Fall 2012

Lecture 11 Oilfield Development

 Main Points

 Reservoir production mechanisms

(Primary recovery)
 Introduction to waterflooding
(Secondary recovery)
 What Is A Reservoir?

A reservoir is……
• formed of one (or more) subsurface rock formations containing liquid and/or
gaseous hydrocarbons, of sedimentary origin with very few exceptions.

• The reservoir rock is porous and permeable, and the structure is bounded by
impermeable barriers which trap the hydrocarbons.
 What Is Reservoir Engineering?

• The goal of reservoir engineering, starting with the discovery of a productive

reservoir, is to set up a development project that attempts to optimize the
hydrocarbon recovery as part of an overall economic policy.

• Reservoir specialists thus continue to study the reservoir throughout the life
of the field to derive the information required for optimal production from
the reservoir.

 Volume of hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) in place

 Recoverable reserves

 Well production potential (initial productivity, changes)

 Reserves
• The term “reserves” concerns the estimated recoverable volumes in
place (to be produced).

• The reserves obtained by primary recovery depend on the following:

– Amount of oil and gas in place and their distribution.
– Characteristics of the fluids and of the rock.
– Existing drive mechanisms and production rate.
– Economic factors.
 Different “Reserves”...

Proven: Discovered reserves that can reasonably be expected to be

produced in present economic and technical conditions.
Probable: Discovered reserves which have a reasonable probability of
production with technology and profitability close to those that exist today.
Possible: Reserves not yet discovered, but whose existence is presumed with
a reasonable degree of probability.
Ultimate: Proved + probable + possible
1
RESERVOIR PRODUCTION MECHANISM
AND PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
 Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

• Primary recovery-Definition
Hydrocarbon production resulting from natural reservoir
energy.

• Solution-gas drive
• Gas-cap drive
• Water drive
• Combination drive
• Gravity-drainage drive
 Gas Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

• Gas expansion drive

• Water drive
 Reservoir Energy Sources

• Liberation, expansion of solution gas

• Influx of aquifer water
• Expansion of reservoir rock and compression of pore volume
• Expansion of original reservoir fluids
– free gas
– interstitial water
– oil

• Gravitational forces
 Compressibility Coefficients, Fluid Expansion

1 dV
C
V dp
The orders of magnitude for oil, water and the porous medium
are as follows:
Co  7 to 20 10 6 psi -1 1 to 3 10-4 bar -1 
Cw  3 to 5 106 psi -1 0.4 to 0.6 10-4
bar -1 
C f  2 to 10 10 6 psi -1 0.3 to 1.5 10 -4
bar -1 
For gas:

P 1000 3000 5000 7000

Cg [1000 333 200 143] 10-6 psi-1
Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
 2. Solution Gas Drive

• Working condition
– Limited or closed reservoir without effective water drive.
– The aquifer is of low porosity and permeability.
• Energy supply
– When the pressure in the vicinity of the wellbore drops below the
bubble point pressure, gas will escape from the oil inside the reservoir
and begin to expand.
– The gas expansion will displace an increasing quantity of oil from the
pore space in the rock.
– When the pressure of the whole reservoir falls below saturation
pressure, it is possible to form a “secondary gas cap” .
 2. Solution Gas Drive

Q: What will happen if there is a big drawdown

in a solution gas drive reservoir?

• The gas production rate will become excessive;

• kro decreases sharply;

• Lots of oil will be left in the reservoir.

 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

• Typical production characteristics

Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs
 3. Gas Cap Drive

• Working condition
– Limited or closed reservoir similar to solution gas drive case.
• Energy supply
The gas cap expands to fill the pore space formerly occupied by the oil,
and thus displaces oil downwards towards the producing well.
 Gas-Cap Drive in Oil Reservoirs

• Typical production characteristics

 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

• Edgewater drive • Bottomwater drive

 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

• Typical production characteristics

 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

• Working condition
– The aquifer is as porous and permeable as the oil-bearing portion of
the reservoir;
– The aquifer is more or less in direct contact with oil.
• Energy supply
The energy comes from the expansion of the aquifer water caused by the
reduction in pressure resulting from the removal of oil from the reservoir.

Water compressibility: (~10-10 Pa-1)

1 dV
Cw   Ven  VaquiferCw p
V dp
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
• Under this mechanism, the reservoir pressure will tend to be maintained to
an extent depending on the size and permeability of the aquifer.

• Production rate limit

If the production rate is proper, the aquifer water can enter the vacated section of the oil-
bearing zones as fast as the oil is withdrawn.

If the oil production rate exceeds this limit there will be a decline in the reservoir
pressure and a consequent reduction in the energy available to produce the oil.
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
• Fingering ( 趾进）
• Water (gas) coning ( 水锥进 / 气锥进 )
• Water cresting ( 水脊进）
• Water breakthrough （水突破）
• Watered out （水淹）

If a well is completed too near the WOC, it will tend to suck up water and its
economic life may be short as it may soon become “watered out” (i.e. produce
excessive quantities of water). This phenomenon is known as “water coning”
and is induced by high rates of production.
Fingering
(Fluid displacing a more viscous fluid)

Fingering: A condition whereby the interface of

two fluids, such as oil and water, bypasses sections
of reservoir as it moves along, creating an uneven,
or fingered, profile. Fingering is a relatively
common condition in reservoirs with water-
injection wells. The result of fingering is an
inefficient sweeping action that can bypass
significant volumes of recoverable oil and, in
severe cases, an early breakthrough of water into
adjacent production wellbores
 Water Coning

• Coning.

• The cone profile caused by preferential

flow of different phase fluids
surrounding the wellbore can be
difficult to predict and control.
Treatments against coning are typically
conducted when the production or
processing of the produced fluid
requires that the production
characteristics of the well be modified.
Water Cresting

Cresting. Similar to the coning profile encountered in vertical

wellbores, cresting is the result of preferential fluid flow of different
phase fluids near a highly deviated or horizontal wellbore. Due to the
potentially extended contact area, cresting can be more difficult to
control than coning.
Pressure and Gas/Oil Ratio Trends
 Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs

• Working condition
– Reservoir with a gas cap
– Good permeability
– Reservoir is steeply dipping
• Energy supply
Some of the oil will drain downwards from the pores as a result of the
difference in density between the gas and the oil.
Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs
 Recovery as A Function of the Type of Reservoir

Reservoir Type Recovery Remarks

One-phase oil <10% Pb<Pa
Oil with dissolved gas drive 5~25%
Pa<Pb
Oil with gas cap 10~40%
Oil with aquifer 10~60% Aquifer  active
Gas 60~95%
Average oil ≈ 30% and average gas ≈ 75%

(Recovery by natural drive mechanisms)

2

INTRODUCTION TO WATERFLOODING
 Secondary Recovery and EOR

• Secondary recovery = “Conventional” improved recovery

– Water injection (water flood)
– gas injection (gas drive)

• Enhanced oil recovery = “Improved” or “tertiary” recovery

– Steam, CO2, hydrocarbon gas injection

– Chemical methods (polymers, microemulsions, etc.)

– Thermal methods: heavy oils

(steam, in-situ combustion)

History of Waterflooding
 Goal of Waterflooding

• Increase the amount of oil recovered from the reservoir

by
– Maintaining reservoir pressure
– Displacing (sweeping) oil with water
Peripheral Flooding
Line Drive Patterns
 Different Well Patterns
5-spot pattern: 7-spot pattern:

9-spot pattern: 4-spot pattern:

 Example of Well Sites on a Field
• A large carbonate field in Abu Dhabi.
• Wide variation in petrophysical properties
from the south to the north of the structure.

• North: h = 30m, k = 50mD -> five-spot

pattern
• South: h = 90m, k = 400mD -> peripheral
flood

(Basics of Reservoir Engineering, R.

Cosse)
 Factors Affecting Selection of Waterflood Pattern

1. Provide desired oil production capacity.

2. Provide sufficient water injection rate to yield desired oil productivity.
3. Maximize oil recovery with a minimum of water production.
4. Take advantage of known reservoir nonuniformities - i.e., directional
permeability, regional permeability differences, formation fractures, dip, etc.
5. Be compatible with the existing well pattern and require a minimum of new
wells.
6. Be compatible with flooding operations of other operators on adjacent leases.
Pattern Orientation
 Waterflood Performance Efficiency
• Recovery efficiency
Volume of Hydrocarbons Recovered
ER =
Volume of In - Place Hydrocarbons at Start of Project

ER = EP EI ED
= EV ED
= EA EI ED
EP = Pattern sweep efficiency
EI = Invasion efficiency
EV = Volumetric efficiency
EA = Areal efficiency
ED = Displacement efficiency
 Areal Sweep Efficiency [EA]

 Fraction of the horizontal plane of the reservoir that is

behind the flood front at a point in time.
 Factors affecting EA:
 Mobility ratio
 Well spacing
 Pattern geometry
 Areal heterogeneity
 Mobility Ratio

• Mobility =
permeability of rock to fluid
fluid viscosity
• Mobility ratio:

Mobility of water
M
Mobility of oil
k k rw
w k rw  o
 
k k ro k ro  w
o
 Mobility Ratio Effects

Water and oil move equally

M=1 Neutral
well
M<1 Favorable Oil will move easier than water
M>1 Unfavorable Water will move easier than oil
 Why Inject Water?
A. Maintain Reservoir Pressure –
Pressure Maintenance
B. Increase Reservoir Pressure –
Waterflooding
C. Supplement Natural Water Influx

But . . .
A, B & C are Displacement Processes and the
Goal is to Displace Oil to a Production Well

45
Worldwide Reminders When Managing
Waterflood Activities

 Pressure Depletion Stops

 Volumetric Sweep
 Net Pay Cutoffs

 Decline Curve Analysis

 WOR Analysis
 Waterflood Quarterback

 Keep the Ax Sharp

46
What are the Key Factors that Drive the
Outcome of a Water Injection Project?

Np ≈ N*EA*EV*ED
Np = Cumulative Waterflood Recovery, BBL.
N = Oil in Place at Start of Injection, BBL.
EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
EV = Vertical Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
ED = Displacement Efficiency, Fraction
47
 Waterflood Recovery Factor
Np RF  E A * EV * E D
 RF   
N EVOL
EA = f (Mobility Ratio, Pattern, Directional
Permeability, Pressure Distribution,
Cumulative Injection & Operations)
EV = f (Rock Property variation between
different flow units)
EVOL = Volumetric Sweep of the Reservoir by
Injected Water 48
 Traditional Waterflood Volumetric
Sweep Efficiency Calculation

 Uses Net Cumulative Water Injected (Wi-Wp)

 Does not Account for Injection losses out of
zone
 Does not Account for Natural Water Influx

49
 Compute Volumetric Sweep Based
on Oil Production Data
Oil in place at start of waterflooding = Produced oil since the start of injection
+ Oil currently in reservoir

Where: V p So
Oil in place at start of waterflood = , STBO
Bo
Produced oil since the start of injection = N p ,STBO
Oil currently in reservoir = Oil in water bank + oil in oil bank

Oil in water bank = V p Evw (1.0  S w ) ,STBO

Bo

Oil in oil bank = V p (1.0  Evw )(1.0  S wc ) ,STBO

Bo 50
 Volumetric Sweep Based on Oil
Production Data
Evw - Volumetric Sweep Efficiency for Waterflood Project

N p Bo
 1.0  So  S wc
Vp
Evw 
S w  S wc
SPE-38902
51
 Example
Waterflood Statistics
Conditions at Start of Waterflood
Connate Water Saturation = 22 percent
Gas Saturation = 8 percent
Oil Saturation = 70 percent
Residual Oil Saturation = 31 percent
Oil Viscosity = 0.3
centipoise
Oil Formation Volume Factor = 1.57
RB/STB

52
 Example (con’t.)
Total Unit
Pore Volume = 350,000
MB
Cumulative Oil Production Since Start of = 40,000
Injection MSTB
Current Volumetric Sweep Efficiency = 0.552
Remaining Oil Production under Current = 5,000 MB
Operations
Estimated Waterflood Ultimate Recovery = 45,000
MSTB
Ultimate Volumetric Sweep Efficiency = 0.600
under Current Operations

53
 Volumetric Sweep Efficiency, Evw for Waterflood Project
(Pore Volume Based on 6.0% Porosity Cutoff)
1

Evw  0.85 26.0 MMSTB

0.8

0.6

Evw
0.4

0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Production Since Start of Waterflood, N p, MMSTB

Cumulative Oil Production = 40.0 MMSTB

Remaining Oil Production = 5.0 MMSTB
Estimated Ultimate Recovery = 45.0 MMSTB
54
 Volumetric Sweep Efficiency, Evw for Waterflood Project
(Pore Volume Based on 6.0% and 10.0% Porosity Cutoff)

1
26.0 MMSTB

8.4
Evw  0.85 MMSTB
0.8

0.6

Evw
10% Porosity Cutoff

0.4 6% Porosity Cutoff

Cumulative Oil Production = 40.0 MMSTB

Remaining Oil Production = 5.0 MMSTB
Estimated Ultimate Recovery = 45.0 MMSTB
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Production Since Start of Waterflood, N p, MMST B

55
 What’s the Secret for
Maximizing EA and EV (and EVOL)? EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
EV = Vertical Sweep Efficiency, Fraction
ED = Displacement Efficiency, Fraction
IT’S THE INJECTION WELL!
– Properly Locate the Injection Well
– Develop an Appropriate Pattern!
– Inject Water where You Find the Oil!
– Measure and Manage Injection Profiles
– Keep Fluid Levels in a Pumped Off Condition
– Balance Injection and Withdrawals
Remember the Quarterback!
56
Areal Sweep Efficiency [EA]

(The Reservoir Engineering Aspect of Waterflooding, Forrest F. Craig)

Vertical Sweep Efficiency

Factors affecting EI,Invasion Efficiency:

 Gravity
 Barriers to vertical flow
 Lateral pay discontinuities
 Completion interval inconsistencies
Effects of Gravity
 Barriers to Vertical Flow

• Depositional
– Shale streaks
– Lithology changes
– Evaporite streaks

• Diagenesis
– Cementation
– Dolomitization
Lateral Pay Discontinuities
Completion Interval Inconsistencies
 Injection Characteristics

1. Volume of injected fluid

– Vinj = Vprod reservoir pressure is maintained

– Vinj > Vprod recompression occurs

– Vinj < Vprod reservoir pressure decline

2. Type of fluid
– More viscous injected fluid is preferred since the mobility ratio M is
lower.
– (water, light oil, heavy oil)