-for-algae-in-the-uk
121
The full report, as well executive summary and recommendations, are available at www.esf.org/research-areas/marinesciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
Fig. 4.1: Phylogenetic tree highlighting the diversity and distribution of algae (boxed groups; colours indicate the
diversity of pigmentation) across the domains of life 122. For comparison animals and land plants are encircled in red and
green, respectively.
122
This is also being researched e.g. by the Center for Bio-Inspired Solar Fuel Production at Arizona State University:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/efrc/centers/cbisfp/, one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers funded through the US DoE.
126
c.f. www3.imperial.ac.uk/solar/people
127
This is also being researched e.g. by the Photosynthetic Antenna Research Center (led by R. Blankenship, St Louis, Missouri:
http://science.energy.gov/bes/efrc/centers/parc/), one of the 46 Energy Frontier Research Centers funded through the US DoE.
The Universities of Glasgow and Sheffield are partners in the Center.
128
www.solarcap.org.uk/
41
green yeast, offering a considerable versatility which complements existing systems: for example, they are able to grow
autotrophically (in either freshwater or marine conditions), and can overexpress e.g. plant secondary metabolites, as well
as proteins, at high levels. Furthermore, the option exists to locate genes for the target proteins either in the chloroplast,
hence mimicking a prokaryotic expression system (while achieving high yields and high solubility of protein products), or in
the nucleus, hence following a eukaryotic expression path 129. The existence of a vacuole offers the option for
compartmentalised storage; secretion pathways into the medium can also be exploited.
As platforms for synthetic biology, microalgae offer particular advantages compared to terrestrial plants, such as fast
growth (growth rates can be >10 times greater than terrestrial plants), short life cycles, increased tractability, comparative
ease and low cost of culturing, and small size, all of which facilitate high-throughput screening. An algal industrial
biotechnology platform could therefore become a disruptive technology for plant sciences, and a [..] step to enable
synthetic biology approaches to be established and used in other plants and crops 130.
Algae have the additional advantage of being nave hosts, where host species can be chosen that demonstrate minimal
interference with inserted pathways. The first stage of algal synthetic biology using conventional vectors is already
being commercially exploited e.g. to develop edible vaccines (by e.g. Phycotransgenics LLC, Worthington, OH / Richard
Sayre). However, much more sophisticated systems are being developed according to a building-brick principle, where a
suite of enhancers, silencers, promoters, targeting sequences, tags, resistance cassettes, etc are equipped with standard
cloning sites to enable mixing and matching of desired features around the gene of interest. Potential applications of this
technology are very broad and far-reaching indeed.
129
It still remains to be established how similar glycosylation pattern in algae are to those in mammalian cells (pers. comm.,
Christoph Griesbeck and Saul Purton)
130
c.f. meeting report of SPPI-Net Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop on 24 March 2011, available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
131
output of TSB Technology Programme: Collaborative Research & Development, Autumn 2007 Biorefinery carbon capture and
conversion into industrial feedstocks as direct replacements for petrochemicals. (CCIF). S. Skill (PI)
132
www.algalturfscrubber.com
42
133
It is interesting to note that all eukaryotic algae outside the green and red algae (e.g. diatoms, kelps) are the result of a
secondary endosymbiotic acquisition of a eukaryotic alga.
134
Lee RE (2008): Phycology, Cambridge University Press; pp. 20-23
135
Tools like RNAi will also be invaluable in developing algae for the applications in food, energy and materials.
43
4.7 Conclusions
The examples given above provide a flavour of the potential that algal research has to benefit the progress of plant
science and biotechnology, both in terms of fundamental / blue sky research, and addressing urgent issues such as food,
energy and material security. The as-yet hardly tapped, rich resource of algal diversity has the potential to become a
major contributor to underpin the development of a bio-based economy in the UK.
To realise this potential, however, algae will need the same genomic resources as other crops: full and fully annotated
genome sequences, functional genomics and links with expression profiling, metabolic profiling, epigenome profiling,
understanding of natural variation, RNAi knock down collections for the whole genome in selected species, and insertion
mutant collections. In effect, algal improvement programmes would need to be developed in parallel to the improvement
programmes in terrestrial crops.
Both the expertise and the will exists in the UK to develop the majority of the opportunities shown in this chapter; some
examples of UK researchers already pursuing relevant work have been given, and many more names could be added (c.f.
expertise showcased in Section 1.2). The next chapter will address how algal research in the UK may capitalise fully on
these strengths, and stay competitive in a well populated and rapidly moving international field.
44
In a globalised society, capabilities that exist on a national level need to be assessed in the light of activities on the
international stage. Looking at this bigger picture makes it possible to determine where the UK expertise can achieve the
highest impact, and highlights the challenges associated with staying internationally competitive.
This chapter gives a high-level overview of the strengths of current algal research capability in the UK, identifies overlaps
with expertise internationally (and competition arising), assesses knowledge gaps and draws out key contributions the UK
could make on the global algal stage.
136
www.CCAP.ac.uk; www.mba.ac.uk/culturecollection.php
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/algaevision/index.html
138
The full report, as well executive summary and recommendations, is available at: http://www.esf.org/research-areas/marinesciences/marine-board-working-groups/marine-biotechnology.html
45
137
Table 5.1: Outline SWOT analysis of algal research in the UK (informed by questionnaire responses, c.f. Section
1.2)
Strengths
Ecological / environmental R&D, especially marine,
impacts of climate change
Fundamental
biological
R&D:
photosynthesis,
physiology, phylogeny, taxonomy, whole organism
biology, biochemistry, systems/molecular/microbiology,
biotechnology
Strong Omics infrastructure
Diversity of research base
International lead on algal culture collections
Focus on integrated systems in applications
Weaknesses
Lack of cohesion between the constituent research
communities
Small number of people with combined engineering
and biological expertise 139
Decline in freshwater expertise
In common with other scientific endeavours:
Less flexible in responding to new opportunities than
US / BRIC countries
Comparatively poor track record of successful
commercialisation of R&D outputs, compared e.g. to US
Opportunities 140
Use environmental expertise to forecast environmental
consequences of large-scale algal growth, and to
develop algae as bio-indicators for environmental
change / impact
Improve reliability and uptake of modelling and LCA
through improved datasets, to pre-empt expensive
mistakes and accelerate progress
Rising oil prices and potential breakthroughs in low cost,
sustainable integrated algal production / biorefining at
scale may make algal bioenergy (and other bulk
products) commercially viable
Increase sustainability of CO2/heat/waste water
producing industries and aquaculture through
integrated algal growth systems and bioremediation
Use expertise to develop algae as industrial
biotechnology platform with increasing number and
diversity of model systems, making use of novel
approaches such as epigenetics
Develop novel products from bioprospecting and mining
of growing body of Omics data
Exploit benefits if coordinated interdisciplinary work, if
UK research community can be united
Increase collaboration on international scale, access
international funding
Threats139
Loss of lead in current strengths due to being diluted /
crowded out by well-funded international competition
(especially US and BRIC countries; loss of funding for
the Carbon Trust ABC is an example of how expertise
and momentum is being wasted through lack of
support)
Loss of expertise: through staff retiring and insufficient
numbers of new people entering the field (especially in
traditional disciplines such as taxonomy), and loss of
talent to other countries with more funding / more
flexibility in commercialisation
First-rate UK R&D outputs being commercially exploited
mainly abroad, with little benefit coming back to UK
Disappointment of unrealistic expectations may lead to
blindness in funding bodies, politicians, business and
the public for real opportunities algae offer
This is a problem on an international level: it has been highlighted as the second-most critical issue for global algal industries
in The Algal Industry Survey 2008 (p.7), available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf.
140
More details on opportunities and threats (challenges) can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3.
141
www.awi.de/en/home/
142
c.f. http://cmsprod.bgu.ac.il/Eng/Units/bidr/Faculty_Members/Boussiba.htm, and Chapter 2
46
Culture collections internationally have a strong history e.g. in Japan (MCC at NIES 143; NBRC at NITE 144), the US (e.g.
UTEX 145; CCMP 146), Germany (CCAC 147, SAG 148) and France (PCC at CRBIP 149); an overview of international collections can
be found at http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex/otherResources.aspx.
Leadership in the field of PBR design and biomass growth internationally is shown by e.g. Italy (e.g. Mario Tredici,
Florence), Spain (e.g. University of Almeria), Portugal (e.g. Vitor Vieira, Necton / AlgaFuel), Germany (e.g. Otto Pulz,
Potsdam), and Israel (e.g. Sammy Boussiba, Ben-Gurion).
143
http://mcc.nies.go.jp/
www.nbrc.nite.go.jp/e/
145
www.sbs.utexas.edu/utex
146
https://ccmp.bigelow.org/
147
www.ccac.uni-koeln.de/
148
http://epsag.uni-goettingen.de/
149
http://www.pasteur.fr/ip/easysite/pasteur/fr/recherche/les-collections/crbip/informations-generales-sur-les-collections#
150
Pers. comm. John Day
144
47
Expertise in the underpinning disciplines of phylogeny and taxonomy, although not unique to the UK, is internationally on
the decline, and hence may turn into a gap which the UK would be well placed to fill, provided its own level of national
expertise is maintained.
The experience in life cycle analysis (LCA; e.g. Swansea, Imperial, Cambridge, Cranfield) is also of importance globally,
since sound LCA is fundamental to any energy application, and highly advisable for other applications. The UK is in a good
position to build further capacity to satisfy growing global demand in this area (and also modelling in general, since these
approaches if supported by sound datasets can replace expensive experiments, allow exploration of a multitude of
possible scenarios and thereby accelerate progress 151).
151
c.f. pertinent questionnaire response for challenges on 25 year timescale, Kevin Flynn (Table C.4.3): Good data sets to
support effective modelling - this is a basic and recurrent problem in algal research, one upon which I have written and talked
frequently over the 25+ years that I have worked in the subject area. [..] The acid test of our knowledge is whether we can
model it properly and thence explore the multitude of possible scenarios which we cannot seriously explore empirically. This is
needed for all aspects from ecological biogeochemical work, to commercial exploitation. And that modelling effort is crippled
repeatedly by poor and/or inadequate data collection, conducted all too often in unsuitably designed experiments. Unless there
is a real drive by people who understand this problem, and the opportunities that exist in solving it, then we will advance
nowhere fast and continue to waste resources and time. I have repeated the challenges and opportunities because this is a
cyclic problem, as it has been for the last 25+ years.
48
6. ALGAE RESEARCH VALUE CHAINS IN THE UK ANALYSIS OF GAPS AND RECOMMENDED ACTIVITIES
To increase the impact of algal expertise in the UK, it is important to connect together the various research elements that
are needed to progress the outputs of fundamental research onwards into applications. In the UK context, it is helpful to
differentiate between two overarching value chains for algal research:
1. fundamental research leading to the development of novel high tech solutions and high value products
employing algae, with the end goal of building the next generation of algal technology applications, and
2. further improvement and optimisation of existing applications in order to make them financially viable, more
profitable and/or environmentally acceptable.
Considerable expertise exists in the UK that can contribute to both of these value chains. Both in different ways and with
input from different kinds of fundamental research have potential to underpin the development of a bio-based economy
in the UK. This chapter will give an overview of each in turn, indicate current gaps, and make recommendations which will
be expanded on in the final two chapters. A more fine-grained indicative analysis of value chains for certain algal products
and services (following the categories introduced in Chapter 3) is provided in Appendix D.
6.1 Development of High Tech Solutions and High Value Products Employing Algae
By its nature this value chain requires intense, lab-based R&D (Technology Readiness Level (TRL) 1-4) and, although mostly
founded in multidisciplinary approaches, tends to produce stand-alone end products (a patented process or physical
product). These are often taken to higher TRL levels through spin-out companies from research institutes. Those spin-outs
in turn are frequently acquired by larger companies who implement the technology in their operations. The research value
chain in this instance would start with fundamental lab work; generation of protected IP that can be sold or licensed could
be considered an end point.
All products and applications mentioned in Chapter 4 fall into this category; examples from Industrial Biotechnology
include:
Underpinning methodologies that can be patented / licensed:
o algal synthetic biology toolkits
o algal transformation systems
o high-throughput screening technologies for algal bioprospecting (microfluidic cultivation
and selection systems; systems biology / omics service development)
Novel products:
o platform chemicals
o pharmaceuticals
o nutraceuticals
o energy products: e.g. algal biophotovoltaics; solar H2 production and CO2 reduction (through
biomimetic catalytic systems, based on algal enzymes)
o ecological applications (ecosystem services in the built environment; algal sensors for
pollutants)
The indicative list above represents a highly diverse spectrum of approaches, and will need to be driven forward by R&D
teams with very different expertise in each case. Indeed, many of these novel approaches (not only the examples above,
but all opportunities mentioned in Chapter 4) could develop into full value chains of their own, with the potential to
overtake currently identified algal applications in scope and importance.
It is outside the remit of this report to review gaps and make recommendations for each of these individually;
however, several common features can be drawn out:
science; science which has outputs that are of high relevance to industry, and hence the potential to identify routes to
commercialisation. 152
Recommendations
The numerous opportunities that exist to build algae as an industrial biotechnology platform could be best assessed and
developed in a forum that will bring academics and industry together to discuss the overlap in priorities for R&D for both
parties, and that will feed into a strategic funding initiative. In such a forum, it can be discussed and clarified which of the
technically feasible and intellectually rewarding projects would provide most benefit in an industrial and economic
context. Issues such as the advantages of algal systems over current methods, the best choice of model organisms and the
most relevant tools and target molecules can be addressed, leading to research outputs that will have high relevance for
industry. A very encouraging start in this direction was made in March 2011, when under the auspices of the Synthetic
Plant Products for Industry Network (SPPI-Net), Biosciences KTN facilitated an Algal Synthetic Biology Workshop in
London. A group of algal researchers met with industry representatives to discuss the potential of algae as a platform for
industrial biotechnology, using synthetic biology approaches; an overview of the outcomes is available at www.sppinet.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf.
However, discussions no matter how illuminating will remain fruitless unless they are accompanied by funding
pathways that enable the identified priorities to be translated into successful research projects. BBSRC could best support
the field by moving from funding this research through responsive mode only to issuing strategic funding calls for those
novel solutions based on algae which have been identified as most promising and strategically important. Such focused
funding support could in the first instance be delivered through a call on algal industrial biotechnology (which could be
part of a relevant existing Industry Club), or in the future by creating a dedicated Club. Out of constructive dialogue with
relevant industries additional opportunities for focused joint work are likely to arise, such as CASE studentships and
Industrial Partnership Awards (several indeed already have arisen, and some have received funding from BBSRC).
However, relying on those on their own would not give the field the strategic and joined-up push that it requires to be
competitive on the international scene. 153
The value chain for all of the above consists of: selection (and/or development) of algal strains and ecologically sensible
locations for cultivation, growth of biomass, harvesting, processing, down to distribution, sales and marketing, with
refinement of the whole process through iterative life cycle, sustainability and economic assessment. Research in
152
A further bottleneck that is shared with commercialisation of other bioscience outputs is presented by the fact that
researchers often are still not too familiar with how to take brilliant ideas, inventions and developments further: starting with
appropriate IP protection combined with identifying industries for which the IP is relevant, and then by building teams with the
right mix of skills to move to the next stage. An increased awareness among researchers of the relevance of their expertise to
commercial applications, and of the opportunities that could arise from taking their research outputs further through
development, would accelerate the flow of algal R&D into novel biotechnological applications. Other helpful skills include
knowing when to draw in other expertise (e.g. business know-how), and when to let go understandably scientists who have
developed a new process or product tend to be keen to retain control; however, to get to the next level, business and marketing
experts increasingly need to be in charge if commercialisation is to be successful.
153
It needs to be stressed that strategic focus, albeit highly important, must not be to the detriment of funding algal blue skies
research (which tends to produce the most innovative and ground-breaking solutions; a prominent example is Michael Faraday).
50
fundamental bioscience underpins all aspects of this chain up to distribution; relevant research areas include (for a more
fine-grained picture see Appendix D):
-
Details of the individual research value chains for base and value added commodities, high value products, bioremediation
services and integrative approaches can be found in Appendix D, including an indication of current players and gaps in
each case. While details for each of the product groups vary, some gaps and bottlenecks in the research value chain are
shared:
Recommendations
To address the bottlenecks mentioned above, it is highly recommended that BBSRC together with other Research Councils
and funding bodies like TSB, and in consultation with academia and industry, develop a joined-up strategy for algal value
chains in the UK. This would need to be followed up with integrated funding appropriate to the various bodies involved.
Only a cohesive strategic approach with appropriate funding will ensure that the algal research strengths, which the UK
undoubtedly possesses, will be counted on the international stage, and that the benefit of this expertise will be felt in the
UK directly through underpinning the development of a national bio-based economy.
Strategic funding should include a cross-council Graduate Training Programme to build capacity in graduates and
post-docs with a sound understanding of the biological, engineering and environmental challenges that are so crucial for
successful commercialisation of algal technologies. Another priority area should be the establishment of a peer-reviewed,
open access database for information to feed into life cycle and sustainability analyses and modelling studies.
6.3 Summary
Both research value chains discussed above build on biological R&D strengths in the UK, and in different ways have
potential to underpin the development of a bio-based economy. The development of stand-alone novel solutions based
on algal biology, such as the examples from Industrial Biotechnology referred to in Section 6.1, can be supported by BBSRC
directly through strategic funding calls and in the context of Industry Clubs. Cooperation with other funding bodies that
have overlapping interests would further add value and momentum. The optimisation of integrated algal solutions for
eventual production of base commodities, high value products and adoption of bioremediation services at scale also
encompasses many aspects of fundamental biological research that falls under the remit of BBSRC. Funding initiatives for
this value chain would best be delivered under a national strategy for algae, which builds on the strengths of the UK and
joins up the RD&D outputs across disciplines and technology readiness levels along the entire pipeline.
154
available at www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/algal-industry-survey.pdf
51
Algal product /
service
Risk level
Reward
level
Importance
for field
Industrial
biotechnology
platform
Pharmaceuticals,
platform
chemicals
low
medium
medium-high
high
mediumhigh
mediumhigh
medium-high
mediumhigh
HIGH
155
high
medium
HIGH
Further details on RD&D needs can be found in Appendix C, Tables C.4.1/2/3 (questionnaire responses to challenges on 5, 10,
25 year timespan)
52
Topic
Algal product
RD&D needed
Biomass
production
(applicable to all
of the below)
Bioenergy
Bioalcohols
Biodiesel / kerosene
Biomethane
Food /
nutraceuticals/
cosmeceuticals
Animal feed
Bioremediation
Thermochemical
conversion
products
Whole algal
biomass,
pigments,
PUFAs, novel
products
Replacement for
fish- / soymeal;
aquaculture feed
Waste water
treatment
CO2 / NOx
scrubbing
Integrated
biorefinery
Protein,
carbohydrates,
oils, metabolites
Risk
Reward
Importance
medium
high
HIGH
low-medium
high
HIGH
medium
medium
high
high
high
high
high
high
medium-high
low
HIGH
HIGH
medium
low
medium
medium-high
medium
medium
low
high
high
medium-high
low
low
HIGH
high
high
medium
high
medium
high
HIGH
high
high
medium
HIGH
HIGH
high
medium
medium
medium
medium
low
high
HIGH
medium
medium
HIGH
medium
medium
low
medium
medium
medium
high
high
high
high
HIGH
high
high
mediumhigh
medium-high
medium
high
medium
low
low
high
high
high
high
medium
high
HIGH
low
high
medium
medium
medium-high
medium
low
high
high
high
high
HIGH
medium
high
high
53
54
156
projects and activity coordination 160, but funding for the Director (0.2 FTE) and the three research fellows (together 2.5
FTE) is only secured for two years. This initiative is an excellent start, and likely to make a significant impact. If the
momentum is to be maintained, if is essential that follow-up funding (certainly for the strategic leadership aspects of the
project) is secured, and preferably at increased levels; the challenge of high-level coordination cannot be met
appropriately with a 0.2 FTE appointment. The information provided on funded projects in Appendix A and the overview
of UK expertise in Chapter 1 of this study aims to aid in developing the centralised overview needed for strategy
development. BBSRC may consider planning a further stakeholder engagement workshop to follow on from this study, in
collaboration with the AB-SIG, to increase momentum and cohesion in the algal research community, and to shape
strategy.
Concerning point 2 (and d.) above, the situation has worsened since 2009. The withdrawal of funding from the Carbon
Trust ABC 161 in April 2011 has been a blow not only to the 12 research teams involved, but also to the reputation of the UK
internationally, since this project had been portrayed as the UK flagship for applied algal RD&D. As the 2009 DECC report
stated, A combination of lack of leadership, focus and clear policy objectives has resulted in the UK missing opportunities
in algae development and it is clear the UK is now lagging behind other countries, most notably the USA159. This gap has
widened in the intervening time. Even during the US recession, the US Department of Energy in June 2010 awarded $24
million to three research consortia to address the existing difficulties in the commercialisation of algal-based biofuels 162.
Synergistic funding is also being provided at a state level: e.g. in Sept 2010, the governor of Arizona announced a $2
million investment in the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation (AzCATI 163). In addition, further competition
has arisen from BRIC countries who invest heavily into applied algal RD&D. It has to be recognised that the gap will grow
to unsustainable levels unless steps are taken to mitigate the recent loss of funding.
Concerning point 3 (and b./c.) above, BioMara and EnAlgae (c.f. Section 1.2.3) are starting to provide some test facilities,
and companies such as PML Applications Ltd, Scottish Bioenergy Ltd and Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd (on microalgae), and
the Crown Estate (on macroalgae), are investigating the scaling up of algal growth in a UK context. However, a higher
density of pilot and demonstration sites established in close collaboration with industry, and embedded in industrial
activity for the entire spectrum of integrative growth approaches and end uses would be desirable.
160
ibid p. 3
www.carbontrust.co.uk/emerging-technologies/current-focus-areas/algae-biofuels-challenge/pages/algae-biofuelschallenge.aspx
162
www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/news_detail.html?news_id=16122
163
www.azcati.com
161
56
8.3.4 Strategic Initiative on Algae across Research Councils and Government Departments
A cross-council strategy on algae would be a very helpful step, and would lead to co-ordinated funding initiatives with
focused, joined-up and industrially relevant research outputs. However, unless those outputs are developed beyond the
Technology Readiness Levels that are the remit of the Research Councils, pull-through to commercialisation and
consequent benefit for the UKs emerging bio-economy may be limited.
To realise the full potential of algae for the UK economy, a joined-up approach across the Research Councils, TSB and all
relevant Government Departments is needed. The Government has highlighted the importance of mechanisms that
facilitate the translation of the UKs research capabilities into economic benefit, and with the initiative to create
Technology Innovation Centres has provided a funding mechanism to do so. The Research Councils may want to cooperate
in engaging with the relevant Government Departments and TSB to create a national strategy on algae that spans
research, development and deployment, and may recommend to the Government the establishment of an algal
Technology Innovation Centre. The combination of a strategically funded academic Centre of Excellence which builds on
the strengths of the algal research community in the UK with a Technology Innovation Centre that takes step-changing
research outputs through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong pipeline. Such a pipeline would
guarantee high impact of UK algal research, and would provide direct benefit to the UK by both determining and realising
the potential that algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy.
164
c.f. www.sppi-net.org/downloads/AlgalSyntheticBiologyWorkshop0411.pdf
57
Through smaller-scale initiatives (such as the algal INTERREG programmes BioMara and EnAlgae, and the Carbon Trust
ABC (c.f. Section 1.2.3)) that have required collaborative work across research groups and with industrial stakeholders, the
algal community has demonstrated an eagerness to overcome its fragmentation. The response of the community to a
national strategic initiative on algae is expected to be highly positive, and would put the UK back on the map as a serious
international player in this highly competitive field.
8.4 Summary
The UK has a wealth of biological expertise to offer to establish algae as part of a bio-based economy, both through high
tech approaches to build algae as an industrial biotechnology platform, and by developing algal products and services in
the concept of integrated biorefining. This is complemented by extensive ecological expertise that helps to understand
and model the role of algae in climate change and develop them as bio-indicators for environmental impact.
This wealth of knowledge has not been made best use of in the UK, for two principal reasons:
1. A lack of integration of the research community across the breadth of relevant disciplines: this needs to be catalysed
by providing funding for multidisciplinary research programmes, where possible linked to collaborative demonstration
sites with industry.
2. Progress in the field has been seriously hampered by lack of funding. With the withdrawal of funding from the Carbon
Trust ABC, this situation has further deteriorated in the last months. The UK is in grave danger of being marginalised
on an international scale, since especially the US and BRIC countries have been and are investing heavily in this arena.
Unless this situation is remedied, further opportunities will be lost. The quality and size of the knowledge base is likely
to diminish through brain-drain to well-funded RD&D activities abroad. It would lead to first-rate UK R&D outputs
again 165 being commercially exploited mainly abroad, with little benefit coming back, and the UK would be forced to
adopt technologies from abroad which could and should have been developed nationally.
The development of a virtual UK Centre of Excellence on Algae would provide cohesion and much needed capacity
building in multidisciplinary expertise. Such a centre would need to receive core funding from the Research Councils to
support fundamental scientific research, underpinning the development of novel algal products and services. It would
work closely with a network of industry-led pilot and demonstration sites on LINK-type projects. These would facilitate the
optimisation and deployment of integrated algal solutions at increasing scale. In parallel, the Research Councils may want
to recommend to the Government and TSB the establishment of an algal Technology Innovation Centre (TIC). A TIC would
provide the pull-through to commercialisation beyond the Technology Readiness Levels which fall under the remit of the
Research Councils. The combination of a strategically-funded academic Centre of Excellence that builds on the strengths
of the algal research community in the UK with a Technology Innovation Centre that takes step-changing research outputs
through to commercial application would provide a complete and strong pipeline. Such a pipeline would guarantee high
impact of UK algal research. It would provide direct benefit to the UK by both determining and realising the potential that
algae have to contribute to a sustainable bio-based economy: it will in the short to medium term develop tangible
solutions, and at the same time ensure that underpinning science is being put in place to address the long term challenges
to mankind.
165
The success of e.g. Martek Biosciences Corporation is based on a technology developed by the British company Celsys, now
closed
58
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60
APPENDICES
Appendix A: List of algal researchers / grantholders with algal keywords, as of 22 December 2010 (electronic .xls copy
available on request)
Appendix B: Cover Letter and Questionnaire sent to researchers
Dear Colleague,
As you will know, interest in algal R&D has grown in the last years, both internationally and in the UK. The UK has a
strong knowledge base especially in fundamental underpinning research relating to algal biology and ecology, and in
the relevant engineering sciences essential for optimised and scaled up growth. However, the research community is
both fragmented and poorly supported. This hinders the progress of the field as a whole, and restricts the UKs
competitiveness.
There is a recognition within the Research Councils that a more integrated approach needs to be taken to algal
research. As a result, BBSRC has commissioned an inventory of the algal community in the UK, with a view to
increase the level of information available on the strengths and capabilities of the UK algal community which might
in turn lead to research funding, and will create a framework through which the algal community can capitalise on
for example European funding opportunities such as EERA (European Energy Research Alliance). This is being carried
out in partnership with the NERC/TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group. Please note that this survey is NOT
only aimed at those interested in energy issues, we would like to hear from anyone who has a research interest in
algae. An essential starting point is collating a contact list of all algal R&D players, their research interests, and their
past and present funders of algal work. The latter information will help the research councils to evaluate the current
funding landscape and will aid in targeting any future initiatives appropriately.
We have accessed publically available data on grants awarded by the Research Councils and TSB to start this
list, but the most reliable information about current expertise and research interests will come from the researchers
directly. We would therefore appreciate if you could take the time to complete the brief questionnaire below, so we
can make sure we have the most accurate information to feed back to the Research Councils.
You may also be aware that the European Project AquaFUELs have been collating a directory of Algal Expertise
(http://www.eaba-association.eu/dl_misc/indexd1.3.html), and that the European Algal Biomass Association EABA is
working on updating and expanding this directory. Unless you object (or are already included), we would also like to
make the EABA aware of your expertise.
You will have received this email because either a colleague has put you forward, or because you have
received a grant by the Research Councils in which algae (pro- or eukaryotic) played a role. Should you feel you have
received this in error, since your research interests neither in the past nor present included algae, please accept my
apologies, and please let me know so you will not receive any follow-up emails.
We would very much appreciate hearing from you by 28 Feb 2011, and look forward to your reply. Please also
forward this message to colleagues who may be interested, since our mailing list is unlikely to be comprehensive.
Yours sincerely
Beatrix Schlarb-Ridley on behalf of BBSRC
Michele Stanley on behalf of the NERC / TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group
61
6. Research interests
(please tick as many as apply, and highlight primary interest in bold):
macroalgae
microalgae
marine
freshwater
applied research
fundamental research
photosynthesis
bioprospecting
synthetic biology
algal communities
photobioreactor design
algal productivity
biofouling
other:______________
bioenergy
bioremediation
carbon capture
waste water treatment
environmental issues
(platform) chemicals
algae for food/feed
nutraceuticals
cosmeceuticals
pharmaceuticals
integrated industrial growth
aquaculture
other:______________
other:______________
7. Where do you see the key challenges and opportunities for algal research in the next 5 / 10 / 25 years?
Timeframe (years)
5
10
25
challenges
opportunities
12. Do you know of any other interested parties either within your organisation or elsewhere we should
contact?
Name
Institution
13. For Data Protection Issues are you prepared to have your name and anonymised responses included in the
final report submitted to BBSRC?
Name:
Yes
No
Anonymised responses:
Yes
No
Thank you for your participation!
62
No UK researchers
involved
Subset:
primary
research
interest
Macroalgae
55
15
Microalgae
126
32
Marine
100
21
Freshwater
79
Applied
research
97
14
Fundamental
Research
97
19
Environmental
issues
72
14
Bioenergy
65
15
Algal
communities
63
10
Algal
productivity
Photosynthesis
62
48
Carbon capture
42
Bristol, A Anesio. Cambridge, C Howe. Essex, R Geider & D Suggett. Queen Mary
University of London, C Mullineaux. The Queens University Belfast, M Dring. Sheffield, N
Hunter. Southampton, M Terry & T Bibby.
Birmingham, L Macaskie. Leeds, D Mara. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer. Plymouth Marine
Laboratory, S Skill. Sheffield, J Gilmour.
63
Food/feed
37
Waste water
treatment
Bioremediation
31
29
Cambridge, D Aldridge. Manchester, J Pittman. The Queens University Belfast, M Dring &
G Savidge. Swansea, R Shields.
Nutraceuticals
26
Photobioreactor
design
23
Platform
chemicals
23
Integrated
industrial growth
23
Pharmaceuticals
22
21
1
5
20
18
3
1
Newcastle, G Caldwell
Cambridge, D Aldridge. Leeds, D Mara. Newcastle, G Caldwell. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer.
Queens University of Belfast, M Dring.
Birminham, M Callow. Cambridge, D Aldridge. Plymouth, J Hall-Spencer.
East Anglia, T Mock.
16
14
0
1
Aquaculture
Biofouling
Synthetic
biology
Bioprospecting
Cosmeceuticals
Other
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Aberdeen
Chemistry
Aberdeen
Geology and
Petroleum
Geology
Institute of
Biological and
Environmental
Sciences
School of
Medical
Sciences
Engineering
and Applied
Science
Chemical
Engineering
School of
Ocean Sciences
NERC, hydrocarbon
industry
Aberdeen
Aberdeen
Aston
Aston
Bangor
NERC
oomycete-algae interactions
NERC
NERC
EPSRC
EPSRC
industrial funder
(Varicon Aqua)
Carbon Trust
64
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Bath
Chemistry
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
School of
Biosciences
School of
Biosciences
Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham
School of
Biosciences
Bournemouth
Bristol
Biological
Science
Bristol
Cambridge
Geographical
Sciences
Applied
Mathematics &
Theoretical
Physics
Applied
Mathematics &
Theoretical
Physics
Biochemistry
Cambridge
Biochemistry
Cambridge
Cambridge
Chemical
Engineering &
Biotechnology
Chemical
Engineering &
Biotechnology
Chemistry
Cambridge
Chemistry
Cambridge
Engineering
Cambridge
Earth Sciences
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Past funders
EPSRC
BBSRC, NERC,
International Paint
none
MRC/EPSRC/BBSRC
Discipline Hopping
Award
Present funders
NERC, Nuffield
Foundation, Royal Society
BBSRC, EPSRC, ERC
NERC, EU
FP7 (Marie-Curie
Program)
EPSRC
Wellcome Trust,
Broodbank Trust, BBSRC,
Leverhulme Trust,
Newton Trust
Leverhulme Trust
industrial funder
(confidential)
EPSRC
EPSRC
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Cambridge
Plant Sciences
BBSRC
Cambridge
Zoology
Cardiff
School of Earth
and Ocean
Sciences
School of
Biosciences
Cardiff
productivity, photophysiology,
coastal erosion and biostability
Royal Society
Austrian Academy of
Sciences
NERC, DEFRA (Cefas),
INTERRE.G. - DYMAPHY
(EU)
Environmental
Sciences
University, China
collaborations
Biomolecular
and Sports
Science
School of
Applied
Sciences
School of
Applied
Sciences
School of
Engineering
University, China
collaborations
environmental microbiology,
biological processes
CNPq/Brazil
Cranfield
School of
Engineering
Cranfield
School of
Engineering
Centre for
Environment
Fisheries and
Aquaculture
Science
Centre for
Ecology &
Hydrology
Countryside
Council for
Wales
Coventry
Coventry
Cranfield
Cranfield
Cranfield
Department
for
Communities
and Local
Government
Dundee
College of Life
Sciences
EU FP7, EPSRC
Internal funding
Cranfield University
Ministry of Defence,
Airbus (France), Rolls
Royce, British Airways,
UoP, Finnair, EU,
Gatwick Airport
Ministry of Defence
Centre for Defence
Enterprise
Belgian National
Research Council;
consultancy
66
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Dundee
School of Life
Sciences
Dundee
Molecular
Microbiology
Durham
Chemistry
Durham
School of
Biological and
Biomedical
Sciences
Environmental
Sciences
BBSRC, JSPS
NERC
Department of Energy
(DOE, USA), NERC, Royal
Society, 454 Roche
NERC
The Leverhulme
Foundation
East Anglia
East Anglia
Environmental
Sciences
Edinburgh
Institute of
Evolutionary
Biology
School of
Physics &
Astronomy
Edinburgh
Environmental
Research
Institute
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Biological
Sciences
Essex
Essex
Biological
Sciences
Exeter
Biosciences
Glasgow
Chemistry
NERC, EC
Scottish Funding
Council, Highlands and
Islands Enterprise, ERDF
NERC, EC
NERC
NERC
NERC, EU
NERC
EPSRC, Pfizer
(studentship) - synthesis
NERC (studentship),
Industry (Shell Global
Solutionscyanobacteria)
EPSRC - synthesis
67
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Glasgow
Mathematics
EPSRC
EPSRC
Glasgow
Faculty of
Physical
Science
NERC
NERC, Assemble
BBSRC
Glasgow
Imperial
Imperial
Imperial
Kings College
London
Lancaster
Environment
Centre
Leeds
Leeds
Leeds
Leeds
Liverpool
Liverpool
John Moores
University
Loughborough
Manchester
Manchester
Manchester
Environmental
Science and
Technology
Natural
Sciences
Natural
Sciences
School of
Pharmacy
Civil
Engineering
School of
Geography
School of Earth
and
Environment
Centre for
Plant Sciences
Mathematical
Sciences
School of
Natural
Sciences &
Psychology
Geography
Earth
Atmospheric &
Environmenal
Sciences
Faculty of Life
Sciences
Faculty of Life
Sciences
EPSRC
EU Commission FP7
Leverhulme Trust
BBSRC
NERC, EU
EPSRC
NERC
molecular genetics
AFRC, BBSRC
NERC, NSF
NERC, EU
Leverhulme Trust,
Carbon Trust, BBSRC
studentship DTA
68
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Manchester
School of
Chemical
Engineering &
Analytical
Science
School of
Chemical
Engineering &
Analytical
Science
Marine Biology
none
NERC, BBSRC, EU
NERC, BBSRC, EU
NERC
Marine Biology
NERC, FP6
Botany
Botany
Botany
Zoology
School of
Chemical
Engineering
and Advanced
Materials
[CEAM]
Marine Science
& Technology
Manchester
Marine
Biological
Association
Marine
Biological
Association
Marine
Biological
Association
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Natural
History
Museum
Newcastle
Newcastle
Newcastle
Newcastle
Nottingham
Marine Biology
Institute for
Cell &
Molecular
Biosciences
Marine Science
& Technology
Faculty of
Medicine &
Health
Sciences
Carbon Trust
NERC
NERC
69
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Nottingham
Oxford
Earth Sciences
Oxford
Earth Sciences
Oxford
Plant Sciences
Plymouth
School of
Marine Science
& Engineering
Freshwater Biological
Association
European Science
Foundation
Oxford
School of
Geography
School of
Biology
Earth Sciences
Nottingham
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Plymouth
Marine
Laboratory
Portsmouth
Portsmouth
Marine Life
Support
Systems
School of Earth
&
Environmental
Sciences
Faculty of
Science
Portsmouth
Queen Mary
London
Queen's
Belfast
School of
Biological and
Chemical
Sciences
School of
Biological
Sciences
NERC
ERC
NERC, Royal Society,
Esmee Fairbairn
Foundation, EU eg EPSRC,
TSB, industrial funder
(name confidential)
TSB, BBSRC, DEFRA, NERC
NERC, EU eg UKERC,
Royal Society
Confidential
BBSRC-DEFRA, Carbon
Trust
Shell
BBSRC
industrial (confidential)
biogeochemistry, algae-nutrient
interactions
NERC
NERC
NERC/EC
EC
NERC, DoE
BBSRC
Systematics Ass.,
Porcupine Soc
BBSRC, Carbon Trust,
EU FP7
NERC, BP
NERC
TSB, BBSRC
Marine Insitute
(Ireland), AXA
Foundation, Esmee
Fairbairn foundation
70
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Queen's
Belfast
School of
Biological
Sciences
School of
Biological
Sciences
Food and
Nutritional
Science
Sustainable
Pest and
Disease
Management
None
EU FP7, BBSRC
(Studentship)
Institutional core
funding, EU
Queen's
Belfast
Reading
Rothamsted
Research
Royal
Botanic
Garden
Edinburgh
Royal
Botanic
Garden
Edinburgh
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Association
for Marine
Science
Scottish
Crop
Research
Institute
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
Sheffield
Sheffield
Sheffield
EC FP7
Scottish Natural
Heritage (SNH) and
Scottish Environment
Protection Agency
(SEPA)
EU, NERC, Carbon Trust
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
oomycete-algae interactions
NERC
EU Reintegration Grant
(ERG), 1 Marie Curie
PhD studentship, NERC
Oceans 2025-SOFI
initiative
NERC
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
Local sources
none
Scottish Environmental
Protection Agency
SEPA; EA
NERC
NERC
EPSRC; Industry
TSB
TataSteel, Perlemax
Microbial and
Molecular
Biology
Animal and
Plant Sciences
Chemical &
Biological
Engineering
Chemical &
Biological
Engineering
71
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Past funders
Present funders
Sheffield
Molecular
Biology and
Biotechnology
Molecular
Biology and
Biotechnolog
Biological
Sciences
BBSRC, EPSRC
NERC
Sheffield
Southampton
Southampton
Southampton
St Andrews
St Andrews
St Andrews
St Andrews
Stirling
Stirling
Strathclyde
Surrey
Swansea
Swansea
Swansea
School of
Ocean and
Earth Science
National
Oceanography
Centre
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
School of
Biology
Biological and
Environmental
Science
Biological and
Environmental
Science
Economics
Faculty of
Engineering
and Physical
Sciences
School of the
Environment
and Society
School of the
Environment
and Society
School of
Engineering
Swansea
School of
Engineering
Swansea
Biosciences
Swansea
Biosciences
Carbon Trust
BBSRC, NERC
Carbon Trust
UK Water Companies,
Imperial College, SETI
Institute, USA
BBSRC, Aquapharm BioDiscovery Ltd.
NERC, EU
NERC, EU
European Union
(MARBEF), NERC
NERC, BBSRC, Carnegie
Trust
NERC, British
Phycological Society
EC Framework
Programme
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government;
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government
EC Framework
Programme;
Carbon Trust
EC Framework
Programme; Welsh
Assembly Government;
private sector (various)
Welsh Assembly
Government, A4B
program
72
University
Department
Spectrum of expertise
Swansea
Biosciences
microalgal physiology
Ulster
Past funders
Present funders
NERC
Part of a DICYCLE
proposal to EC Marie
Curie Fund
EU FP7, Environment
Agency, NERC
University
College
London
Geography
University
College
London
University
College
London
University
College
London
Warwick
Geography
Geography
NERC, EU
UK DEFRA, Darwin
Molecular
Microbiology
Warwick
Chemistry
Royal Society
Warwick
Warwick HRI
West of
England
West of
England
Westminster
Sciences
none
EPSRC
York
Chemistry
York
Chemistry
York
Green
Chemistry
Centre of
Excellence
Biological
Science
Plant Sciences
School of Life
Sciences
NERC
SWRDA, University
EU; NERC; Royal Society;
MAFF; CEFAS; Lloyds
Register; NRA
NERC
EU
EPSRC
BBSRC
White rose
TSB
73
Table C.4.1: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 5 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges 5 year timescale
Most of this is in the report - http://www.esf.org/researchareas/marine-sciences/marine-board-working-groups/marinebiotechnology.html
Recognising algal responses to rapid environmental change in
the geological record, particularly in high resolution records of
annual variation across key events
The economic crisis will make funding for fundamental algal
research very challenging
Growing and harvesting
Growing algae on secondary fertiliser sources
Clarifying economic potentials. Engineering suitable
organisms. Collection and provision of CO2 for raceway
systems. Treatment of waste material and recycling of
nitrogen and particularly phosphorus by anaerobic digestion
Understanding electron transfer from algae to external
electrodes
75
Bioenergy
Understanding potential responses by marine micro-algal
biofilms to climatic change. Understanding impacts of
biofouling on tidal energy devices
RCUK should enhance support for basic R&D and not blindly
expect that the private sector will drive the research. This
would be terribly short sighted.
New technologies
Isolation of new Bioactives and new roles for current
bioactives
Renewable energy funding to support research
We are currently applying the lowest energy, high rate PBR (S.
Skill Proprietary) to carbon capture for the commercial
production
of
platform
chemicals,
nutraceuticals,
cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals. UKs largest carbon
capture PBR being now being commissioned. The technology
is applicable globally. Simple biofilm based algae wastewater
treatment system has been developed and collaborators are
sought for demonstration projects
New data from genomics, proteomics etc will uncover novel
products
Nutraceuticals
Algae are great synthetic biology chasis. The use of algae in
systems-based approaches to define important metabolic
pathways (e.g. synthesis of vitamins and omega-3 fatty acids)
Discovery and production of novel compounds, including
pharmaceuticals, novel bioceramic materials, improved
aquaculture feeds; improved (faster, more reliable, less
person-intensive) biomonitoring of water quality (only a tiny
fraction of algal biodiversity has been surveyed so far, partly
because culture collections are small and cannot maintain
more than a few hundreds of easily cultivatable strains
laboratory weeds)
Comparative genomics
78
Assessment of impact
Structural: UK remains at forefront of many fields (especially
marine) despite decline in some areas (freshwater);
opportunity to reinvigorate phycological research in UK;
create stronger international links. Science: Transferability of
ocean optics instrumentation to study of freshwater algae;
Development of remote sensing techniques for monitoring of
algal populations in coastal and inland waters;
Integrated experimental/computational research
Modelling of alternative scenarios
Sustained expansion of food, feeds and fine chemicals
production from algae
CO2 mitigation, biodiesel, pharmaceutical
Biofuels, carbon dioxide capture
Genetic advances
e.g. Flowcam approach, which can quantify many facets of cell
morphology (measurements) & activity (fluorescence, etc.) in
multi-species field samples.
Refinement of classification tools for the Water Framework
Directive; application to climate change science
There is a real interest in PhD studies in algal biotechnology,
both amongst UK/EU students and overseas. UK industry and
investors are keen to exploit algal-based opportunities, but
needs help and guidance wrt to basic biology, engineering,
downstream processing, etc.
Algofuel boom
Table C.4.2: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 10 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges 10 year timescale
Cover much/most of algal biodiversity with DNA barcodes
Growing and harvesting
Realizing cheap photobioreactors
Clarifying economic potentials. Engineering suitable
organisms. Collection and provision of CO2 for raceway
systems. Treatment of waste material and recycling of
nitrogen and particularly phosphorus by anaerobic
digestion. PLUS Producing coupled Physical/Biological
models of mass algal production. Optimising and designing
economic scenarios
Screening existing strains and engineering mutants that
effectively form biofilms and can transfer electrons to an
electrode without the addition of a redox mediator.
Diminishing number of Faculty (permanent) positions in UK
universities focussing on algal research, in contrast to
mainland Europe
Establishing widespread growth and culture of macroalgae
in the lab; use as model organisms and for functional
genomics. Understanding macroalgal development and
physiology at the molecular and cellular level, similarly to
the studies that have revolutionised land plant biology in
the last 20 years.
Inspiration from natural systems
Bioprospecting
Interest the next generation of students that it is worth
working on algae
To integrate the palaeontological record with ancient
geochemical and modern biochemical data; to resolve the
systematic relationships and early evolutionary patterns of
cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae; to determine the
coevolutionary interplay between life and the planet.
Studies of integrated renewable energy schemes algae
plus solar capture plus wind energy etc.
Provide larger pool of trained algal scientists
Optimised organisms with improved growth.
Crop protection, avoidance of algal blooms
Model System development
Funding availability
Algae Biofuel: Biochemical Engineering
Manage dynamics of communities affected by overfishing
and acidification
Biodiversity
Control
80
Carbon Capture
Cell engineering
Biomass/lipid production strains of number including new algae
strains optimized. Optimise current and new production
systems. Develop innovative algae systems
Displace fossil fuels to inherit the huge fossil fuel transport
market and develop a carbon neutral transport system
Bioenergy
Culture of micro-algae for biofuels. Culture of macro-algae
for anaerobic digestion
Continuation of challenges (3) and (4) from above.
Response of algae to ocean acidification
Significant decrease of blue skies funding
Ocean acidification
Assessing climate effects
Increasing presence of alga in natural water systems and
reservoirs
Strain optimisation for economic production of biofuels and
high value products
Cost
Loss of taxonomical expertise
Speciality chemicals
Understanding of meaningful diversity and changes (at genetic
/ species / functional group / etc. level) for ecosystem
functioning
Genetic modification
Expanding the use of algal biomass as human food source
Training courses/networking/sharing of expertise to pass on key
skills and knowledge of algal taxonomy
Role in global biogeochem cycling
We are currently applying the lowest energy, high rate PBR (S.
Skill Proprietary) to carbon capture for the commercial
production
of
platform
chemicals,
nutraceuticals,
cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals. UKs largest carbon
capture PBR being now being commissioned. The technology is
applicable globally. Simple biofilm based algae wastewater
treatment system has been developed and collaborators are
sought for demonstration projects
Could address fuel shortage needs in medium to long-term
82
Table C.4.3: Challenges and Opportunities for Algal Research Given by Participants on a Timescale of 25 Years
Each row corresponds to the entry of one questionnaire participant.
Challenges 25 year timescale
Biodiversity
Funding availability
Algal Biofuel: Genetic Manipulations
Engineering
Efficient industrial harvesting
and
EC
New collaborations between basic biological scientists and
engineers, mariculture experts, etc
Energy
Molecular
Carbon Capture
84
Demand-led pressures
Bioenergy
Response of marine food webs to environmental change
Bioenergy
Algae as a resource
Increasing presence of alga in natural water systems and
reservoirs
As above (refers to 10 year timescale entry of same questionnaire
participant) but to at least 90%; plus increased food production
Quantifying algae functioning (carbon storage, nutrient
processing etc)
Aquatic system adaption to/alteration under global
environmental change (e.g. algal communities, productivity,
food webs, nutrient cycling)
Creating very large ponds without significant environment
destruction
85
Biofuels
Rigorous prediction of holistic Earth System processes,
including algae related biogeochemistry and biodiversity, to
inform decision makers on future planning and mitigation
Cost parity of algae and petroleum based fuels.
Fuel shortages
Scale up to the oceanic scale. PBRs, open ponds etc will not be
enough
Understanding the role of algae in controlling climate and
climate change
86
87
D.1 Base commodities (high volume, low value e.g. energy, feed)
Both energy products and bulk animal feed fall into this category. So far there are no viable energy businesses based on
algal biomass in the UK; applications based on biophotovoltaics are even further away from market. In terms of animal
feed, seaweed is being harvested from the wild and sold e.g. as animal feed high in minerals (UK players include The
Hebridean Seaweed company and Bd Ayre; c.f. Section 1.3.2.2 and Table 3.1), but volumes are low and so far limited by
the fact that the seaweeds are harvested from the wild. Microalgal animal feeds are commercially successful as high-value
speciality products (UK players include SeaSalter 166, Merlin BioDevelopments and Scottish Bioenergy; c.f. Section 1.3.1.2
and Table 3.1), and are being investigated as a general replacement for fish meal, but are currently not a bulk commodity
yet. The RD&D value chains for micro- and macroalgae are outlined below:
D.1.1 Microalgae
The primary goal is to optimise overall production pipeline to arrive at an economically viable and sustainable
process.
Growth:
The aim is to maximise biomass yield in an economic and sustainable system.
Engineering RD&D addresses:
optimisation of growth system so fewest photons are lost (mostly PBR design and maintenance, including
avoiding / combating fouling)
challenges of scale-up
integration with other industrial processes (e.g. producers of CO2, low grade waste heat, nutrient-rich waste
waters)
Life Cycle Analysis / Sustainability Assessment / Economic Assessment (together with other disciplines)
Biological RD&D aims at identifying suitable strains for each application, and increasing:
efficiency of photon capture in the overall culture (e.g. by reducing the antenna size of each cell)
solar conversion efficiency in each cell (e.g. by blocking wasteful energy sinks)
the percentage of desired fuel/feed molecule/component, either through choice of growth regime (e.g. N
starvation) or through metabolic engineering
culture stability during all seasons and throughout scale-up (disease and grazing control, algal communities, algalbacterial symbioses)
economic viability through design of low-cost media (e.g. modified version of AD liquid digestate)
Harvesting:
The aim is to lower energy costs while not interfering with the desired downstream application. Different strains and
applications will require different solutions. Examples include addition of chemical or biological flocculants and/or pH
changes to increase particle size, flotation, advanced filtration, and electro-coagulation.
Processing:
Challenges vary depending on strain and final application. Unless the desired product is secreted, cells need to be
permeabilised to extract the products; even if whole cells are used e.g. in feed applications, cracking them open is often
required to increase bioavailability of nutrients. Permeabilisation can be achieved physically, chemically or enzymatically.
Again it is vital to find low energy and low cost solutions which do not harm the desired molecules, and are compatible
166
They are currently still active, but are phasing their algal operations out.
88
with downstream separation techniques. Finally, efficient and economic ways to fractionate the cell components into
desired products need to be developed.
Legal context:
Solutions found on all levels need to satisfy regulatory and permitting requirements.
The Carbon Trusts Algae Biofuels Challenge (c.f. Section 1.2.3.8) was set up to address the entire value chain, and to feed
into a scale-up facility at phase 2. The overall challenge of making algal low-value products commercially viable can only
be addressed in a holistic way that spans the entire pipeline, since improvements in one area (e.g. addition of a flocculant)
may introduce difficulties in another area (e.g. interference of flocculant with separation of components). Cranfields SURF
Project and Oasis Network, the Algal Bioenergy Consortium, BioMara, and the INTERREG EnAlgae Initiative (c.f. Section
1.2.3) address several aspects of the pipeline each, and major oil companies have confidential algal research projects in
which UK universities participate. The NERC-TSB Algal Bioenergy Special Interest Group aims at providing a larger umbrella
for all that R&D expertise, to link up initiatives and accelerate progress through fostering synergies.
Current gaps:
Major work is still necessary to make the economic case for algal energy and feed. It is highly unlikely that economic
viability for low value bulk products will be achieved without developing an integrated biorefining approach, where inputs
wherever possible are derived from byproducts of other industrial processes. Feasibility studies and the first stages of
scale-up are necessary to test and develop these integrated approaches. To make sure that all scale-up plans are on a
sound environmental footing, a larger body of data needs to be collected to inform LCAs and Sustainability Assessments,
and the user-friendliness of tools needs to be improved. Furthermore, dialogue with the regulatory and permitting
authorities needs to be developed to ensure that any requirements imposed on the fledgling industry are based on the
most up-to-date facts and guided by common sense.
D.1.2 Macroalgae
The primary goal is increase capacity in an economically viable and sustainable manner.
Growth:
Current yields are limited since seaweed in the UK is to date mostly harvested from wild stocks. For seaweed to become a
feedstock for bulk commodities, capacity needs to be increased through establishing seaweed farming on a larger scale.
Challenges include:
integration of engineering and biology in developing viable off-shore farms
development of a new sustainable industry
assessment and minimisation of environmental impact
control of grazers
integration with aquaculture
selective breeding
Life Cycle Analysis / Economic Assessment
Harvesting:
Most seaweeds are currently hand-picked from the wild; for scale-up of seaweed farming ecologically sound equipment
for mechanical harvesting needs to be developed.
Processing:
For energy products, the biomass can either be fed into Anaerobic Digestion, fermented to bioalcohols, or subjected to
thermochemical conversion. R&D is required to increase the efficiency especially of fermentation. For feed applications,
energy efficient ways to dry or otherwise preserve the biomass need to be developed.
Legal context:
Solutions found on all levels need to satisfy regulatory and permitting requirements.
Most of the aspects above are addressed by the INTERREG projects BioMara and (to a lesser extent) EnAlgae (c.f. Section
1.2.3). Companies involved (chiefly The Hebredean Seaweed Company and Bd Ayre) are interested in contact with
academia to address the challenges, and the Crown Estate plays a major role.
89
Current gaps:
Before macroalgae can be considered as a feedstock for low value bulk commodities, evidence needs to be brought
forward to show
what scale of off-shore seaweed farming is justifiable considering the environmental impact
whether that scale could satisfy demand significantly beyond the increasing projected demand for higher value
applications such as fertilisers, speciality feeds, and feedstock for ceuticals.
improvements in crop yields through selective breeding and the expansion of culture banks to include macroalage
More test scale-up facilities are needed, to identify, assess and address the engineering, biological and ecological
challenges.
D.2 Added value commodities (high volume, added value compared to base commodities e.g. platform
chemicals)
The use of algae as feedstock for platform chemicals is as yet unproven. To the authors knowledge, one company in the
UK, Spicer Biotech, is currently actively pursuing this potential for microalgae, and several UK research groups have this as
a primary research interest (based on results of questionnaire: Aston, T Bridgwater; Cranfield, L De Nagornoff; Dundee, G
Codd; Glasgow, J Clark, see Table C.2; also UCL, S. Purton (pers. comm.)).
The challenges for the engineering aspects of the pipeline for macro- and microalgae are similar to those above; in terms
of biological R&D, necessary steps include:
identification of molecules already made by algae that are of interest (i.e. either already are platform chemicals,
or are similar enough in functionality that they could replace current fossil-derived platform chemicals)
survey of other platform chemicals currently derived from fossil resources: identification of which are most
difficult to derive from bacterial / yeast based biotechnology
clarification if pathways for those can be cloned into algal platforms, and if algal expression has benefits over
bacterial / yeast systems
if answer is yes, pursuit of cloning in joint industry-academia R&D projects, combined with life cycle and economic
analyses
Current gaps:
The biological know-how exists in principle of how to transform pathways for desired molecules into algal model
organisms such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. It needs to be established, though, if using algae has an economic,
functional or environmental advantage compared to alternative biotechnological approaches. Dialogue between industry
and biologists is needed to identify best target molecules, ideally source them from already established algal strains, or
otherwise employ metabolic engineering / synthetic biology or bioprospecting. If economic and sustainability analyses are
promising, scale-up of production can be pursued.
D.3 High value products (low volume, high value speciality feeds / foods, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals,
pharmaceuticals)
Growing algae for high value products such as health foods, PUFAs and pigments is the only currently mature algal
industry. In the UK, New Horizons Global Ltd produce DHA in a fermentation system near Liverpool; Supreme
Biotechnologies Ltd, who have their headquarters in London, produce astaxanthin in New Zealand; All Seasons Health sell
whole cell Spirulina and Chlorella grown in India and Taiwan as health foods, Seasalter Shellfish sell algae as speciality feed
for aquaculture. Merlin BioDevelopments Ltd produce algae for nutraceuticals, and Scottish Bioenergy Ltd are pursuing
algal growth for high value food and feed applications.
Current gaps:
Although the existence of viable businesses would indicate that the major gaps have been closed, there is potential for
further development, including
lowering costs of production, through integration with other processes
90
growing new markets, especially through reducing price of products (it has been suggested that 5 grams per day
of an alga such as Spirulina would aid substantially in combating malnutrition in children (Simpore et al. 2006) 167)
integrative approaches for growth, and use of by-products
developing new products in addition to the established PUFAs, pigments and whole cell products, e.g. through
bioprospecting, or (where appropriate) synthetic biology
Already in 1974 the United Nations World Food Conference lauded Spirulina as possibly the best food for the future; c.f.
www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/statement08/iimsam.pdf
168
www.algalturfscrubber.com
91
algal biomass for e.g. feed applications, regulatory frameworks permitting. Similar integration could be sought with live
stock farms producing nutrient-rich run-off, as well as in-land fish farms; algal biomass grown on farm could be used as
feed, if HACCP procedures are followed.
Using low-grade waste heat to keep algal cultures warm:
Productivity in the UK in winter is not only limited by available light levels, but also by temperature. Higher productivity
can be achieved by keeping algal cultures at their preferred temperature; this would be expensive unless low grade heat
can be used that is not otherwise used. Further financial benefits for such use of heat might be obtained through the
Renewable Heat Incentive.
For macroalgae:
Integrated approach:
Nutrients for enhancing macroalgal growth can be obtained from the waste produced by fish; benefits include cleaner
water and higher yields of algae. There is also pollution abatement, coastal protection, fertiliser production and
production of other raw materials or food.
Removing atmospheric CO2:
Like any plant, macroalgae require CO2 to grow, at current levels of cultivation macroalgae removes approximately 0.7
million tons per year of carbon from the sea. There would have to be a dramatic increase in cultivation of macroalgae for
it to have an impact on total carbon emissions. A 1000km-2 area could sequester up to 1 million tons CO2 per year.
No pressure on freshwater supplies:
The utilisation of the marine environment as opposed to the terrestrial for biomass production circumvents the problem
of switching agricultural land from food to fuel production. The potential quantity of biomass produced in the marine
environment is also not limited by the available freshwater supplies coupled to the potential benefits to the fishing
industry by the additional habitat that cultivated seaweed could provide.
Current gaps:
This field is budding, and both industry and academia are working on addressing some remaining major gaps, including
economics: working out the true savings achievable by various integrated systems
regulation: to ensure that use of (safe / non-toxic) byproducts does not impede use of algal biomass for high value
applications
legislation: under the CER or the EU ETS using algae producer currently would be unable to claim any allowances
for capturing / cycling CO2 via algal growth; this is an unreasonable obstacle which needs to be overcome by
lobbying for changing CER and EU ETS.
setting up test / show-case facilities as a first step to scale-up
close collaboration and increased mutual understanding between engineers and biologists to address the
challenges of scale-up
limited information on the positive or negative environmental effects of large-scale cultivation
The INTERREG projects EnAlgae and BioMara (c.f. Section 1.2.3) endeavour to address aspects of the above; and several
companies work in this space, including: Loch Duart, who are using integrated aquaculture combining sea urchin, seaweed
and salmon farming, Merlin BioDevelopment Ltd, Scottish Bioenergy Ltd and Boots PLC working with PMLA, who are all
actively developing integrated microalgal systems, and BioGroup Ltd, who are in the process of setting up algal growth in
conjunction with their AD facility (c.f. Section 1.3.1.2).
92