RESERVOIR EVALUATION

The volume of hydrocarbons in a reservoir can

be calculated:
1. directly by volumetric methods
2. indirectly by material balance methods
Volumetrics provide a static measure of oil or
gas in place. Accuracy of volumetrics depends
on data for:
porosity
net thickness
areal extent
hydrocarbon saturations
Material balance methods provide a dynamic
measure of hydrocarbon volumes. Accuracy
depends on quality of data for:
pressure surveys
temperature surveys
analysis of recovered fluids
Normally mass balance methods increase in
accuracy as the reservoir is produced.

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Also known as the geologist's method
because it is based on geological maps, core
logs and analysis of wireline logs. Isopach
maps are used to compute the bulk volume of
the reservoir (V).
For an oil reservoir above the bubble point the
oil-originally-in-place (OOIP) is given by:
OOIP = (V.n).(1 - Swi)
The stock tank oil in place is given by:
STOIP = (V.n).(1 - Swi) / Bo
where Bo is the oil formation volume factor.
The volume x porosity is the pore volume for
the reservoir (PV). So the OIP is also known as
the hydrocarbon pore volume (HCPV):
HCPV = (V.n).(1 - Swi) = PV.(1 - Swi)
The moveable oil volume (MOV) is given by:
MOV = PV.(1 - Swi - Soi)

GAS VOLUMES
The volume of free gas in a gas reservoir or gasinitially-in-place is given by:

GIIP = Gr = (V.n).(1 - Swi)

In terms of standard volumes at STP, the gas
volume is:

G = (V.n).(1 - Swi) / Bg
G = (V.n).(1 - Swi).E
where Bg is the gas formation volume factor and E
is the gas expansion factor.
For oil and gas reservoirs below the bubble point,
the total hydrocarbon in place is given by the HCPV:

HCPV = (V.n).(1 - Swi)

The stock tank oil volume can be computed as:

STOIP = (V.n).(1 - Swi - Sg) / Bo

The standard gas volume at STP is given by:

G = (V.n).(1 - Swi - So) / Bg

VOLUME CALCULATIONS
To calculate volumes it is necessary to find the
areas between isopach contours. There are
several methods:
1. grid square counting
2. planimeter
3. digitizer table

A3

A1

Ao

A2

Given the areas between contours, volumes

can be computed using:
1. Trapezoidal rule
2. Simpson's rule
For the trapezoidal rule with a contour interval, h, and where hn
is z-distance from the top contour to the crest of the reservoir :
V = h.[Ao + 2A1 + 2A2 + ...+ 2An-1 + An] + hn.An
2
2
Using Simpson's rule with a contour interval, h, and an even
number of intervals (odd number of lines) :
V = h.[Ao + 4A1 + 2A2+ ... + 2An-2 + 4An-1 + An] + hn.An
2
2

USE OF VOLUMETRICS
In order to calculate stock tank volumes the
formation volume factors Bo and Bg are required.
Both Bo and Bg are functions of pressure (and
consequently of reservoir depth).
There are various methods of calculating an
averaging pressure over a reservoir:

1. well pressure over n wells

pav = pi / i
2. areal pressure over n sub-areas
pav = pi.Ai / Ai
3. volumetric pressure over n sub-volumes
pav = pi.Ai.zi / Ai.zi
The volumetric average gives the best estimate.
Formation volume factors can also be averaged in
the same way:

[Bo]av = Bo(pi).Ai.zi / Ai.zi

[Bg]av = Bg(pi).Ai.zi / Ai.zi

NET PAY CUT-OFFS

Net pay cut-offs are assigned on the basis of :
1. effective porosity (e.g. > 8%)
2. permeability (e.g. > 1 md)
3. thickness (e.g. > 1 m)
Wireline logs can also be used to assign net
pay. SP, porosity and density logs are used in
this way.
Combinations of n, k, and z may be used to
provide a cut-off for a particular reservoir, field
or pool.
Gross pay is the entire reservoir, net pay
involves some kind of cut-off decision.
Volumetric estimates of OOIP and GIIP may be
based on gross pay or net pay. Net pay
volumes are used almost exclusively in
economic analyses.

DRIVE MECHANISMS
Material balance methods involve estimation of
reservoir recovery from the PVT behaviour of
the reservoir and contained fluids.
Fluid phase expansion and rock skeleton
compression and can combine in a number of
ways to provide the energy to drive
hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs:
Solution Gas Drive (or Depletion Drive)
Gas Cap Drive (and Gravity Drainage)
Natural Water Drive
Compaction Drive
Combination Drive
Ultimate oil and gas recoveries vary depending
on the drive mechanism. For oil, water drive is
most effective. Typical primary recoveries are
in the 25-40% range (maximum 75%).
For gas, gravity drainage, water drive and
depletion drive can provide > 80% recovery.

SOLUTION GAS DRIVE

The principle of solution gas drive or depletion
drive is the expansion of dissolved gas and
liquid oil in response to a pressure drop. The
change in fluid volume results in production.
Above the bubble point, only liquid oil
expansion occurs. Below the bubble point,
both liquid oil expansion and gas expansion
contribute to volume change.

Dissolved gas reservoirs typically recover

between 5 and 25% OOIP and 60 to 80% GIIP.
The Upper Cretaceous Cardium sand reservoir
is an example of a depletion drive reservoir.

SOLUTION GAS DRIVE HISTORY

pressure

Rsi

GOR (R)

watercut

time

rapid and continuous pressure drop, rate

of decline falls at bubble point pressure.
Rs (solution gas oil ratio) low until p = pb,
then increases to maximum and declines.
absent or minimal water influx (watercut).
gravity drainage is a special case in
steeply dipping reservoirs where gas
drives out more oil.
maintaining pressure above bubble point
produces oil rather than gas for p < pb.
well production declines rapidly, early
pumping required.

GAS CAP DRIVE

The principle of gas cap drive or depletion is
the expansion of free gas and in response to a
pressure drop. The change in fluid volume
results in production.
Gas cap expansion maintains the pressure in
the oil leg.

Gas cap drive reservoirs typically recover 20 to

40% OOIP, sometimes as high as 60%.
The Lower Mississippian Turner Valley
carbonate was a gas cap drive reservoir.

GAS CAP DRIVE HISTORY

pressure

GOR (R)

Rsi
watercut
time

pressure drops continuously, but slowly.

Rs (solution gas oil ratio) increases
continuously.
water influx (watercut) absent or minimal
gas cap cannot be allowed to shrink or oil
encroachment will occur resulting in
reduced recovery.
oil leg wells can eventually produce gas.
Wells have long flowing life (depending
on the size of the gas cap).

NATURAL WATER DRIVE (1)

The principle of natural water drive is that an
aquifer provides the energy for hydrocarbon
production. Both water expansion as a result
of pressure reduction and inflow are involved.
Natural water drive is associated with high
recovery rates, oil from 35-75% OOIP, gas
from 60-80% GIIP.

EDGE WATER

BOTTOM WATER

Bottom water drive, where the water leg

underlies the entire reservoir, and edge water
drive, where only part of the areal extent is
contacted by water, are recognized.
The Upper Devonian Leduc pools are driven
by inflow from the Cooking Lake Aquifer.

NATURAL WATER DRIVE (2)

It is not uncommon for flow from the surface to

supply the energy for natural water drive.

When a pressure drop occurs, both the oil and

water liquid phases expand resulting in
production. Additionally, water inflow radially
and vertically displaces the oil towards the
producers.

NATURAL WATER DRIVE HISTORY

pressure
watercut

Rsi

GOR (R)

time

pressure remains high, small drop.

Rs (solution gas oil ratio) remains low.
water influx starts early and increases to
appreciable levels.
Residual oil may be trapped behind the
advancing water.
Wells flow freely until water production
(watercut) becomes excessive.

COMPACTION DRIVE
In compaction drive, the energy for oil
production is provided by the collapse of the
porous medium skeleton and expansion of the
pore fluids when the reservoir pressure drops.
The increase in the "grain pressure" or
effective stress causes pore collapse and
compaction (consolidation) of the reservoir.
This drive mechanism is common in highly
compressible, unconsolidated reservoirs such
as those found in California, Venezuela, and
the heavy oil deposits of western Canada.

The Lower Cretaceous (Mannville) Clearwater

sands in the Cold Lake district provide an
example of compaction drive.

COMBINATION DRIVE
In combination drive reservoirs, at least two of
the basic drive mechanisms are active in
expelling oil:
solution gas exsolution
gas cap expansion
natural water influx
pore collapse

The example shows a combination of natural

water influx and gas cap drive.
In many of the western Canadian heavy oil
deposits, solution gas drive and compaction
drive act in combination, for example the Lower
Cretaceous (Mannville) Waseca sand in the
Lloydminster district.

RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE DATA

Pressure trends in reservoirs under various
drive mechanisms are distinctive.
100
80

P
%

WATER DRIVE

60
40

GAS CAP DRIVE

20

SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

%OOIP Produced

Producing GOR is also strongly diagnostic of

drive mechanism.
100
GAS CAP DRIVE

80

GOR
%

60
40
SOLUTION
GAS DRIVE

20
0

WATER DRIVE
0

10

20

30

%OOIP Produced

40

50