I N TE R N AL C OMB U S TI ON E N G I N E S

I N T E RN AL

CO M B U S T I O N
T HE I R T HEO R Y
AN D

EN G IN ES

C O N ST R U C T I O N

O PE R AT I O N

BY

C CAR PEN T ER

RO L L A

LL D

AN D

H
.

P OF E S SO

RS

DI ED ER I C HS

OF E XP E

W I TH

23

V AN

M U R RA Y

S I B L E Y CO

LL E G E

REV IS E D

YOR K

N O S T R AN D
AN D

3 7 9 I L L US TR A TI ON S

N EW
.

R I M E N TAL E N G I N E E R I N G
CO R N E LL U N I V E R S I T Y

S EC ON D E DIT I ON

M E

C O M PAN Y
27

WA RR E N

STS

A
.

C op yr ig h t , 1 90 8 , by

V AN N O S T

R AN D

Co

PR EFACE
i nte ntio n o f the autho rs i n the p re pa r atio n o f thi s book
h as bee n to p re s e nt i n as s i m ple term s as po ss ible the fu ndamental
and theo retic al p r i nci ple s rel ating t o the i nte rnal co mbu s tio n
e ngine and to de s c r ibe the va r iou s method s o f applying the s e
p r i nc iple s to prac tic al c o ns truc tio n The book doe s not i n any
way t re at o f the p ro po rtio ning an d t he s trengt h o f the variou s
mac hi ne part s
Th e gene r al t r eatme nt o f the s ubjec t is i ndic ate d by t h
variou s c h apte r he adings Thu s the rs t ve c h apte r rel a t e to
denition s and theo retic al c o n s ideration s the s ubjec t s being
as follo w s :
THE

H A P T ER I
C H A PT ER I I
C H A PT ER I I I
C H A P T ER I V
V
C H A P T ER

D E F I N I TI O N S A N D C L A S S I F I C A TI O N
T H ER M O DY N A M I C P R I N C I PL E S
T H EORE T I C A L D I S C U S S I O N O F VAR I O U S C Y C L E S
T H EORE TI C A L C Y C L E S MO D I F I E D B Y P R A CTI C E
T HE T E M P ER A T U RE E N T RO P Y D I A G R A M
.

I n the di s c u ss io n

t h e o retic al c ycle s i n Chapte r I II very

little re fe re nce h as bee n m ade to cycle s not i n ac tu al use Th e
cyc le s a re co ns ide red p r i nc i pal ly w ith refe rence to t hei r prac tic al
applic atio n and any danger o f co nfu s ing the mind o f the s tudent
by a mul ti pl ic ity o f theo retic al cyc le s o f no p r ac tic al value is
a voided The m ai n ide a o f Chap t e r I V is to s ho w ho w the l i ne s
o f the re al cycle s di ffe r f r o m tho s e o f the theo retic al cycle s l aid
do w n i n the p re viou s c h ap t er and to di s cu ss briey the reas ons
for s uc h di ffe rence
Th e ve c h apte rs follo wing V I to X i nclu s i ve take u p the
pheno me n a o f co mbu s ti o n the va r iou s gas -engine fuel s and the
fo rmatio n and p ro pe rtie s o f the fuel mi x tu re Thu s Chapte r V I
t re at s o f co mbu s tio n i n gene r al a n d di s cu ss e s the mo s t i m p o rtant
pro pe rtie s o f the ga s e s u s u al ly found in gas-engine p r ac tice
Table s are given e mbodying the i m po rtant c o ns tant s fo r m any o f
on

Vi

P R E F AC E

the s e gas e s and the c h ap t e r en d s with s o me ty pe co m pu t ation s

o n fuel mi xtu r e and e x h au s t ga s c o n s t ant s whic h m ay s e rve as a
guide fo r s i mil a r wo r k by the s tudent
Th e que s t io n o f g as
e ngine fuel s is t re ated i n the next th ree
c h apte rs by di vi ding al l the fuel s into th ree cl ass e s : t he s ol i d t he
l iqui d and the gas fuel s Ch apte rs V I I and V I I I t ake u p t he
rs t t wo o f the s e cl as s e s B ro adly s pe ak ing nei t he r cl ass o f
fuel is di rec tly avail able for gas -e ngi ne wo rk hence i t w as thought
de s i rable to s ho w in the s e c h apte rs al s o the mean s by w hic h the s e
fuel s a re re nde red avail able Ac co r di ngly Ch apte r V I I d i s cu ss e s
p ro d u ce r gas and de s c r ibe s t he co n s t ru c tio n and o pe r ati o n o f
the mo s t i m po r t ant ty pe s o f p r o d uce rs w hile Ch apte r V I II co n
s i s t s l argely o f a d e s c ri ptio n o f the va r iou s vapo r i zing de vice s
u s ed fo r c ru d e o il g as ol ine ke ro s e ne a n d alco hol Th e l atte r
fuel recogni zing it s gro wi ng i m po r tance h as bee n t rea t e d i n
Chapte r IX rel ate s t o i ndu s t r i al ga s e s p o i nting
s o me detail
ou t b r ie fly the method o f their m anu fac tu re and gi ving t he mo s t
i m po rt ant gas con s tants
I n Ch apte r X afte r di s cu ss ing the fuel m ixtu re and it s mo s t
i mpo r tant p r o pe r tie s an atte m pt h as bee n m ade to c ol l abo r ate
the mo s t i m po r t ant e x pe r i me nt s o n the v a r i atio n o f t he s pe ci fi c
he at o f the fuel gas e s w it h a vie w to as ce r t ai ni ng the p re sent
s ta t e o f o u r k no wledge on t hi s po int
Chapte r X I gi ve s a b r ie f ou tli ne o f the hi s to r ic al devel o pmen t
o f the g as e ngi ne
the va r iou s ty pe s being de s c r ibe d o nly w he re
they a re o f i m po r tance i n c onnec tio n w it h the d evelo pment o f
mode r n fo r m s Th i s is follo wed i n Cha pte r X I I by an e x t ended
de s c r i ptio n o f the mo s t i m po r t ant form s o f i nte r n al c o mbu s tio n
e ngi ne s fou nd i n t he m a rket at the p re se n t t ime Th e ai m o f
thi s c h apte r h as been no t o nl y t o s ho w h o w the va r i o u s m anu
fa c t u re rs have s ol ved w h at is fu ndame ntal ly the s ame p ro ble m
but al s o to famili a ri ze the s tu dent by me an s o f a l a rge nu m be r o f
ill u s tratio n s wi t h t he m ai n c ons t r uc ti ve fe atu re s o f the g as
e ngi ne s at t he di s po s al o f t he m an requi ri ng po we r
Two o f the i m po r tant problem s co nnec te d with t he gas e ngine
are the que s tion s o f ignitio n a n d o f go ve r ni ng Th e fo r me r is
take n u p i n detail in Chapte r X I I I T hi s c h a p t e r af t e r me ntio n
i ng b r iey othe r metho d s o f ignitio n c once r n s it s el f m ai nly w i t h
ignitio n by elec t r ic s pa rk as being t he mo s t i m po rt ant metho d
,

'

vii

P R E F ACE

u s ed to -day The c h apte r al s o take s u p briefly t wo othe r gas

engine au xili a r ie s : muffl e rs and s ta r ti ng appa r atu s
Chapte r X I V t re at s the go ve r ning p r oble m by di s c u ss i ng r t
the p r inc i ple s o f the v a riou s s y s tem s o f go ve r ni ng em ployed and
afte r w a r d s ho ws the mec h anic al d etail s o f the go ve r no rs u s ed
I t is beyo nd t he s c o pe o f thi s bo o k ho we ve r to treat o f the p r i n
c ip le s o f go ve r no r d e s ign
Chapte r X I V di s cu s s e s v a r iou s methods in u s e fo r de te r mi n ing
the nece ss ary cyl inde r dimen s ion s o f a gas engine to de velo p a
ce r tai n gi ve n po we r o r co n ve rs el y to d ete r mine the p r ob able
po we r fo r a gi ve n engine The mo s t rel iable o f the s e metho d s
appe ars to be b as e d u po n the nece ss a ry c h a rge volu me fo r the
give n po we r Thi s metho d t he autho rs bel ie ve wa s o riginally
due t o G iil d ne r and was adapted f r o m t hat autho r s h and -book

E nt we rfe n u nd Be rec hne n de r V e r b r ennu ng s m o to ren

F o r the dete r mi natio n o f the po we r o f aut o mobile engine s
t wo additio n al s e mi -e m pi r ic al fo r mul ae a re gi ven and the re s ul ts
o f the co m pu tatio n s by the va r iou s me t ho d s a re co mpa red by
means o f a ty pe e xam ple
Th e re mai ning th ree c h apters o f the book tre at o f what might
be c alled the ec ono mic s ide o f the i nte r n al co mbu s tio n engine
Ch apter X V I take s u p the met hod s u s ed i n the te s ti ng o f gas
engine s The r ule s follo we d i n t hi s c ou nt ry will be o f cou rs e
the c ode l ai d do w n by the Ame ric an S ociety o f Mec h anic al E ngi
mee rs
The Code o f the G e r m an S oc iety o f E ngineers ho we ve r
is appe nded bec au s e it gi ve s a dd itio nal i nfo r m a t io n u po n s o me
o f the point s i nvol ve d an d bec au s e it t r eat s i n g re ate r detail o f
gas p r oduce rs
Th e r e s ul t s o f te s t s o n engi ne s an d p r odu ce rs a re di s cu ss ed i n
The va r i o u s fac t o rs a ffec ting econo my a re take n
Ch apte r X V I I
u p i n s o me w h at g re ate r d et ail th an h as bee n done i n any o f the
p reviou s c h apte rs Table s a re gi ve n s h o wing the re s ul t s o f
nu me rou s te s t s and the s e s houl d p ro ve val u able in fu rnis hing a
guide as to w h at m ay be expec te d o f othe r in s tall atio ns i n the
m atte r o f fuel eco nomy
F i nall y while Chapter X V I I tre at s o nly o f the que s tion o f
fuel eco no my Ch apte r X V I II take s u p t he enti re nanci al p ro ble m
rel ating to the gas engine
I t s ho ws i n b r ie f as fa r as the in fo r
m atio n is avail able t he p rob able c apital c o s t o f the i ns tall ation ,
.

vii i

P RE F ACE

t he co s t o f e rec tion the o pe rating e x pe n s e s etc

I t is s ho wn
mo s t s t rongly th at the que s tio n o f fuel co s t is no t al way s the im
po r tant ite m o f the p roble m a poi nt whic h is o ften l o s t s ight o f i n
di s cu s s ion s rega rding t he c o m pa r ati ve me r i t s o f va riou s p rim e
mo ve rs
I t mu s t be c onfe ss ed that reli ab le i nfo r matio n rega r d
i ng s o me o f the fac to rs i n thi s nanci al p roble m is s til l ve ry s c a r ce
o wing o f cou rs e di rectl y t o the co m pa r ati ve you th o f the g as
engine
I t s houl d al s o be poi nte d o u t t hat m any s o c alle d co m
pa r i s on s be t wee n va r iou s p r i me mo ve rs a s bet ween s te am a n d
g as a r e o f t e n ba s ed u po n hy po t he t ic al a s s u m ptio n s th at t only
the pa r tic ul a r c a s e u n d e r d i s c u ss io n a n d any gene r ali z atio n o f
the re s u l t s obtai ned o fte n lea d s to s e r iou s mi s rep re s en tatio n
Th e book is o f cou rs e l a rgel y co m pile d f r o m d i ffe re nt s ou r ce s
and is i n the m ain an outg ro w th o f a cou rs e o f lec tu re s o n the
i nte r nal c o mbu s tio n engine del i ve re d t o s tu den t s o f S ibley College
fo r the pa s t th ree ye a rs Ack no wledgment s a re d u e to nu me r ou s
w r ite rs u po n the s u bjec t fo r the fac t s and s t atement s p re s ented
Th e ack no w le d gment s h ave gene r ally bee n m a d e i n the bo d y o f
the book bu t the au tho rs des i re to extend he re wi t h s peci al
ac k no wle d gment t o the follo w i ng E u r o pe an autho r i t ie s : Me ss rs
H G uld ne r D ugal d Cle r k B ryan D o nk i n and Ai m Wit z and to
P r o fe s s or C E L ucke o f Colu mbi a U ni ve rs ity and Mr F E
J u nge o f N e w York
Th ank s a re al s o d u e to va r iou s m anu fac tu re rs fo r ki ndly fu r
mi s hing the text and il lu s t r atio n s o f Chapte r X I I
I TH A CA N Y
Ap r il 23 1 9 08
,

P RE FAC E TO THE

S E C O N D E D ITI O N

p r e sentin g t h e s econ d e d ition o f t hi s boo k t he aut hor s

wi s h t o e x p r e s s t hei r obligation t o al l t h o s e w h o kin d ly ai d e d in
pointin g o u t e rr o r s a n d e s peci al l y to Pr ofe s so r H P d e S c h weini t z
fo r a tho r ough r evi s i o n of t he r s t t wo
o f L ehigh U nive r s ity
c hapte r s
IN

Feb

r u ary

1 909

TAB LE OF C ONTE NTS

H AP TE R

I N TR O D U CTI O N D E
,

F I N I TI

ON S

B R A K E H O R S E -P O W E R

W rk
H ea t d Te m pe ra tu re
Th e r m m ete r
d Py m ete rs
S peci c H ea t
H ea t U nit nd Me c hani al Eq uivalent
Mec ha nic al

CLA S S I FI C

AN D

ATI ON I N D I C ATE D
,

AND

P AG E

an

s an

ro

12
of

H ea t

l5
l5

Cl as s i

c ati n
o

of

Th e S team E n

Ho t

Air E n

En

g ine

g ine

g ine

17

18
22

ati n f I nte rnal C m bu ti n

Th E n g ine I n d ic a t r
I n d ic a te d nd B ra k e H r e p w e r
F or m s f I n d i a t r D i agram s
Cl a s s i

En

g ne s

27

32

o s

38

- o

H APTE R

C
TH E RM O D Y N

Chara c te r i s ti c s

A M I CS

OF

T HE

II
G AS E N G I N E

P e rfe c t G a s e s
R el a ti o n of H ea t Tra n s m i ss i o n t o Cha n g e s o f V o lu m e
Tra n s f o rm a ti o n t o D iffe rent S ta te s
W ork o f I so t hermal a nd Ad ia batic E xpan s i o n
R el a ti o n O f H ea t a nd E nt ro p y
S ec o n d L a w O f Th e r m o d y n a m ic s
of

45
a nd

P ress u re

48

51

54

55

Co m pa

ri n
so

of

Th e o

reti c al

a nd

Actua l

H ea t

g ine

En

H APTE R I I I
V A R I O U TY P
OF

61

TH E O R E TI C

AL

CO M P

ARI

ON

ES

OF

I NT R A L
E

B O S TI O N E N G I N E S
Th e o ry o f t h e Co n s ta nt V o lu m e Bea u d e R o c has o r O tt o Cycle
Th eo ry o f t h e Co n s t a nt -P re s s u re o r B ray t o n Cycle t he D ie sel Cyc le

COM

IX

65
69

TA B

OF CO N TEN TS

P AGE

Vari o u s Cycle s
Co n d iti o n s aff e c ting t h e Ch o i c e
Co m p a

ri n

LE

of

so

73
of

Be s t

Cy c le

H APTE R

C
THE

V A R I O US
PRE S S U RE

The F o u r -S t

r ke

E V E N TS
CY C L E

T HE

OF

IV

V O LU M E
B Y P R AC TI C A L

CO N S T

M O D I FI E D

As

79

N T-

AN D

CO N S T

AN T

CO N D I TI O N S

O tt o Cycle
Th e S ucti o n S t ro ke
Th e Co m p re s s i o n S t ro ke
The Co m bu s ti o n L ine Typic a l I n d ic a t o r D i agram s
Th e E xpa n s i o n L ine
Th e E xha u s t S t ro ke
Tw o -S t ro ke Cycle
Co n s t a nt -P re ss u re Cycle
o

84

or

84
87
90

Th e

Th e

H APTE R V
R O P Y D I AG R A M APPL I E D

97
1 00

1 04

A UR E
TO
G ene ra l R el a ti n I nv lv d
Ma t h e m a tic a l C n t r ucti n f t h E nt r py D i agr m
I nte rp reta ti n f t h D i agram
G ra p h i c a l Meth d f C n t r uctin g t h E nt r py D ia gra m
THE TE M P E R
o

NT

T HE

G AS E N G I N E
1 07

1 12

1 19

1 20

H APTE R VI

CO MB U S TI O N

P e rfect Ga se s
Co m binin g W ei gh t s a nd V o lu m e s Co m bu s ti o n H ea tin g Va l ue
R eq ui re d etc
Ca l o r i m ete rs
Ta ble s o f Co n s t a nt s a n d Typic a l E x a m ple o f G a s Co m pu ta ti o n s
,

1 26
,

H APTE R

C
G A S -E N G I N E F U E LS

T HE

1 27
1 29
1 38

VI I

S O L I D F U E LS , G AS

P rod ucti o n O f Air G a s

Th e P rod ucti o n o f Wa te r G a s
Th e P ro d ucti o n o f P ro d uce r o r P o we r G a s
G as P rod uce rs in P ra ctice
Cl a ss i c a ti o n o f P rod uce rs
D e sc r ipti o n of P re ss u re Prod ucers
D e s cr ipti o n of S ucti o n Prod ucers
D e sc r ipti o n o f Co m bina ti o n Prod uce rs
S om e P rod uce r D et a il s

Th e

Air

P R O D U C E RS
147
14 7

1 56
158
1 59
165
1 73
1 75

Xi

TA B E OF CO N TE N TS

C
THE G AS -E N G IN

H APTE R V I I I

F U E LS ,

L Q U D FU L
I

S :

A RB U R E RS

V A P O R I Z E RS

TE

ru d e O il d th ei r D i till ate G a line K er ene Alc h l

Mixin g D evice f L iqui d F uel
D e c ripti n f Vari u Type f Vap rize r nd Carbu ret r
line K er ene Cr u d e O il d Al h l
P r per G i t i O f Alc h l
C n d iti n requi re d f
C

s an

or

so

os

s o

an

co

or

18 5

as

e s

fo r G aso
18 6

on

ca

H AP TE R

G AS -E N G I N E F U E LS ,

1 78

s a

20 5

IX

I llu m in a tin

P AG E

os

s,

AN D

THE G AS F U E LS

Ga s

206

O il G a s
Co ke O ven G a s
Bl a s t F u rna ce G a s
Acetylene
Wate r G a s
N a tu ra l G a s
Ta ble o f Co n s ta nt s

20 7
208
20 9

21 1
212
2 12

fo r Ab o ve Ga s e s

2 13

H APTE R X

C
THE F U E L M I X T U R E ,
E xpl o s ibility

E XP L O S I B I L I T Y ,

ge
Te m pe ra tu re a fte r C

a nd

E xpl o s ive R a n

Pre ss u re a n d
La ngen etc
V el o city o f F l a m e P ro paga ti o n

PR ES S U RE

AN D

TE M P E R

21 5

om

bu ti o n
s

Expe i m ent s

of

Cle

rk

220
a nd

Ti m e

of

H APTE R

H I S O RY
T

THE

A URE

OF

T HE

E xpl o s i o n

227

XI
G AS EN G I N E
23 2

Pe ri od Of S pecul a ti o n a n d I nventi o n
Per i o d of D evel o p m ent
Pe ri o d O f App lica ti o n

23 2

23 9
25 7

H APTE R
R AL
OF I
C

MO D E R N T Y P E S
G ene

ral F ea tu re

S m a ll

Larg e

a nd

Of

N TE

De ign
s

Med iu m S ized E n g i ne s

G a s E n ines

XI I
CO MB U S TI O N E N G IN E S
26 3
265

304

TA B E OF CO N TE N TS

xi i

Liqu id F ue l E ngines
S t a ti o na y G a so line E n

gi ne

P AG E
35 8

Mar ine G a s o line E n g ine s

A ut o m o b ile G a s o line E n

O il E n g ine s
Al c o ho l E n g ine s

36 1

g i ne

372

3 75

H APTE R X I I I

G AS E N G I N E AU X I L I A R I E s I G N I TI O N , M U F F L E R S
APP

AN D

ST

A R A US

AR

TIN

I gn it ion :

Ig niti
Ig niti
Ig niti
Ig niti

n by O pen F l am e
o n b y Ho t Tu be
o n b y H e a t o f Co m p r e ss i o n
t r i c S par k
o n b y E le c
Ma ke -a n d -B rea k Ig niti o n
J u m p S par k Ig niti o n
Ti m e rs
S p ar k P lu g s
A uxili ary S p ar k G a p
R el a tive Ad va ntag e s a n d D i sad va nta g e s o f t h e t wo S ys te m s O f
E lect r ic Ig niti o n
S o u rce s o f Cu rrent
Ch e m ic a l G ene ra t o rs
P r i m ary Cell s
S t o rag e Cell s
Mec ha nic a l G ene ra t ors
D ynam o s a nd Mag net os
Meth o d s o f Co nnectin g up P r i m a ry a n d S e c o n d ary Ba tte ries
H i gh -Ten s i o n D i st r ibut o rs
M uffle rs
S tar tin g App ara tu s
o

H AP TE R X I V
I R A L CO MB US

R E GUL

A TI O

TI

ON

4 10
4 10
4 10

4 10
411
4 15
4 16

4 20
4 26

42 8

44 1
4 42

ss

4 44
4 46

Co m bin a ti o n Sys te m s

4 47

G o ve

4 49

rnin g by Ti m ing Of S par k

G ve r nin g O f 2 Cycle E n g ine
f G ve rn r
Mecha nica l D et a il
P en d ulu m r I ner ti a G ver n r
o

4 05

4 01

E N G IN E S

ral C n i d e rati n
S y te m Of G ve r nin g
Th H it - n d M i
Q u a lity G ve rnin g
Q u ntit y G ve rnin g
G ene

39 7

N TE

OF

3 97

s o

449

4 50

o s

o s

fo r

H it - nd
a

M i ss R eg ul a ti o n

TA B E OF CON TE N TS

Me c ha n ica l Cent r ifu ga l G o ve rn ors fo r

H it - nd Mi

rn r f Q ualit y R eg ul a ti n
G ve r n r f
Q u ntity R eg ul a ti n
C m bin a ti o n Sy t e m
G ve r n r f
f 2-Cycle E n g ine
G o ve r n n g D eta il
G o ve

o s

or

o s

or

o s

or

ss

xiii

Re

P AG E

g ul ati n

454

457

4 62

s o

4 60

46 7

H APTE R X V

C
THE E S TI M

L i m it

AT O
I

OF

POWE R

G AS E N G I N E S

OF

P i s t o n S peed s a nd R o t a tive S peed s

Meth od O f D ete r m ining Po we r by As s u m in g Mean E ffective Pre ss u re :
G ro ve r s F o rm ul a
M et h od o f D ete r m inin g P o w e r by Ca lcul a tin g Mea n E ffective P re s s u re
fro m Ta ble s o f S A Mo ss
Meth od o f D ete r m inin g P o w e r o r Cylin d e r D i m en s i o n s by G uld ne r s
Meth od
Th e P o we r R a tin g o f A ut o m ob ile E n g ine s
s of

47 1
4 72
4 72

H A PTE R X V I
M TH O D S O F T S I G I T R N A L CO MB U
fG
d O il E n g ine
Co n d uctin g Te t

4 77

4 83

R ule s fo r
.

of

as an

S TI

ON

E N GIN ES
486

1 90 1

48 7

g G E n g ine
c iet y O f E n g inee r

R ule s fo r Te s tin
So

s s o

A S M E Co d e
.

T N

as

s a nd

Ga s

Pro d ucers

Co d e

Of

t he G

e rm a n
511

H APTER X VII

C
THE

P E R FORM A N C E

OF

G AS E N G I N E S

AN D

G AS

P R O D UC E RS

Pe rfo rm a nce o f E n g ine s a s a ffecte d by :

Coo lin g W a te r Co n d iti o n s a n d P i s t o n S pee d
Co m p re ss i o n
Va ry in g F uel M ixtu re
P o int o f Ig niti o n
E n ine E c o n o m y D epen d in g up o n L o ad
Th e H ea t Ba l a nce
R e s ult s of Te s t s o n En g ine s a n d P ro d uce rs
Ta ble o f E n g ine Te s t s
Ta ble O f Te s t s o f P ro d uce rs a nd P ro d uce r P l a nt s
Th e

5 30
5 32
.

5 33
534

537

H APTER X V III
A LL A I O N AN D F O P E R A

5 39
5 42

5 44
5 46

C
CO S T

Prod uce rs
Co s t o f E re c ti o n
Co s t

of

I S
E n g ine

OF

a nd

TI

ON
54 7

548

xiv

TA B E OF C N TE N TS

P ipin g a nd Auxi liaries

F l o or S p a ce a n d Buil d in g s
Co s t o f O pe ra ti o n
I ntere s t
D epr ec ia ti o n
I n s u ranc e
F uel Co s t s
Co s t o f W a te r for Coo lin g a nd W a sh in g
O il a nd Was te
A tten d a n c e
Ma intena nce a n d R epai r
To ta l O pera tin g Cos t s a n d Co s t s a s Co m p a re d Wit h
Mo ve rs

5 53
5 53

56 1
5 64

th er

CH APTE R

R O D U CTI O N D E F I N I TI O N S C L A S S I F I C A TI O N A N D F OR M OF
C O M B U S TI O N
I N T ER N A L
E N G I N E S I N D I C A T E D A N D B RA K E
H OR S E P O W ER

INT

W ork

W o r k is d o ne w hen res i s tance is

overc o me ; it is mea s u r ed by t he p r o du ct of t he res is ting fo r c e
and t he d i s tanc e t hroug h w hich t hat fo r c e is moved
I f o ne
pound is l ift ed one foot h igh i n O ppo s it ion t o t he force of g ra vit y
a quant it y of work mea s u r ed by t he p r o d uct of one pou n d by
is pe r formed wh ic h quant it y is k no w n a s a foot-p ou nd
o n e foot
and is t he u nit of mea s u rement fo r mechani cal w o r k in cou nt r ies
w here the pou nd is a u n it of w eight and t he fo o t a u nit o f d is
tanc e I f 20 pou nd s a r e l ift ed 1 5 feet t he w ork perf o rmed would
be s imila r ly 20 X 1 5 foot -pou nd s
3 00 f o ot -pou nd s
I n cou nt ries w here t he met r ic s y s t em is u s ed mechanical
w o r k is mea s u r ed by t he prod u ct o f t he r es i s t ing f o rce i n kilo
gra ms
pou n d s ) mul t i plied by t he d i st ance i n me t ers
feet ) ; th e p r odu ct is ex p r e ss ed in kilogra m m c ter s
foot -pou nd s )
Th e fo ot -p o u nd o r kilog ra m m e t e r is a g r a vi t y mea s u r e w hic h
d epend s o n t he int en s it y o f t he f o rce o f g r avi t y a t t he pl ac e
a n d va r ies wit h t hat fo r ce
Th e va r iat ion is h owever s o s l ight
for d i fferent po s it ion s on t he ea rt h s s u r fac e t hat fo r all practical
engineering w o r k no s en s ibl e er r o r is p r od uc ed by con s ide r ing
it a c on s tant quant ity
Th e u nit of mea s u r e ment u s ually empl oyed by engineers for
express ing the r a te of wor k o r t he quan t it y o f w o r k d o ne in a
gi ven t i me as one s econd o r one min ut e is t he hor s ep o wer
whic h h a s been a r bit rarily d ened a s equ ivalent t o 5 5 0 foot
pound s pe r s ec ond or
foot -poun d s per minute Thi s
qua nt it y is c on s id e r a bly great er t han t he p o w er a h o rs e can
exert at l ea s t for any c on s id erable lengt h of t i me ; it wa s rs t
I

Mec h ani c a l

I N TE RN AL

COM B US TI ON

E N G N ES

u s ed by J a mes Watt i n d en ing t he power o f t he st ea m engine

and h a s been est abl is h ed by long u s e a s a d enit e mea s u re of
power I n F ran ce t he t erm F or c e d e Ch eva l is a ppl ied t o a rat e
lbs ) or 4 500
o f work of 7 5 kilo gra m m e t e r s per s ec ond ( 5 4 2I ft
kilogra m m e t e rs per minut e (3 25 4 9 ft
I n general if W be t h e w ork performed aga in s t t he pres sure
or res i s t ing forc e 29 w hil e moving t hrough t he s pac e or volu me
.

W
Work

pr

1
( )

is

d one w hen forc e is a ppl ied so as t o pr od u ce mot ion

i n t he d irect ion o f a ct io n of t he fo r c e and al s o w hen force is
e mpl oy ed in c hanging t he vel oc it y o f a bo d y al ready in mot ion
Th e l att er con d it ion is o f c on s id e r abl e p r ac t ica l i mportance and
ca n be c on s id ered as foll o ws : S u ppo s e a bod y w ho s e ma s s is M
be moving in a c ert ain d i r ect ion w it h a vel ocit y u a nd l et a fo r c e
exert ing a mo ment u m P be a ppl ied in t he d irect ion o f mot ion
requ i r ed t o nd t he e ffect p r o d u ced by t h i s fo r ce a cting t hrough
t he s mal l ti me t du ri ng whic h t he body m oves th r ough t he di s tan ce
I)
a nd h as at t he end o f t he t i me t h e vel oc it y u
Th e mo mentu m prod u c ed by t h e force in o n e u nit o f t i me is
P a nd i n t u nit s o f t i me it is P t S inc e t h i s is equal t o t he inc rea s e
of momentu m prod u c ed w e ha ve
,

M (a

Pt

the di s t anc e is equ al to th e mean vel oc i ty m ul tipl ied by

t i me w e ha ve
u) t
1)
I (u

As

t he

By

mult i plying t he a bo ve equat i on s

P vt

d i vid ing by

I (M u

Mu )
?

t;

t,

P ?)

I (M u

Mu )
?

( 2)

t he mecha nical wo r k d one i n overc o ming a res i s ta nce ;

2
t he expres s ion I M u is t h e k inet ic energy F ro m t hi s it is s een
t hat t h e mec ha nical wo r k d one is mea s u red by t he i nc rea s e i n
t h e k inet ic energy prod uced
Th e mec hanical work d one by a flu id du ri ng a c hange of
'
vol u me fro m v t o v is equ al t o t he mea n res is t a nc e overc o me , or
P I) is

I N TROD UC TI ON
p r ess u r e exert ed
is in general

mult i pl ied by t he c hange of volu me

p,

DE F I N I TI O N S , E TC

That

f
j
=
=

p dv

<3)

v
)

t he o perat ion o f a n engine t he w o r k ing u id expand s and

cont ra ct s a s t he pi s t on move s fo rwa rd and backwa rd a nd in one
o r mo r e r evolut ion s retu r n s t o it s init ial c o nd it ion
s o far a s
pres s u r e vol u me a nd t empe r atu r e a r e c o nce r ned and th en
pa ss es t h r ough t he s a me s t ages of expan s ion a n d c o nt ra ct ion a s
befo r e Th e pe r iod t h r oug h w hic h t hes e c hanges take place is
t ermed a c yc le
Th e w o rk pe r fo r med i n a cycl e would be equal t o th e mea n
press u r e p e x ert ed mult i plied by t he t otal v o lu me v s wept
t hrough ; t hat is
W
4
pv
( )
In

Mec ha nical w o r k c an be

r ep r es ent ed by a d iagra m in whic h

t h e p r ess u r e exe r ted o r r e s i s tanc e overc o me p

t he o rd inat es a n d t h e vol u me v by t h e ab s ci s sa
,

is

call e d a

-vo lum e
e
s
s
u
r
e
r
p

d ia gr a m ; it s

a r ea

is

is

repres ent ed by
S uc h a diagra m

equal t o

p d v,

and is proport ional to t he work pe r fo r med

Thu s in F ig 1 1 if t h e d i s tance s pa r allel t o O Y repres ent
t he pres s u r e at any given point and t he d i s tances parallel t o OX
t he c o rr es pon d ing volu me t hen w il l t he t ot al w o r k d one i n c hang
ing fro m t he highes t t o t he l o w e s t p r e s s ure a nd fro m lea s t t o
greates t volu me be r ep r es ent ed by t he a r ea of th e gu r e a b d e f
Heat Heat is a pecul ia r fo r m o f ene rgy ; it ma y be
2
generat ed by t he a pplic at ion of mec han ical work t he a mount s o
p r od uced being exa ctl y proport ional t o t he mecha nical ene rgy
wh ic h d i s a ppears Convers ely mec hanical wo r k may be d one
by t he act i o n o f heat a n d for every foot
pound o f w o r k s o d one
a d enite a mou nt o f heat is put out of e x i s t enc e Heat is al s o
p r oduc ed by a fo r m o f c hemical act ion k no w n as c om bu s tion
d u r ing w h ic h o pe r at ion fuel s a r e bu r ned

s
od y
i
f
erat
re
t
u
r
e
o
a
b
d
e
n
ed
e
m
er
t
a
Th
e
T
e
m
u
3
p
p

*
by Ma xwel l a s it s t hermal s t ate w it h r eferenc e t o it s p o w er o f

c o m mu nicat ing heat t o ot her bod ies

.

The o y

Of

H eat

I ES

IN TE RNAL CO MB US TI ON

EN G N

body t ran s mitt ing heat t o anot her is at a higher t empera

tu re and is s aid t o be h otter ; con ve r s ely one rec eiving heat is at
a l o w er t em perat u re a nd is s a id t o be c old er
Heat ow s fro m a h ott er t o a c older bod y but n o t c on vers ely
,

03

FI G

1-1

P re ss u re -v o lu m e

or

c u.

ft .

W rk D i agram
o

and t he rat e o f flo w i nc r ea s e s w it h t he d i ffe r ence of t e m pe r at u re

alt houg h p r obably n o t exa ct ly i n t he s a me rat io Th e d iff erenc e
ew hat
o f t e mpe r at u r e t hu s cau s e s a flo w of h eat i n a manne r s o m
s m il ia r t o t h at cau s ed by a d i ffe r enc e o f p r e s s u r e i n t he ca s e of
wat e r
Th e t e r m s h otter a nd c old er a r e relat i ve one s c o m monl y a ppl ie d
t o d i s t ingui s h s u b s t a nce s h aving r elat i vely a higher o r l o w er
t empe r atu r e I t s hould be n o t ed t h at t empe r at u r e is t h a t
p r o pe rt y o f heat w hi c h r efers t o it s int en s it y o r t r an s mi ss ion
p o w er al s o t hat heat ene rgy may e x i s t at d i ffe r ent t em pe r a
t u r es and fu r t he r m o re i n o n e con d it i o n may be mu c h c o ld e I
t ha n in a not h er
,

I N TROD UC TI ON DEF I N I TI ON S
,

E TC

fol lo w ing s ca l es o f t empe r atu r e s a r e i n c o m mon u s e in

w hic h t he t e m pe r at u re s o f free zing a n d boiling w at er u n d er a
baro met ric p r ess ure of
inc he s a r e ta ken a s point s o f
reference
Th e Cent igrad e s cale w a s int r o d uced by Cel s iu s p r ofes s o r o f
as t rono my in t he U n ive rs ity o f U ps ala a b o u t 1 7 4 2 ; i n it t h e free z
ing-point is ma r ked 0 d eg r ees a n d ca lled ze r o and t he boil ing
p o int is ma r ked 1 00 deg r ee s Th e s i mplic i t y o f d ivi d ing t he
d is t ance bet w een t he point s of r efe r enc e in t o 1 00 pa rt s and cal l
ing eac h o f t he m a d eg r ee h as cau s ed i t t o be gene r ally a d o pt ed
a long w it h t he Met r ic S y s te m fo r s c ient i c u s e es pecially on t he
The o t her s cal e s a r e called by t he na me s
Cont inent of E u r ope
of t h o s e w h o int r od uced t he m
F ah renheit o f D ant zig a bdu t 1 7 1 4 int r o du ced a t he r m o met e r
s cal e in w hic h t he free zing -poin t w a s ma r ked 3 2 d eg r ees a nd t h e
boiling point 2 1 2 d eg r ees t he s pac e be t w een t he r efe r enc e point s
being d ivid e d into 1 80 equal pa rt s called d eg r ees a n d t he
g raduat io n exten d ed ab o ve a nd be lo w t h e p o int s o f r efe r enc e
A point 3 2 d eg r ee s bel o w f r ee zing w as call e d ze r o
D e s pi t e th e
inc on venienc e o f t he s cal e o f t h e F ah r enh eit t he r mo met e r i t is
i n gene ral u s e by E ngl i s h -s peaking peo pl e fo r c o m me r cial a nd
bu s iness pu rp o s es a nd fo r t hat r ea s on w ill be u s ed p r inc i pal ly in
t hi s t r eat i s e
R ea u mur i nt r o d uc ed a t h e r m o met e r s cale a b o ut 1 73 0 in
w h ic h t he f r eezing-p o in t is ma r ke d 0 d eg r ee s a nd t he b o il ing
point 80 d eg r ee s w hic h is u s e d t o s o me e x t ent on t he Co n t inent o f
E u r o pe fo r me d ical pu rpo s es
Th e fol l o w ing t abl e give s t he c o mpa r at i ve val ue o f t h e t h r ee
t h ermo met r ic s ca le s
TH E RM O M E T R I C S CA L E S
Th e

D egree bet w een freez i n g d b ilin g

A u m e d te m pe ra tu re a t f
ing-p int
A um ed t m
t
t b i lin g -p int
C m p ara tive e gt h f a d e g ee
C m p ar tive len g t h f a d e gree
T t r n f rm i nt
a b l ute te m pe ra
tu re dd
an

ss

ss

e ra u re s a

s o
a

re e z

1 80
32
212
1

1 00
0
1 00

80
0
80

so

4 60

27 3

2 18

IN TERN A L

C M B US TI N

Te m p e ratu r e

Abs ol u te

EN G N ES

is

an express ion for t he valu e

of t e mpe r atu r e mea s u r ed f r o m a n id eal point c al l ed t he a bs o lu te
z er o
w hic h is a ss u med t o be t he l owe s t po ss ible poi nt o n a n y
Th e po s it ion o f t he ab s ol ut e ze r o ca n be
s ca l e of t em perat u r e
cal culat ed by t he law of expan s io n o f a pe r fect ga s w hic h is
ex p r ess ed by t he s i m pl e equat ion
4

p r)

(5 )

t he press u re 2)
t h e volu me of a gi ven ma ss o f
t he ab s ol ut e t em perat u re and R
a c on s t ant w hic h
gas T
varies onl y w it h t he d i ffe r ent kind s o f gas Thi s equat io n can
be c on s ide r ed a s t h e c h a ra c t e rist ic e q u a t io n o f a permanent ga s
fro m w hic h T ca n be c o m put ed i f p v a n d R a r e k no w n w h ic h is
t he ca s e w it h mo s t of t he ga s e s
I t is evident t hat t he val ue o f one d eg r ee of ab s ol ut e t em pera
tu r e ca n be t aken at pl ea s ure as equal eit her t o t hat on t he Ce n
t igra d e o r F ahren heit s cal e
Th e exa ct l ocat i o n o f t h e po s it ion o f ab s ol ut e ze r o is s ome
w hat in d oubt s inc e it is d et e r mine d by t he r elat ive expan s i on
n it r ogen or hydrogen u n d e r a c on s t ant p r e s s u r e ; t h es e
o f a ir
ga s es a r e n ot pe r fect ga s e s and t h e expan s ion i n v ol u me per
d egree of inc r ea s e i n t emperature may n ot be e x a ct l y t h e s a me
as for a gas w hic h c ould not be l iqu eed for any c ond it ion s of
p r ess u r e o r t em pe r at u r e P r e s t on in h is w o r k on t h e Theo ry of
Heat s t at es t hat t he mo s t t r u s t w o r t hy ob s e r vat ion s ind icat e t hat
t he ab s ol ut e t empe r atu r e of f r eezing w ate r is
Centig r a d e
F ah r enh eit
w hic h w ould c o rr es pond t o
I t is s u fc ient ly
nea r fo r all pract i cal pu r po s es t o c on s i d er t he t em pe r atu re o f
f r eezing wat e r o n t he ab s olut e s c al e a s 273 deg r ee s Cent ig r a d e o r
4 92 d eg r ees F a h r en heit a nd t he s e nu mbers w ill be u s ed i n t h i s
t reat i s e i n r edu c ing t o t h e ab s olut e s cal e
F r o m t hi s it is s een t hat t o redu ce t o t he ab s olute s cal e it is
nece ss a r y t o add t o t he t em perat u r e if expres s ed i n d eg r ees
F ah r enheit 4 6 0 o r if in d eg r ees Centig r ad e 273
I n s t r u men t s for mea s u r ing t em pe r at u r e
5 Th e rm o m eter s
are call ed Th erm om eters
Th e expan s ion of a ga s eou s l iqu id o r s ol id body u nd er c o n
in w hic h

'

'

I N TROD UC TI ON DEF I N I TI ON S
,

E TC

tant press u r e is al mo s t if not exactly proport ional t o t he

inc rea s e o f t em pe r at u re es t i mated fro m a bs olut e zero
I n t he t hermo met er in c om mon u s e t he t empe r a
tu r e is mea s u red by t he expan s ion o f mercu ry c on
ned i n a gl a ss t ube f r o m whi c h t he air h as been
exhau st ed S u c h a t he r mo met e r is qu ite s at i s fact ory
wit hin t he range o f t em pe r at u re t hrough whic h mer
cu r y w il l r e mai n l i quid
I n t he bett er g rades o f me r
cu ri al t he r mo met e rs t he graduat ion s are c ut w it h
ext r e me ca r e d i r ect l y on t he s t e m Th e gla ss is care
fully s el ect ed a nd is permitt ed t o s ea s on o r age u ntil
mol ecul a r c ha nges ha ve s t opped befo r e
Th e gene r al appearance o f
g r ad uat ion
2
s uc h t he r mo met ers is s ho w n in Fi
1
g
When t he r mo met ers are likely t o be
u s ed i n t e mpe r at u r es whic h w ould s end
t he mercu ry c olu mn above t he l i mit s of
t he grad uat ions it is d es i r abl e t o have
a n ext r a bul b c a ll ed a sa fety-bu lb at t he
t op t o p r event b r eaking f r o m ove r heat
ing Me r cu r i a l t he r momet ers can be u s ed
fro m a t e mperatu re a bout 4 0 d egrees
bel o w zero t o 6 00 degrees above zero
F a h r en heit
B y lling t he s pa ce above
t h e me r cury w it h s o me neut ral gas as
N o r CO2 u nd e r pre ss u re t he u pper li mit
ma y be rai s ed s o me hu nd r ed deg r ees ;
F
IG ~
l
w
o
f
s
i
s
o
but a s th e melt i ng point
gl a s
BJ rc u n al
t he u pper l imit ca n s ca r cely eve r exc eed
TE
e rm o m
800 d egree s t o 9 00 degrees F ahrenheit
e te r
FI G
1 3
E
M
T A LL I C TH ER M O ME T E RS in w hic h
j
Me t a lh c
t he expan s io n o f a metal o r the d i ff erence i n e xp a n
Pyro m ete r
is mult i pl ied
s ion o f met al s of t w o d iff e r ent k ind s
by a s y s t e m of l evers s o a s t o move a hand over a d ial a re fre
quent l y u s ed for t h e mea s u rement o f t empe r atu re S uch t he r
m o me t e rs are s o met i me s calle d p yr om eter s
An ill u s t r at ion of
s uc h a t he r mo mete r is s ho w n in Fig
13
Th e metal lic t h ermo met er can be u s ed for temperatu res n ot
exc eed ing 1 200 d eg r ees t o 1 500 d eg r ees Fah r enheit but i t is se l
s

I N TERN A L

C M B US TI ON

E N G NES

a n in s t ru ment of ac cu r ac y a nd is ext r emel y l iabl e t o ac ci

d ent Th e s cal e o f t he s e in s t ru m
ent s s hould be frequ ent l y c o m
pare d w it h t he boil ing-point a nd a d j u s t ed if n ot fou nd c orrect
I t h a s al r ead y been s h o w n t hat air o r pe r manent ga s es l ik e
n it r ogen a nd hyd rogen w hen u nd er a c on s t ant p r ess ure w il l ex
pand in vol u me in pro port ion t o t he ab s olut e t em pe r at u re o r
w hen c onned s o a s t o have a c on s t a nt vol u me w ill increa s e in
press ure i n p r oport ion t o t he ab s olut e t e m peratu re
I t foll o w s fro m t hi s t hat if air be ma int ain ed at a c on st ant
vol u me and heat ed it s ab s ol ut e p r ess u r e w il l in c r ea s e w it h t h e
ab s ol ut e t em peratu re o r vic e ver sa if it be maint ained at c o n
s t ant p r e ss u r e it s v o lu me wil l va r y w it h ab s olut e t e m pe r at ure
Th e a ir t hermo met er c on s t ru ct e d in a c c ordan c e wit h eit h er
princ i pl e is u s ed a s a s tan d a r d way of mea s u r ing t em perat u r e
but becau s e o f t h e ext reme d i fcu lt y of maint a ining c o n st ant
p r ess ures o r c on s t a nt volu mes it is a n a wkwa r d in st r u ment t o
u s e and is em pl o ye d ve r y l itt l e in t he ordin a r y mea s u r e ment o f
t emperatu re
Th e J o l ly form o f c on s t ant volu me a i r t h er m o m
et er is s h o w n in F ig 1 4
Th e l eg
C F h a s a exibl e c onnec t ion at t h e
b ott o m and m ay be r ai s ed t o m aint a in
a c on s tant volu me o f air f r o m t he bul b
L t o t h e l ine A B Th e in c rea s e of
press u r e is mea s u r ed by a s cal e atta c hed
d om

to C G

ELE

R I C A L TH ER M O ME T ER S
Tempe r atu r e may be me as u re d by el ec
t r ic a l t h e r mome t e r s o f w h ic h t h e r e are
t w o c la s s e s
I n o n e cl a ss a c o ndu cti ng
c i r cu it is f o rmed o f t w o d i fferent metal s
su c h
a c on s t ru ct ion being f r equ ently
J ll y Ai Th e r
th er m o e lem en t a n u mbe r O f
t
e
r
med
a
m m te
t he s e c onnect ed t oget he r is k now n a s
a th er m op ile I n t h i s c on s t ru ct ion a n elect ro m ot i ve fo r c e is p ro
d u c ed w hic h is pro po rt i o na l t o t he d i fferenc e of t emperat u r e o f
t he j u nction s a nd may be mea s u r ed by a s en s it i ve gal va no met er
I f o n e o f t he j un ct ion s be maintained at a c on s t ant o r k n own
t em perat u re t he t em pe r atu r e o f t he ot h er may be c o m puted
f r o m t h e read ing o f t he gal va no met er F o r t he mea s u r emen t o f
CT

IN TROD UC TI O N

D EF I N I TI O N S , E TC

high t e mperat u r e metal s having a hig h melt ing-point s uc h a s

plat i nu m a nd a plat i nu m -i r i d iu m all o y may be u s ed fo r t he ele
ment s
Th e Le Ch a t e lie r pyro meter is a n i n s t r u ment o f t h is c la ss
;
,

'

FI G

1 5

The Le Ch a t e lie r s

E lect

ri ca l Pyr

om

ete r

c on s i s t s o f a gal van o met e r c o n nect ed t o a th e r m o

ele ment B a s s h o w n i n Fig 1 5 and is e x ten s ivel y
u s ed ; t he t hermo -el ement is c on s t r u ct ed o f plat i
nu m a nd plat inu m -r h o d iu m a n d is enclo s e d in a
porcelai n t u be a s s hown i n F ig 1 6
The B r i s tol pyromete r w h ic h m ay be ha d w it h a
recording device belong s t o t he ab o ve c la s s
Anot her c la s s of elect r ica l t herm o met e rs is ba s ed o n t he law
o f I nc re as e o f elect ric r e s i s t anc e of metal s d ue t o t h e r i s e o f t em
e ra t u re
Wit h t hi s c la s s o f t hermo met ers t he d i ffe r enc e i n
p
t emperat u r e ca n be det e r min e d f r o m t he mea s u r ement of t h e
d ro p in pot ent ia l fo r a k no w n c u rr ent pa s s ing t h r ough a c o il
Thi s met hod is e mpl oyed i n t he pl a t inu m t hermo met e rs o f S ie
men s Ca lend a r a nd va r i o u s ot hers Th e elec t r ical t h e rm o m
e t e rs a r e s upe r ior to al l o t he r s fo r m any u s e s
O P TI C A L P Y R O M E T ER S
Th e a pp r o x i mat e t e mpe r at u r e o f in
cand es c en t bod ies may be d e t e r mine d by t he c ol o r o f t he ra d iant
Po uill et as t h e r e s ul t o f a la rge nu mbe r o f e x pe r i men t s
rays
c onc l ud ed t hat al l inca ndes cent bod ies have a d e nit e a nd x ed
.

I N TERN AL

IO

COM B US TI N

c ol or c orres pond ing t o eac h t e mperat ure

ing t able :
Co l o

F ai nt

EN G N E S

as s

h own i n t h e fol lo w

d
re d
re

D ar k
F a int c he rry
Che rry
B ri gh t c he rry
D ark ran g e
B r i gh t ra n g e
W h ite h ea t
B ri gh t w h ite
Da zzlin g wh ite
o

5 25
7 00
80 0

9 27
1 292
1 4 82
1 6 52
1 9 32
2 1 20
21 92
2372
25 5 2
27 3 2

1 00 0
1 1 60
1 200
1 30 0
1 4 00

1 5 00

x ed relat ion bet w een c ol o r a nd t e mpe r at u re is d u e t o

t h e fact t hat t he c ol o r of an inca nd es c ent bod y va r ies w it h t he
w a ve l engt h w h ic h is a fun ct i on o f t he t em pe r a
t u re
A nu mber of opt ical py r o met ers ha ve
been d evi s ed wh ic h d et e r min e t he t e m pe r at ure
by t he a p pea r anc e o f t he h eat ed body Th e
Mes u r a n d N oel py r o met er c hanges t he wa ve
lengt h s by t he r ot at ion o f t he pla ne o f pol ari za
t ion o f light pa ss ing t h r ough a qu art z plat e cut
pe r pend icularly t o it s a x is
I n t he u s e of t he
in s t ru ment t he t e m perat u r e is mea s ured by
not ing t he angl e t h r ough w hic h t he a naly zer is
t urned in o r d e r t o prod uc e a l e mon yell o w c ol or
Th e M ors e t hermo -gage w h ic h is e x t en s ively
u s e d in t he s t eel in d u s t ry c on s is t s o f a n inc an
d es c ent la m p w it h a rheo s t at a rr anged s o t hat
t he cu rr ent o w ing t h r ough it a nd it s c o us e
quent bright ness may be r egulat ed
W h en t he
h e
1
6
Th e l m of t he inc and e s c ent l a mp bec o me s t he s a me
L e C h a t e l i e r c ol o r as t hat of t he O bj ect t h e t e mpe r at u r e is
T h e r m o -E l e
c o mput ed f r o m t he r ead ing of a mill i -volt met er
m ent
arranged t o mea s u r e t he cu rrent Th e t e mpe r a
tu r e c orre s pond ing t o a gi ven el ect rical r ead ing is d et e r min ed by
c al ibrat ion
Th e o pt ical pyro meters are c on venient an d of a pproxi mate
Th e

I N TROD UC TI O N DE F I N I TI ON S
,

E TC

11

acc u r ac y in d et e r mining hig h te m peratu res of incand es c ent bodies

They a r e o f n o value in d et ermining t empe r at ures of c o mbu s t ible
obj ect s
Th e pres s u re p r odu c ed by a s atu
V A P OR TH ER MO ME T ER S
rat ed va por c on ne d in a cl o s ed vess el inc r ea s es w i t h t he t em
w
l
w
r a la w whic h may
in
ac
c
o
r
d
a
nce
it
h
a
k
now
n
r
u
r
e
a
o
a
t
e
p
B y p r o vidi ng a s u ita ble pres s u r e gage a n d
be d e t ermined
atta c hing it t o a cl o s e d ves s el of t he p r oper s ha pe t h e t empera
t u re may be obt ained f r o m t h e p r es s u r e read ing s t he valu e of
w hic h a r e k no w n or fro m t he d ial r ea d ing s of t h e p r es s u re gage
w hic h may be grad uat ed by t r ial i nt o d egrees of t em pe r at u re An
in s t r u ment o f t hi s t ype is mad e by S c hae ffe r a nd B ud e n be rg a nd
call ed by t he m a Tha l p ota s im eter
CA L O M E T R I C TH ERMO ME T ER Th e t em perature can al s o be
mea s u r ed by c a lo m e t ric met h od s by heat ing a body of kn ow n
weight and s pec ic heat t o t he t e m pe r atu r e w hic h it is des ired
t o mea s u r e t hen t r a n s fe rr ing t hi s bo d y w it h as l itt le c ooling a s
po ss ibl e t o a vess el c ontain ing a know n w eight o f w at er
Th e equat ion for t hi s o pe r at ion w il l be expre ss ed as foll ow s :
.

W
in w hic h W

(t t )

ws

( tx

t) ,

equ ivalent w eight o f wat er and it s c ontaining

ves s el
w eight of heat ed body
w
s peci c h eat o f h ot b o d y
8
o r iginal t em pe r atu r e of w ater
t
nal t e mperat u re o f w at er
t
t em perat u r e o f hot body
tx
.

pl at inu m c o pper po r c ela in or burned re c lay an s wers

fo r t h e b o d y t o be heat ed
Th e t emperat u re ca n be a p p ro xi
F U S I O N TH ER M O M E T ER S
mat ely d et e r mined f r o m t he kn o w n melt ing -point s of met all ic
bod ies on th e p r in c i pl e t hat t he t empe r at u r e w ill be high e r
t ha n t he melt ing -p o int of a b o d y t hat melt s and l o w er t han t h e
melt ing t em pe r a t u r e o f one t hat d oes n o t melt
I n plac e of

metall ic b o d ies a s e r ie s o f fu s ibl e cl ay c ones c all ed S eger c ones

wh o s e melt ing point s are k nown are O ft en em ployed in t h e s a me
ma nner
A

bal l
n icely

of

I N TE RN A L

12

C M B US TI ON

EN GI N E S

H ea t D i fferent mat erial s of t he s a me w eight s

have d i fferent ca pa c ities for a b s o r bing heat fo r a c o rr e s pon d ing
c hange o f t em perat ure ; t hu s on e pound o f w at er w il l ab s orb
about n ine t i me s as mu c h h eat as o n e pound of w rought i r on for
t he s a me c ha nge o f t em perat u re Th i s pecul ia r heat ca pa cit y
o f b od ies c o mpared wit h wat er is t erm e d s p ec ic h ea t w h ic h is
u s ually d ened as foll ow s :
Th e s pec ic heat o f a body is t he rat io of t he qua nt it y of h eat
requ ired t o rai s e t hat body o n e d egree i n t em peratu re t o t h e
quant it y requi r ed t o rai s e an equal weight of wat er at s t and a rd
t em perat ure one d egree
Th e s peci c heat of w at e r is not qu it e c on s tant being n ea r l y
t hree fou rt h s o f one per c ent highe r a t t he bo il ing a nd f r eezing
t em perat u r es t ha n at f t een d egrees Cent ig r ade ; t h i s is s h o w n by
t he fol l ow ing table fro m t h e book o f St ea m Ta bl es by Profes s or
Peabod y
6

S pe c i c

S P E CI F I C
Cent i

grad e

H AT
E

F ah

OF

WA R
TE

ren h eit

41
32

0
5
5 10

4 1 5O
5 9 68
68 7 7
77 86
86 95
1 13
1 04
1 13 31 1
3 1 1 3 92

1 5 20
20
25
25 30
30 35
4O 45
-1
45
55
1 5 5 200

I n general t he
H e at of a Perm anent Ga s
c ondit ion s u nder wh ic h t he c h ange o f t em peratu r e oc curs s hou ld
be di s t inc tly s pec ied for t he tem peratu r e o f a body m a y be
varied by the m ec hanic al w o r k done in t he c om pre s s ion o r ex
Th e c ha n ge of vo lume due t o i nc r ea s e
p a ns io n wh i c h o c cu r s
of tem perature is so s m al l for s ol id s and liquid s t h at t he exte r nal
work i n c hange o f volu me m ay be neglected but s uc h is n o t th e
c a s e for gas e s Fo r t h i s r ea s on t h e c ondition s u nder w h ich t h e
heat ing o f a gas t a ke s pla c e mu s t be s t ate d w hen refe r ring t o it s
s pecic he a t a n d it h a s beco me c u s t oma r y t o s peak o f two s p e

S p e c i c

'

I N TROD UC TI O N DE F I N I TI O N S
,

c ic

E TC

13

heat s i n connection w it h any gas namel y the s pec ic heat at

a n d t he s pec ic heat un d er c on sta n t
c o n sta n t volu m e
r
r
es
u
e
s
p
Th e fo r mer is t he quantity of heat r equired to rai s e t he tempe r a
ture of a unit ma ss of t he ga s one degree w hen it s vol ume is kept
con s t ant and t h e l atte r t he quan t i t y of h eat required t o r ai s e the
t empe r atu r e of a u nit m a ss o n e d eg r ee when the p r e ss ure is kept
c on s t ant com pared w i t h t hat of a unit m a ss of wate r I n t he
rs t ca s e t he p r e ss u r e i nc r ea s e s w h ile t he volume is kept con st ant
and no external w o r k is don e ; i n t he latter t he v o lume inc r ea s e s
u nder con s ta nt p r e ss u r e and an amount o f exte r nal w o r k is d o ne
w hic h is mea s u r ed by t h e produ ct o f t he p r e ss u r e by t he c hange
of vol ume
Th e s pec ic h eat of a ga s at con s t ant volu me bears a k no w n
rel at ion to t he s pec ic heat at con s tant p r e s s u r e s o that if o ne
be d etermined expe r iment ally t h e o t he r m ay be computed I t
w ill be s ho w n l ate r t hat t he s peci c heat at con s ta nt pre ss ure
equal s t he s pec ic heat at con s t ant volu me pl u s a con s tant w hich
depend s o n t he n atu r e of t he ga s That is
,

C,

C,

K,

K,

when exp r e ss ed i n heat u nit s and

J R w hen e x p r e ss e d in fo ot -pou nd s
R

fol lowing t able give s t h e s pec ic heat s

s u r e and vo lu me of t he princ ip al ga s e s :
Th e

ABL

OF

S P E CI F I C

0
N
Air
20 ( v a p o

con s tant pres

H AT S
E

CO
00 2
C H.
0 211 .

r)

I n t he above t able

of

C,

S pec ic

C,

S pecic

= C
y
,

h eat of c o n s tant pre ss ure

heat

of

con st ant volume

pecic heat o f a pe r fect gas is con s idered con s tant by

mo s t E ngli s h w r iters wh o di s cu ss t he s ubj ec t Q uite a nu mber
Th e

IN TE RN A L

l4

CO M B US TI ON

EN G N ES

of expe r iment s h ave s h o w n h o w ever t h at it va r ie s wit h bot h th e

pre s s u r e a n d t he t em pe r ature
I n the F r enc h wo r k b y A Wit z t he fol lo w ing formul a is given
for t he c hange of s pecic heat wit h pre s s ure :
in w hic h a and b a r e con s tant s for eac h
a
b (p
0,
ga s and p t h e pre ss ure i n k ilo s per s q u a r e cent imeter
Th e s pecic heat o f al l vapo r s w h ic h are l iquee d at m ode r at e
temperature u ndoubted l y in crea s e s w it h t he in crea s e of tempera
t u re
T hi s s ubj ect is full y di s cu ss ed i n Cha pt e r X of t hi s w ork
I n t hi s w o r k t h e s pec ic heat of ga s es w ill be con s id ere d con
An y error cau s ed by s u c h
s t ant u nle s s ot he r wi s e ment ioned
c on s iderat io n w ill not u s ually be s e r iou s and by s o d oing t he
va r iou s formu la s w hic h exp r es s t h e heat c a pac it ies u nd er actual
w o r king c ond it io n s a r e mu c h s i m pl ied
Th e s pec ic heat o f a mi x tu re o f variou s ga s e s con s t itut ing
a k now n weight o r ma ss is equal t o t he mea n s pec ic heat o f t h e
mi xt u re and is fou nd by mult i plying t he weight o f eac h c o mponent
pa r t by it s s pec ic heat a nd d ividing t he s u m o f t he product s by
t he t ot al w eight
Heat is mea s ured by it s c a pac it y t o
8 Th e Heat U n it
rai s e t he t emperat u r e o f a k now n w eight of w at er Th e Unit of
mea s urement is t ermed a c a lorie i n t he met r ic s ys t e m a nd a
B r itis h therma l u n it ( B T U ) i n t he E ngli s h s y s t em
A calo r ie is
c o mmonl y d ened as t he heat r equ ired t o rai s e one k il og r a m of
wat er fro m t he freezing -poi nt t o o n e deg r ee Cent igrade a nd a
B rit i s h t hermal u nit ( B T U ) t hat requ ired t o rai s e o n e pou nd o f
wat er f r o m 3 2 t o 33 degrees F ahren heit
B ecau s e of t he varia
t ion in t he s pec ic heat of wat e r nea r t he f r eezing -point Pr ofess or
P eabody i n h is Tabl es O f S at u r at e d S t ea m d enes t he t hermal
u nit a s t hat requ ired t o rai s e t he t empe r at u r e f r o m 62 t o 6 3 d egrees
F a hrenheit or f r o m about 1 5 t o 1 6 d eg r ee s Cent ig r ade
Th e s pec ic heat of wat er c hanges s lightly fo r d i ffe r ent t em
p e ra t u res a s al ready not e d but it ca n b e c on s id e r ed a s con s tant
w it hout s en s ibl e e rr o r for al l o r dina r y pu r pos es i n t he m e a ure
ment o f heat w h en t he t empe r at ure is maint ained between t he
free z ing a nd boil ing point s
I t is n ot ed fro m t h e above s t at ement t hat heat is meas ured
not by t he t empe r at u r e al one but by it s abil it y t o heat a ma ss of
wat er fro m o n e t emperat u r e t o a not her ; the t otal heat expres s ed
,

I N TROD UCTI ON DE F I N I TI O N S
,

E TC

15

i n t h e r mal u nit s being equal t o t he produ ct of t he weight of water

by t he c hange o f t empe r atu r e Thu s if 20 pou nd s of water be
heat ed 25 d eg r ees F ahrenhei t t he heat required is the p r oduct
of 20 t i mes 25
50 0 B T U
E qu iv a l e n t
of H e at
Th e
mechanic al
9 M e c h a n i ca l
equivalent o f h eat is t he a mou nt of wo r k express ed in mec hanical
unit s w hic h may be performed by t he t r an s fo r mat ion o f one heat
uni t int o mecha nical w o r k The valu e of t he mechanical e q u iva
lent o f heat wa s det e r min ed expe r i mentally by J oul e w ho fou nd
t hat 7 72 foot -pound s w as equ ivalent t o o ne B T U o r
kilo
h
r
mm
T
e d et e r minat ion s ma d e lat er and
t
o
one
cal
orie
a
e
t
e
rs
g
wit h m ore ac cu rat e in s t r u ment s by R o w land red uced t o t he s ea
level and t o 4 5 d eg rees of latitud e give t he following values whic h
are now general ly adopt ed :
.

i n cal o r ies J
E xpress ed in B T U J
E xpres s ed

I n t his w ork

kilogra mm et e rs

7 78

foot -pound s

J is

u s ed a s t he s y mbol for t he mec hanical

equi val ent of heat and A a s t he recip r oc al o f J
That is
.

l fA

Th e

experi ment by mean s of wh ic h t he equ ivalent valu e of

t he heat u nit w a s d et e r mined in u nit s o f mechanical w ork s erve
t o prove t he gene r al mec hanical p r inc ipl e o f t he c on s ervat ion of
en ergy w h ic h h ad been p r eviou s ly s t at ed by Clau s iu s as f o llow s :

I n a ll ca s es wh er e wor k is p r od u c ed by h ea t th e qua n tity of h ea t

c on s u m ed is p r o p or tion a l to th e wor k d on e; a n d c on ver s ely by th e
,

exp en dit ur e o

ma y be p r od u c ed
The r modyna mic s

f wor k the sa m e qua n tity of hea t

Thi s princ i ple is oft en call ed t he rs t law of

sa m e a m ou n t o

th e

O ne of

t he qualit ie s o r properties o f heat

wh ic h cannot be mea s ured by any s imple phy s ical apparat u s is

termed E ntropy
Th i s s ame qual ity w as named by R ank ine

t he The r m odynam i c F uncti o n ; it s value is s u ch th at it s c hange

during a g iven tim e m ultipl ied by t h e ab so lute temperature
equal s the t o t al h eat w hi c h m ay be t r an s formed into mec hanical
w ork
F ro m t hi s denit ion it is note d that t he p r oduct o f abs o
lu t e t em pe r at u r e by c h ange Of ent r opy is t he mea s ure of t he
capa c it y of heat for pe r fo r m ing mech anical work
As a n illu s trat ion i f a ga s eou s body under p r e s s ure be allowed
Io

E n tro p y

IN TERN AL

16

C M B US TI N

E N G N ES

t o expand wit hou t receiving o r giving o ff h eat it s ent r opy would

rem ai n con s tant and any mech anical wo r k performed w ould be
done at t he ex pen s e of t he heat ex i s t ing in t he bo d y A c h ange
wh ic h t ake s pl ac e wit hout gain o r lo s s of heat is te r med adia ba tic
wh ic h condition corres pond s to t h at of con s tant ent r opy
E x pan s io n o r co mpre ss ion o f a body tak ing place w ithout
c hange of tem peratu re is c al led isother m a l expan s ion o r co mp r e s
and li ne s dra w n i n a diagram indicat ing t hi s property a r e
s ion

termed i s ot hermal lines

Ch ange of entropy w it h r e s pect t o heat is i n m a n y re s pect s
anal ogou s t o ch ange of volu me i n r es pect to mec hanical work ;
it h as al ready bee n s ho w n t hat t he mec h anical w o r k is equal t o
t he c h ange in volume m ult iplied by t he r e s i s t ance o r pre ss u r e
ove r come I f w e denot e t he t otal heat c apable o f being t r an s
formed into mec h anic al w o r k by Q the c hange o f ent r opy by 4;
an d t he ab s ol ut e t em pe r at u r e by T we s hall h ave th e follo w ing
equatio ns :
W
(v
p
T
Q
(9
.

the rs t o f t h e above equat ion s it is noted that no

mech anic al w o r k c an be done without a ch ange i n volume and
furthe r t hat t he amou nt o f w o r k done is mea s ured by th e ch ange
o f volu me multipl ied by t he p r ess u r e
F rom t he s econd it is s een th at no c h ange i n the amount o f
heat whic h a body c on t ain s c an t ake pl ac e wit hout a cha n ge
O
Th e am ou nt o f heat
i n ent r opy fo r w hen 4)
(b
Q
tran s ferred is mea s u r ed by t he c h ange o f entropy m ultipl i ed
by t he ab s ol ut e temperature
F ro m t he above
W
'

F ro m

'

'

w h ic h is s een t h at t h e c h ange in vol u me is equ al to th e

mec hanic al work perfo r med divided by t h e mean pre s s ure

Fro m

< >

4>

Q
T

wh ic h it is s een t h at t h e c h ange i n entropy is equ al to

t he t ot al heat tran s formed int o wo r k divide d by t he ab s ol ute
temperature
F ro m

I N TROD UCTI ON D E FI N I TI ONS

,

Cla ss i c ation

of

E TC

17

Th e

E n gine s

acti o n of an engine
is in general t o p r oduce m o t ion again s t a re s i s tance or t o per
fo r m wo r k E ngine s are popula r ly cla ss ied in acco r dance with
t he natu r e of t he w orki ng flui d a s hy d r aulic engine s s team
engine s ga s engine s o il engine s e t c They may be more s c ie n t i
c al ly cla ss ied in ac cordance w i t h t he na t u r e of t he w ork ing
proce ss a s pre s s u r e engine s and heat engine s I n t he p r essu r e
en gin e wo r k is p r oduced by c hange o f pre ss ure w i t hout c hange of
temperatu r e a s illu s t r ated i n t he pi s ton wate r engine I n t he
hea t engin e wo r k is p r odu ced by t r an s forming heat into m e c h a n i
cal wo r k w hic h p r ocess is ac companied wi t h change o f tempera
t u r e and u s ually al s o a c h ange o f p r es s ure
I n m ec hanic al s t r uc tu r e engine s are o f t wo c la ss e s rec ip r o
I n the r ecip roc a ting en gin e a pi s t o n free to
ca tin g a nd r ota r y
move i n a cyl inde r is pu s hed back w a r d an d fo r wa r d by alternate
c hange s in p r e ss u r e o f t he fluid again s t, ei t her face The re c ip ro
c ating motion o f t he pi s t on is converted into a conti nu ou s ro t a r y
mot ion by a mec h ani s m u s ually c on s i s ting of crank and fl y -wheel
whic h will be des c r ibed late r I n t he r ota ry en gin e a r o t ary
mo t ion is direc t ly p r odu ce d by t he forc e due t o p ress ure im p u lse
o r reac t ion act ing u pon revol ving blades o r pi s ton s a r ranged in a
Th e t e r m is of t en c onned t o a s t ructu r e wit h
s uitable ca s i ng
a r evol ving pi s t on i n whic h mo t ion is p r odu ced by a d i fference
w herea s t he t erm tu r bin e is applied t o the s t r uc t ure
o f p r e ss ure
w hen rot at ion is p r odu ced by i mpul s e or reaction of the j et
In
a gene r al way t he turbine is a s pecies of r ota r y engine Thi s
t rea t i s e will be p r in cipally conned to i nternal combu stion engines
having a pi s ton wi t h r ec ip r oc ating motion
E ngines a r e c la ss ie d a s s in gle a c tin g when t he propelling
force is applied to one s ide of t he pi s ton only an d a s d ou ble a cting
when it is appl ied al t e r nately to bot h s ides
E ngine s a r e c la s s ied a s s im p le c om p ou n d tr ip le exp a n sion
etc depen d ing o n t he nu mbe r of cylin d e rs t h r ough w h ic h t he
wo r k ing fl uid pa ss es i n s u c c e ss ion a s it expand s from highes t t o
lowes t pre ss ure
Heat available for u se
12
Cl a ss i c atio n of H e a t E n gin e s
i n a heat engine is u s u ally p r oduced by a s pecie s of c hemical
acti o n termed co m bu s tio n
Heat engine s m ay be c la ss ie d in
ac cord ance wit h t he loc at io n o f t he plac e of co mb us t io n with
I I

I N TE RN A L

I8

COM B US TI O N

E N GI N E S

re s pec t t o t he work ing cyl inder a s extern a l c om bu stion en gin es

and i n ter n a l c om bu stio n en gin e s
Th e e x ternal c ombu s tio n engi n e s in clu de s tea m and ot her
v apo r engine s h ot air engine s and s o me form s o f ga s or oil engines ;
t h e i nt e r nal co mbu s t i o n engi nes inc lu d e al l t he u s u al form s of
ga s and oil engine s i n w h ic h t he fuel is c on s u me d i n t he w o r k i ng
cyl inder I n t hi s work t he te r m ga s e n gin e w ill be f r equ en t l y
u s ed a s i nc luding al l form s o f inte r n al co mbu s t ion engine s a d apted
to burn ga s or vapo r i rr es pect i ve of t he n at u r e of t he fuel
O f t hes e v ariou s type s of engine s t h e s team and t h e gas
engine s are t he only ones of prac tic al c om me r c ial im port anc e at
t he p r e s ent t ime Th e ho t ai r engi ne w a s built exten s ively about
fty yea rs ago and it s theory was t ho r oughly i nve s t igate d at
t h at t ime I t failed a s a c om me r c ial m ach ine bec au s e of t he
high co s t of repai r s and ope r ation ; it is p r i nc ipall y u s eful at t h e
pre s ent t ime a s il lu s t r ating t he practi c al appli c atio n of certai n
t he r modynami c al p r inc iple s
As t he s tea m engine and h o t ai r engine h ave a p r actic al bear
ing o n t he inte r nal com bu s tio n engine a s hort d e s criptio n is
in s erted
Th e m ec h ani s m of t he s tea m
I3
Th e S te a m E n gi n e
engine and it s m ode of o pe r ation s h oul d be fam il iar t o al l s tu dent s
of t he internal combu s t io n engi ne Th e t e r m s tea m engi ne is
u s ed he r e in it s b r oa d s en s e incl uding t h e bo ile r t he engine p r oper
and all the ac ce ss ories nece ss ary fo r it s ope r ation I n t he mode
o f operat ion o f the s team engine
s tea m is p r o d u ce d at any de
s ired p r e ss ure by t he combu s t io n o f fuel i n a fu r nace beneath t he
boiler wh ic h l atter is a s tro ng clo s ed ve ss el c ont aining a ce r tain
amount o f w ater and int o w hic h w ate r is i nt r odu ced by a feed
p u mp as de s ired Th e s team engine p ro p e r is provided w it h a
c yl in der i n wh ic h is tted a pi s t o n w h ic h is p r opelled by t he
Th e adm i ss ion an d
s team p r e ss u r e acting o n one o r bot h s ide s
di s c h arge o f the s team a r e controlled by a val ve o r val ve s moved
by t he mec h ani s m of the engine t he fo r m o f w hic h va r ies greatly
wit h d i ff e r ent type s I n t he mo r e com mo n fo r m a s l ide v alve is
u s ed w h ic h is p r opel led back w a r d an d forw a r d by a val ve r o d
mo ved eit her b y an ecc ent r ic o r by a s ho rt c r a n k att ac hed t o t he
m ain s h aft Th e val ve is operated s o as to adm it s team at nea r ly
boiler pres s ure b ack of t he p is t o n for a port io n of t h e s trok e and
.

I N TROD UC TI ON DE F I N I TI O N S
,

E TC

19

then t o c ut o ff com mu nicat i o n w i t h the boile r after whic h t he

pi s ton is pu s hed forwa r d by t he e x pan s ive fo r ce of the s team
Th e val ve is mo ved at t he end of t he s t r oke so as t o open c o m
m u n ic a t io n bet w ee n t he cyl in d e r and t he exhau s t pipe w h ic h i n
t he ca s e of a non -c o nden s ing engine di s ch a rges int o the atmo s
p h e re an d in ca s e of a c o ndens ing engine di s c ha r ge s into a
more or less pe r fect va cu um
Th e mot ion o f t he pi s to n is c om mu nic at ed by m ean s o f a
p is ton r od whic h s l ides t h r ough a s t u fng-bo x at the e n d of t he
cylinde r to a blo c k c alled a c r o ss-hea d w h ic h m ove s i n guide s
f r om w hic h motio n is c o m m u nic at e d by a connecting r od to t he
cra nk o f t he mai n s haft so a s to pro du ce rota r y motion
,

FI G

D uble Act in g S te
o

am

En

gine

t r ain of mec han i s m o f t he ordina r y double -acting s t eam

engine w h ic h is u s ed t o com m u nicat e mot ion fro m t he pi s to n to
t he y -wheel is s ho wn i n Fig 1 7 in wh ic h P rep r es ent s t he
pi s ton p t he pi s to n ro d H t he c r o ss-head C t he connecting rod
M E the c r ank E t he c r a nk pin F t he wri s t pin M t he m ain s haft
G t he fl y -w heel S t he s t u fng-box w hic h is u s e d t o p r event
leakage of s team a r ou n d t he pi s t o n ro d Th e c r o ss -head mo ves
i n guide s K whic h direct it s mot ion O ne en d of t he con nect
ing ro d E h a s a c i r cul a r mot ion t he othe r a r ectil inea r mo t ion
I n t he view refe r red to t he val ves whic h adm it s t eam alte r nately
to t he end s Of t he cyl in d er a r e n o t s hown
A v iew of a t wo-cylinder s ingle
acting engine is s h o wn in
Th e

I N TE RN A L

20

1
Fig
8

CO M B US TI N

EN G I N E S

i n s ection I n th i s engine t he s team is adm itted only at

o ne en d of t he cylinde r at t he proper interval s o f t ime by t he
whic h is operated by t he
s l iding mot ion of t he pi s to n val ve V
.

FI G

1 8
-

Tw o -c ylin d e r S in g le -a ctin g S te am E n g ine

mechan i s m o f t h e engine by mean s o f a s m al l c r ank attached to

t h e mai n s h aft and t he va r iou s l ink connect ion s s ho w n
S team engine s are f r equent ly built c om po u nd i n wh ic h c a s e
t he s tea m wo r k s i n s u c ce ss ion i n a s m al l and l a rge cyli n d e r
t e r med r e s pect ivel y t he high -p r e ss ure and lo w -p r e s s u r e cyl in d e r
The s e cyl inde r s m ay be a rr anged s ide by s ide as in t he vie w Of t he
s ingle -act ing engine F ig 1 8 o r t hey m ay be ar r anged i n t andem
Fi
1
I
n
t
he
t
an
d
em
c
m
pound
engine
s
ho
w
n
9
a s s h own i n
o
g
.

FI G

1- 9

Ta n d e m

Co m p o un d S t eam E n

g i ne

I N TROD UC TI ON DE F I N I TI ON S
,

E TC

21

t he s upply of s tea m is a d mitted t o t he hig h -pre ss ure cylinder

by the s li d e valve V o perated f r om the s mal l c r ank E a n d to the
lo w-p r e ss ure cylinder by t he s lide valve V o pe r ate d f r o m t he
eccentric E
S in ce t he appl icat ion o f p r e s s u re t o t he pi s to n a s des cribed
above is pe r iodic a n d not con s t ant a fl y -w heel con s i s ting o f a
heavy ma ss o f met al m u s t be applied a s s ho w n to p r oduce
un iform mot ion To r egul ate t he s pee d a gove r nor is u s ed
whic h is con s tru ct ed s o t hat t he va r iat io n i n centrifugal fo r ce
eit her ten d s t o c ut Off t he s upply o f s t ea m o r t o c lo s e th e
s team val ve s if t he s peed become h igher than de s ired o r t he
revers e
An indicator o r pre s s u r e vol ume diag r am o f a s team engine is
1 35
s ho w n in Fig
I n t h i s diag r am ve r tical di s tance s are p r o
po r tional t o p r e ss u r es per s qua r e inc h ac t ing o n t he pi s t o n and
ho r i zo ntal d i s t ances t o t he s pace pa ss ed th r ough by t he pi s ton
Th e diagra m s ho ws t he rel ati o n o f p r e ss u r e and vol ume at any
point The work done o n t he pi s t o n is p r opo r t ional to the a r ea
Of t he diagra m
Th e s team engine as w il l be s ho w n late r does not r eal ize in
t he wo r k perfo r med as great an efc ienc y on t he bas i s of t he heat
val ue s o f t he fuel s employed a s t he g as engine ; but it h as t he
advantage o f being adapte d fo r t he bu r ning of s ol id fue l s under
it s boile r w it hout co nve r t ing t he s am e into ga s a nd t hi s in a
mea s u r e s o met ime s compen s ate s fo r t he g r eater heat lo ss es
Th e s tea m p r e s s u r e is exe r te d on t h e pi s ton fo r a mu c h la r ger
po r t io n of t he s trok e t han an e x plo s i o n i n a gas engine pi s ton
and a s a c o n s equence the i ne r t ia o f m oving pa r t s is depended
u po n le ss fo r u nifo r m s pee d t h an i n t he ga s engine as wil l be
afterward s s ho w n
I n t he pas t t he st ea m e n gine h a s had a g r eat advantage ove r
t he gas engine due t o t he fact t h at i t h a s bee n mo r e r eliable in
ope r atio n a n d cou ld prod uce a mo r e nea r ly unifo r m m o t ion
Th e developme nt o f t he gas engi ne h as h o weve r r emoved i n a
la rge mea s u r e s u c h d efect s a n d at the pre s en t t ime the r e is no
g r eat di fference i n re s pect to r el iability and r egul atio n o n the
pa r t o f t he s e t wo cl a ss e s o f engine s Th e u se o f a p ro ducer in
wh ic h ga s c an readily be made fro m s ol id fuel s al s o equal i z e s any
advan t age s wh ic h t he s tea m engine h a s had fro m t hat s o urce
,

I N TE RN A L

22

C M B US TI N

EN G N ES

Th e hot ai r engin e is

H ot Air E n gin e s
prin cipally
O f import ance to -day fo r it s s c ient ic value I t s actual c om
m e rc ia l u s e is conned to pump ing s m al l quantit ie s of wat er
u nder favo r abl e conditio ns I t is of s c ient ic int ere s t becau s e
it is t he onl y heat engine yet p r odu ced w hic h repre s ent s alm o s t
perfectl y t h e s t anda r d ideal cycle of Ca r not wit h w hic h t he
O pe r at io n of nea r ly al l heat engine s is c ompared
I n t he h ot air engine a m a ss o f air is s u c ces s ivel y heated and
cooled ; du r ing t he t im e t hat it is heated eit her it s volume o r
pre ss u r e i nc r ea s e s and du r ing t h e t i me it is cooled t he revers e
ope r at ion t ake s pl ace M ec hanic al wo r k is pe r formed by t he
c h ange o f volu me o r press u r e wh ic h is ut ili zed fo r m oving a pi s ton
Th e pri ncipal v ari etie s of ai r e n gine s m ay be cl a ss ied by t he
following d i s t i nct ive feat u r e s : 1 Change of temperat ur e at con
2 Ch ange o f temperatu r e at con s t ant volume s
s tant pre ss u r e
3 H eat received an d rej ected at a pair of con s t ant p r e ss u r e s
E ric ss on s engine be s t k no wn a s t he calori c engine m ay be
t aken as an ex ample o f
th e rs t cl a ss I n t hi s e m
gine air is ad m itted f r om
t he at mo s p he r e t o t he
c omp r ess ing pu mp at the
l o wes t w o r k ing tem pera
t u r e and com pre ss ed t he
t em pe r atu r e being m a in
t a in e d co n s t a nt by t he
actio n of s ome r e frige ra t
ing appa r at u s Th e air
w hen c ompre ss ed enters a
r eceiver I t is t hen a d
m it t e d to th e w ork ing cyl
i nder being heated on it s
pa ss age t o t he h ighe r tem
FI G 1 - 1 0 E r i c ss o n Ho t Air E n g ine
p e r a t u re s o t h at it s vo l
u me is in c r ea s ed a nd th e pre ss u r e r em ain s co n s tant u nder t he
movement of th e p i s to n t hen expand s w it h it s tempera t u r e m ain
t a in e d con s t ant at t he h ighe r lim it and is nally expelled into
t he at mo s phe r e g iving u p it s heat t o t he r egene r at or t o be us ed
i n heat ing t he vol u me of air next introduced
1

I N TROD UCTI ON DEF I N I TI ON S

,

E TC

23

engine is repre s ented in F ig 1 - 1 0 B is a w orking c ylin

der pl aced over t he furnace H Thi s cyl inder cons i s t s of two
part s ; t he uppe r pa r t in w hic h t he pi s ton work s is accu r ately
turned and t he lowe r part i n w h ic h t he air receive s hea t fro m
t he furnace is l es s ac c u r ately m a d e A is t he pi s ton o f t he c ylin
der con s i s ting of an u ppe r part w hic h is ac cu r atel y tted and p r o
v id e d w it h me t al lic pack ing s s o a s t o wo r k air-tight i n t he upper
part of t he cyl inde r Th e lo wer part is s ome w hat s maller than
t he cyl inder is hol lo w an d lled w ith b r ick du s t f r agment s O f
re c la y or s o me s low conduc to r Of heat
Th e cove r o f t he c ylin
der B h a s holes i n it ma r ked a to admit t he external air to the
s pace above t he pi s ton
D is t he co mp r e ss ing pump w it h pi s ton C wh ic h is connected
to t he pi s to n A by th r ee o r fou r pi s t on rod s Of w hic h t wo a r e
Th e s pace between t he pi s ton C a n d A is open to
s ho w n at d d
t he externa l a i r I n ope r ation t he ai r is d r a w n int o the compress
ing pump t hrough t he va lve c an d is force d o u t after being com
pres s ed t hrough t he val ve e int o a receiver m a r k ed F
I t is
admitted at p r ope r interval s of time by t he valve b into the
working cylinde r B being heated in it s pa ss age by hot plates
in t he ve ss el G t ermed t he regenerato r
I t is fu r t her heated w h ile i n the working cylinder by t he heat
f r om t he fu r nace H t he e ffect o f w hic h is t o i nc r ea s e th e tem
Th e increa s e of
p e ra t u re a n d volu me unde r neat h t he pi s ton
volume drive s t he pi s to n t o t he end o f it s s troke Th e ex hau st
val ve f is opened by a m echa ni s m connected to the engine and
t he work ing ga s e s a r e forced o ut w ard th r ough the r egene r ator
Th e
G and di s charge int o t he at mo s phere th r ough the pipe 9
regen erat or is a ve ss el nea r ly lled w it h met all ic pl ate s w h ic h
are heated by t he es c aping ga s e s and give u p heat to t he engine
ga s e s t hu s reducing i n l a rge mea s ure the heat w a s te s f r om the
engine
I n s ome fo r m s of t h e E r i css on engine the ai r ente r ing the com
pres s or t h r ough t he val ve 0 is t aken from t he e x h au s t O pening
w
i
w
f
s
it
h
t
h
i
arrangemen
t
the
ame
m
a
ai
r
r
epeatedly
armed
s
s
s
o
s
;
9
a n d cooled
th e c h ange s o f temperature taking pl ac e at con s tant
pre ss ure s
E ric ss on s c alori c engine was em ployed to d r ive a s h ip ac r o ss
t he Al ant i c in 1 8 5 3 Th e s h ip was 25 0 ft long h a d paddl e
Thi s

I N TE RN AL

24

COM B US TI ON E N GI N E S

w heel s 3 2 ft i n diam eter O n it s rs t t r ial trip th e s hip m ade

t wel ve k not s an h ou r wi t h th e w ind burning s ix ton s o f fuel per
day O n t he s econd trial t he m aximu m s peed was ni ne k not s
Aft er t hi s unfavorabl e ci r cu m s t ance s came to light a nd in 1 8 5 5
t he engine was t ak en ou t and a s team engine s ub s t it uted
E x t ended ac cou nt s o f t he E r i c ss on and ot her h ot -a ir e ng i n e s
wil l be foun d in K night s Mechanical D i ct iona r y 1 8 7 3 in Apple
ton s Cycloped ia of Mec h ani c s 1 8 78 i n B o u r n e s w o r k o n the
S team H ot Air and G as E ng ine and i n R a nk ine s S t eam
E ngine
F igure 1 1 1 repre s ent s th e recip r o c at ing part s o f an air e n gine
o f th e cl a ss in w h ic h t em pe r ature is ch anged at con s tant vol um e
S u c h an engi ne w a s de s igned and buil t by D r R obert S t i r l ing
about 1 8 5 0 bu t i mp r o ved by v ari o u s ot he r i nv ent ors and is s til l
built and s ol d fo r pu mping s m all qu ant it ies o f water as rede s igned
by R ide r
I n the g u r e D C A B is t h e air receive r o r h eat i n g a n d cool ing
ves s el wh ic h is p r ovi d e d wi t h a fu r n ace u nd e r neat h not s hown
in t h e diagram ; G is t h e w o r k ing cyl i nde r w i t h th e work ing
pi s to n H Th e receiver a n d cylinde r co m m un ic ate f r eely
th r ough the pa s s age F wh i c h is open at
al l times w hen t h e engine is wo r k ing
W ith in th e r eceive r is an inner receive r
o r lin ing of a s im ila r gu re
w h ich h as
it s bott o m pierced w it h m any s m all h oles
Th e
s hown wit h dotted line s in th e cut
annular s pace bet ween t he r eceiver and
it s l ining extending along t he s ide of the
receive r contain s t he r egene r ator w h ich
co n s i s t s of a s e r ies o f O blong s t r ip s O f
metal w i t h na r ro w pa ss ages bet ween
S t 'rlm
F I G
g Ho t t hem
Th e inne r s urfac e Of th e c ylin d ri
A E n gm e
c al part of t he lining f r o m A A t o C C is
Th e
t u r ned a nd th e plu nger E is tted n icel y in th i s por t ion
u pper port io n of t he r ec eive r D D is s u ppl ied w it h a h o r i zo n
tal co il o f ne coppe r t ube t hrough w h ic h a c ur r ent o f co ld
wate r is fo r ce d o r i t is j acketed wit h col d wa t e r a n d is term ed
t he r efrigerato r I t is t hu s not ed t h at t he b ott o m o f t h e receiver
is k ept hot wh ile t he top is kept col d
Th e pl u nger E is con
.

I N TROD UCTI ON DEF I N I TI ON S

,

E TC

25

ne c t e d

to t he work ing mechan is m o f t he engine so a s t o tran s fer

a cert ain m a s s o f air w h ich may be c alled t he wo r k ing air fro m
t he hot t o t he col d end of t h e receive r a n d in so doing m ak ing it
pa ss u p and do w n t hroug h t he r egenera t o r Th e mec hani s m for
m oving t he plunger E is so adj u s t e d t hat the u p
s t r oke o f that
plunger take s place when the pi s ton H is at or near t he beginning
of it s forward s troke and t he down s trok e o f the plunge r when
t he pi s ton H is at o r near the beginning of t he back s troke
An ai r engine of c l a ss 3 w hic h r ece ived and r ej ected heat at
con s t ant pre ss ure s w a s de s igned by J ewell but p r obably was
neve r put int o pract ical u s e
HOT AI R E N G I N E S O P ER A T E D B Y PR O D U C TS o r COM B U S TI O N
Anot her form of air engine
w h ic h R ank ine i n h is S team
E ngine term s a f u r n a c e ga s e n
gin e was rs t de s igned by
Cayley of E ngland and B arr
of Fra n c e a n d w as r edes igned
and i mproved a n d pu t o n t he
market i n t hi s cou nt r y about
1 8 65 by Wilcox
The engine s of t hi s cla ss
operat e s i mi lar t o a s team
engine p r e ss ure being pro
d u c e d by combu s t ion i n a
clo s ed furnace i n s tead of i n a
S team bOile r
F m 1 - 1 2 W il c o x Ho t Air E n g ine
I n t he operat io n of t h i s
engine (s e e F ig 1 - 1 2) a p um p d r aw s ai r from the atm o s phe r e
t hrough v alve F c omp r e ss e s it a n d fo r ce s it i nt o a s t r ong ai r
tight f urnac e C t h r ou gh pipe H w he r e it s oxygen c ombine s wi t h
t he fuel ; t hen t he hot ga s pro d uce d by t h e c o m bu stion m ixed
wit h air is adm it ted int o t he w o rk ing cylinde r th r ough pipe B
and valve I u n der press u r e produced by t he tem peratu r e o f c o m
bu s t io n whe r e it d r ive s t he pi s ton P t h r ough pa r t of it s s t r o ke
at full p r e s s u r e an d t hrough t he remainder by expan s i o n un t il it
fall s t o a t m o s pheric pre ss u r e
I t is d i s c harged t h r o ugh an ex
hau s t val ve not s ho w n and a pipe X Th e entering air is hea t ed
by a regen erator wh ic h is wa rmed by t he exhau st ga s e s I n t h e
,

I N TE RN A L

26

C M B US TI N

E N G N ES

fo r m s ho wn ( U S pat ent Ma y 1 9 1 8 6 5 ) t he fu r n ace is fed wit h

coal t hrough a double valve wh ic h is s o con s t ructed t h at it c an
be introdu ced wit hout perm itt ing t he es cape o f mo r e t han a ve r y
s m al l q uantit y of t he
compres s ed a n
I n the Wilcox engine
patented S ept 1 9 1 865 t he furna ce wa s fed wit h pet roleu m oil
u nde r pre ss u r e

R e s pecting Cayley s engine R ankine s t at es : Th e cylinde r

pi s t on and valves of t hi s engi ne we r e fou n d t o be s o rapidly
des t r oyed by t he i nten s e hea t a n d t h e du s t from t h e fuel t hat no

attempt w as m ade to b r ing it i nto general pract ic al u s e

Wil
c ox s engine neve r met w it h com me r cial s uc cess
Mo st fo r m s of t he gas turbi ne belong to a cl as s i n whi c h
p r e ss ure is produced by the heat o f combu s t ion o f t he ga s es be
fore entering t he tu r bine eit he r in a cl o s ed combu s tion c hamber
or in t he i nlet pipe As t he s upply t o a turbine is continuo us
no inlet or exhau s t val ve s a r e r equired and hence t he trouble
ex pe r ienced in t h e early forms o f t h is engine is g r eat ly reduced
15
S tru c t u r e a n d M o d e of O p e r a tio n of th e G a s E u

s m o f t he o r dina r y ga s engine
n
e
Th
mec
hani
u
ing
the
i
e
s
g
te r m i n it s general s en s e as c overing al l in ternal comb us t ion
engine s is s imil ar in m o s t res pect s t o th at of t he s team engine
which h as already been b r iey des cribed I t con s i s t s o f a cyl inder
c ontaining a pi s t o n w hic h is mo ved by t h e pres s ure prod u ced by
t he e x plo s ion o f a ch arge con s i st ing of a m ixture o f gas or vapor
and ai r in t he cylinde r Th e mot i on of t he pi s to n is com mu ni
c a t e d t o a main s haft by a con necting rod s im ilar to t h at u s ed in
the s team engine Th e valve m e c hiin is m o f t he gas engine s erves
to adm it and di s c h a rge th e cha r ge at the p r oper interval of t ime
and is ope r ated by t he m ec ha ni s m of t he engine I n t he ea rly
development of t h e ga s engine a s l ide valve w as u s ed t o a con
but at t he pre s ent t i me t he poppet val ve is
s id e ra ble extent
com monly u s ed a s it h as been fou nd t o wit h s tan d hig h tempera
ture better t han t he ot he r fo r m
I n o r der t o s t a r t t he gas engine s ome exte r nal force m u st be
p r ovided t o i nt r o d u ce t he combu s t ible ch a r ge into t he wo r k i ng
cylin d er and giv e it t he init ial c ompress ion Thi s m ay be done
i n t he rs t in s t ance by revolving t he engine by ext r aneou s powe r
wh ic h put s t he pi s to n i n mot ion an d s e r ve s to d r a w i n t he n ec es
After t he
s ary gas and air by s u ction an d to c o mpre ss t he s ame
.

I N TROD UC TI ON D EF I N I TI ON S
,

27

E TC

engine is i n ope r ation th e i nertia o f t he moving pa rt s keep s it i n

mot io n and s e r ve s t o dra w i n and compres s t he ch arge
I t is quite evident t h at t he amou nt of w ork performed wil l be
propo r tion al to t he m a ss o r w eight of t he c harge
F o r th is
rea s on it is d e s i r able t hat t he c h arge be under a s muc h c o m
pre ss ion a s pract icable at t he time O f ignit ion and al l modern
i nternal co mbu s tio n engine s p r ovide m ean s fo r compress ing the
c harge previou s to ignition eit her out s ide or in s ide of the work
ing cylinde r I n nea r l y eve r y c a s e i n t he modern engine the
compre ss ion is co mpl et ed i n t he work ing cyl inder
Th e principal event s i n t he operation of an internal c o m bus
tio n engine are a s foll o ws :
during w h ic h time t he c harge is
1 Charging o r s u ct io n
dra w n into t he cyl inder
2 Compre s s ion during w hic h tim e t he charge is compre s s ed
3 I gnition ex pl o s ion and ex pan s ion du r ing whic h time heat
is s uppl ied whic h c a tI ses t he c ombu s tion or ex plo s ion follo w e d by
t he expan s ion due to i ncrea s e o f volu m e c au s ed by m otion o f t he
pi s to n I gnit io n m ay t ake place u nder condit ion s of ( 1 ) c on s ta n t
volu m e ( 2) c o n s ta n t p r ess u r e or ( 3 ) c on s ta n t tem p era tu re
4 E x hau s t during wh ic h t ime t he produ ct s o f combu s t ion
leave th e cyl inder
G as
16
C la ss i c ati o n of I n ter n a l Co m bustio n E n gin e s
engine s are s cient ic al ly cla s s ied in ac cordan ce w it h t he mode
o f applying heat during ignit ion a s fol low s :
1
E ngine s receiving heat w it h c harge at con s t ant vol ume ;
t hes e will be c alled in th i s w o r k E xp losion E n gin es
2 E ngine s receiv ing heat w it h ch a r ge at con s t ant pre ss ure ;
the s e will be called in t hi s work P r essu r e E n gin es
3 E ngine s receiving heat with c h a r ge at con st ant tempera
ture ; t he s e wil l be c alled in t hi s wo r k Con sta n t Temp er atu r e
.

'

E n gin es

I n the rs t

of

the above cla s s e s of engine s t he ch arge may be

ignited wit h o r w ithout previou s comp r es s ion ; con s equently thi s
cl a ss m ay be s ubdivided into n on-c om p r ession and com p r ession
engi n es
the non -c om pre s s ion engine h a s enti r ely gone o u t o f
u s e becau s e o f it s lo w ef c iency and s m al l capacity fo r a given
s i ze
E ngine s of any cl a ss m ay be either two or four s troke cycle
engines as expl ained
,

I N TE RN A L

28

C M B US TI O N

EN G N E S

s s ication is ba s ed on t he c h a r acteri s ti c equ ation ex

cl a
pres s ing t he r elatio n between p r e ss ure vol u me and tem peratu r e
Of a given weight of a perfect ga s w h ich a s will be s h own late r is

Thi s

p ?)

ab s ol ut e press ure
t he v ol u me
ab s olute t empe r at ure
a con s t ant for any given

It

i n wh ich

gas

is

evident t hat t he heat may be received wh ile any of the

variables pre ss ure volume and t em peratu r e rem ain s c on s tant
t h at is at con s tant vol u me a s i n Cl a ss 1 con s tant pre ss u r e as i n
Cla ss 2 o r con s t ant tem pe r atu r e a s i n Cla ss 3
I ntern al combu s t ion engine s are often u n sc ien t ic a lly c la ss i
e d by the n atu r e of t he w ork ing u id a s gas e n gine s petrol
engine s and O il engine s Th i s c la ss ica t i o n give s no c on s idera
t ion to t he fac t that any o f t he above cl a ss e s w il l operate w ith
any O f th e fuel s n a m ed Th e term ga s en gin e is frequently u s ed
i n t hi s w ork in it s general s en s e a s applying to any form of in
t ernal combu s t ion engine
E N G I N E S I G N I TI N G A T CO N S T A N T V O LU ME OR E X PL O S I O N
EN GI N ES
I n the s e engine s w h ic h a r e t he one s com m o n ly u s ed
t he variou s ope r at ion s a r e perfo r med in t he o r der m entioned
above in eac h w o r k ing cycle o f t he engine Th es e engine s m ay
be d iv ided int o t wo cla ss e s a c co r d ingly a s they perform thes e
operat ion s in o ne end o f t he cyl inder (0 ) in fou r s t r ok e s or (b)
in t wo s trokes
I n t h i s cla ss of engines the c om bu s ti o n is p r actic all y in
s t a n t a n e o u s an d of t he natu r e o f an e x pl o s ion t ak i n g pl ace u nde r
norm al condit ion s w hile t he vo lu me o f ga s rem ain s con s tant
th u s p r oduc ing an extremely rapid r i s e of p r es s ure
-S tr ok
a
F
u
e
r
o
Th e intern al com bu s t ion
Cyc le E n gin e
( )
engine mo s t co m monly u s ed ignite s t he cha r ge w h ile it s volum e
r emain s s t at iona r y an d r equ i r e s four s t r oke s for o n e cycle of
ope r ation F o r thi s r ea s on it is k no w n a s the fo ur -str oke c yc le o r
fou r-c yc le engin e Th i s engine a s o r dinarily built is a s ingle
a cting engine wit h al l t he operat ion s performed o n o ne s ide o f
,

'

I N TRO D UC TI ON D EF I N I TI ON S
,

29

E TC

the w o r k ing pi s ton A diagra m s ho w ing it s general con s t ru ction

and m o de o f ope r at ion for eac h s trok e is s ho w n in F ig 1 1 3 I n
t he ope r at ion o f t hi s e n
gine t he c ha r ge is d r a w n
in d u r ing t h e r s t out
5 5 ( it
is
s t r ok e o f the pi s ton
co mp r es s ed d u r ing t h e
retu r n s t r o ke is ignited
w i t h the pi s t o n s t ation
ary at t he e n d of the
6
s t roke and w i t h t he vol
u me o f t h e c ha r ge con
s tant
I t e x pan d s d u r ing
t he next ou t s trok e and
is e x hau s te d a n d expelled
4
f r om t he cylinde r du r ing
the next in s t roke
An engine O f t hi s
k in d w as rs t de s cribed
by B eau de R o cha s in
1 86 1 it w a s r s t built
by O tt o in 1 8 7 6 Th e
cycle o n wh ic h it ope r
a t e s is fo r t hi s rea s o n
FI G
D a gra m 0 f Fo u r c y c Ie
o f t en called the B eau de
E ng m e
R o c ha s o r O t t o cycl e

T
b
w
o
t
k
e
s
r
o
c
l
e
e
C
E
n
i
n
An internal combu s tion e n
( )
y
g
gine ignit ing as bef o r e wh ic h is u s ed fo r many pu r p o se s is de
s igned to pe r f o r m t he f o u r ope r at i o n s above refe rr ed to in two
s t roke s a n d is k no w n as a two-s tr ok
e c yc l e e ngin e o r a two-c yc le
e n gin e
A co mm o n form of s uch engine is s ho wn in F ig 1 1 4
in whic h fo r m t he engine is in pa r t a d ouble -acting engine an d
bot h s i d es O f t he pi s t o n con s titute clo s e d chambe rs Th e c r ank
c a s e is made t ight by t he us e o f s t u fng-boxe s o n th e m ain s haf t
and the s u c t i o n o perat ion is pe r formed by t he in wa r d s t r ok e o f
t he p i s t on w hich d r a w s t he ch a r ge int o t h e c r ank c a s e t h r ough
t he inl et I w h e r e i t is part ial l y comp r es s ed by the o u t o r return
s tr o ke o f t he pi s t o n and t ran s fe rr ed t h r ough port a wh ich is u n
cove r e d at t he p r oper t ime by the pi s t on t o t he ign i t i o n s ide o f
.

'

IN TE RN A L

30

COM B US TI N

E N GI N E S

the pi s t on At the s ame t ime th e c h arge o f p r eviou s l y burned

ga s e s is e s cap ing t hrough t he port E
Th e comp r e ss ion is
c ompleted in t he work ing c yl inder C afte r t he pi s ton h a s
c lo s ed t he t r an s fe r port A
I gn ition
o c curs at t he beginn ing o f t he o u t
s trok e and w hen t h e pi s ton an d vo l
u m e i n t he wo r king cyl inder a r e s t a
In
t io n a ry a s in t h e p r eceding c a s e
t he act io n of t h i s engine s u ct io n
t ake s pl ac e below t he p i s to n at th e
s ame
t i me t h at c o mpre ss ion t ake s
pl ace above a nd com pre ss ion take s
place belo w th e pi s ton at t he tim e of
expan s io n above a s s hown by th e
diagra m of t he c r ank c i r c le i n t he
gure I n c ert ain l arge engine s whic h
are now m ade to O pe r at e o n th e t wo
s trok e c ycle s y s tem t he s uction and
prel imina r y co mpress io n
O f t he
c h a r ge w h ic h is perfo r med in t he
engine j u s t de s cribed by t he work
ing pi s ton is perfo r med in a
s eparat e
cyl inder t he c omp r e ss io n
being
c
ompleted
i
n
t
he
wo
r
king
FI G 1 - 1 4 Two -cy cle E n g ine
c ylin d e
p
Th e method of igniting t he c harge in co mmon u s e wil l be
de s cr ibed at lengt h l ate r i n t he book
I n t he cl ass o f engine s re
fe r red to it con s i s t s of mean s for ring t he c h arge in s t ant aneou s ly
when u nde r co mpre ss ion and wit h it s volu me c on s t ant by an
elec tric s pa r k a hot t ube o r an O pen ame
E N G I N E S I G N I TI N G THE CH AR G E A T CO N S T A N T P RE S S U RE
Th e only engine of t hi s c la ss o f p r act ic al import anc e is t he
B r ayton alt hough under m any con d it ion s th e D ie s el engine
ignit es unde r con s t ant p r ess ure
Th e B rayto n engine w a s at
o n e t ime u s ed exten s ivel y i n Ame r ic a but is n ot now m a n u fa c
I n t hi s engine th e c ombu s tible and air for s upporting
t u re d
co mbu s t ion were s uppl ied to the work ing cylin d e r unde r p r es s ure
whic h rem ained c on s tant u nt il t he inlet val ve c lo s e d ; t he c o m
bu st io n t ak ing p lace during t he admi ss ion o f the air and c e m
.

IN TR OD UCTI ON DE F IN I TI ON S
,

E TC

31

wo r k is pe r fo r med by p ress u r e ac ting du r i ng in

c r e as e o f vol u me i n muc h the s ame m anne r as i n the s team engine
I n t he B r ayto n engi ne one form o f w hic h is s ho w n i n Fig 1 - 1 5
the c omp r ess io n is pe r fo r med i n a c o mp r ess o r di s ti nc t f r om the
powe r end of the w o r k i ng cyl i nder an d t he heat is s uppl ied
at con s tant press u r e
I n t he gure B is the work ing pi s ton
arranged to mo ve in th e cyl inder A
Th e lo wer part of
t he cyl inder A is t he w o r k ing cyl inder t h e upper part t he air
c o mpre ss or whic h is arranged t o deli ver air into t he res ervoir 0
bu s t ible

Th e

FI G

O il

1 - 1 5 Th e
.

B rayt o n

En

g ine

inj ected by t he pu mp G i nto a v apo r i zing device (s ho wn o n

a la rger s c ale i n 3 o f F ig 1 -1 5 ) when it c ome s i n contact wit h
co mpress ed air fro m t he re s ervoi r C Th e inlet valve b and ex
hau s t val ve c are operated by s uitable c am s on t he c am s h aft E
E N G I N E S I G N I TI N G T HE C H AR G E A T CO N S T A N T TEM P ER A
T U RE
Anot her c la s s o f engine patented by D ie s el is a r
ranged to s upply t he fuel du r ing a port ion o f the wo r k ing s trok e
at s uc h a rat e a s to m aintain t he t em pe r ature con st ant the
work ing cylinder h aving p revio u s ly been lled wit h air du r ing
is

I N TE RN A L

32

CO M B US TI O N

E N G N ES

a s uc tion s troke and co mp r e ss ed du r ing a r et urn s t r oke I n th e

D ies el engine t he c omp r e s s i o n is s u fc ient to rai s e t he a i r to a
temperature high enough to ignite t he fuel as i t ente rs t he
work ing cylinder
Th e B rayto n engine as a bo ve de s cribed is a t wo-s troke c yc le
engine a nd t he D ie sel a four-s t r oke cyc le engine but bot h engine s
c oul d be con s t r ucted t o operate wit h eit he r cycle
I 7
T hi s is a n i n s tru ment de
Th e E n gi n e I n d i c ator
s igned t o d r a w a diagram wit h or d inate s proport ional t o t he
press u r e w h ic h act s i n s ide t he c ylinder at eac h poi nt d u r ing the
work ing and retu r n s t r oke o f t he pi s to n I t is b r iey de s c r ibe d
he r e in order t o give t he s tuden t an idea of t he met hod of o h
t aining t h e p re ss u r e vol u me diagram s w h ic h a r e frequent ly re
fer r ed to in t he work
I t c on s i st s e ss entially of ( 1 ) a pa r t carrying a s heet o f paper
w hic h is moved by p r ope r mechan i s m i n corre s ponding di r ec tion s
and proportional to t he p i s t on o f t he e m
gine and of ( 2) a part wh ic h c a rr ie s a pen
c il w hich is mo ved a di s tance p r o po r t ional
t o t he p r e s s u r e per s quare inc h ac t ing upon
t he pi s ton
Th e engine indic ator w as r s t de s igned
by J ame s Watt s ub s tant ially a s s h own in

i
1
16
Th i s indic ator w a s con s tructe d
F g
w it h ( 1 ) a at pl ate D B o n w hic h paper
c oul d be m ounted w hic h w a s m oved in
p r oport io n t o t he m ot ion of t he engine
pi s to n and (2) a cyl inde r A A w h ic h c oul d
be put in co m m un ic at ion w it h t he w ork ing
cyl inde r O f t he engine by a t h r ee -way cock
H and pipe B I n the cyl inde r A A wa s a
pi s to n w ho s e motio n wa s r e s i s ted by a
s pi r al s p r ing a rr anged to c ar r y on it s pi s to n
r o d a penc il so c on s t r uct ed a s t o d r aw a
diag r a m o n t he m o ving pl at e wit h o r dinate s
FI G 1 - 1 6
Th e W a tt
p r oport ional t o t h e p r e s s u r e
E n g ine I n d ic a t o r
Th e c o ck H c an be tu r ned s o a s to put
th e cyl inder A A i n co m munic at io n w it h t he ai r for t he pu r po s e
of drawing a line s howing t he at mo s pheric p r ess ure w hic h is c alled
.

I N TRO D UC TI O N D E FI N I TI ON S
,

33

E TC

Thi s s impl e form o f in d icato r altho ugh

the at mo s ph e r i c line
containing the e ss ential element s of t he mode r n in d ic ator was c rude
in con s t r uct ion and gave r es ult s
w hic h we r e far f r o m ac cu r ate
Th e mode r n indic ator is a n in
and d iffe rs
s t r u ment o f p r ec i s i o n
p r incipally fro m th at de s igne d by
W att by the s ub s ti tution ( 1 ) o f an
o s c il l at ing dru m c al led th e pape r
d r u m for t he at rec ip r oc at ing
pl ate fo r c a rr ying t he pape r
(2) of movable indic ato r s p r ing s i n
plac e o f a x ed one making it
po ss ibl e to r egul ate t he lengt h o f
t he o r d inate s an d ( 3 ) a mul t iply
ing pencil motion in pl ace O f t he
di r ect o ne w he r eby th e motion of
t he pencil o n the in d ic ator d r u m is
FI G
Th e Th o m p so n
m ade g r eate r t han t hat o f t he indi
I
n
d ica t or
c a t e r pi s ton
.

'

FI G

1 -1 8

Th e Th o m p s o n

I ndi at r
c

ectional an d pers pect ive vie w o f t he Tho mp s o n indicator

made by t he Americ an Steam G auge
V al ve Company is
s

I N TE RN AL

34

hown i n Fig s
Cr o s by indicator

1 1 7

CO M B US TI ON

a nd

1 1 8

EN G N ES

pers pect ive vie w o f the

w hic h di ffer s f r o m t he Tho mp s o n principally
i n t he co n s t r uct io n o f the indi
cator s p r ing and penc il motion
is s ho w n i n F ig 1 1 9
F o r ga s
engine w ork t he ind ic at o r S p r ing
is l iable t o be inj u r ed by heat To
le ss en t hes e difcul t ie s mo s t of t he
makers s upply indicato r s w it h ex
tern al s p r ing s a s s ho w n in t he
attached V ie w o f t he Tabor indi
c ator Fig 1 20
Th e aut ho r s h ave fou nd f r o m
a n exten s ive expe r ience in in d ic a t

1
G
19
I
Th e Cro s b y
F
i ng ga s engine s that th e indic ator
I n d ica t o r
s pring w hen a rr ang e d a s i n Fig
1 1 7 c an be kept f r o m inj u r y by s u rr ounding t he w ork ing
c ylinder w it h a water j acket or cup lled wit h w ater
Th e i ndic ator cyl inde r is con nec
ted to t he work ing cyl inder by a
pipe c ontaining an in d ic at or c ock
wh ic h is arranged a s in the Watt
indicator to c onnect eit her wit h
t he air o r th e engine Th e in di
cator d r u m is u s ually c on nected t o
s o me form O f r ed u c in g m otion by
t he indic ator c ord w hic h w ill move
t he s urfac e of t he dru m p r oport ional
t o t he motion o f t he pis ton and not
t o exceed t wo or th r ee i nc hes re
d
l
ar
ess o f t he s t rok e o f t he pi s ton
g
S eve r al fo r m s of r educing motion s
wit h s c hemes for connect ing w ill
be s hown i n t he c hapter o n t he
FI G
1
20
Th e Ta b o r I n d i
tes t ing o f gas engine s but w ill
c a t o r w it h E xte rn a l S p r in g
not be fu r t her refe r red to here
Th e c la s s o f engine in d ic a t or a s de s cribed above is not adapted
t o t ake diagram s at e x tremel y h igh s peed s bec au s e o f t he inert ia
of t he moving part s a nd becau s e o f t he e r ror due to s tret c hing
s

IN TR O D UCTI O N D E F I N I TI O N S
,

E TC

35

cord s o r e x ible pa r t s w h ic h co nnec t th e paper d r u m to t he

mo ving part s of t he engine F o r hig h s peed s t he optical indica
tor is prefe r able
Th e op tic a l in dic a to r h a s been d e s igned s o that t he onl y m o v
ing part is a s mal l m i rr o r w h ich is arranged s o as t o proj ect a r ay
o f light o n a ground gla ss s c r een or o n a photographic plate
of

FI G

1 21 Pe rs p e (5t ive
.

V iew

of

Ma n o gra p h

mirror is moved in one di r ect ion an amount proportional t o

the p r e ss ure acting o n t he p i s ton of t he engine and in a di r ection
at right angle s an a mount in p r opo r t ion t o t he mot ion O f t he
pi s ton so t hat t he j oint movement is propo r tional to t he pre s s u r e
vol ume diagra m the a r ea o f w hic h repres ent s the mec hanical

Th e

FI G

1 -22

H r z nta l S ect i n
o i o

of

Ma n o gra ph

wo r k perfo r med by t he w o r king uid in t he engine cyl inder

S uch indicator s are a ffec ted only to a s l igh t deg r ee by the r otat ive
s peed o f th e engine
There a r e t wo in s trument s o f t h i s cl a s s on t he m arket one th e
M o n ogra p h man ufactu red by J Ch a r pent ie r R u e de L ambre
20 P ari s t he ot he r t he O p ti sc he I n dica to r con s tru cted by the
.

36

I N TE RN A L

Els a e ss is c h e

Ele c t r ic it a e t s -Werke ,

COM B US TI N

E N G N ES

S t r a s s burg

pers pective
v ie w o f th e M a n ogra p h mounted o n a tripod is s ho w n in Fig 1 -21
a ve r t ic al s ec tio n of s ame in F ig 1 -22 a detailed v iew of the m irror
a nd engine c onnect ion s are s h own in F ig s 1 -23 and 1 -24
.

FI G

1 -23

S e c ti o n

of

Mi rro r

Ma n o gra p h

Th e

general co n s tru ction is t hat o f a photograph ic c a mera

co nnected t o t he eng ine by t ube T an d by exibl e s haft R con
,

FI G

1 24

Ma n o gra p h E n g i ne
Co nne c ti o n

t o t h e m ain s h aft of t h e engine An acet ylene o r electric

l amp is locate d at G and it s ray of light is p r oj ected t hrough a
perforated d iaphrag m t o a p r i s m H an d t hence to m i rr or N
at the bac k of t h e c ame r a Th e m irror N , s upport e d on s prings ,

nec t ed

I N TRO D UCTION D EF I N I TI O N S
,

E TC

37

connected by a pin with t he diaph r agm M wh ich is

in com munic at io n w it h t he engine cylin d er so as to be t ilted in
one direct ion an amount propo r tional to the c hange of p r ess u r e
i n t he engine cylinder Th e mir r or N is al s o tilted in a d i r ection
at right angles t o t he rs t mot io n by mean s of a c r ank w ith lever
c onnectio n wh ic h is rotated fro m t he s haft i n p ro po r t ion to t he
motio n o f t he engine Th e mot io n of t he s mall crank c an be s e t
Fig 1 - 23 , is
.

F I G 1 25
.

Diagram wit h Man o graph

in phas e w ith th at of the engine crank by t he t humb s c rew F s o

t hat it will give a mot io n d i r ectl y proport ional to t he p is to n o f
t he engine To m ake t he e rr o rs a s s m all a s po ss ible t he angular
mot ion o f t he mi rr o r is made ve r y s mal l Th e p r ess u r e s cale of
t he m anog r aph s hould be det ermined by ca r efully co mparing the
p h otographic diag r a m wit h a k no wn press ure Th e in s tru ment
.

FI G

1 26
.

O pti c a l I n d i c at o r

is

arranged t o gi ve a diagra m w h ic h w ould h ave exactly correct

proport ion s when t he co nnec t ing rod h a s a lengt h
t ime s th at
of t he c rank w h ic h is nearl y t he ave r age p r opor t i o n s in ac t ual
p r actice and woul d make t he r e s ult ing e r ror s mall for ot her
condit ion s
F igure 1 25 rep r e s ent s a d iag r a m taken wit h the Manograph
fro m an engine mak ing 1 5 00 t u r n s per minute and giving a maxi
mu m pre ss ure c or r es pond ing t o 1 58 pound s per s quare inc h
,

I N TE RN A L

38

COM B US TI ON

EN GI N E S

O pt i s c he I ndicator di ff ers fro m t he

Th e

M anograp h p r inc i

pal ly in det ail s of c on s t r uction I t s gene r al appea r ance is s h own

i n Fig 1 26
A diagra m tak en fro m a motor o pe r ated wit h
gas ol ine m ak ing 1 000 tu r n s per minute is s hown i n F ig 1 27
the pre ss ure s cale of wh ic h is about 1 20 pound s per s quare
inc h
.

FI G

D i agram
O pt i c al I n d ic a t o r
1 - 27

it h

or D e livere d H or se -P o we r
Th e indic ated ho r s e -power whic h is gene r ally denoted by t he
s ymbol 1 H P is propo r tional to th e area of t he diagram O btained
by u se of t he engine indic ator s ince t hi s diagram h as ordi
nate s wh ic h a r e propo r t ional t o t he pre ss u r e s acting u po n
t he engine pi s t on at eac h point during t he work ing and ret u r n
s troke s
and ab s c i ss a p r oport ion al t o t he cor r e s ponding s pace
mo ved t h r ough by t he engine pi s ton
Th e indicat ed hors e -power ( I HI P ) is comput ed by u se of
t h e formul a
18

I n dica te d

and

B rake

I H
.

in whic h

p la n
.

3 3 000

t he mean eff ect ive pre s s ure ( m e p ) fo r t he

cyc le of operation act ing o n eac h s q uare
inc h of t he p i s to n
l
lengt h of s t roke in feet
a
net a r ea of pi s ton in s quare inc he s
n
nu mbe r o f cyc le s per m inute
nu mber o f foot -pou nd s per m inute i n o ne
hors e power
mean e ffect i ve p r es s u r e ( m e p ) is t he mean ordinate
p

I
I

Th e

I N TROD UCTI ON

DEF I N I TI O N S , E TC

39

fo r all t he s t r oke s con s tituting t he cyc le mult ipl ied by t he

pro pe r p r ess u r e s c a le ; i t is be s t O bta ined by n d ing t he net a r ea
by u se of a p la n im ete r ( an in s t ru ment w h ic h w il l be de s c r ibed
lat e r ) w h ich is t o be divided by the length o f the diagram an d
multipl ied by t he s c ale o f t he indicato r s p r ing
Th e other
quantitie s in t he formul ae depend upon t he dimen s ions and s peed
of the engine
Th e bra ke o r d yna met ric hor s e-p ower fo r w h ich t he s ymbol
in t hi s w ork will be D H P is that del ive r ed f r o m th e main
s haft o f t he engine and is con s equent ly le ss than t he indic ated
hors e-po w er by an amou nt equal to t he engine frict ion and
int ernal l o s s e s
power is u s ual ly mea s u r ed by u s e of a s p e
Th e brake hors e
c ia l form o f ab s o r pt ion dynamomete r k no w n as t he P rony brake
V arious fo r m s o f t hi s brak e have been employed o f w hic h
,

FI G

1 -28

A P ro n
y

B ra ke

two onl y are c on s idered in t h i s place O ne form is s ho w n in the

1
28 w hic h con s i s t s of a s e r ie s of block s connected
iag
r
am
F ig
d
by a leat her s t r ap o r s t r ip of i r o n and a rr anged s o as t o r ub on
the s urface of a w heel at t ached t o t he main s haft Th e b r ake is
p r ovided w it h t wo a r m s t he f r ee end o f w hic h r e s t s o n a pai r of
Th e a mount of f r ict ion may be varied by u s e o f a han d
s cale s
wheel o r s imila r device a s s ho w n at S Th e ho r i zontal di s t ance
fro m th e center of t he wheel to t he end o f t he a r m s is k nown a s
the arm o f t he b r ak e a n d is denoted in t he f o r mul ae w h ic h fo l
lo w by a I n t h e u s e o f t he brake the l o ad is appl ied b y t u r ning
the s c r ew and is mea s u r e d by the r eading o n t he weigh ing s c ale
I n a b r ake w it h the a r m o n one s i d e only a s s h o wn i n the gu r e
th e amount r equi r e d to balance t he o ve r hanging brake a r m
mu s t be deducte d f r o m t he reading o f the s cale s t o give t he net
load
.

I N TE RN A L

4O
Th e

hors e-po wer

is

COM B US TI ON

c al c u l ated fro m t he formul a

D H
.

in wh ic h

n
a

EN G N E S

a n

7r

3 3000

nu mber o f revolut ion s per minute

t he brake arm i n feet
t he net load on s c ale s co r rected fo r u nbal anced
e ffect o f b r ak e
.

fo r m of brake is s hown in diagram Fig 1 29 wh ic h

is convenient for te s ting s mall engine s
It
con s i s t s o f a rope or s t r ap w h ic h m ak e s
o n e o r m o r e t urn s aroun d th e wheel th e
ten s ion o r pull on bot h end s of w hic h mu s t
be k nown o r mea s u r ed I n t he form s hown
a w eight o f know n amount w is appl ied
a t o ne end an d a s pring bal anc e is em
pl oyed to m ea s ure t h e re s i s tanc e at t h e
othe r end
Th e form ul a fo r t h i s brak e is a s fol
IO W S :
Th e R o pe
29
2 71 r n ( W w)
B ra ke
D H P

Anot her

FI G

'

i n wh i ch

W
w

3 3 000

radiu s of th e wh eel in feet t o center o f s t r ap

t h e p r incipal s c al e r eading
t he l e ss er s c al e reading o r weigh t c arried

I n a m odication O f th i s brak e th e principal ten s ion is received

by a f r amewo r k r e s ting on a pair o f s cale s an d t he s mal ler re s i s t
anc e is ab s o r b ed by an up w a r d pul l on t he platform of t he s am e
s c ale s
Wit h thi s a rr angement t h e s cale reading give s direc t l y
,

Ww
I n t he u s e o f the Prony brake h eat is generated equ ivalent to
t h e m echanic al wo r k ab s o r bed I f t h e l oad is heavy it wil l be
necess a r y t o c i r c ulate wat e r o r s o me othe r h eat -remov ing ui d
in s ide o f t he ri m o f t he revol ving wheel o r i n s ome equivalent
pl ac e
19
F orm s of I n d i c ator D i a gr a m s A few of the typic al
form s o f indic ato r diag r am s are con s idered in thi s pl ace for the
pu r po s e o f m ak ing t he s t udent famil iar w it h t he s ubj ect They
will be di s cu ss ed at lengt h later in t he work

the

d ifferen ce

of

w eight s

IN TR OD UCTI ON D EF I N I TI ON S
,

E TC

41

1
igure
3 0 is a hypothetical diagram of a four -cycle explo s i o n
F
engine wit h t he event s which t ak e pl ace o n t he variou s s t r okes
marked Thu s t he s uctio n s t r ok e is r ep r es ented by d e t he co m
p r ess ion by e f t he e x plo s ion by f a t he expan s ion by a b
t he exh au s t by b c d Th e at mo s phe r ic line not clearly s ho w n i n
t he diagra m woul d oc cupy a po s it ion inte r mediate bet ween c d
.

HYPOTHETICA L
s ho w mg

FI G

1 -30

Cyc le

Fo u

A RA

DI G

r-c yc le

En

g ine

and e d Th e l ines o d and e d o n t he ind ic ato r u s ual ly c oinc ide

wit h t he at mo s phe r ic line for t he rea s on t hat t he s p r ing u s ed is
t oo s t i ff t o S h ow s uc h s mal l va r iat ion s in p r e ss ure a s e x i s t between
the atmo s phe r ic l ine and t he e x hau s t a n d s u ct ion l ines
F igure 1 3 1 s how s d iag r am s of a t wo -cycle explo s ion engine
in whic h t he upper diag r am a b 0 f is t aken i n t he working cyl
.

m at

to at

FI G 1 - 3 1
.

Tw o -c yc le E n

g ine D i agr

am

and the lo w er d iag r am e f i n t he co mp r e ss or I n thi s

diagram the net wo r k is t he diffe r ence bet ween t hat s ho wn o n
t he rs t diagra m and t hat o n t he s econd
3 3 a r e d iagram s f r om a B r ayton or c o n s tant
1
an
d
1
2
igure
3
F
s

1
i
3 2 being t aken f r o m t he w o r king cylinder
pres s u r e engine F g
a nd F ig 1 3 3 fro m t h e comp r e ss io n cylinder I t wil l be noted
iii d e r ,

IN TERN A L

42

C M B US TI N

EN G N ES

1 3 2

fro m Fig
th at t he p r e ss ure remai ns cons tant fro m a to a
at wh ic h time comm u nic ation is c ut Off f r o m t he co mp r es s or
after w hic h the uid expand s fro m a t o c in muc h t he s a me
.

MG

D i agram from B rayt n W r kin g Cyl in d e r

o

manner a s in the s tea m engine Th e net w o r k is propo rt ional

to t he diff e r ence o f t he a r ea s of t he t wo diag r a ms
.

LBS .

FI G

1 3 3

D i agram from B rayt n

o

Co m p

re sso r

a diagra m f r o m a D ie s el engine i n wh ic h the

t empe r atu r e is s u p po s ed t o be con s tant du r ing t hat port io n o f
t he s troke repres ented by a b d u r ing wh ic h ti me fuel is being s u p
plied to t he working cylinder
F igure

1 3 4 is

FI G

1 34

D ie el E n gine D iagram
s

1
igu
r
e
3 5 is a diag r am fro m a s team engine t he ex pans io n
F
l ine of w hic h a s refe rr e d t o an hype r bol a c e f g h wh ic h is a s ym p
t o t ic to th e l ine o f no p r e ss u r e C D a nd of no volu me C B
Point s in t he hype r bola a r e O bt ained if t he init ial po int e is
,

I N TROD UC TI ON DE F IN I TI ON S
,

E TC

43

known by d r awing a vert ic al fro m c ; t hen f r o m C draw

c r o ss ing c b and A B Th e i nte r s ect ion of a ho r i zontal
the inters ection o f t he diagonal and c b wit h a vert ical
,

FI G

1 35

Met h o d

of

Draw in g H ype r b l a
o

d iagonal s
line from
l ine fro m

the i nters ect io n o f t he s ame diagonal and t he line A B give point s

i n t he hype r bola
A not her method O f drawing an hyperbola is s hown in Fig 1 36 ,
,

FI G

1 -36

Met ho d

of

Dra win g an H y pe r b la
o

which repres ent s an i nd icat or diagra m r eferred to lines of no

volu me and no p r e ss ure T hi s met hod is founded on t he prin
c ip le th at t he intercept s m ade by a s t raigh t line inter s ecting a n
.

I N TE RN A L

44

CO M B US TI O N

E N G N ES

hyperbol a an d it s a s ymptote s are equal B eginning at any

point a s a d r aw t he s t r aight line a b and lay o ff fro m the line

C D b b equal t o a a t hen wil l b be a point in t he h yper

bola
D raw a s imilar l ine t hrough b as c d an d nd anot her
point as 0
R epeat t he met hod u nt il al l t he point s requi r ed for
drawing the c urve are fou nd
Th e h ype r bola is a u s eful line of reference i n connec tio n wit h
indic ator diagram s As will be s ho w n l ater it rep r es ent s t he
condition o f is ot hermal expans io n in t he gas engin e
.

CH APTE R I I
T

H ER MO DY N A M I C S

T HE

OF

G AS

ENGI N E

N ota tio n I n

order t o c om prehend t he l imitation s of

t he act ual engine it is nece ss ary to unders tand how the wo r king
uid beh ave s w hen s ubj ec t t o denite c hange s in a n engine u n
a ff ected by f r ict ion o r mechanical limit at ion s an d we will fo r
th at r ea s on give att ent io n t o the t heo r et ic al co n s iderations rel at

t ing to t he int e r nal combu st io n engine whic h form s part o f

t he s cience o f Thermodynam ic s
I n t he con s ideratio n of th e t heoretic al action O f a perfect
engine th e following s ymbol s w ill be u s ed :
I

e i p ro c a l o f t h e m ec han i c a l e q u i va lent o f hea t

t h e a b so lute te m pe ratu re o f t h e f reezin g-p o int
273 C o r 4 92 F
t h e s pe c i c h e a t o f c o n s t ant p re ss u re in h ea t unit s
t h e s pe c i c h ea t o f c o n s t ant v o lu m e in he a t unit s
m echanic a l e q uiv a lent o f h e a t
7 78 in fo o t -p o un d s
4 26 K G M
s peci c h e a t o f c o n s t a nt p re ss u re in m e c ha nic a l unit s
t h e m ec ha ni ca l h ea t a t c o n s t a nt v o l u m e in m ec ha nic a l un i t s
a bs o lute p re ss u re fo r c o n d i t i o n d en o te d by p os t s c ript
a bso lute p re s s u re a t freezin g-p o int
t h e t o t a l he a t o f a g iven m ass
a c o n s t ant fo r a gi ven gas
a bso lute te m pe ra tu re
te m pe rat u re Fahren h eit o r Cent igrad e a s m ar ke d
v o lu m e o f a given m ass o f gas it s c o n d it i o n be n d en o te d by p ost s c ip t
t h e v o lu m e o f a g iven m ass o f ga s a t f reezin g-p o int
t h e m ec han i c a l w o rk pe r fo rm ed in m ec han ic a l un i t s
t h e m ec han i c a l wo r k i n h ea t un i t s
t h e re c i p ro c a l o f a
t h e c o ef c i ent o f exp an s i o n o f a pe rfect ga s
s pec i c h e a t o f c o ns t a nt p re s s u re d ivi d e d by t h e s pec i c h e a t o f c o n s t a nt
v o lu me

t he

r c

CD

Cv

Kp

Kv

!
I

W
W

Ch ara c t e risti c s

of

Pe rf e c t

G ase s

In

a n intern al
co mbu s t ion e n gine t he wo r k is produced by the change o f vol u me
and pres s ure of a gas eou s mi x t ure c o mpo s ed of at m o s pheric air
2

45

I N TE RN A L

46

C M B US TI O N

E N G N ES

and t he vario us product s of c o mbu s tio n Th i s gas mixture

w ithi n th e work ing l i mit s o f tempe r ature is obedient to t he
l aw s o f t he perfect ga s es and for t hat r ea s on i n any t heo r y of t he
inte r nal co mbu s t io n engine we are prin c ipal ly con cerned w it h
s uc h law s and w it h t he c hange s o f volu me and p r e ss u r e in a per
feet gas in rel atio n to it s c hange o f tempe r atu r e
B y co mbining B oyle s la w w it h G ay-L u ss a c s la w it is l ea r ned
t hat t he product o f p r e ss u r e an d vol u me o f a given ma ss of a
perfect gas varies d irectl y as it s ab s ol ute tem perat ur e t hat is :
.

(1

Povo

t)

(1)

in wh ic h p equal s t h e ab s olute pre ss ure an d v t he vol u me of a

given ma s s of gas at a tempe r ature t abo ve t he freez ing -point
p and v repre s ent t he p r e s s ure and vol u me o f t he s a me ma ss
at t he free z ing -point and 0 rep r es ent s t he coef c ient of e xp a n
s ion o f t he ga s per deg r ee of ab s olute tempe r atu r e
As h a s
al r eady been s hown a w il l equal when e x p r ess ed in t he Cent i
grade s ys tem t he rec ip r ocal o i 273 and w hen exp r e ss ed i n th e
I f w e denot e t he
F ah r en heit s y s t em t he r ec ip r oc al o f 4 92
n um be r o f degrees bet ween t he f r eezing -p o int and ab s ol ut e z e r o
b y a t hen fro m t he p r eceding expl anat io n (I w ill equal t he re
I f we denot e t he ab s olute temperat u r e by T we
c ip ro c a l of
s h al l ha ve
t
a
T
(2)
,

ub s t ituting fo r
Ci

i n equat io n ( 1 )
Povo

pv

i n t he above eq uatio n

p ovo
a

is

we

h ave
p ovo

+ l)

a co n s t ant fo r eac h

L et

(3 )

p v

ga s

(4 )

t hen we h ave

( 5)

RT

abo ve equ atio n may be c on s ide r ed t he c h arac teri s tic

equat io n o f a perfect gas s inc e it s how s th e rel at ion s b et wee n the
press u r e vol u me and ab s ol ute tempe r atu r e
R is a co ns tant wh ic h depend s o n t he nat ure o f t he gas and
Th e

THE RM

O D YN AM I CS

THE GAS

OF

47

EN G N E

can be computed if the s pecic press u r e p , and s pec ic volu me

v0 at s tan d a r d p r e ss u r e s and tempe r at u r es a r e kno w n
I t follo w s f r om the above th at p , v, R T, fro m whic h by
comparing w ith (5 )
,

T1

p v: p , v1

Th e

(5 a )

pecic pres s ure p 0 is t he weight of t he at mo s phere at the

f reezing-po int u nde r n o rmal co nditi o n s ; it is equ ivalent to th at o f
a col u mn o f mercu r y 7 6 0 m m high
inc hes ) Th is re
d u c e d t o pre s s u r e pe r unit o f a r ea is

1 0333

p,

or in E ngl is h un it s

k ilogram s per s quare meter ;

pound s pe r s qua r e foot

pou nd s pe r s qua r e i nc h
inc he s o f me r c u r y

p0

pec ic volume is determined fro m t he den s ity of t he

T
h
follo
w
ing
table
give
s
t
he
s
pec
ic
v
o
l
ume
in
etric
and
s
M
a
e
g
E ngli s h mea s u r e s for s o me o f t he more com mon ga s es :
Th e

V A LU E

O F v0 A T

L AT

45

Cu b ic me t e rs p e r
i o ra m

Kl g

H yd r gen ( H )
Car b o n ic Aci d ( C0
o

By
p ovoi

for ai r

of

of

can be found

p ovo,

and

in F r enc h
1 03 33

uni t s

273

4 92

in E ngl i s h unit s
R

ou n

Th us

per

fee t

ub s tit uting t he val ue s

t he val ue

Cu bic

in the equation

I N TE RN A L

48
Th e

CO M B US TI ON

EN G N E S

following t able give s value s of R for a few ga s es :

VAL U
H yd r gen ( H )
O x ygen ( O )
Car b n d i x id e

ES o r

( COZ )

Air

foll o wing t ab le s ho wing t he s peci c heat of t he ordi n ary

in s e r ted he r e fo r c o nvenience

T he
is

gas e s

ABL

OF

S P E CI F I C

H E ATS
S PE C I F IC

N ME

OF

S YM B O L

G AS

Co ns

ta n t

re s s u re

H AT

E,

C o ns

Vl

CV

t ant

o u

me

C 1,

Air

O x ygen
N it ro gen
H ydr ogen
N it ri c o xi d e
Car b o nic o xi d e
Car b o n d i o xi d e
S te a m
Met ha ne
Acet ylene
D i s ulph i d e car bo n

H
NO

00
CO2

H20 ( sa tu ra te d )
CH4
C2H2

Ole a n t ga s
Amm o ni a

Cs ,

CZ H4

N H3

Al c o h o l

CH, O6

be fore noted t he s peci c heat of gas e s in crea s es wit h t he

temperature an d po ss ibly al s o w i t h t he p r e s s ure w hic h la w wi l l
be refe rr ed to i n di s cu ss ing t he appl ic ation t o s peci al c as es The
exp anding p r odu c t s of combu s tion are c ompo s ed of N CO2 H20
F o r app r oxi m ate co mput ation s
0 an d po s s ibly a t r ace of N O
t he v alue of C, /C fo r t he bu rn ed ga s e s may be tak en a t
3 G e n e r a l R e l a ti o n s of H e a t Tr a n sm i ss i o n t o Ch a n ge s of

o
l
r
r
When a qu antity of heat d Q is s u p
m
n
d
V u e a
P e s su e
p lied to a m ass o f gas it produce s a co mp lex re s u lt ; t he heat
As

THE RM OD YN AM CS

THE GAS

OF

EN G N E

49

warm s t he gas and r ai s e s it s t empe r ature at the s a me t i me per

forming internal work by o ve r co ming the molecul a r force s ; it
t hen devel o p s exte r nal w o r k w hic h is m ade appa r ent by the
expan s io n of t he ga s again s t an e xte r n al re s i s t ance D enoting
by d U t he quantit y o f heat employed i n w arming the gas and in
molec ul ar work we w il l h ave
,

d Q = d U + A p d v,

in wh ic h p dv is t he external wo r k expre ss ed i n mec h anical unit s

and A p d v it s equivalent i n heat uni t s
I n t he ope r at io n o f a gas engine the ma s s of gas con s tituting
th e work ing s ub s t anc e e x pan d s during eac h cyc le fro m one
v olume t o an o t her pa s s ing t hrough a s e r ies o f s uc c es s ive ch ange s
of vol ume and pre ss ure an d nally r etu r n s to it s in itial s ta t e
I t is evident t h at w hen t h e ma ss retu r n s t o it s in it ial s t ate that
.

th e quant it y repre s ented by d U is equal t o zero

t Io n we s hal l have
dQ
A p dv

For

t hi s condi

t he int ernal heat o f t he gas whic h h as already been

s hown t o be a funct io n o f t h e vol ume pre s s ure and tempe r at ure
we h av e
U
f (v p L)
Ia llin g U

c an be det e r mined f r o m th e val ue s of p and v as indicated

we c an c on s i d er t hat in pract ic e U 18 a functi o n
in equ at ion 5
only of v and p an d may w r it e

S inc e t

f (v
Th e increa s e of internal h eat fo r a variat ion o f volu me d v
and of p r e ss ure d p m ay be e x p r e s s ed a s a t otal di ff e r ential of th e
func tion f an d we h ave
U

dU =

dv +

(6)

dp

u b s ti t uting the above val ue i n the exp r es s i on

s t ate of t he g as m ay be rep r e s ented a s f o l l o w s :
By

dQ

Q the therm al

8H

3H
,

3v
'

0 1

dQ =

3U

OU

+ A

dv

( 7)

I N TE RN AL

50

C M B US TI O N

E N G N ES

I t may be noted t h at th e above equat io n c annot be integrat ed

in it s pre s ent form unl es s Q c an be expre s s ed a s a func tion of th e
init ial and nal vol u me s and pre s s ure s o f th e ga s Th i s demon
s t rate s t h at t h e expenditu r e of heat r equi r ed t o m ak e a gas pa s s
f r o m o n e s t at e to another c an not be deduced f r o m a k nowledge
of t h e extreme s t ate s if one does not k no w th e o r der an d rel at io n
o f t he i ntermediate s tate s
Th e heat t r an s ferred at con s tant vol ume is equal to th e s pec ic
heat C m ultipl ied by t he c hange o f tem pe r atu r e That is Q
F o r a s imilar rea s on t hat
C dl
C ( T1
T) f r o m w hic h d Q
tran s ferred at cons tant pre ss ure
.

0 1; ( TI
C, d t

Q
dQ

t he condit ion of tr a n sf er of h ea t a t c on sta n t volu m e d v of

eq uation ( 7) w ill equ al 0 an d equat ion (7 ) will bec ome
F or

3U

dQ

3p

dp

S i nc e t he heat i nte r c hange for t hi s c as e t ak es pl ac e at c on s t ant

vol u me i t
,

h as

been s ho wn t h at
Cvd t

dQ

By

pl ac i ng t hes e t wo val ues o f d Q equ al we h ave

8U

dt

Cv
dp
'

of

fro m wh i c h t he val ue

3U
E}
:

( 8)

8p

fo r h eat I nterc h anges at c on s t an t

vol u me c an be fou nd
Fo r t he tra n s fe r of h ea t a t c on s ta n t p r es su r e t h e tem pe r atu re
c h anges t ak e pl ac e wi thout c h ange o f p r e ss u r e i n w hic h c as e
d p of equ atio n ( 7 )
0 and w e h ave by s ub s titu tio n 3
.

dQ =

+ A

dv

S inc e t he heat i nterc h ange fo r thi s c as e t ak es pl ac e at c on s t ant

pres s u re

dQ

t,

and by s ub s t itu tio n

C

+ Ap

( 9)

THE RM O D YN AM CS OF

THE G AS E N G N E

SU

f r o m whic h t he v al ue of
p r ess u r e c an be O btai ned
( 9) in e q ( 7) we h ave

fo r heat t r ans formatio n at c on s t ant

8v

S ub s tituting

51

the val ues

o f eq

(8 ) and

G0

dQ

8t

dp

( 1 0)

dv

whic h gi ves t he val ue o f t he heat i nte r c h ange fo r s uc cess i ve

c h ange o f press u re and vol u me Thi s c an be r educ ed as foll ows :
F r om e q
R T hen ce vd p
Rd t when v is c on s tan t
pv
and p d v R d t when p is c on s tan t F r o m th is i t foll ows t h at
.

3t

3p

S ub s titutin g

fro m
p dv

S ub s tituting

eq

v
(
E

Rdt ,

vdp

eq

3v

t hi s in

eq

( 1 0) we h ave

Cpp d v)

(1 1)

p dv

Cpp dv

p d v)

,,

dQ

Rd t

vd p

( 1 1 ) we m ay write

R
R
dv
C. dv + C,
R
R

(5)

henc e n al ly

dp

eq

f r om wh ic h

_ C.d t

fro m

p
R

we ob t ai n by c ompl ete di ff erenti ation

dQ

But

an d

t he abo ve val ue s in
dQ

No w ,

St

Cvd t

( C,

en

C.)

1
1
a
(
)

Th e mode s of t r an s
s
to
D
erent
t
t
S
a
e
iff
4
fo r m ation f r o m o ne s t ate t o an o t he r d epen d u pon t he r el ation o f
and
at
i
fe
r
ent
point
by
t
he
f
v
d
s T bein g al w ay s dete r m ined
p
rel ation o f p t o v f r o m e q
F o r s impl ic ity o f t r e at ment and for p r oducin g a s t and ard fo r
c ompari s on i t is as s u med t h at t he c h anges in t h e rel at ion s of
v ol u me press u re and te mpe r atu r e t ake pl ace w i th one o f the
va r iabl es con s t ant in t he gene r al equ ation (5 a ) p 4 7
Thus if t he volum e rem ain s con s t an t d u r ing t he c hange we
h ave v v, and
.

Transfor m a ti o n

< 12)

I N TE RN AL

52

CO M B US TI O N

EN GI N E S

wh ic h is t he equat ion for c on s tant vol u m e condit io n s

press ure remain con s tant p
p , and

I f the

( 1 3)

TI

whic h is t h e equatio n fo r con s t ant -pre ss ure condition s

I f the
t em peratu r e r em ain c on s t ant w h ic h l atter is termed an isother ma l
c ond ition T
T,
7
1
(14)
.

; :
1

wh ic h is th e equ a tion of a n isoth er ma l lin e for a perfec t gas in a

p r es s u r e-vol u me d iagram
Another s tan d ard o f co m pari s o n is t he t r an s fo r m at io n i n
pre ss ure vol u me o r t empe r at u r e wh ic h t ake s pl ac e wit hout gain
o r l o s s o f heat
Thi s l at t e r condition is c alled a diabat ic and cor
re s pond s t o t h at o f con s tant en tr op y I t rep r e s ent s t he co ndition s
of t he equat ion ( 1 1 ) when d Q
0 i n w h ic h c a s e
.

C, vd p

C, d

S ub s titute y for
t he n

Cy

vd p

yp d v

w hic h integrated bet ween t he l im it s

p , v,

10 g e

F
,

7 10 8 e

an d

pv

gi ve s

v1

y
1
5
con
tant
fro m whic h
v
s
)
(
p, ,
v
wh ich is t h e equ ation of a n a d ia ba tic lin e fo r a perfect ga s in a
p r e ss u r e-vol u me d iag r a m
Th e equ at io n fo r adiabat ic t r an s fo r mat i o n in term s o f v an d T
can be obt ained by s ub s t it ut ing fo r p an d p , t he va lue s a s give n
in (5 a ) and redu cing wh ic h w il l give
.

I
y

Tv

T, v,

1 6)

I n a s im ilar manner t he a d iab at ic equ at io n i n t erm s of

c an be O bt ained wh ic h is a s fol lo w s :

an d T

TP

TI PPT

( 1 7)

THE RM O D YN AM CS

THE GAS

OF

53

EN G N E

i
n I s oth e rm a l E xp an s io n Th e wo r k
d
k
P
m
e
e
W
or
rfor
5
W perfo r med when t he gas e x pan d s i s o t he r mal ly f r o m an
in itial vol u me v to a vol ume v, c an be cal c ulated as foll o w s :
Th e general formula for mec hanic al work is
.

W
but

as

p , vl

pv

for i s ot he r mal expan s ion

p l vl

W
S in0e p v

p , v,

p dv

RT

:
[

U
n

?
)

p , vl lo g,

( 1 8)

t hi s may be written

RT

log

vi
e

pv

log a
,

1)

heat applied du r ing i so t he r m al expan s i o n c an be obtained by

making d l
0 and T a con s t ant in ( 1 1 a ) and integrating
We

The

C, ) T

( C,

v1

Thi s

val ue being t he s ame

t hat

the h ea t

the

as

log
th at

( 1 9)

t he e x ternal

of

d u r in g isothe r m a l

wo r k p er fo r m ed

exte n a l

It

a p p lied

( Cp

1
-

e xp a n s ion

wo r k

is

indicate s

equ iva len t

to

be noted fro m ( 1 8 ) that an innite i nc r ea s e i n

mal e x pan s ion wil l lead to an innite amount o f wo r k
in t he equat io n
v
W p v l og

iso t h e r

w ill

Thu s

i f v, be m ade equ al to i nni ty th e valu e o f W al s o bec o me s I n ni te

Th e wo r k
6 W or k P erfo rm e d in Ad i a bati c E x p an s i on
pe r fo r me d w hen t he ga s e x pan d s a d iaba t ic al ly f r o m an i ni t i al
v o lu me v, to a vol u me v, c an be foun d by s ub s ti t u t i ng the value
.

'

Of

f r o m fo r mu la ( 1 5 )

as

y
v
p

dv
vY

fol lo ws :
1

Y
v
p, ,

v7

v
3

I N TERN A L

54

Therefore

53
1

C M B US TI N

EN G N ES

( 20)

innite adiab at ic expan s ion t h e work W does not becom e

F or

nn i te

as In Is

ot hermal

e xp a n s I o n , S i

Z)

nce for t h is c a s e

0,

and

p l vi

1
7

Th e h eat t r a n s for
He a t to E ntrop y
m at ion s c an b e ex p r e s s ed a s a fu nct ion o f t he ab s ol ut e tem pe r a
ture and ent r opy w h ic h exp r e ss io n po ss e ss e s s o me advant age s
for trac ing heat i nte r c h ange s o ver t he p r e s s u r e -vol u me equation s
Fo r t h i s c a s e t h e va r iable s in the equ at io n beco me t empe r a
t ure T and ent r opy ( t in s tead of v and p a s in t he p r ec eding
c a s es ; i n t h e diagra m rep r es ent ing s u c h condit ion s horizo nt al
l ines woul d rep r e s ent equal tempe r at u r es o r i s ot he r m al condit ion s
wh il e vert ic al l ine s w oul d rep r es ent e qu al ent r opy o r adiab atic
c ondition s Th e ordinate s i n s uc h a diag r a m would t hen re p re
s ent tempe r atu r e T and t he ab s c i ss a ent r opy
S ince t he heat inte r ch ange d Q is equal to t he p r oduc t of t h e
a b s olut e temperat ure into t he c o r re s pon ding c hange of e n t rOp y
we h ave
014
dQ
9
d.
,
7

of

R e l a ti o n s

45
Fo r

<>
1

ga se s if heat is s u pplied at c o n s t ant p r e ss u r e d Q

gi gt-

< )

Cp lo g,

21
( )

L a w of Th er
A reve r s ible engine is one t hat m ay be ru n in
m od yn am ic s
o n e direct ion s o as to t r an s fo r m heat into w ork o r i n t he O ppo s it e
di r ect ion so a s t o tran s fo r m w o r k into heat
N o act ual heat engine is bu ilt i n t h i s manner s inc e s u c h a n
hypot he s i s requi r e s t h at all t he ga s e s exhau s ted s h all p a ss
t hrough all t he s tate s i n a reve r s ed di r ect io n d uring c o mpres s io n
and retur n t o t he in it ial s tate w hic h bec au s e o f t h e c hemic a l
8 . Ca rn ot

or

R e v e r s i ble

S e c on d

E n gi n e ,

THERM O D YN AM I CS OF THE GAS EN G I N E

55

ch anges du r ing co mbu s tion is i mpo ss ible in the inte r nal c o m bus
t ion engine Th e inte r nal co mb u s t i o n engine c an be con s idered
a s app r o xi mat ing t he t heo r etical reve r s ible engine whic h t hu s
becomes u s eful a s a s t anda r d o f compa r i s on
F o r t he cyc le of a reve r s ibl e engine
,

dQ _
0

t he h ighes t att ainable r e s ult w it h any heat eng i ne s inc e it

indicate s th at t he h eat t r an s fe rr ed i nto w ork f r o m mot io n i n
o ne di r ect io n w oul d be r et u r ne d t o it s s o u r ce by an equal amount
of w o r k applied t o d r ive t he e ngine in an o ppo s ite di r ec ti o n
Th e above s tatement is Ca r n ol s p rin c ip le w hic h is often calle d
the S ec on d L a w of Th erm od yn a m ic s I t f o llo ws f r o m t hi s :
( 1 ) All r eve r s ible engine s w o r k ing bet ween t he s ame s ource
of h eat and r ef r ige r ator h ave equ al efc ien cie s
(2) Th e e fc iency o f a reve r s ibl e engine is independent o f
th e work ing s ub s tance
-act ing mach ine c an not t r an s fe r heat f r om o ne bo d y
A
elf
3
s
( )
to anot he r at a highe r t empe r atu r e
I t fu r t her fol lo ws f r o m t h i s th at for any i rr eve r s ibl e engine
cycle the work for a given expen d itu r e of heat is l e ss than for a
revers ibl e engine ; t hat is

Thi s is

dQ _
N

i n wh ic h N repres ent s the mech a n ical re s ult s o f the work

perfo r med

ra
hi
a
l
e
lati
on
Th e rel ation s of t h e heat inter
G
c
R
s
9
p
c hanges to t he tran s f o r mation s of p r ess u r e vol ume and tempera
ture w ill be more clea r l y un ders tood by reference t o a diag r a m
Th e p r e ss u r e -v o lu me diag r am w hic h h a s fo r it s o r din ate s l ine s
co rr es ponding t o p r es s u r e and fo r it s ab s ci ss ae d i s tance corre
s p o n d ing to vol ume s
s how s t he c o n d i t ion s of u nif o r m p r e ss u r e
by a ho r i zont al l ine and of con s t an t v o l ume by a ve r t ical line
O n th i s diag r a m an i so therm al line is repre s ente d by equa t ion
pv
p , vl w h ic h is th e equ a t ion of an equila t eral h ype r bol a
o f w h ic h t he a x e s a r e the l ine s of ze r o v o l ume a n d th e line o f ze r o
p r e s s u r e Two metho d s o f d r a w ing the hype r bola have been
* Pea b o d
y s The r m o d yn a m i c s p ag e 3 0
.

I N TE RN AL

56

COM B US TI ON E N GI N E S

g i ven in Art 1 9 Chapter I I n t he c a s e o f a s tea m engine it will

be remembered t hat an i s ot he r mal co ndi t ion is repre s ented by an
equal pre ss ure line
Th e equ a tion of a n a d ia ba tic lin e on a pre s s ure -vol u me dia
.

g r am

as

d ina t e s
of

given i n ( 1 5 )

is

p =
l
o
y g
PI

l og

p 1

Th e

value s o f t he coor

fo r drawing t hi s curve can be f o und by a ss uming val ues

and nding t he c o r re s ponding val ue s by

,

N aperian

loga r ith m s

of

PI

d i ff e r ent

u se

of a t able

t able giving th e val ue s of

of

for

ga s e s h a s been given
I t is u s u ally a ss u med as
for gas engine s and is s ubj ect to s ome co rr ecti o n for ch anges due
t o ri s e Of tempe r atu r e T h e gen eral relat ion s o f i s o the r mal and
ad iabat ic l ines t o p r es s ure volu m e and t empe r ature is s hown o n
the d iagra m Fig 2- 1
.

h
c

e
r

e
r

8
8

8
8

70

80

90

FI G 2- 1 R el a ti o n s
.

of

1 00

c uoic

10

fo o t

I so t he rm al

Ad i a b a tic Cu

a nd

rves

bic

cu

fe e t

how s i s ot he r m al and adiabat ic expan s ion and com

pr es s ion l ine s d r a w n f r o m t he s a me poi nt s Thi s diag r am s ho ws
t hat fo r a given nu mber o f expans ion s t he adiabatic l ine fall s
F igu r e

2 1

THE RM OD YN AM CS

OF

THE GAS

57

EN G N E

below t he i s othermal l ine and al s o t hat t he a r ea bet ween t he

adiabatic li ne and t he ba s e line is less t han that bet ween t he
As t hi s a r ea rep r e s en t s t he exte r
i s ot he r m al and t he bas e l ine
nal work pe r formed i t indic a t e s t hat for a given nu mber of ex
pan s ion s t he work is g r eate r i n i s othe r m al t h an i n adiabatic
expan s ion w hic h al s o fol low s fro m the demon s t r at io ns wh ic h
been given
,

FI G

22

Iso t h e rm al

a nd

Ad ia b a ti c Chan

ge

Co m p a

re d

Th e

variou s fundamental ch ange s wh ich m ay take pl ace in a

perfect heat engine a r e rep r es ented by the d iag r am F ig 22 in
wh ic h 0 V is t he ba s e line f r o m w h ic h p r es s u r e s are m eas ured and
O P the ze r o vol u me line f r o m w hic h vo lu mes are meas ured I n
t he diagra m G A is a ve r t ic al l ine and r epre s ent s t h e c ondit ion of
receiving heat at c on s tant volu me ; A B a ho r i zontal l ine re p re
s ent s t he co ndit io n of receiving heat at c on s t ant p r e s s u r e ; B C
a plain hype r bol a rep r e s ent s i s o t hermal expan s ion and B D a
logarith mic c u r ve r epre s ent s adiabat ic e x pan s ion ; D E a v ert ic al
line r epre s ent s t he d i s c ha rge of heat at c o n s t ant volu me ; E F
a hori zont al l ine rep r e s en t s t he d i s cha rge o f heat at con s tant
press ure ; F G a loga r it h mic cu r ve rep r e s en t s a d iaba t ic com press ion
and E H a plain hype r bol a r epre s en t s i s ot he r mal comp re ss ion
Th e area of t he diag r a m A B D E F G rep r e s ent s t he e x ternal
w ork done wi t h adiabat ic expan s ion and com p r e s s ion a n d A B C
E F H A rep r e s ent s t he wo r k done wi t h i s othermal expan s ion
and co mpre s s ion
D uring t he period of rec eiving h eat at c on s tant volu me
repres ented b y A G t he a b s olute tempe r at u r e may be co mpu t ed
,

I N TE RN A L

58

COM B US TI ON

EN G N E S

at A fro m
p r ovided it is k no w n at G s ince it is p r oport ional
to t he p r ess u r es at t ho s e point s
D uring t he period o f recei ving heat at con s t ant p r e ss ure
repres ented by A B t he ab s olute temperature i nc r ea s es i n pro
portion t o t he volu me a s s ho w n in equ at ion
and if k nown
at o ne point ma y be c o mpute d at any othe r As th e volu me is
proport ional t o t he di s tanc e f r o m t he l ine 0 P t he t emperat ure
o n t he l ine A B w ill be p r oport ional to that di s t ance
I f th e expan s ion is i s ot he r mal t he tempe r atu r e woul d remain
con s t ant fro m B to C I f t he e x pan s ion is adiabat ic a s f r o m B
to D t h e temperatu r e could be c al cul ated f r o m eithe r equation
( 1 6 ) or ( 1 7 ) for va r iou s point s of th e cu r ve
Th e act ual pre ss ure -vol ume diagra m as tak en wit h t h e indicator
s ho ws l ine s wh ic h onl y approxi mat e t ho s e for con s t ant p r e s s u r e
con s tant temperat ure o r con s t ant vol u me a s s hown in Fig 2 2 Th e
corner s o f actual diag r a m s are l ikely t o be r ounded to a con s iderable
extent and many o f t he t ran s format ion s indicated may not appea r
,

1 00

L-

FI G 2- 3
.

Fo u c y c le E n

o n.

I t.

g ine D i agram

THE RM O D YN AM CS

THE GAS

OF

59

EN G N E

rep r e s ent s a d iagra m o f a 4cycle engine in which

the o r dinat es have been enl arged rel at ivel y w it h r es pect to t he
ab s c i s s ae and o n w hic h there have been dra w n a line O f no volume
often called t he clearance line and a line of zero press ure Th e
I f we a s s u me
s cale of ordinat e s is att ac hed t o t he diagra m
that t he l ine a f is a vert ical line and t hat t he tempe r atu r e at
t he lo w er end of t hat line is 5 6 7 deg r ees ab s ol ute then we nd
by computat ion as expl ained above t hat for t he poin t a it is
As ab s ol ute t empe r ature F is 4 60 deg r ees
1 9 95 deg r ee s ab s ol ut e
h igher t han t hat s ho w n on a t hermomet e r t he t empe r atu r e
at the s e t wo point s would corre s pond to 1 0 7 degree s and 1 5 3 5
F igure 23

h eat t ran s fo r mat ion s may al s o be rep r e s ented by t he

entropy te mpe r atu r e diag r a m in w hic h c a s e t he or d inate s be
c o m e t emperature and entropy in s tead o f pre s s ure and volu m e
Th e

FI G

24

Pre ss u re V o lu m e D i agram
Ad ia b a ti c Chan g es

of

I t he rmal
so

a nd

2
2
an
d
I
n
4
F
i
F
s
imple
illu
t
rat
ion
i
hown
in
ig
s
s
s
As
g
is s hown a pre s s u r e -v ol ume diag r am o f a wo r k ing m aterial whi c h
ex pand s i s ot he r mal ly fro m A to B then adiabatical ly fro m B to
I t is t hen comp r e s s ed i s oth ermal ly f r om C to D and a d ia ba t i
C
c ally f r o m D to A w hen it r eac he s t he in i t ial c o ndition Th e m e
c h a n ic a l w ork perfo r med d uri ng t he s e o pe r ation s is p r opo r t i o nal
Thi s d iagra m m ay be
t o t he area of the diag r am A B C D
.

2- 4

I N TE RN AL

6O

CO M B US TI ON

EN G N ES

tran s formed into a temperat ure entropy diagra m very e a s ily

S in ce for t hat ca s e t he i s ot hermal li ne s A B an d B C would be
hori z ont al and paral lel t o t he l ine of zero temperature and t he
adiab at ic line s A D and D C would be vert ical an d pa r al lel t o t he

line fro m w h ic h entropy is reckoned

F ig 2 5 s ho ws th e tem
-ent r opy
e
r
u
r
a
t
e
di ag r am
p
c on s t r u c ted as de s c r ibed
Th e a r ea o f th i s di agram
s ho ws
t he heat tran s
fe rr ed in to work
F o r the
c a s e c on s i de r ed thi s is
a rec tangle and it s a r ea
repre s ent s t he m ax imu m
a mount o f heat a vail able
for work w it hin t he tem
p e ra t u re l im it s A B and
,

DC

Th e

c a s e c on s idered is
t h at o f t he perfec t rever
s ible e n gin e wh ic h operate s
i n a Ca r not cycle as a l
FI G 25 E nt ro py -Te m pe ra tu re D i a gram ready des c r ibed I t appears

2
i
fro m t he diagram F g
5 as wel l as fro m t he demon s trat ion t hat
an engine w ork ing o n t hi s princ iple c an tran s form t he m aximu m
a mou nt of h eat int o work
An engine working o n any ot her
pri nciple as for in s tan c e t hat s h own in
t he F ig 22 A B D E F G A w ill t ran s
form a l e ss am ount o f heat int o w ork
F o r t hi s ca s e t here is bot h adiabat ic
expan s ion B D a nd adiabat i c c om
press io n F G
Th e entropy-t em pe r a
t ure diagra m for t hi s c a s e is re p re

i
2
F
6 by t he
s ented but not t o s c ale in
g
diagra m A B D E F G w hic h by in
s p e c t io n is s maller and s how s le s s heat
FI G
availabl e fo r work t han t he diagra m
m B n F whic h is draw n bet ween t he s a me t emperat ure l imit s
Fo r t he gure A B C E F H s hown in Fig 22 a s a pres s ure
'

'

THE RM

O D YN AM I CS

OF

THE GAS

61

EN G N E

vol ume diagram w e h ave i s othermal e x pan s ion B C and iso t h e r

mal co mpre ss ion F H Th e ent ropy-temperat ure diagram for
t hi s ca s e is repre s ented by the T
d iagram not d r awn t o s cale i n
F ig 27 A B C E F H wh ic h by in
s p e c t io n is s maller and s how s le ss
heat avail abl e for w ork t han t he
diag r am m C n H w h ic h is d r awn
bet w een th e s am e t em perature
H
l imit Th e t ran s f o rmat io n o f th e
0

p r ess ure v o l um e d iag r a m a s taken

G
F
I
2
th
e
indic
ator
into
entropy
7
on
temperat u r e diagra m is given at l ength l ater i n the book
10
Com p ari s o n of Th e oreti c a l a n d Ac tua l H e a t E n gin es
When a
gas after a s e r ie s of t ran s fo r mation s O f p r e s s u r e
v o lu me and tempe r atu r e pa ss e s t hrough a s erie s o f inte r mediate
s tate s and o f p hy s ic al a n d chemical
change s a nd ret u r n s t o
the s ame condit i o n i n al l r es pect s wh ic h it po ss e ss ed at
the beginning of t he t ran s f o r mation s it is s aid t o operat e i n a
c l os ed c yc le
I t is evident t hat if a c h ange o f c ompo s ition oc curs du r ing t he
cours e O f t he cycle t he bo d y m ay return t o it s initial conditi o n s o
far a s pre s s ure and volu me a r e conc erned w it h o ut r et u r ning to it s
initial condit ion i n ot he r r e s pec t s ; for e x ample a mixtu r e com
po s ed o f hyd r ogen c arbo n mono x ide me t h ane c arbon dioxi d e
and nit r ogen wi t h w hic h t he cylinder is c h arged i n t he initial
c onditio n befo r e c ombu s tion m ay be changed du r ing combu s t io n
to t he vapo r O f water ca r bon dioxi d e and nit r ogen wh ic h c hange
wou l d not be s ho w n o n t he indicat or diagram
I n th e actual O pe r at ion o f the inte r nal combu s tio n engine t he
ga s o r vapo r is s ubj ected t o pe r iodical change s a s o utlined above
Th e operati o n
w h ic h do not con s titute rigo r ou s ly clo s ed cyc le s
is h o w eve r app r oxim ately a c lo s ed cycl e s ince t he s tate o f the
work ing uid af t er eac h s erie s o f c hanges retu r n s to it s ini t ial
s tate f r o m wh ic h al l t he O pe r ation s a s t o c hemical and phy s ical
change s are r eproduc ed a s i n t he preceding pha s e
Th e m ac hine i n wh ic h th e change s tak e plac e w ill be a perfect
h eat engine if al l of t h e heat di s appea r ing h as been t r an s f o rmed
into work ; it h a s been demon s tra t ed p r act ically however t hat it
.

62

I N TE RN A L

COM BUS TI ON

EN G

I NE S

po ss ible t o ut il i ze al l o f th e h eat con s equentl y it is nece s s ary

t o expend i n heat a la r ger qu ant ity t h an it s equ ivalent in unit s
I t h as al r eady been s how n i n e ffec t t hat it is n o t onl y
O f work
nec ess ary t o h ave a pl ac e o f c o mbu s tion whic h produce s a high
t emperature at t he beginning o f t he pe r iod o f movement but it is
al s o n ece ss ary t o h ave a point o f lowe r t em perature wh ic h w il l
a ct a s a ref r igerator an d permit t he o w o f heat f r o m a higher t o
a lowe r t emperat u r e level Th e quant it y o f h eat Q s upplied by
t h e co mbu s t io n le ss t he a mount q t aken u p by t he r efrigerator
l eave s a d iffe r en ce Q
F ro m t h i s
q w h ic h m ay be ut il i zed
s tatement it woul d appea r t h at t he a mo unt o f wo r k po s s ibl e
w ou ld be increa s ed eit her by in c r ea s ing Q or b y di mini s hing q
Th e temperat ure o f t he di s c h arge h eat q mu s t evidentl y be con
s id e ra bly ab ove t h at of ab s ol ute ze r o bec au s e o f t he d if culty of
O btaining a ref r ige r ant o f lo w tempe r at u r e and o f di s po s ing o f
t he heat wh ic h woul d be d i s ch a r ged u nde r s uc h a co ndit i o n
G ene r ally in p r act ic e t he t em pe r atu r e o f t he dis c h a r ge h eat is
con s ide r abl y above t h at o f t h e s u r round ing ai r w h ic h is muc h
i n exce ss o f ab s ol ute ze r o
Th e r at io of Q
q t o Q m ea s u r e s t h e perfect ion o f t he h ea t
engine Th i s w e will c al l t he c ycl ic efc iency
is

not

It

c yc l ic efc ienc y

of great p r act ical i nt ere s t t o k no w h ow t o determine th e

value of t hi s coe fc ient for any ca s e but w e s houl d at r s t e s tab
l i s h t h e ma x i mu m v al ue t h at c an be obt ained
I n t hi s connect ion t he cycle of Ca r not w h ich is f o r med o f t wo
isoth er m a l line s an d t wo a dia ba tic l ine s F ig s 24 a n d 25 s h o ul d
receive con s iderat ion s in ce it is t h e o n e w hic h give s t he m a ximu m
wo r k retu r n ed for t he heat e x pended
Th e Ca r not cycle is rep r e s ented in t h e p r e s s u r e-volum e di a
g r a m Fig 2-4 in wh ic h a m a s s o f ui d in it s init ial s t ate p v w it h
tempe r at u r e T a s s ho w n at A expand s i n vol ume i s ot he r mal l y to
B at w h ic h point it h as pre ss ure an d vol ume p , v,
F ro m B it
ex pan d s t o C wit hout gain o r lo ss o f heat following t he adiabat i c
B C
F ro m C t o D t he r e is a di s ch a r ge o f heat int o a colder bod y
o r refrige r at or at con s t ant tempe r atu r e
du r ing w h ic h t ime t h e
vol u me is reduced fro m v2 to v, F ro m D to A comp r ess ion t ak es
is

o,

THE RM O D YN AM I CS OF

THE GAS

EN G N E

63

place wit hout gain or lo ss o f heat w hic h r ai s e s the t empe r ature

to t hat of t he initial s t ate at A
I n orde r to ca r ry out the cycle o f operation de s c r ibed s u fc ient
heat mu s t b e s uppl ie d du r ing th e i sothe r mal expan s ion f r o m A
to B to k eep t he t emperature con s t ant ; th i s amou nt by equation
,

I n t he adiabatic expan s ion fro m

Z
B to C during w h ic h t he r e is neither gain no r lo s s o f heat the rel a
tio n s o f the vol ume s t o t he tempe r ature s are expre ss ed by equa
( 1 9 ) w ill be

AR T

log L

tion ( 1 6 )

TI

T2

D uring t he t h ird period fro m C to D heat is di s c harged at con

A R T log
s tant tempe r ature and c an be exp r e s s ed a s before q
22
.

vs
s

D uring the fourt h period t he quant it y of heat r em ains con

tant and we h ave

To

T3

c ycle a s abo ve de s cribe d is a c lo s ed o n e and as t he heat re

c e ive d and di s c ha r ged is o f co n s tant tem pe r ature it f o llo ws t hat

Th e

Q I
q

Th e

work produ ced

o f t he cycle is

is

T,

equal to t he area A

B C

Th e

efc iency

_
T T
1

T!

equal to the ratio O f the fall of tempe r ature to the ab s olute

t emperatu r e of the i niti al co ndit io n
Th e Ca r not cycle m ay al s o be repres ented as al r eady s hown
by t he temperatu r e -ent r opy diag r am in w hic h c a s e the di agra m
will be a r ect angle Fig 25
I t is doubtless t r ue th at no better method exi s t s fo r utili zing
the heat fu r ni s hed by co mbu s t ion th an th at o f s upplying it at con
s t ant tempe r at ur e pe r mitting t he body to e x pand w ithou t gai n o r
lo s s of heat di s c harging it to th e r ef r ige r ator at a c o n s tant tem
p e ra t u re w hic h S hould be a s lo w a s po s s ibl e and compress ing
wit h o ut gain o r lo s s o f heat t o the o r iginal tempe r atu r e
The o r e t icall y i t is po ss ible to equal but n o t to s u r pa s s the
retu rn f r o m th e Carnot cyc le Th e m a x i mu m e ff ect that c an be
Thi s is

I N TE RN A L

64

C M B US TI O N E N G I N E S

O btained fro m a heat engine work ing bet ween t he temperat u r es

and T and in whic h Q

equat io n

is

t he heat expended is expres s ed by t he

,

I n order t o j udge t he t heo r et ic al value o f a cycle on wh ic h any

heat engine operates it is des irable to c alculat e at rs t the coefc ient
economy of the propo s ed c yc le t hen co mpare t hi s coefc ient
with the Carnot c oefc ient bet ween t he s ame tem perat u r e l imit s
Th e k nowledge wh ic h is given by co mparing t he cycl e of t he
engine w it h t he Carnot cycle is not s uf c ient t o dete r m ine t he
p r act ical val ue of t he engine s ince t he e ff ect of f r iction s hock s
d ue to i nert ia and the pa ss ive res i s tance of th e va r iou s mech anical
part s cons ume a port io n o f t he work s upplied by t he t ra ns fo r
matio n o f heat and do not appea r in t he u s eful wo r k del ivered by
t he m ac hine I t is quit e po s s ible t h at m ac h ines w h ic h h ave a
h igh degree o f perfect ion fo r t h e tran s fo r m at ion o f heat w il l s til l
give s mal l return a s p r act ic al u s eful m ac h ines
Th e h ot -air engine s fo r example wh ich h ave a perfec t c yc le
o f operat ion h ave p r oved in practic e of l ittle val ue bec aus e of
t he s mal l a mount of heat that woul d p as s t h r ough a m etal lic w al l
i n a given t ime and a s a co n s equence t he ret u r n in u s eful work
is s m all in proportion t o t he expen s e of c on s truct ion
There a r e
few engines o f any k ind w hic h operate i n a c yc le a p p ro xim a t
ing th at of Carnot a mong t hes e s h oul d be ment ioned t he S terling
air engine wh ic h theo r et ic al ly operate s o n t he Carnot cycl e
Th e c yc le of ope r at io n o f the s tea m engine is inc o m plete in
m any res pec t s ; it h o w ever re s embles t hat o f Ca r not in t hat heat
is received into t he engine cyl inder u n t il t he val ve clo s e s c onnec
t ion w ith t he boiler at prac tic ally c on s tant tem perat ure After
c ut -o ff th e s team is expanded approxim atel y w ith ou t gain or l o ss
of heat I t is t hen di s c ha r ged t h r ough t he c onden s er at c on s t ant
temperat ure Th e adiabat ic com p r e s s ion is s omet i mes co n s idered
as being performed by th e feed pu mp wh ic h s upplie s water t o t h e
boil er Th e s tea m engine cyc l e is t hu s s een when th e boi ler
furnace and boiler feed pu mp are include d as a part to a p p ro xi
mate t h at Oi t he Carnot c yc l e
Th e D ie s el motor is t he onl y ga s engine wh ic h approxi mate s
in t he t heory of it s operat io n to t he Carnot c ycle
of

CH APTE R

EORE TI C A L

TH

III

O M P AR I S O N O F V AR I O U S TY P E S
C O M B U S TI O N E N G I N E S

INT

OF

ER N A L

Throughout

th e fol lowing di s cu ss ion o f th e theoretical

cycle s it will be a ss umed t h at the s pec ic heat s at con s tant vol ume
C and at con s t ant pre s s u r e C do not va r y either wit h p r es s ure
or temperature I t h a s been s hown th at they v ary but t he
que s t ion is un s ettled I f t he va r iat ion is s uch as d etermined by
t he experi ment s o f M al la r d and L e Chatel ie r w h ic h are exten s ivel y
q uoted our p r es ent -day ga s engine doe s not admi t thermal ly
improvement
I n vie w o f th i s un s ettled c o n
o f any furt her
dition it is be s t t o a s s ume t he s pec ic heat s con s tant
It
is furt her a ss umed in t hi s t heoret ical d i s cu ss ion th at t he value
I

, ,

Of

g
!

is

t he s am e for t he burned ga s e s

as

for t he fre s h fuel

m ixtu r e
I t is furt he r u nders tood that whe r ever heat s uppl ied to a cycle
is mentioned it refe r s to t he lo w er heat ing val ue of th e fuel c o n
ce r ned eit he r pe r pound o r pe r s tandard c ubic foot a s s tated
2
Th e c y c le re c eiv in g h e at a t c o n sta n t vol u me , B e a u d e
R o c h a s or O tto c y c le
Th e princ iple s upo n wh ic h th e pre s en t -day con st ant vol ume
c o mbu s tion engine is b a s e d a n d w h ic h hel ped i t t o it s comme r c ial
were rs t cl early enunc iated by B eau de R oc ha s i n a
s uc ce s s
w r itten p am phlet in 1 8 6 2 I t rem ained for O tto h o wever to
con s truc t t h e rs t p r act ically s u cce s s ful m ac hine operating w ith
t hi s cycle henc e the cycle rec eiving heat at con s t ant vol ume is
mo r e often k no w n as t he O tt o cycle
I n w hat fol lo ws l e t
quant it y Of h eat rec ei ved by the the o retic al cycle
Q
qu ant ity of heat rej ected by th e theoretical cycle
q
Q
g
t hen E ,
t he c yc le e fc ienc y =
.

65

I N TE RN A L

66

COM B US TI O N E N GIN E S

I t s ho ws t he highe s t ef ciency

an engi n e c o u ld po s s ib ly
s ho w if it cou ld fo llo w ex ac tly t he line s of t he t heo r eti c al cycle
P r act ic all y t h i s c an neve r be r eal i zed but th e condition s whic h
dete r mine wh y the a ctual thermal efc iency of an engine is al ways
l es s th an t he cycl ic efc ien c y w ill be t r eated in detail l ater o n
I n Fig 3 1 at t he end of t h e ch a rging s t r ok e wh et her t h at be
i n t he t wo o r in t h e four-cycle t he ch arge is u nder a p r es s ure
temperatu r e and volu me dete r mined by t he point 1 Adiab ati c
co mpre s s ion t hen t ake s pl ace t o 2 A quant it y o f heat Q is
ne x t recei ved at con s t ant volu me t o 3 F ro m 3 t o 4 adiab at ic
exp an s io n t akes pl ace and nal ly t he quant ity of heat q is
1 at con s t ant vol u me
c
d
along
line
4
t
e
e
j
w hi c h

F I G 31

L et t h e t ot al ch arge weight be
lbs ai r G, lbs ga s eou s fuel and G
previou s cyc le
Then
Gov ( T3
Q
an d
.

G lbs

lbs

Thi s

bu r ne d

con s i s t s of G
ga s e s fro m t he
,

Gov ( T4

T2)

(1)

TI )

( 2)

H ence t h e h eat ut il i zed by t he cycl e

is

an d t h e cyc l ic ef cienc y
Q
_
E.

T T + T
,
,
,)

GCv ( T3

T3 _ T2

T2)

THE O RE TI CA

C YC ES

67

3
gain
in
F
i
1 let v
A
clea r ance vol um e and v s t r oke
g
v
v
vol um e so t hat v,
total vol ume
We may w r ite
S i nce compre ss io n and expan s ion are a s s umed adiabat ic
.

m?

73i

(6 )

(7)
8
P3

No w

3 and

P3

hence nall y

P4

T3

Wit h t he aid of

TI

P4

or

T4

T3

T2

( 9)

equ at io n (5 ) may be written

1
0
( )
of s

There

are t wo other way s

wil l be developed next
write

tating th e cycl i c e f cien cy wh ich

y
vt
i

=s

( 11 )

al s o
DI
"

TI

ve
P
a
_
T2

( 1 2)

D ividing ( 1 1 ) by ( 1 2)
T

y
'
v
l g

Tzvc
'

_l

or

1
7

..

T2

in wh ich r

UI

th e co mpress ion rat io

g
.

Hence
Ec = 1

T
l

=l

( 1 4)

I N TE RNAL COM B US TI ON E N GI N E S
F inal ly ,

ra is e equ at io n ( 1 2) to t h e
Y

PI

'

'

0!

06

P2

( 1 5)

T.

T.

We s h al l ha ve

a nd divide ( 1 1 ) by

E
H )

T2

(1 6 )

fro m wh ich

T
1
T2

Ec = 1

F rom

power

an ex am in ation

of

th at E depend s upon r

( 1 7)

P2

equ ation s ( 1 4 ) and ( 1 7 ) it

or

p1

and

p,,

w ill

be

een

CI

m ak e clear th e in uen c e of t h e value o f y a ss um e t h at in

t wo given c a s es t he v alue of r
5 but t h at i n t he r s t ca s e a
ri c h gas mi x t u r e wit h 7 1 3 5 in t he s ec ond c a s e a l ean gas mi x tu r e
wit h y
be em pl oyed Then for t h e t wo c a s e s we s h al l h ave
TO

Ec

Ec l

an d
Th e

ad vant age i n favor

of

t he lean

4 66
.

43 1
4 66

gas

m ixtu r e is t h erefo r e

43 1

431

t hi s t h e u se o f l ean g as m i x ture s i n p r act ic e u s uall y

s how s a s m aller j ack et water l o ss owi n g t o t h e lo wer m ean tem
p e ra t u re o f t he ent i r e cycl e
B e s ide s

Th e

v al ue

of

E,

a c c o r ding t o

al s o depend s u pon the rat io

2

B ut
m aller t hi s ratio t he g r eate r th e efc ienc y
t he v alu e O f p , t he s u ctio n p r e ss u r e is al mo s t enti r el y o u t o f our
c ontrol s o t h at t he p r obl em n ar r o ws d o w n t o m ak ing
the co m
p r e ss ion p r es s u r e a s h igh as po ss ibl e Th i s bring s o u t clearly
t he v al ue o f h igh co mpre ss ion Th e p r actical l im it s t o th i s s tate
m ent w ill be poi nted o u t l ater o n
To s how t h e comb ined inuen c e upon E of r o r p , an d y t h e
fol low ing tabl e f r o m G ii ld n e r is given :
eq

Th e

THE O RE T CA

CY C L I C E F FI C I E N C I E S
'

Em

C YCL ES

F O R T HE

69

OTTO

CY C L E

1 29

167

19 7

22 1

24 2

26 0

27 5

30 1

3 40

1 59

20 5

24 0

26 9

290

3 13

33 1

36 1

4 05

4 38

1 88

24 1

28 1

3 13

34 3

36 3

383

4 16

4 64

4 99

21 6

27 4

3 19

35 5

3 84

4 09

43 1

4 66

5 17

553

24 8

3 13

363

4 02

4 34

4 60

4 83

5 20

5 74

611

n
e
h
a
t
c
s
ssu r e , t h e
y
l
r
eivin
eat
a
on
ta
t
r
c
e
e
c
p
3
g
da y
c
c
e
t
o
yto
y
le
a
roxi
m
ate
D
ie
se
l
y
l
of
c
c
a
n
d
h
e
n
t
B ra
pp
Th e B r ayto n Cycle
I n the ol der mac hine s of the B rayton t ype s uct ion an d co m
press ion of t he fuel mixt ure o r o f air t ook place in o ne cyl inde r
.

Th e

FI G

32

t he co mbu s t ion ex pan s ion and exh au s t took pl ace i n

a not her I n Fig 3 2 a r ea b 1 2 a b repre s ent s t he pu mp d iag r a m
a rea a 3 4 b a t h e diag r a m f r o m th e power cylinder F o r th e
purpo s e o f t he o ret ical di s c u ss io n o f t h i s cy cle t he two diagram s
may be co mbined a s s ho w n giving in area 1 2 3 4 t he u s eful w ork
developed

4 are
3
s
Th e com pre s s ion l ine 1 2 a nd t he expan ion l ine
a gain a s s u med a d iabat ic E xpan s ion is c arried t o exhau s t

2
3 t he
received
along
p r es s ure Th e quant ity o f heat Q is
-1
at con s tant pre ss u r e in bot h
4
amo unt q is rej ected along
,

I N TE RN A L

70

CO MB US TI O N

EN G N ES

L et the c h a rge weight be G pound s m ade up

Then
vio us c a s e
C C, ( T3
T2) B T U
Q
and
C C, ( T,
T, ) B T U
q

as

in

Q
E6 =

H enc e

B ut

GCf ( T3 T2 T 4 + T1 )
GCP( T3 _ T2)

T4

TI

T3 _ T2

fro m t he adiabat ic law we may write

P1 0 1

Y
z

a nd
P4

Pa va

(20)

D ivide ( 1 9 ) by
a

O,

v2

a
v4

03

Al s o ,
p l vl
T!

79 4 %

T4

or S i

nce p ,

p,,

v1

T1

'

04

a nd s i milarl y

F ro m

v2

vs

T2

T3

(22)
T1

'

01

TI

F ro m

(23 )
v2

T
__ 2
T3

E quation s

(25 ) and ( 24 ) i n co mb inatio n w it h ( 21 )

T.

T.

S ub s t it u t ing (26 ) in

T.

TI

T.

we h ave
Ti _
Ec I _ _ I
Tz

TI
T3

THE ORE TI CA L

B ut

C Y CL E S

it h as already been shown equat ion

compression

th at for adiabati c

T1

71

1
1

T2

so th at nall y t h e cyclic effi c iency fo r combust ion at constant

1

Ec = 1

( 28 )

u
m
e
o
t
a
n
t
v
l
c
n
o
m
u
s
t
i
o
n
a
t
c
o
s
b
f
Th e D iesel Cycl e o f t o -day
Th e D iesel cycl e o f t o -day approximates th e constant -pressure
form outl ined in Fig 3 3 Compressio n l ine 1 2 and expans ion
sa m e a s

whic h is the

or

FIG

3 3

are assumed adi abat ic H eat is received at const ant

alo ng l ine 23 and rej ected at const ant vol u me along
I n th e Otto c yc le wit h the m ac hine at ful l load t he
ratio of c ompression is e q ual t o the ratio of expansion I n th e
.

D ies el t he rat io
.

t han

of

c om pression

t h e rat io n o f ex pansion

( see Fig

3 3 ) , is

al ways greater

v6

D iesel mac h ines as

const ruct ed are o il engines s o that the inc rease o f charge weigh t
along l ine 23 is s mall and m ay be negl ec ted without serious
erro r That is we m ay assu me 0 c onstant fo r th e c yc le I f th e
invest iga ti o n h owever is c arried t hrough for a gas especially a
lean gas t his assu m pt ion is no t permissibl e
L et th e c harge weight agai n be G pou nds
,

I N TE RN AL COM B US TI ON

72
'

ENGINES

To develop t he efc ienc y formul a we m ay write

,

(T3

T2)

G 0 2; ( T4

T1 )

Q
9

No w

fro m Fig

T2
,

3 3
v8

where

T3

or

=T 3
=
T
3
2
2

v,

rat io of c ut -o ff vol u me to c learanc e vol u me

Also
TI

T4
B ut

pl

la w

f ro m t he adiabat ic
y
v
p4 4

7"
=
fro m wh ic h T 4 Tl

fro m w hic h

= Ps va Y

p 3 3

29 ,

v4

an d
v
v
pz z

fro m whic h

p,

i y

5?
1

Hen c e (3 2) m ay be wri tten

7
0
P5 3

T, = T,

S u bstitu tin g

(3 1 )

EC

= T3
1

an d ( 30) respec tiv ely

Cr Cp T2 (8

G Cv Tl (8 l )

'

t he

q _
1

i t h as sh own equ at i on
,

= T
,

an d ( 3 3) in

Bu t

v2

Th e c yc l ic e fc i e n cy for
_

D ies e l cycl e c onseq uen tl y is

q _
1

T,
Tz

(3
(3

t h at

GCv T, (8

1)

(JO/1 3 03

l)

1)

1
_
1
y
T

T H EORE TI CA L C YCLES

73

hence nall y
1

E c_ l

1)

v
,

(3 4 )

(3 4 ) shows that t he expressio n for t he theoretical

efc ienc y of t he D iesel cyc le is t he same as t hat for t he Otto and
E quatio n

t he

B rayton ,

3 1

w it h t he except io n of t he factor

T he c f

1
)

t hus depends n o t only upo n 1 and 7 but also upon 3 t hat

is finally on t he vol ume at c ut -o ff
I n act ual pract ice t he c ut -o ff vol ume is about 1 0 per cent
o f the strok e at ful l load
Wit h a com pressio n ratio of r
13
To sho w t he infl uenc e o f t he factor
t his makes 3 about
3 upon E assu me 7
T he ef cienc ies fo r full load 3
and so me part ial load 3
a n o verload 3
will be
as fol lows :
Cyc lic E ffi c ien cy E for t he D iesel cycle
c ien c y

C,

and for r

13 ,

and

E6

56 0

5 09

487

I t appears fro m t h is t hat ot her condit ions remaining the

,

same t he smaller t he val ue of 3 t he greater E

T h is result is
act ually borne out in pract ice withi n l im its where a l arge nu m
ber o f tests of D ies el engines h ave often sh ow n a greater t herm al
efc ienc y at t hree -qu arters t han at full load
Th at th is condit ion
does not hol d for st ill l ower loads is due to ot her c ircu mst ances
o
m
a ri s o n of V ariou s Cy c les
C
p
4
The quest io n of t he best gas -engine cycle h as often been dis
c ussed I n general t here is no b e st gas -engine c ycle but th at
cycle shoul d be c hosen wh ic h will give t he best return for t he
pract ic al conditio ns exist ing
To gi ve so me insig ht int o t he problem of ch oosing t he cyc le
best adapted to gi ve n conditio ns we wil l rst o btain so me t heo
re t ic a l basis of com pariso n
and show afterwards how t his is
a ffected i n pract ice
M any met hods of co mparison have been em pl o yed by various
*
writers bu t t he fol lo wing due originally to E Meyer seems to
t he writer to be t he c learest a nd most co mpre hensive
Z e i ts c h r i ft d e s V e re i ns d e ut sc he r I n ge n i e u re 1 897 p 1 1 08
,

'

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

74

U sing t he

Carnot

cycle as a basis of co mparison it is cl ear

t h at t he amount of heat transferred into mec hanical work de
pends only upon t he total amount of heat and t he temperature
difference in t he cycle B u t to beco me available a s a basis for
t he co mpariso n of ga s-engine cyc les onl y t h at Carnot cycle can
be used for w hic h the heat element Sq, supplied at a constant
temperat ure T, and t he heat element Sq2 rej e cted at a const ant
temperature T2 are of innitesim al amount so t hat t he t wo
adiabat ics form ing t he rest of t h e cycle are innitely c lose t o
get her T hen every cl osed cyc le m ay by a nu mber o f adiabat ics
be di v i ded into an i n nit e nu mber o f elementary cyc les Fig 3 4
,

FI G

4
3

eac h o f wh ic h we may wit h very small error assu me that t he

heat element Sql is suppl ied at a const ant temperature T, and t he
heat element Sq2 is rej ected at t he co nst ant tempera t ure T2 T h e
efc ien cy o f o n e of t hese ele mentary Carnot cyc les may be ex
pressed for s ay t he n th cyc l e by
fo r

T201 )

T1 01 )

E c o)

Tun)

Fro m t he abo ve equ at ion we at on ce deri ve t he important

requ irement t hat for best efc ienc y eac h h eat el ement Sq1 shoul d
be suppl ied t o t h e work ing u id at t he highest temperat ure p o s
sible and eac h element
shoul d be rej ected at t he lowest
possibl e temperature t hat is t he temperat ure l imits shoul d be
as wide as possibl e
I t shoul d be observed however t hat t he abo ve requirement
,

T H EORE TICA L C YCLES

75

does not mean t hat t he sum total o f al l the heat elements Sq,
must b e suppl ied isot hermally or t hat t he su m tot al of t he ele
ments Sq, rej ected must be taken u p isothermall y For in general
I n gas engines t he various su c cessive heat elements are not avail
able a t constant temperature an d i n fact i n f o llowing out the
requirement abo ve outlined fo r best efc iency o n e would be
le d t o const ant l y c hange the temperature of supply and of re je c
tion t o widen t he temperature limits as far as possible I t is
clear t herefore t hat onl y in t he c ase w here all the heat element s
s upplied are avail able at constant t emperat ure and al l t hose
c an be t aken u p at const ant tem perature as is the c ase
I n engine will the Carn ot cycle represent the ideal
No w consider o n e of t he elementary Carnot cycles into whic h
t he ga s-engine cyc le has been d iv ided by itself Fig 3 5
,

FIG
point

3
5

we may write
TI

p l vl

an d since d uring the suppl y o f the i n nitesi mal heat element Sq

the val ues of p , and
in c rease o nly by innitesimal amou n ts we
with out great erro r th at the vol ume and pressur e at
t he heat supply are also represented by v, and p ,
t ive ly
S i milarl y we may write fo r the po int 2
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

76
B ut

since t he other enclosing l ines are ad iabat ics we have

,

p , v,

p , v, ,

fro m

wh l c h

02

Fin ally t herefore

,

I n con nection w it h t h e l ast equ at ion it sh oul d be observed

t hat w hile t he expression

E,

is based u pon t h e general

l aws of t hermodyn a mics an d is t herefore appl ic abl e t o al l work

ing uids wit hout except ion e quation ( 3 5 ) h as been derived fro m
,

t his by the use of equ ation s

p
~

2)

an d

E quat ion

c onstan t

(3 5 ) is t herefore strict ly appl ic able t o gas on ly

E quat ion (3 5 ) leads to t he following i mport an t ded uction :
To obta in th e be s t eic ien c y in a c los ed c yc le it is n ec e s sa r y to su p p ly
eac h h ea t el em en t a t s u c h a p r es s ur e p , a n d t o r ejec t th e p a r t n o t

1
1
s ha ll be
tra n sfor m ed in to wo r k a t s u c h a p res s u r e p , tha t th e r a tio
.

as

la rge

as

l
e
oss
b
i
p

p2

As

pre viousl y poin ted out ho wever in th e c ase o f th e gas

e n gine t he pressu re p 2 c annot wel l be bel o w at mosphere bec ause
the use o f a vac uu m is n e it h e r p r ac t ic able nor ec ono mic al
Hen c e
the meaning o f equ ation (3 5 ) n arro ws down to the req ui re men t
to in tr od u c e ea c h h ea t elem en t a t high es t p os s ible p r es s u r e p , a n d to
r ejec t th e p a r t n ot u s ed a t a p r es s u r e a s c los e to a tm os p h er e a s p os sible
Wit h t his knowledge it beco mes easy t o co m pare th e various gas
engine cycles a mong t hemsel ves t o determin e wh ic h of t h e p re ss u re
l ines at wh ic h heat is su ppl ied gives t he best guarantee of ef cien c y
Figure
represents t he cycle w it h co mb ust ion at c ons t ant
vol ume Fig 3 7 t he c onst ant pressur e c ycle an d F ig 3 8 t h e cycle
wit h isot hermal combustion T he h eat is rej ected in eac h case
al ong a c onst ant -pressure l ine as nearl y as possible to at mosphere
I t is assumed al so in eac h c ase t h at t he p ressure and t em perature
at t he end of co mpression sh al l be t he sam e t hat is t h at p and

3
7 , et c
T0 in F i g 3 6 sh al l be e q ual to p a nd T i n Fig
,

'

THEORE TI CAL

FI G

3 7

C Y OLES

FIG

3 -8

77

IN TE R NA L COMB US TION ENGINES

78

assu me th at eac h cycle is divided by adiabatics int o a n

innite n umber of elementary cyc les F o r convenience only t hree
of these are indic ated in eac h gure With co mbustion at constant
vol ume Fig 3 6 eac h heat element
et c
supplied
serves to raise t he tem perature and especi al ly t he pressure fo r
t he o n e su cceeding it and sinc e expansion is c arried t o at mosph ere
i n eac h case it is plai n th at t his method o f combust ion t ends of
itself t o full t h e requ irement ab ove o utl ined On ac cou nt of
t he increasing pressure ranges th e ef c iency o f eac h el ementary
cycl e is in this c ase greater t h an th at of th e one j ust prec ed
ing it
Th e same course o f reasoning appl ied t o co mbustion at c o n
st ant pressure Fig 3 7 will show t h at eac h h eat el ement
et c wh il e it serves t o raise t he temperat ure does not raise
t he pressure for t he next suc ceeding element Th e expansion
being again i n eac h c ase t o at mosphere t he pressure ranges for
al l t he elementary c ycles and hence also t he efcien cy is t he
sa me
The c ase of co mbustion at constant t emperature Fig 3 8 is
even less favorabl e
H ere eac h heat element
et c
does not raise t he temperature for th e su cc eed ing element bu t is
ac com pan ie d b y a decrease o f pressure Th e exh aust pressure
being u nc h anged t his means a small er pressu re range for eac h
suc ceeding el ementary cycle and consequ ent ly a steadily d e c re as
ing ef c ien c y
L ook ing n ext at t h e h eat disch arged fro m eac h el ementary
cycl e we m ay writ e :
No w

692

A 92

q
dqz

d913

A 92

c om p

a ll

r e ssion

tha n tha t

at

ollows

this it
,

c on s ta n t

t ha n is oth er m a l

3 92

tha t ,

s ta

c on s ta n t-vo lu m e

th e

p r essu r e;

m bu s tion

co

,,

F r om

a nd

rtin g

with the

c om bu stio n

sa m e

i s m or e

this in tu r n is m or e

e
u
e
r
ss
p

ic ien t
e
t
ef
n
i
c

I sot hermal combu stion being so obviou sl y inferior

th e
oth er two in t h eory is also dif cu lt to carry int o operation prae
t ical l y an d for t hese reasons is pract ically obsolete
,

to

T H EORE TICA L C YCLES

5

P ra c ti c a l

c o nd iti on s

a ff e c

tin g

79

c h oi c e of

th e

be st

y c le for

n
c
e
iv
e
as
g
I t is evident fro m t he preceding art ic le t hat t he most im po r
tant item i n t he ef ciency question is t he pressure at t he end o f
co mpression T he a i m should be t o use as hig h a pressure as
possible in order t o introduce t he rst heat element at t he highest
possibl e efc ienc y B u t the compression pressure gov e rns th e
maxim u m pressure an d tem perat ure oc curring in t he cycle a n d
th at brings us t o a c onsiderat io n of t he pressure a n d temperature

a ny

t hese t wo t he tem peratu re li mit pl ays but a secondary

part bec ause it is possible t o operate on a cycle whose maximu m
temperature m ay be 3 000 degrees Fahrenheit for t he reason that
Of
,

I
I

I
l

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
I

I
I

FI G

39

t h ese m axim u m t emperatures exist but for a very sho rt time

The pressure l imit is more import ant bec ause no m atter h o w
short a t ime t he m axim u m pressure lasts th e d riving mec hanism
of the mac hine must be built for t h is pressu re I n m odern p ra c
tice 55 0600 pou nds seems to be about th e maximu m pressur e
l imit that c an be ec onomic al ly hand led Herein we nd a co ndi
tion whic h may mod ify t h e conc lusion arri ve d at i n the previous
article as regards c o mparat ive e fc ienc y of c ombustio n at c on
sta nt vol u me and at c onstant pressure
Assu ming the m ore practical c ond ition that the maximu m
pressures i n th e t wo c yc les i n stead o f the c ompression pr e ssur e s
shal l be th e sam e t he d iagrams would be plac e d as sh o wn in
It
Fig 3 9 in wh ic h t he broken l ine represents the Ott o cycl e
is evident i n suc h a c ase that only the last heat element of t he
.

IN TERNAL COMB US T ION ENGINES

80
Otto

cycl e is introd uced at t he same efcien cy a s th e rst and

c onsequently all o f t he heat elements of t he cycle at const ant
volume ) H ence u pon t hese premises t he c onst ant -pressure
cycl e is more efcient t han t he const ant vol ume cycle U nder
so me conditions however favorab le t o t he Otto cycle t his a d va n
t age o f t he c onst ant -pressure cycle is not very great T hus i n a
D iesel engin e cutt ing o ff at ful l load at 1 0 per c ent S
assu me
r
1 3 an d 7
t hen E w il l be 56 4 An Otto en gine
cycle of t he same m aximu m pressure l imit
about 4 6 0 pou nds
woul d show a c ompression pressure of fro m 1 90- 225 pounds r
E wou ld be 55 0
woul d be about equ al t o 7 and wit h y
r
T his shows a gain for t he D iesel engine o f only
cent but
e
p
it should be pointed o u t t hat a compression pressure of 200
pounds in an Otto cycl e c an only be reached w it h extremely lean
fuel g ases o r w it h separate fuel an d air c ompression H owever
that m ay be t he advantage of t he const ant -pressure cyc le over
t he constant -volu me c ycle presu pposing equal m aximu m pres
sures in each is comparat ivel y smal l an d hen ce t he u ndoubted
gain that t he D iesel engine sh ows in pract ice o ver t he average
constant -vol u me engine is b y so me writers attributed not s o
muc h to t he cycle as to t he greater p erfect ion o f combust ion
T hat t his is approx imat el y true h as been proven by G iild n e r who
const ru cted e ngines operat ing o n t he Otto cycl e upon t he m ost
advan ced ideas and obt ained efc ien c ies fully a s good as t hose
obtained by D iesel
A second l imit s e t t o t he c om pression pressure t h at can be
c arried is due t o pre-ignit ion All fuel m ixtures will ignite spon
t a n e o u sly if t he temperature beco mes high enough b ut t he
crit ic al tem peratu re v aries great ly for t he di ff erent fuel s T his
fact d irect ly governs th e com pression pressure While it is hardly
advisable t o use more t ha n s a y 8 090 pounds in t h e c ase o f a
gasol ine m ixture a bl ast furnac e gas m ixture will easi ly stan d
S in ce t he ef c ienc y o f t h e
1 5 0 pounds wit hout pre ign ition
c ycl e depends directl y upon t he co mpression pressure as above
shown we shoul d expec t a better ef cien c y for blast furnace
The
ga s t h an for gasoline an d t his is act uall y s o in practice
di fferenc e however is due to t he n ature o f t he fuel A remedy
fo r t h is st ate o f a ff airs woul d be to co m press th e air separatel y
a nd introduc e t he gasol ine or ot her fuel oil only at t he m o ment
,

T H EORE T ICA L C Y CL ES

81

co mbust io n is desired This leads t o th e constant -pressure

cyc le and t hus t he fuel to be employed should be c onsidered in
t he c hoic e o f c yc le
A nal point t o be considered is th is : B y t heory the greater
t he co mpression pressure th e higher the e fc ien cy T his holds
for eit her type o f cycle B ut how far c an t his co mpression be
c arried outside o f t he quest ions o f upper pressure l imit and pre
ignit io n above co nsidered before the added gai n due t o h igher
co mpressio n is in practice bal anced o r o verb al anced by attendant
.

'

T he following di sc ussio n of t his question by G iild ne r as appl ied

to co mbust io n at constant v ol u me is instruct ive
T he efciency of any engine sh ould n o t be j udged upon c ylin
der performance but upon t he performance at t he shaft U sually

t his is c al led t he t herm al efci en cy per brake h orse power

but a sh ort er and more ex pressive term wh ic h t he aut hors prefer

is E cono m ic E f c iency
a nd wil l use i n t h is t reat ise
,

X E, E m

E, E m

w here
t hermal efc ienc y per i ndic ated horse-power
mec han ic al efc iency of engine

I nd ic ated H

cycl ic ef c iency as d erived i n the preceding art ic les

1

for combustion at constant vol ume

r
X

X EC so that X is always less

a factor suc h th at E,
th an 1

The

mech anic al ef cien cy m ay be ex pressed by

Em

In

r;

in

p,

m ean i nd icated pressure per square inc h of p iston

pressure l ost in frict ion per square inc h

of

piston

I N T ERNA L

82

COMB US TION ENGINES

Hen c e
1

Pi

Pf

Pi

P5

The val ue o f E t herefore depends u pon t he relat ion between

t h e factors X p i and p , a s modi ed by a variat ion i n r t hat
The c h ange i n t he val ue of
is i n the pressure o f co mpression
X due t o a variat ion in r is quit e unk nown and is i n an y c ase
s ma l l t h at it may be neglected
R egarding t he rel at ion
so
bet ween p i p , an d r nu merous t ests h a ve shown t h at as r
,

Pi

increases t he mech anic al efc ienc y

,

pl
pi

i s at rst qu ite

c on

sta nt but th at after a c ert ain point it co m mences t o d ecrease

qu ite rapidl y This is d ue t o th e fac t t h at for t he rst part o f
t he range an y inc rease in p i due to an in crease in r is count er
bal anc ed by a c orresponding gain in p , B eyond a cert ain point
h o we ver t here is a l oss in p i owing t o t he fact t h at t he fuel
mixt ure h as t o be made more an d more lea n t o prevent
pre -ignit ion an d t h e mec h anic al ef cien cy c onsequent ly de
c reases
Hen c e we ha ve th e n et r esu lt tha t a s lon g as a n in cr ea s e
in p , du e to a n in c r ea s e in r is m et by a p r op o rtion a te ga in
J u s t a s soo n ho w
in p i th e E c o n om ic E ffic ien c y IE will in c r ea se
ever a s with in cr ea s e in r th e ga in in p is n o lo n ger s u ffic ie n t to
E will c omm en c e to d ec r ea s e a n d th e
o ve rc o m e th e in c rea s e in pf
ec o n om ic c o mp r es s io n lim it w ill ha ve be e n p a ss ed
Tests and c o m p utat ions h a ve sh own t h at u p to r
6 wh ich
me ans a compressio n pressure of ab out 1 6 0 pounds the m e c h a n i
c al ef cienc y d oes not ch ange m aterial ly but t hat beyond t his it
co m men ces t o decrease Th is is probabl y due t o t h e necessary
in crease i n the si ze of mach ine parts d ue t o t he grea ter pressures
and to t he fact t hat leaner m ixt ures t han would ordinarily be
used must be employed to prevent pre-ignition wit h a c orrespond
ing l oss in t he value o f p i B eyond r
6 t he gain i n E is sm all
1 0 it pract icall y ceases to in crease
and at r
Hen c e we c on
e lu d e tha t for c om bu stion a t c on sta n t volu m e th e u se of va lu e s of r
gr ea ter tha n a bou t 8 for whic h the com p r e ssion p r es su r e equa ls
,

f gain in
th e ec on omic effic ien c y of the m a c hin e
Th is statement does not
appl y to co mbust io n at const ant pres s ure bec ause it s E, follow s
a bo u t

225 p ou n d s , is

no

lon ger

ac c om p a n ied
.

by

a n y u s e ul

T H EORE T ICA L C YCLES

83

a di fferent l aw and E m dec reases more slowly o n ac count of the

generally greater value o f p i
Finall y i n laying out a n Otto cyc le to obtain h igh engine
capacity per un it volu me o f cylinder means m ak ing t h e maxi
mu m pressure as h igh as possibl e to obt ai n a h igh value of p i
Wit h fuel mixtures whic h cannot stand a high amount o f co m
pression t his woul d mean t he use of ric h gas m ixtures W here
m ax pressure
the co mpression c an be made h igher the ratio of
c o mp pressure
instead of being fro m 45 m ay be protabl y m ade fro m
to 3
by th e use o f leaner mixtures s o th at the m aximu m pressure
shal l be i n the neighborhood of say 4 5 0 pounds The c h ances
are as th e gas engine develops t hat higher m aximu m pressures
will be empl oyed but ac c ording t o G uld n e r the use of work ing
press ur es exceeding 6 00 pou nds is neit her economical n or safe
,

CH APT E R I V

VA R I O U S E V E N TS O F T HE C O N S TA N T V O L U M E
C O N STA N T -P R E SS U R E C YC L E S A S M O D I F I E D B Y
CO ND I TI ON S

T HE

T HE

AND
PR A CT

I CA L

IN

t he previous c ha pt er t he various c yc les w ere d iscussed

a nd c o m pared o n t heoret ica l grou nds Fo r t h is pu rpose several
th ings were assu med w h ic h in pra ct ice are only approxim ately
t ru e ; thus c o m pressio n and expansion l ines w ere assu med ad i
a bat ic and t he surroun ding walls i m permeabl e t o heat I t is how
ever t ru e t hat t he heat int erc hange bet w een t he c ha rge a nd t he
wal ls may be su c h a s t o give a l ine o n a d iagra m w h ic h st rictl y
follows t h e ad ia bat ic law S u c h a l ine is by s o me writ ers cal l ed a
false or pseud o -ad iabat ic Aga in it h as been assu m ed in t he t heo
re t ic a l d iscussion t hat ignit ion is perfect t hat t h e c om p o s it ion o f
t he c harge is u n iform a nd t hat c o mbust ion is c om pl et e a nd per
fe e t none o f t hese t h ings qu it e obt ain in pract ic e a nd all t he va
r ia t io n s ha ve t heir infl u e n c e u pon engine performanc e
Thus it
ha ppens t hat t he cycl ic efc ienc y a bo ve c om put ed is in an y given
case never real ized but t hat t h e act ual t h ermal efc iency is a l
ways less t ha n E
The following paragra phs w ill point out t h es e m od icat ions
more i n d etail
2
The fou r -stroke Ot to cy c le
At t h e end of t h e exhaust st rok e
(a ) THE S U CT I O N S T R O K E
t he c leara nc e vol u me V Fig 4 1 is ll ed w it h bu rned g as es
u nd er a pressure p a nd a t em perat u re T
The weight of t hes e
g a ses ca n only be a pproxi mat el y c o mput ed sinc e n ot h i ng d enit e
is k now n of t h e t em peratu re T
I t is in m ost cas es probably
bet ween 1 2 1 4 00 d egrees Fah renh eit w h il e t h e pressu re p in
w ell -d esigned mac h ines may be fro m 1 61 8 pou nds absolut e
but c ircu mst anc es may alter t hese gu res c onsid erably At
t he c o m mencement o f t h e su ct ion st rok e t he pressu re fa lls
fro m p t o t he su ct ion pressu re p al ong a cu rve d et er
mined by t he re -expa nsion of t he burned gases in t h e
cl earanc e s pac es Onl y aft er t h is re -expansion w il l t he fres h
c harge be d raw n i nt o t he cyl i nd er I t is t hus seen t h at t h e
1

'

6,

84

T H EORE TICA L C YCLES MODI FIED B Y PRA C TICE

85

volu met ric e fc ienc y E, of t he cyl inder t hat is t he rat io

vol u me o f fresh m ixt ure
vol ume of pis to n d isplac ement
of burned gases rema ining t hus a ffect ing cyl inder ca pac ity I f
t hrough bad for m of c o mbust ion cha mber t oo s mall a n exhaust
o pening or a rest rict ed exhaust pipe t he exhaust pressu re should
be kept t o o h igh or t oo muc h burned gas re ma i n behind t h is e ffect
A t oo
o f re
expansio n will be m ore m ark ed t ha n above stated
ea rly c losure o f t he exhaust val ve ma y ha ve the effect show n i n
Fig 4 1 in d ott ed l ine I t is evident however t hat in t he ord inary
four-c yc le engi n e w it hout sca venging t his loss o f vol u met ric e f
c ie n c y will always be p res e nt d e p e n d ing u p o n t h e c learanc e vol u me
,

F I G 4 1
A second factor affect ing t he volu metric e ffic iency o f th e
c yl inder is t he suct i o n pressu re p
At t he end of t he suct i o n
st roke t he cyl inder c onta ins a volu me of gas v, mad e u p part ly
of burned gas a nd pa rt ly of fres h m ixtu re u nder a pressu re p
The c o m pression st roke ra ises t h is a mou nt of gas t o t he pressu re
The c om pression cu rve c rosses t he at mos
p w it h a vol u me v
p he ric l ine w hen t he st roke volu me is only v and not t he
ful l volu me v
Hence t he volume v
v re prese n t s a loss in
v o lu met ric efc ienc y and t h is l oss is t he great er th e smaller p
I t fo l lows t hat t he inlet pi p es and val ves sh ould be so d esigned as to

c ause a mi n i mu m suc tio n und e r pre ssure that is t o k e ep p as

c l o se to atmospheri c press u re as possibl e This al s o m ak e s c le a r
why vap o ri zers an d c arbu reters al ways decrease engine c apac ity
so mewhat
.

,r

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

86

Thus t here is a loss of volu met ric efc iency and he nc e of

engine ca pac it y at eac h end of t he suct ion l ine Th e real volu
met ric ef c iency E is fou nd in any given case by d ivid ing t he
volu me represent ed by t he l ine a b measu red along t he at mos
of
t
he
p
i
st
on
d
is
plac
ement
l
ine
by
t
he
vo
l
u
me
v
i
h
r
c
e
p
Att ent ion sh ou ld at t h is point be called t o t he fact t hat cer
t a in syst ems of s pe ed regulat ions d epend u pon t he variat io n in
t he suct ion pressure B y t hrott l ing t h e m ixtu re fro m t he begin
n ing o f t h e st roke o r by cutt ing o ff t he su pply c o m plet ely at a
given point in t he st roke p is inc reased o r d ecreased d epend ing
t hus d irect ly c ont roll ing t he c h a rge
o n t he load o n t he engine
vol u me a nd henc e t he engine ca pac it y This is expla ined more
in d eta il in t he c ha pt er on go vern ing
S ince it is qu it e evid ent t hat nei t her t he loss by re -expansion
o r t hat due t o t he su ct io n pressu re at t he e n d o f t he su ct ion st rok e
ca n be ent irel y a void e d it bec o mes int erest ing at l e a st fro m t he
point of design t o k now a pproxi mat ely w hat val ues o f E t o
expect in d iff erent t y pes of engines
N at u ra ll y E d ec rea s e s
as
engine speed i nc reases bec ause sinc e high -speed engines
a re usu all y smal l engines t he d ifcu lty o f pla c ing val ve o pen ings
large enough t o prevent serious t hrottl ing o f t he c harge bec omes
greater as speeds inc rease Co m put at ions a re o f l ittle a va il in
t his matter since l itt l e is d enitel y k n ow n o f t h e t em peratu re
o f t he c ha rge at t he end o f t h e su ct ion st roke
For t hat reason
more rel ianc e is t o be plac ed i n gu res based u pon pra ct ica l
experience T he foll owing t able is du e t o G iild n e r :
,

U,

Ev

P5

lbs p e r sq in c h
a bS O lu m
.

N
O

A
5

S l o w-s pee d

n gi ne s w it h m e c ha n i c a ll y o pe r
a t e d i n le t v a l v e
S low s pee d e n gi n e s w it h a ut o m a ti c i n l e t v a l v e
Hi gh-s pee d e n gi ne s w it h m
e c h a n i c a ll y o pe r
a t e d i n le t v a l v e
Hi gh -s p ee d e n gi n e s w it h a ut o m a ti c i n l e t v a l v e
V e ry h i gh -s p ee d e n gi n e s wit h a ut o m a ti c i n l e t
v a l v e s a n d a ir c o o l i n g
e

88

93

80

87

78

85

65

5O

75

65

S u ct ion

gas generat ors a nd va pori zers may i n u nfa vorable

cases d ec rease t he above gu res fo r E as mu c h a s 05
T he c o m pres s ion l ine may
( b) THE CO M P R E SS I O N S T R O K E
.

T H EORE TICA L C YCL ES MODI FIED

BY

PR A C TICE

87

be taken t o fol l ow t h e general law p v

c onst ant
D uring t h e
rst pa rt of t he st rok e t here is probabl y a o w of heat fro m t h e
walls t o t he co mparat ively c ool c harge but t his is soon over
bala nced by t he heat of c om pression s o t hat du ring t he last and
great est part o f t he stroke t he o w is int o t he walls The c om
"

is

pression curve
where 7

t herefore rarely a n ad iabat ic

as co mputed for t he c harge

c onstant

pv

I n most cases t he

7}

l ine is int ermed iat e bet ween a n adiabat ic and an isot hermal a nd
st rict ly also t he value of th e exponent n is n ot c onst ant al ong t he
The valu e of n in a ct ual cases l ies between
and
e nt ire l ine
wit h a n a verage of about
I n cases of very ine ffect ive
,

c ool ing

may exc eed

I t sh ould also be not ed t hat

lea ky pist ons and val ves cause a att ening o f t he com pression
cu rve wh ic h a pparent ly decreases th e t rue value of n
Fro m t he equ ation p v
c o nsta n t we m ay d e ri ve t h e fol l ow
ing e qu atio n for the absol ut e pressu re p at t he en d o f c ompres
sio n s e e Fi g 1
.

"

p sr

pa

The absolut e t em peratu re at th e pressu re

TC

Ts T

wil l be

p,

l
n

Th is equat io n requ ires a n assu m pt i o n for t h e value o f T t h e

t em perat ure at t he end o f t he suct ion strok e As al read y stat ed
n ot a grea t d eal is k nown a bout t h is S A Moss st at es t hat
e xper iments ha ve sh own it t o be bet ween 200 3 00 degre es
Fah re nheit t hat is 6 6 0- 7 6 0 d egrees a bsol ut e but gives no d etails
S c h Ot t ler in h is exa m pl es o n ty pe -cyc les assu mes i n most cas e s
3 5 0 d e grees Cent igrad e a bsolute
632 d egrees Fa hr e nh eit a bsolut e
The clea rance v o l u me requ ired t o produ ce a pressu re p a nd a
t em perature T w il l be
s,

vt

The fo llow ing tabl e shows values fo r the absol ut e c om pression

pressu re p and t h e e nd t em peratu re T for va rious val ues of n
o f r t h e rat i o of c o m pr e ssi o n a nd of T
The v a l u e of p has been
assu med at
pou nd s a bsolut e :
,

IN TERNA L COM B US T ION ENGINE S

88
w
N m m
o
O

N
N

m
o

m m
w
g
m
v

w
o

m m
m o
m

w m
w w

m
m
m
m w a w
v w m o
a

m
m
o
g m m
h
w m

w w c
m m a
m w m

O
O
H

c
v

m o
#
n
m
w H
w
u
w

O c
m
w
m
w
H

~
w

m v c m
a
m o o
m m m

w O

0
c

m hm m
w m
m
m

w
o

m
m

m m
o
o

u
m
w w m a
H

n
e

c
o

o
o
o

c
o
o

o
n
o

m m
w u a
m m

~
~

m m
m

o
m
m m o o

N
a

~
_
~

w m

w
m

o
o

m
m

m
u

w v
w w

w m
m
o
w
w w m
o
A

c
o

N
u
n

c
o

m
m m

o
o
o
H

e
n

n
o

a
m

~
c

w m
w w o

m
m
w
v
m
a
c
d m m
o
m
a
n

mn
a
o

m
a

w
m o

m
m

M
H

_
~
~
O
H

m c O
m o h
m m m

~
.

m o
m m m
w o m o w

m
m

h
m
N
m w
h
m v m
a

o
m
m m

m
o
o

m m N
o
w e
m m w

w n
m w m

w m

c
o

N
O

w o m
m
c

w w m

o
o

m s m h
w o e a w
w n w w m a
H
a

w w

K
n

w
m m
c
a

c
o

~
~

w w

m
m m

w o
h
m
m
m o
m

o
m
m

u
m
m
o
o
m
o
w
w
m
b

o
o

m m

w m

m
m

w w m

n
n
o

m
m

w m n
m
a
v o e
o
w m n m w o
c

m m m
mo m
wz

m
w v N

m M

m m m
m u o m
o
g
n
m
v
o
m
c
o

m2
m w o o
w
a
o v m
m m
w o o

m
m

o
m w
m m m

a
n

~
~~

m
m w
m
o
o
o

m w m
w o

N
o
n

w m

m
h
a

n
a
b

m w
n

m a
m w

w m
m c

m
w m
o

o
o

m w m m

w a o
a
m w m m

m m m h m
u
m a a
h
n
w w m

"

v
o

w
w
w m
o

A
s

c
o

o
n
e

c
a
n

c
o

c
o

m
w

O
n
o

c
o

c
o

o
n
e

c
o
n

o
c

c
o
u

o
n
e

0
0

w
n

m
a

g
h

n
r

?
n
a

3
S

b
o

s
:

s
.
y

c
o

m
m

t
.

TH EORE TICA L

C YCLE S

B Y PRA C TICE

MODI FIED

89

I t has al ready been show n in t he previous c ha pter how t h e

.

cyc l ic efc ienc y a nd c onsequently also t he t herm a l efc i e ncy o f

a n e ngine d epends u pon t he c o m pr e ssion pressure I t has also
been show n t hat t here are c o m m e rc ial lim its t o t he com pressio n
pressure d u e t o pre ignit ion of c harge As regards pre -ig n it ion
o f c harge w hic h is t o be d is t ingu ished fro m back ring or e x lo
p
s io ns in t he e xhaust pi pe t he great er danger of t his exis ts wit h
fu el mixtures high in hyd rogen Hydrogen next t o a cetylene
possesses t he lowest ignit io n point o f any of t he gaseous fuels
c o mmonl y em ploy e d
Henc e illu minat ing gas wit h about 4 5
per c ent by vol u me o f hyd rogen is muc h more l ia ble t o pre -ex
plosion u nder t he tem peratu re o f c o m pression t han a produ c e r
gas w it h 1 5 per c ent
Henc e w e may use a higher c o m pressi o n
pres su re in t he case of t he latt er gas a nd may expect and actually
obta in a h igher th erma l efc ienc y in pract ic e Wit h gases v e ry
ric h i n CO a nd lo w in hyd rogen t here is l itt l e d anger of pre -ign i
t i o n even u p t o t he c o mmerc ial l imit of h igh pressu res L uc ke
est i mates t hat for every 5 p e r ce n t o f hyd roge n t hat t he gas c o n
t a ins 1 5 pou nds s hou ld be su bt ra ct e d fro m t h e ot herw ise all o w
able c om pression pr e ssu re
I n general it should be borne i n
mind a nd t h is a pplies t o all fuel mix t u res t he bett er a nd more
e ffect i v e the c o o ling of t he cyl inder t he h igh e r ca n be t he c o m
pression wit hout dang e r of preig n it ion Anyt h ing whic h draws
d own t h e t e mperature d u ring c om pressio n as wat er inj ect i o n
is also fa v o rable to t he same t h ing
A case in point is B a n ki s
met hod o f wat er inj ect ion w it h gasol i n e as fu e l by w hic h mea ns
co mpres sion pressures could be em ployed w hic h ga ve thermal
efc i e ncy results equal t o t he best obta ined on lea n gases
P rematu re ex plosions are so met im e s d irectl y due t o fault y
d e s ig n of t he c ombust io n c ha mber Any project ing point or
edge in t he c ha mber w hic h c an not be e ffect ivel y water -c ooled
may beco me red hot u nd er c om pression and t hu s loc ally ra ise
t he tem perat ure high enough t o c ause p re ignit ion This a ct ion
is so ce rta in t hat it has been pro pos ed t o u s e it as a m et hod of
ignit ion by plac ing a proj ect ion o n t he pist on face I t was fou nd
t ha t w hile t h is sc h e m e would w ork it was not susc ept ibl e of c on
t rol a nd was a ba nd o n ed
The following tabl e shows t he safe c o m pression pressu res in
us e wit h t he fuel s co m monly employ e d a s given by L ucke
The
.

'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

90

sec ond c olu mn gives t he perc entage of c learanc e requ ired t o

prod uc e t he pressure p i n t erms of t he pist o n d is place ment
This c olu m n has been c o mput ed assu ming p
1 3 l bs absolut e
a nd n
,

F ue l

G a so l i n e :
A ut o e n g i n e s w it h

r bu re t e rs c oo l i n g n o t
v e ry e ffe c tive h i gh spe e d s
G a so l i n e :
S t a t i o n a ry sl o w-sp ee d e n gi n e s m o re alf e o
t iv e c oo l i n g but u s u a ll y l e ss s i m p l e c o m
bus t io n c h a m be r
ca

45

Ave

95
.

65

35

60

A ve

85
.

70

32

K e ro se n e :

Ho t bu l b i n je c t i o n

an d

i gn iti o n

30

75

45

85

35

40

K e ro se n e :

P re vi o u sl y v a p o r i z e d i n d e vi c e s n o t re q u ir
i ng a v a c u u m
N a t u ra l G as
N at u ra l G a s
A v e ra ge fo r l a rge a n d m e diu m e n gi n e s
I ll u m in a t in g ga s

Ave
75

Ave

t e r-c oo le d

65

35

1 15

22

1 00
.

1 00

wa

1 30

60

A ve

P r o du ce r G a s
P ro du c e r G a s :
I n l a rge e n gi n e s
a nd v a l ves
B last Fu rn a c e G as

26

80
160

pi st o n s

on

Ave

120

A ve

1 35

20

1 90
.

1 55

17

THE CO M B U ST I O N L I N E

T he sha pe of t he c ombust ion

( )
l ine depends primaril y u pon t he int errelat ion of t hree t hings :
c o m posit io n o f c ha rge point of ignit ion a nd pist on s peed
F or ev ery fuel t here is a c ert ain fuel -a ir m ixtu re w hic h gives
t h e great est rat e of a me pro pagat ion i e the m ost ra pid c om
An y fu rt her ad mixture of neut ral gases w het her t h ese
bu s t io n
be a ir or burned gases results in a sl ower c o mbust ion u nt il t here
c o mes a t ime w hen ign it ion fails S u ppose t herefore t hat in a ny
i
ven
engine
w
it
h
ful
l
th
rott
le
c
on
ta
nt
speed
a
nd
pro
per
ign
i
s
g
0

TH EORE TICA L C YCLES MODI FIED B Y PRA C TICE

91

t ion we obtain d iagra m Fig 4 2 a N o w if t he t hrottle is part l y

clos e d mak i n g t he d il ut ion of t he c harge
t he burned gases
grea t er t ha n before card F ig 4 2 b
results Fu rt h er cl osu re o f t he t hrottle
makes t he c o mbu st io n st il l sl ower
Fig 4 2 c S i milar e ffects would have
been obta ined w it h ful l t hrottle if t he
pro port i o n of air in t he fresh c harge be
seriously inc reased
For pro p er c o mbust io n t he t ime of
ignit ion s h o uld be s o c hosen t hat t he
c o mbust i o n l ine is vert ical o r nea rl y
T his means t hat e very di ffere nt fuel
so
mixtu re a nd every d i fferent pist o ns pe ed
w il l ha ve its own pro per point o f
ignit io n F o r t hat reas o n t he ignit ion
a p pa ratus in every engi n e shou ld be
m ade ad j ust able because t h e onl y wa y
t o det ermine t he pro per t ime is by t rial
For smal l gas o l ine engines t h is ad j ust ing
may be d one by ear si n ce t he proper
po int of ignit io n c orres p onds nearly
wit h t he highes t s peed for a given
t hrottle posit ion
For more ac curat e
work t he ind icat or preferably wit h a
c onsta nt -s peed d ru m mot ion should be
us ed I t wil l in general be fou nd w hen
ignit ion is right t hat it oc curs some
t ime before t he pist on h a s reac hed th e
dead cent er t he a m
ou nt of t his lead d e
pend ing u p o n t he m ixture and t he
pist on s p eed as above st at ed What im
pro perly t imed ignit io n resu lts ih is
show n in a d iagram Fig 4 3 given by
Clerk Wit h pro per ignit ion t he n o rm a l
d iag ra m is i n d icat ed by a As th e t ime
of
ignit ion is mad e later and later
ca rds b c a nd d result in t h e last
case ame pro p agat ion sta rt ing s o
F I G 4 -2
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

92

lat e t hat i t barel y o vert akes t he pist on before t he end o f t he

st roke
I f instead o f c hanging t he t ime o f ignit ion t h e pist on s peed
had been increased e ffects very s i milar t o t hose o f Fig 4 3
would ha ve been obt ained
Thus t he dependenc e o f t he sh a pe of t he c o mbust ion l ine u po n
t h e t hree fact ors m ent ioned at t h e outset is c l ear
The maxi mu m pressu re att ain ed du ring c o mbust ion d e pend s
u p on t he heat ing valu e of t he c harge W it h all c ond it ions fa vor
able t he maxi mu m pressu re s hould be reac h ed a t o r before o n e
t ent h s t roke The ric h fu el m ixtu res t hose for illu minat i n g
s how ra pid c o mbust ion They
g as nat ural gas gasol ine et c
.

FIG

4 3

c an not in general stand h igh co m pression a nd t h e rat io of

ma xim u m pressure
sim pl y cal l ed t he pressure rat io is usually
c om pressio n
pressure
high betw een 3 and 5 Th e n atu rally lea ner fu els l ike produc er
gas and blast furnac e gas ignite bett er w h en highly c om pressed
but on ac c ou nt o f t he general ly l ow heat ing va lu e o f t heir fuel
m ixt ures t he pressure rat io for t hes e gases is usually l ess ; betw een
a nd 3
The maximu m expl osio n pressu re p x Fig 4 1 even a ssu ming
c o m pl et e c ombust ion at c onst ant vol u me is in no a ctual c a se as
h ig h as t hat c o m put ed on t heoret ic al grou nds for t h e heat rec eived
by t h e cycl e Th ere may be several reasons fo r t h is One is u n
d oubt ed ly t he l oss o f heat t o t he j ack et wat er d u ring ex pl osion
T his a mou nt o f heat is a d ead l oss sinc e it d oes not even ent er
t h e cycl e I t is so met hi n g h owever w h ic h can not be avoid ed
sinc e c ool ing is a necessit y for ot her reasons Anot her is d ue t o
t h e u ndoubt ed f act t hat t he s pec ic heat o f t he gases i nc reases
,

T H EO R E TI CA L C YCL ES MODI FIED

P R A C T I CE

BY

93

w it h t he t e mpe rat ure We can not however as yet m a t h e m a t i

cally gage t his e ff ect becaus e not h ing d enit e is know n of t he
*
law o f i ncre ase
Anot her t heory t o ac count for t h e fa ilu re t o real i ze t h e o re t i
cal ly maxi mu m pressure assu m e s t hat combust ion is not c om
p le t e t hat is t hat not all o f t he heat of t h e c harge is l iberated
when t he pist o n sta rt s forw ard This results in after-bu rn in g
w h ic h w ill be considered lat er I t is qu it e l ikel y t hat in most
cas e s t hese t hree t h ings c omb ine t o keep t he observed pressure
below t hat cal culat ed
Assu me t ha t t he c ombust ion t ak es pla ce at c onst ant v o l ume
and l et p x a n d V Fig 4 1 be t he pressu re and volu me at t he
end o f t h e expl osion
.

, ,

Then

px

I f t he c o mbust ion l ine is ot her t han vert ical as ind icat ed by

,

4 1 ,

d ott ed line in F ig
let p x Tx a nd V x be t he d at a for t he
end of t he c o mbust ion The above eq uat ions t hen beco me
.

g3};
I

px

and

Tx = T,

If

in t he above equat i ons t h e values o f p x o r p p are tak en

from act ual d iagra ms t he equat ions for Tx or Tx will give real
t e m peratu res
B u t if p x should be c om put ed fro m one o f t he
t heoret ical d iagra ms of t he previous c ha pt er t hen t he value o f Tx
sho u ld be multi pl ied by a fact or wh ic h expresses h ow muc h t h e
r ea l value o f p x fal ls bel ow t he th eor etica l value o f p x d ue t o
i m perfect ions of c om bustion This fact o r is a pproxima t el y equal
t o t he rat io
,

I nd icated t herm al efc ienc y

cycli c efciency
An

idea o f th e maximu m pressu res p x or p x ex ist ing in t h e

cycl e may be ga i n ed by considering that in most cases t he rat i o
can be made equ al t o

Turning t o t he table page

S ee Ch a pt e r X

88 ,

we

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

94

t hat for n
and r
6 p is equal t o about 1 4 0 l b
4 20 l b
The
absolut e Thus p x woul d be about 3 X 1 4 0
t em peratur e Tx assu ming T
7 00 d egrees w h ic h for t h e sa me
1 1 1 4 w ould t hen be ab out
valu es o f n and r mak es T
s ee

Tx

4 20 x 1 1 14

33 4 2

1 40

The fol l owing gu res give a few of t h e ch aract er ist ic

various fuels

for

FI G
FIG

F absol ute

44

F ro m S t ru the rsW e lls h it -a n d -m i ss e n gi n e

x
200
n a tu ra l ga s Ca rd go o d th r o u gho ut c o m p re ss i o n
p re ss u re 320 l b P re ss u re ra ti o 3g 5 ~
.

HP

30
80 1b

3 5

FI G
4
5

4 5

F rom S t ru the rs -W e lls a ut o m a ti c

n a tu ra l ga s fu ll l o a d Ca r d goo d
200
p re ss u re 330 l b P re ssu re ra ti o i

FIG

1 50

c om

p re ss i o n

96 1b

HP
.

T H EORE TICA L C YCLES MODI FIED B Y PRA C TICE

6
FI G 4

95

F ro m S t o c k
p o r t e n gi n e G iv e n
by Cle r k t h e G a s a n d
Oil E n gi n e p 3 2 1
.

9 h p
.

1 82

llum i na t
in g gas Co m p re ss i o n
90 1h
m a x p re ss u re
270 l b P re ss u re ra t i o
r

p m
.

M P
.

Lbs

FI G

F IG

4 7

F ro m Ho rn s by
Akro y d ke ro se n e e n
gi n e 6 H P 225
Ca rd a t a b o ut
:
Ho t bu l b
5 lo a d
v a p o r i z a ti o n he n ce
p re s s u re s low Co m
p re ss i o n 4 5 lbs m a xi
m u m p re ss u re 1 1 6 l b
1
P re ss u re ra ti o
30
.

FI G

4 8

f ro m

Lu c ke

4- 7

Ca rd

gas o l i n e
Gas

En

gi n e De s i gn p 7 1
Va por p re pa re d
o u tsi de
c y l in
d e r Co m p re ss i o n
80 1b m a x i m
p re ss u re 3 7 2 l b
P ress u re ra ti o 39537
,

4 07
.

F IG

4-8

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

96

FI G

FI G 4 - 9
.

Ma x
25 7

Ta k e n

p re ss u re

f ro m
24 2 1b

B l st fu rn
a

1h

a ce

ga s

P ress u re rat i o

FI G

FIG

4- 9

n gi n e 7 00 HP
c o m p re ss i o n p re ss u re 1 27

K oe rt in g
.

41 0

4 1 0

F ro m Am e r i c a n Crossle y p ro du c e r gas e n gi n e giv e n by La n gt o n

Hit -a n d -m i ss go v e rn o r G as ra t he r h i gh
1 8 %x
6 5 K W 200 r p m
i n H a n d lo w i n CO he n c e c o m p re ss i o n lo w Co m p re ss i o n 83 1b m a xi m u m
3
p re ss u re 24 8 l b P re ss u re ra t i o 63
.

. .

T he fo llo wing t wo d iagrams show ab norm al c ond itions :

FI G

4 1 1

F I G 4 1 1 P ro n o u n c e d c a se o f p re
i gn iti o n i n
k e rose n e e n gi n e d ue t o t o o h i gh c o m p re ss i o n
a dditi o n o f a l i t t l e wa te r t o t h e c h a rge
.

HP

Ho rn s b yAkroy d
'

Th i s wa s

u re d by

t he

T H EORE TICA L C YCLES MODI FIED B Y PRA C TICE

FIG

F I G 41 2

4- 1 2

97

ba c k -rin g a s di sti n gu i s he d f ro m p re -i gn iti o n Po we r

O g t 1 5 1 900 Ex p l o s i o n i n t h e s u c ti o n pipe a t a du r i n g t h e s u c ti o n st ro k e
O bse r ve d i n a n e n gi n e wh i c h a tt e m pt e d s c a v e n gi n g by m e a n s o f os
c illa t io ns o f bu rn e d ga se s i n t h e e xh a u s t pipe
B a c k-rin g m o re o fte n
oc c u rs i n t h e e xha u s t pipe d u e t o a c c u m u la ti o n o f u n bu rn e d gas
.

Ca se

The expansion l ine l ike t h e

(d) THE E X P A N S I O N L I N E

c o m pres sion l ine may be t aken t o follow a general law p v

,

c ons tant i n w h ic h

is

ra rel y equal t o

for t he bu rned

7}

gases Assu ming t hat c o mbust ion is c o m plet e when th e piston

starts fo rwa rd t he l oss of h eat t o t he jac ket during expa ns io n
s hould c aus e t he ex pans ion l ine t o l ie bel ow t h e ad iabat ic t hat is
n sh o uld be great er t ha n y
( I t should be remembered i n t his
c on nec t io n t hat leaky pist ons and val ves c ause a n i n c rease in t h e
t ru e val ue of n ) N o w it is v e ry oft en fou nd t h at t he ex pa ns ion
l ine fa lls o ff muc h more sl owl y t ha n t his c oinc id i n g n o w a nd t hen
wit h t h e ad ia bat ic but very o ft en lying between t h is and th e
isoth e rmal t hat is n is less t han 7 Th e explanat ion o f th is
phe n o menon has been held t o be a n evol ut ion of heat along t he
ex pa ns ion l ine e qual t o or exc eed ing t he l oss of h eat t o the jack et
du ring th is pe riod S everal t heories ha ve been ad vanc ed t o
e x pla in t h is
Th e old er ma c hines o f Lenoir and Hugon sh ow ed values o f
t he e x ponent n for t he ex pansion l ine bet ween
and
wh il e
t h e earlier Ott o ma c hines sh o w ed values a pproximat ing
To
e xpl ain th is
Ott o and a fter h im S l aby at least for a t ime
ad va nc ed t he th eory o f s tra tic a tio n
I t was su pposed t hat t h e
c harg e o f a 4 -c yc le mac h ine c ould be s o arranged as t o ha ve
pract icall y not hing but bu rn ed gases agai n st th e pist on next
pract ically air th en a layer of poor m ixture a nd nall y n ear the
ig n i ter t he fuel m ixtu re i n it s full st rengt h I t was fu rt her
.

IN TE R NAL COM B US TION ENGINES

98

assu med t hat t his arrangement w a s d is tu rbed but l ittl e d uring

co m pression Hence ign it ion was su re ; but as t he c o mbust ion
progressed a nd reac hed t he l eaner layers of m ixture it beca me
more a nd m ore slow wa s not c om plet ed w hen t he pist on start ed
forward a nd was c ont inued along t he expa n sion l ine showing a
Thus Ott o att em pt ed t o expla in t he
s o -cal led aft er -burni n g
somew hat sl ower rise o f t h e c o mbust ion l i n e and t he absenc e of
t he serious shock at t he moment o f ex pl osion in h is ga s engines
I n t he ght against t he Ott o pat ent t ests w ere mad e by th e
D eut z Co m pany by D ewar a nd by Teic h man al l of w h ic h seem
t o su pport Ott o s c lai m of strat ic at ion S laby d efended it
vigorousl y I t has however been prett y cl early show n t o -d a y
t hat w h il e strat ic at ion is n o t at all i m poss ibl e i n fact it is n o t
easy t o get a u n iform m ixt u re it c annot ha ve any mark ed effect
u pon ec onomy or performanc e ; t hat is t he d iagrams w ould not
be very far d i ff erent The O pin ion of t h e best writ ers o f t o
d ay
l eans t oward t he requirements of most u n iform m ixtu re and ra pid
c ombust ion Clerk h a s att em pt ed t o sh ow t hat som e heat is

su ppressed d uring t he c o mbust ion period i n every gas engine

and released al ong t h e expansion l ine alt hough t o att em pt t o
express t hese quant it ies i n t hermal u nits w oul d seem su peru ou s
i n view of t h e fact t h at w e k now not h ing d enit e of t h e variat ion
o f s pec ic heat at h igh t em perat u res
I t w oul d seem t herefore
t hat aft er -bu rning if it exists is n ot a pecul iarit y c o m mon t o
Ott o engines onl y
I t is m erel y e vid e n c ed m o re st rongly i n t he
Ott o d iagra ms by t he fact of h igher pist on s peeds a nd p o r p o rt io n
at el y s maller envel oping surface givi n g l ess t i me a nd o ppo rtu nit y
for heat l osses al ong t he expa nsion l ine as c o mpared w it h gas
engines before Ott o s t i me Henc e as Cl erk puts it t h e sl ow
d ropping o f t he ex pansion line is n ot t he cause o f t h e great er
ec on omy of t he Ott o engine but rat he rt h e effect and evid enc e of it
The sec ond ex planat ion of t he su pposed aft er-bu rn i n g rests on
t h e so -cal led d is soc ia t ion th eory I t has been show n by B u ns en
t hat a c om posit e gas breaks u p int o its el ements w hen t he t em
Conversel y c h em ic al c om bina
p e rat u re exceeds cert ai n l imits
t ions su c h as c ombust ion c an n o l onger t ake pl ac e w hen t h is
t em perat ure l i mit is reac hed This theory a ppl ied t o t he ga s
engine w ould mea n t h at at t he inner pist o n posit ion if t he t em
p e rat u re rises t o t he l i mit c o mbust ion no l onger t ak es plac e ,
.

THEO R E T I CA L C YCL ES MODI FIED

BY

PRA C T ICE

99

but j ust as so o n as t he pisto n starts forward resul t ing i n a d ro p

o f bot h t emperat ure and pressure
c ombust ion agai n ensues and
is by t he sa me met hod c ont inued alo n g t he expansion l ine unt il
no co mbust ibl e remains Clerk st rongl y lea ns t o t his view o f t he
matt er B ut it h as been pretty d enit e ly show n t hat t he t em
3000 degrees Fahrenheit
r
u
res
i
n
gas
engines
rarely
exceed
e
a
t
2
8
p
and t hat t hese t emperatu res are bel ow t he d issoc iat ion l imit I t h as
a lso been point ed out by S c h Ot t le r t hat if t his t heory holds good th e
expansion l ine should be a n isot hermal as long as t here is co m
bus t io n
I t may t herefore be c oncluded t h at d issoc iat ion plays but
a s m a ll part in t he c ombust ion phenomena found in gas engines
Wit z in some tests mad e w it h a n engine w hose pist on speeds
could be varied fou nd t hat in eac h case af t er -bu rni n g occurred
but t hat t he c ombust ion was t h e more ra pid and t he maximu m
pressure t he h igher (t hat is aft er-bur n ing t he less not iceable )
t he great er t he pist on speed a nd t he warmer t h e j acket walls
Thus he c onclud es t hat aft er-burni n g largely depends u pon t he
inuenc e of t he walls S laby corroborat ed by E Meyer o n t h e
basis o f ot her t ests has t ried t o show t hat t hese c onclusions of
Wit z are not generall y a ppl icabl e but on weigh ing t he evidenc e
and in t he l ight o f lat er ach ievements it must be c onclud ed t hat
ra pid combust ion
t hey and t h e princ ipl e based u po n t hem i e
of t he l eanest possibl e m ixt u re at t he great est possibl e pist on
speed at least represent a st ep i n th e right d irect i o n for gas
engine eco no my
Fro m t he above it is qu ite evid ent t hat none of th e t heories
ad vanced explain sat isfact oril y al l of t he phases o f t he quest ion
of a ft er-bu rning t he occurrence o f wh ic h must be held as pro ven
es pec i a ll y in t he l ight o f lat er tests S c h Ot t le r indeed h as
o ff e red a not her explanat ion for t he s o -called abnormal posit ion
o f t he expansion l ine by s howing t hat a natu ral solut ion o f t h e
quest ion may be fou nd in t he variat ion o f the s pec ic h e at of th e
expand ing gases wit h t emperatu re S ome gu re s quot ed by h i m
show t hat t h is may be t he case but befo re t h e idea of after-bu rn
i ng ca n be d is pensed w it h a great d eal more ex perimental w ork
is need ed and desirabl e
The requ irements for best efc iency o f c ombustion and ex
pe nsion ha ve al ready been briey explained
I n a l ittl e great er
det ail t hey are as fol ]
,

'

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINES

1 00

Highest possible co mpression pressure before ignition T he

e ff ect of t his is (a ) less ad mi xture o f burned gases to t he fresh
c harge ( b) less l oss to j ac ket bec ause sm aller vol u me is i nvol ved ( 0 )
greater mean e ffective pressure (d ) greater ease o f ignition o f c harge
2 P ure and u niform mixture and rapid co mbustion to avoid
after-burning T he b ad eff ec t of after -burn in g is due to t he great
j ac ket l oss alon g t he exp ansion line and its e ff ec t h as been c o m
p ared by Ko e rt in g to t h at of a leaky v al ve in a steam en gine
3 Avoid extern al cool in g
T his of c ourse c ann ot be entirel y
el i min ated B u t sin c e t he amount of heat l ost by c ooling is a
fun ction o f bot h ti me and superc i al surface t his requiremen t
c alls for high piston speeds and a form of cyl inder in w hic h t he
superci al surface
I s t he sm all est possibl e
ratio
volu me
To return to t he exp ansion line at t he mo ment the exh au st
v al ve open s t he gases h ave exp anded to a vo lu me V y wit h a
pressure p y an d a temper ature Ty see Fig 4 1 We m ay write
1

an d u

vy

The

r at l o

v
Is

vc

e)

vy

t he real rat i o of exp ans i on

T he express i ons for

t he v al ue of p y and Ty for t he c onstant -pressure cycl e are an al

o go u s ; c are shoul d be t aken
however to use t he proper ratio of
exp ansion w hic h in t his c ase is quite different fro m t he ratio o f
compression
I n t he c ase o f t he Otto cycl e t he ratio o f ex
of
n
i
is
i
n
most
i
n
st
ances
n
early
as
great
as
t
he
ratio
a
s
n
o
p
c ompression r an d we m ay t herefore wri te fro m t he above ex
pression for p y
\

'

I t appears fro m t his equ ation t h at wi t h

rem aining t he
same t he termin al pressure decreases as t he c ompression in
creases I n prac tice however t he terminal pressure in most
c ases shows an i n crease as c ompression is increased due n o
doubt to t he fac t t h at p x also increases wit h co mpression unl ess
t he mixture is m ade c orrespo n dingl y l eaner

e
T
H
A
ST
T
R
T he velocity of e f u x o f gas
H
E
E
X
U
O
K
E
S
( )
at t he instant t he exh aust v al ve opens is very high a p p ro xim at
i ng
ft per second T he val ve shoul d start to open at abou t
,

px

TH EORE TICA L C YCLES

M ODI FIED

B Y PRA C TICE

1 01

out st rok e a nd t he open ing should be of suc h si ze t hat equal i za

t ion of pressure is pract icall y establis hed by the t ime t he outer
dead center is rea c hed Too small an o pening means inc reased
lost w o rk d ue t o higher back pressu re h igher m e an cyl ind e r
t em perat ures a nd less cyl inder ca pa c it y To get s o me id e a o f
t he charging and d isc harging o perat ions o f t he four-cycl e cyl inder
it is best t o t ake t he s o -called l oo p c ard w it h a weak s pring say
9

,,

FIG
1 030

4 1 3

B esid es giving a mea sure

lb scale w it h st o p att ac hed
of t he c harging work t he s o -called u id fric tion t his also o ft en
revea ls defects in t he val ve mechanis m a nd som et imes cu ri o us
va riat ions i n t he exhaust l i n e w hich however are nearl y al ways
du e not t o t he engine but t o t he exhaust pipi n g The ideal
exhaust l ine shou ld d ro p q uickl y nearly t o at mosphere and re
ma in s o t hroughout t he st roke Fig 4 1 3 fro m a 16 %X 22
.

FIG

4 1 4

S t ruthe rs -Wel ls

auto mat ic engine o n natu ral gas at ful l l oad

shows a nea rly id ea l exhaust l i n e a nd i n fact a very good loo p
card
Ma n y l o o p d iagra ms h o wever show a vac uu m at t he
begi n n ing o f t he exhaust st roke This is u nd oubt ed l y d u e t o t he
in e rt ia o f t he in it ial ga s c o lu mn o nc e set in mo t io n
I n s o me
c a s e s t he ind icat i o n o f a vacu u m is o n ly v e ry sl ight i n o t h e rs it
m a y last for half t he st roke
I n fact so me bu ilders ha ve t ried to
,

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 02

ut il i ze t h e pheno menon t o hel p sca venge t he cyl inder but n ot h ing

has resu lt ed from it because s o many ac c ident al cond it ions a re
a pt t o int erfere w it h t he regularit y o f its oc currence Fig 41 4
fro m a 6 horse -power Hornsby -Akro yd o il engine s hows t he
occu rrenc e of t he vacuu m very pla inl y Owing t o some peou
lia rit ies in t h e exhaust pi pe it somet i mes ha ppens t hat t he masses
o f exhaust gas i n t he pi pe are s e t int o vibrat ions w h ic h cause a
recurring vacuu m i n t he exhaust l ine Fig 4 1 5 given by G iild n er
shows a d iagra m fro m a n Ott o engine i n w hic h t h is occurred
The a bsolut e si ze of t h e loo p i e t he u id frict ion varies
w it h t he met hod o f regu lat ion and i n a h it -and -m iss engine w it h
th e l oad o n t he engine The e ffect o f t h e met hod of regul at io n
will be d isc ussed i n a lat er c ha pt er I n a hit -a nd -miss engine at
l ow loads t h e cyl inder is c ool er t ha n at h igh l oads a nd t he weight
o f gases d is plac ed is great er henc e w e may expect a great er area
o f l oop t ha n at normal loads Hu m phrey i n a t est o f a 4 00
,

Fm

4- 1 5 \

horse-power Crossl ey engine d et erm ined a uid frict ion loss o f

1 5 h orse -power at full l oad w hic h is
per c ent W hen
t h e engine was tak ing i n air onl y t h is l oss was 3 3 horse -power
but even assu m ing t hat t here was n o inc reased l oss at s a y hal f
l oad t he u id friction w ould t hus ha ve been
per cent
I t is fou nd in general pract ic e th at u id frict ion in hi t -a nd -m iss
engines represents from 4 - 1 0 per c ent o f t he engine power at fu l l
l oad depending u pon pro per d esig n
-s troke Ot t o Cyc le
tw
o
Fu nda ment all y t here is n o
h
e
T
3
d i ff erenc e bet ween t he c o m pression co mbust ion and expansion
l ines o f t he four-cycl e and tw o -c yc le t ypes of engines wh et her
t h ey operat e on t h e const ant -vol u me o r const ant -pressure c om
T h e d i ff erenc e between t h e met hods o f o pera
bu s t io n princ i pl e
t ion is princi pall y th at t he exhaust a nd c harging a ct ions of t he
fou r-c ycl e t ype are d on e in anot her way in t he t wo -cycl e a nd t hat
t herefore t h e c rank rec ei ves a n i m pulse every revolut ion inst ead

4
1 6 s h ows a n ideal i zed t wo -c ycl e d i agra m
o f e very ot her
Fig
,

T H EO R E TICA L

C Y CL ES

M ODI FI E D B Y P RAC TI CE 1 03

The exhaust O pens as before at a t he exhaust gases esca pe c harg

ing commences and is nished at b w here c ompression oom men
That is t he ord inary operat ion There are some mod icat io ns
c es
as for i nst ance fuel is pu m ped in u nder h igh pressure along t he
co mpression l ine or as in th e D iesel air alone is com pressed and
t he fuel inj ect ed only w hen t he c om pression is com pleted ; bu t
t hese are s pec ial cases I t will be seen t herefore from t he d ia
gra m t hat in t he ord inary case t he exhaust and c hargi n g act ions
mus t be d one during t he t ime t hat t he piston moves fro m a t o t he
dead cent er posit ion c and bac k again t o b Th is t ime is short
at best and ext remely sh ort u nder high s peeds and t herein l ies
t he w hole d ifc ult y of two -cycl e operat ion
The prime requirement o f t w o -cyc l e o perat ion is t horough
sca venging o f t he cyl inder o f burned gases for u pon t hat depend s
,

FIG

4- 16

only t he vol u me o f t he fresh m ixture t hat ca n be taken i n but

also t he explosibil ity o f t he c h arge Too great a remaind er o f
s uch gases not only seriously d ecreases t he ca pac it y of t he ma
c hine but it may even go so fa r as t o prevent ignit ion alt oget her
Thus as G iild ne r a ptly says t he t wo -cycl e sta nds o r falls w it h
t he perfection or im perfect ion of t he sca venging proc es s I n t he
l ight of t hese facts it is c om parati vel y easy to point out t he re
-c ycle o perat ion
u
i
r
m
e
e
n
o
t
f
r
good
t
wo
q
I The exha ust gases should be at a pproximat el y at mos pheric
pres sure by t he t ime t he point 0 Fig 4 1 6 is reac hed Th is red uces
t he vol u me of t he gases remaining in the c yl ind er and red uces t he
w o rk d is pl ac ing t hem For t hat reaso n t he exhaust p o rt should
be o f a m ple s i ze and t h is ex pla ins wh y t he ring of p o rts u nc o vered
by t he pist on is s o muc h used A n exhaust val ve as such is
d one a way w it h
no t

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

1 04

II

S ca venging

should c o mmence somew here bet w een a and c

Th e sca venging agents used are
( a ) Air ; ( b) fuel mixtu re
The means by w h ic h t he sca venging agent is furnish ed are
(a ) S eparat e pu m ps
-head used as pu m p
b
n
o
f
r
O
e
end
cyl
ind
er
o
c
ross
( )
Crank case used as pu m p
I t is
Of t hese c ombinat ions a a is u ndou bt ed l y t h e best
u nquest ionabl e t hat for t horough sca venging som e exc e s s o f t h e
agent should be em pl oyed a nd for t h is onl y a ir and not fu el m i x
tu re ca n be used
N ow onl y independ ent pu m ps ad m it o f t h e
obta ining of su c h a n exc ess
I t is plain how ever t h at it w ou ld
not pay t o c onst ruct ind epend ent pu m ps fo r al l sizes of ma c hines
henc e t hey are rest rict ed t o large or at l east m ed iu m powers
W hen independent pu m ps are not em pl oyed t here is usuall y
so me d ec iency o f a ir Th e d esigner by proper d esign o f c o m
bus t io n c ha mber and val ves is t hen c om pelled t o d o t he best h e
c an w it h t he means at hand U sing t he front end of t he cyl ind er or
d esign ing t he c ross-head as a pu m p is bett er t ha n usi n g t h e c ra nk
c ase as su ch ma inly on ac c ou nt of l ess l eakage small er cl ea ranc e
s pa ces a nd t he possibl e bett er arrangemen t o f val ves Fuel m ixt ures
s hould u nd er n o c ircu m st ances b e used fo r scavenging except
w here c hea pness of mac h ine is t h e pri mary fact or Hence t h e smal l
t w o -cycl e mac h ine w h ic h uses t h e fuel m ixt u re as t he scavenging
agent c om pressing it previously in t he c ra nk c ase S uc h mac hines
however present no t ru e pictu re of t wo c ycl e o perat ion o r ec onomy
I I I The sc avenging agent sh ould be o f l ow pressure a nd if
possibl e o f c onst ant pressu re Lo w pressu re is requ ire d t o pre
vent t he inc o ming air fro m pierc ing t hrough and break i n g u p t h e
mass o f bu rned gases The idea is t o ha ve t he sc ave nging a ir
s h ove t hese gases ahead o f itsel f in a sol id c ol u m n Const ant
press ure c a n be ma inta in ed onl y by t he int erposit ion o f a reser
voir bet ween t h e pu m ps and t h e c yl ind er R egard ing t he pres
su re o f t he sc a venging air however a great deal de pends u po n
val ve and port c onst ruct ion a nd s peed o f O perat ion hence not h ing
d enit e c an be sa id t o t all cases
- re ssu re c y c le
s is onl y ca rried
t
o
st
t
p
esent
t
h
i
A
n
h
n
T
e
C
a
r
4
p
out as a fou r-st rok e c ycl e w it h o il fu el i n t he D iesel engine Fu nd a
m ent ally t he mod icat ion in pract ic e o f t he su ct ion c om pres sion
.

TH EORE TICA L C YCLES MODI FIED B Y PRA C TICE

1 05

ex pansion a nd exhaust l ines d o not d iff er fro m t hose al rea dy out

l ined for t he Ott o cycl e The c om bust ion l ine needs a l itt le fu rt her
att ent ion
The rst cycle pro posed by D iesel c onsist ed of isot hermal and
t hen ad iabat ic c o m pression isot herma l c ombust ion and ad iabat ic
ex p a ns ion This agrees w it h t he Carnot cycle D ifcult ies in
t he way o f pract ic al real izat ion however lead t o mod icat ions o f
t h is proposed cyc le u nt il t he actual cyc le o f t o -d a y has l itt le in
c ommon wit h it
I n t he rst place a pproximat ely adiabat ic
c ompression such as is used in any gas engine was subst ituted
The greatest
fo r t he t wo c om pression l ines originally proposed
c hange however is i n t he co mbust ion l ine I n a lectu re given
by D iesel a tra nslat ion of w hic h was print ed in t he P r ogres sive
Age 1 8 9 7 h e l ays down as t he t h ird requ irement of h is mod ied

c ycl e t hat t he fuel must be int rodu ced gradually int o t he a ir

whic h is c om pressed ad iabat ically t o t he co mbustion tem pera
tu re in suc h a manner t hat t h e heat generat ed by grad ual c o m
bu s t io n is absorbed in t he so -called nascent st at e in c onsequenc e
of a corres p o nd ing ex pansion i e by mec han ically c ool ing o ff
t he gases so t hat t he period of c o mbust ion is going o n c onsta ntly
I t is evid ent t hat t he fu el i n order t o ful l that
isot hermally
c ond it ion must be c ha nged in its physica l c omposit io n to a gas

l iquid or powd ery form

c ous

That is t o say t hat th rough th e c om bust i o n a nd du ring t he

sa me n o or a relat iv e l y s mal l inc rease of t em peratu re is caused a n
id ea w hic h seems t o be a bsu rd aft er h a ving heret ofore always
e ff ected t he inc rease in t em p erat ure by t he c o mbust i o n a nd du ring

t he sa me
S o fa r D iesel even aft er t he ex perimental stage of h is engine
had pa ssed
I t is qu it e evid ent that t o a pproximat e t h is is o t h e r
mal c ombust ion it c ann o t aft er ign it ion be left t o itself but
must be ext ernally regulated t o mainta in t he pro per relat ion
bet ween tem p erat ure pressu re and volu me a s D iesel hi ms e l f
says I n t he D iesel engine as at present c onst ru cted no su ch
c o nt rol is att em pt ed and it is henc e d if cult t o see h o w isothermal
c o mb ust ion can be real i zed G iild n e r fro m ind icat or d iag ra ms
publ is hed by S c h rbt e r in 1 8 9 7 ac c ord ingl y fou nd U pon anal ys is
t hat t here was a d ec ided tem peratu re in c re as e al o ng t h e c ombust i o n
l ine The a ir was c om pressed t o 6 00 degrees Cent igrade ( 1 1 3 2 d egrees
,

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 06

Fa hrenheit ) At the ful l cut-o ff t h is had increased t o about 1 5 00 de

grees Centigrade ( 273 2 d egrees Fahren heit ) and d ue t o after-bu rn
i ng t h e ma xi mu m temperatu re was about 1 5 0 d egrees Cent igrade
( 270 d egrees Fahren heit ) h igher t ha n t h is The mean t em pe ratu re
o f t he fou r st rokes was about 5 00 d egrees Cent igrade ( 9 3 2 degrees
Fa hrenheit ) This in s pit e o f t he fa ct t hat t he c o mbust ion l ine
l ooked is ot hermal
I n t h is case t he maximu m t em peratu re w as
T he t em pe rat u res t hus
2} t i mes t hat at t he end of co m pression
real i zed are higher t han t hose fou nd in engines using cons tant
vol u me c o mbust i on i n s p it e of c la i ms t o t he co nt rary
.

F I G 4 1 7
Fig 4 1 7 fro m a G erma n D iesel engine o f lat e d at e shows t hat
t h e c o mbust ion is mu c h nearer t hat at c onst a nt pressu re t ha n
anyt h ing else T his is a step in t h e right d irect ion as it ca n be
sh ow n t hat isot hermal c o mbust ion is th e least fa vorabl e t o best
efc i ency
( S ee prev i ous c ha pter )
.

'

F I G 4 1 8
Fig 4 1 8 shows a d iagra m pu bl ish ed by t he America n D i esel
E ngine Co mpany as lat e as 1 9 04 or 1 905
I n t he l it erat ure aec o m
panying t h e d iagra m t h e c la i m of is ot hermal co mbust ion is stil l
mad e The c o mbust io n l ine cert ainl y h a s t hat a ppea rance but
d at a is u nfort u nat el y lack ing t o a nal y ze t he d iagra m I n view
o f t he fact t hat t he c ont rol o f c ombust ion in t h is engine has not
c hanged very mat erial l y sinc e 1 8 9 7 it is safe t o assu me t hat t he
c ombust ion is not isot hermal a nd it is perh a ps t o t he ad va nt age
o f t he engine t hat i t is not
.

CH APT ER V
T HE

T E M PE R A T U R E -E N TR O P Y D I A G R A M
E

A PPL I E D

TO THE

GA S

NG I N E

mea ning of t he term E nt ro py has al read y been ex

plained i n a previous c ha pt er I t was also sh own t here what
sha pe v arious pressure-vol u me d iagra ms assume w hen t rans
form ed to a t em perature-ent ropy bas is I t is proposed t o S how
here mat hemat icall y a nd gra phically if po ssible how t his t rans
format ion is made
J ust as t he p -v d iagra m by areas d eveloped shows t he a mou nt
of work done during various events o f t he cycle t he ent ropy
d iag ra m shows heat interc hanges for t he various parts o f t h e
c ycle and it is t herefore a valuabl e aid i n giving a n insight int o
t he t he rma l act ions of t he cyl in d er U nfort unately t he labor
co n nect ed wit h t he t rans pos it ion of t he p -v d iagra m o f a gas
eng ine t o t he ent ro py d iagra m is c onsiderable muc h greater
t ha n is t he case for a st ea m -eng ine d iagra m T he reason is t hat
in st ea m we ha ve a med iu m w hose pro pert ies are denite and
unc ha ngea ble and w hic h are at onc e k now n when a singl e criterion
o f t he st at e of t he va por is given
I t is possibl e also t o cons t ruct
ent ro py tabl es for t hem w hich fac il itate t he work of t ra ns posit ion
very muc h On t he ot her hand a p -v d iagra m fo r a gas engine
repres ents factors w h ic h hold for t h at d iagra m and no ot her
S uc h a re the c om posit i o n of t he c harge t he spec ic hea ts o f the
m i xt u re t he ex po nents of t he c om press ion and expans ion l ines
etc a nd al l a re i m p o rt ant for t he ac curat e d eterminat ion o f t he
entro py d iagram I t may be said t hat for every d ifferent load
on a gas e ng in e t hes e fact ors d i ffer and t hey w il l even c hange
wit h acc idental va riat ion in engine O p era t ion at t he sa me l oad
Henc e t h e c onst ruct ion of ent ro py t ables for gas mixtu res w hil e
poss i ble would be of use onl y when t he c ondit io ns of o perat ion
THE

10 7

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 08

hap pened t o t t he cond itions w h ic h w ere assu m ed i n t he c o m

That would n ot oft en b e t he case
p u t at io ns of suc h t abl es
E ven a cl osely mat hemat ical t ra nsformat ion o f t he p -v t o t h e
ent ro py d iagra m is su bj ect t o erro rs w h ic h mak e many a u t h o ri
t ies skept ical as t o t he real valu e o f t he d iagra m These errors
may be grou pe d u nd er t wo h eads :
1 E rrors due t o t ra nsformat ion t hat is errors du e t o incor
rec t ly measuring pressu res a nd vol u mes fro m t he p
v d iagra m
a nd mat hemat ical erro rs o f c om putat ion All t h es e may be k ept
bel ow t he requ ired l imit by su fc ient l y careful work T he orig
inal p
v d ia gra m s houl d be carefull y enlarged a nd t he measu re
ments t ak en fro m t h is The larger t h e scal e t he bet t er
2 E rrors du e to assu mi ng spec i c heat c ons tant wi th c h ang
ing p ressu re an d tem perature
Ho w far th is ass u m ption is
j us ti ed wil l be shown in a l ater c h ap ter We k n o w t h at t here
is a variation bu t t he l aw is n ot de ni tel y k no wn for c o mposite
gases as CO, an d h en c e ou r ass u mption o f c onst ant spec i c h eat
resul ts i n a distorted ent ropy diagram B u t t his as su mptio n is
t he best we c an m ak e wit h our p resen t k no wl edge
I t should be c lear fro m t he a bo ve t hat a st rictl y gra ph ical
a nd t herefore t ime -saving met hod o f co nst ru ct ing t h e ent ro py
d iagra m is o u t o f quest ion The great est st u mbl ing blo ck t o t he
general a ppl ic abil it y of su c h a met hod is a pparent l y t he va riat ion
of t he s pecic heat w it h variat ion in c o m p osit ion o f t he c harge
On e o f t he best gra phic al met hods assu mes t hat t he valu e o f
.

C
0 9 0 1;

fo r

is al ways equal t o

t h e pe rfect gases

T h is l aw

however a p pea rs t o h old only for suc h gases as H O N a nd CO

,

w hose
CO,

is

Fo r

c lose t o

gases l ike su perh eat ed st ea m

t he fact or is c onsidera bl y h igher

Henc e t he valu e

of

or

Cv
C)

at least should be fairl y a c cu rat el y co m put ed even in u sing t h is

gra phical c onst ru ct i on t he met hod fo r w h ic h w il l be explained
later o n
Anot her point t hat sh ould be ment ioned is t he fact t hat but
few gas engine trials are su fc ientl y el aborat e t o furn is h enough
dat a fo r t he mat hemat ical d et erminat io n of t h e ent ro py d i agra m
T he follow ing d at a should be k now n :
,

THE

TEM PERA TUREEN TRO P Y

DI A GRA M

1 09

Com posit io n

and weight of fre sh c harge a nd bu rned gases

2 Heat ing value of t he fuel a nd of t he c harge
v d iagra m preferably
3 Tem perat ure at so me point of t h e p
at end of suct ion st rok e
4 S t rok e a nd clearance volu me
5 I ndex o f t he expansion and co m pression l ines
I n t he fol lowing wil l be given rst t he mat hemat ical basis for
t he e nt rO p y d iagra m ; t h is wil l be followed by t h e actual con
stru ct ion of suc h a d iagra m a nd nall y it w il l be shown how t he
sa me diagra m ca n be obt ain e d in a way mainl y graph ical
The followi n g mat hemat ical exposit ion is du e t o G ro ver * His
d e m o nst rat io n of t he general expression for ent ropy of a gas is
es pe c iall y cl ea r
Let H
quant it y o f heat in t hermal u nits add ed t o or
subt racted fro m a mass of gas
s pe c ic heat at constant vol u me
C
s pec ic heat at c onstant pressure
C,,
T
absolut e t emperatu re
absolut e pressure in pou nds per squ are foot
p
v
volu me in c ubic feet
mec han ical equ ivalent of heat
J
2
<1
ent ropy
I t may be remembered fro m th e s t atements in Cha p I I that
1

,,

8H

84

(1 )

When heat is su ppl ied t o a mass of gas t he volu me pressu re

and tem peratu re of t he gas may vary simultaneously Hence we
may w rit e t he e n ergy c hanges occu rring und er t h e cond iti o ns in
t he foll owing general t erms fol lowing G rover :
E xternal e ff ect of l
Add it ional i n t ernal
Add it io n of h e at energy o f t he gas in
work d one by the
may prod uce
vol ving rise of t e m
gas expand ing be
tween its c ontain
p e ra t u re
ing walls
,

Wit h t he notat ion above gi ven we may writ e t h is

3H

C , sr
,

G ro v e r , Mo d e rn G as

2
( )

3V

a nd

O il En gi n e s

1 10

COMB US TION

I N TE R N AL

M },

but
h enc e
S ubst itut ing ( 4 )

for

SH

(3 )

T
v

i n equ at ion (2)

c .3T

(c ,

8H

and

C.)

J ( Cp

E NGI N E S

3T

:
3v

( C;

w h ic h is th e general equat ion for ent ropy

of

a gas

N ow heat

may be added t o or su bt ract ed fro m a bod y

u nder t hree cond it ions : ( a ) at const ant volu m e ; ( b) at const a nt
pressu re ; o r (c ) pressure a nd vol u me may c ha nge at t he sa me
t ime
.

(a ) Cha n ge o f h eat at c onsta nt volu me

U nder t his c ond it ion

Ca s e

(0 ?

Cr )

73

< 7)

and we shall ha ve fro m ( 6 ) simpl y

8H

M
Ca s e ( b)

Cha nge

of

8T

heat at c onsta nt pressure

Fro m
a nd

p
3
1)
p

i)

( 8)
.

RT
R 8T

w e may der i ve
RST

RT
8v

8T

or

S ubst itut ing

t h is valu e of

3f

Ca s e

(c )

S i mult a neo us

In

( 9)

eq uation ( 6 ) we ha ve

8H

8T

OP

c hange of pressu re and volu me

( 1 0)
.

THE

For

E N T RO P Y
T
RE
TEM PERA U

DIA GRA M

l 11

t his c ond it ion we may w rite

"

Fro m

pv

R T,

c ons tan t

p , v,

( 1 1)

w e have
RT
v

( 1 2)

c onstant

( 13)

Subst it ut ing ( 1 2) in ( 1 1 )

R Tv

D iff erent iat ing ( 1 3 )

3Tv

3Tv

"

"

"

T (n l ) v

(n

l)

"

"

"

3v
2

( 14 )

3v

( 15)

lu
f
3T

3v

or

T (n

S ubst itut ing

( 1 7)

1)

( 1 7 ) in general equ ation ( 6 )

8H

8T

8T

T (n

1)

( 1 8)

To s im pl ify t h is write
,

Ct

or

0"

70

( 1 9)

a nd su bstitut e th is value of C,, i n ( 1 8 )

SH

3T

3T

70v

8T
C,, 7
7
3T

( 20)

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 12

a nd entropy c hange i s

(21)

TI

P r ess ure Con sta nt

C,,

8d)

a nd

lz

Cha nge

volu me a n d

C? l og e

PI

TI

a c c ord ing

p r e ss u r e ,

595

8T

to p v

8T

a nd
TI

c o n s ta n t

T2

lo g"

T1

As al read y st at ed , it is not easy t o obta in tests wh ic h give

su fc ient data t o c onst ru ct th e ent ropy d iagra m On e o f t he

most c om pl et e was a t est by B rooks a nd St eward made t wenty
t hree years ago at S t evens I nst it ut e The engine t ested devel oped
about 7 horse -power o n illu m in a t ing gas Alt hough several of
t h e O perat ing co nd it ions o f t his t est es pec ial ly t he l ow c om pres
sion pressure o f
pou nds do n ot represent modern pra ct ic e
t he c o m plet e dat a furn is h ed makes t h is t est wel l ada pt ed t o t he
pu rp ose i n v i ew
.

M AT H E M AT I CA L CO N ST R U CT I O N
All
1

OF

a nd weight of fresh c ha rge

(a ) Co mposit ion of i ll u min ating

CH,

3 95

E N TR O P Y

pressures and t emperatures are a bsolut e

Com posit ion

T HE

N
08 2

373

a
g s

by vol ume

O3 B B
.

066

a nd

D IA GRA M

burned gases

HO

00

04 3

014

027

Fro m t his we c om put e t he we ight o f a standard cu bic foot of

gas at 03 88 2 pou n ds
fro m t est
( b) R at io of ai r t o ga s by vol u me
fro m t est
R at io of air t o gas by weight
(c ) V ol u me and weight o f t he various gases per st r oke
The gures a re given in t h e report in metric u nits They a re
t ra ns pos ed a s follows :
.


TEM PERA T URE EN T RO P Y DIA GRA M

THE

Fo r

1 13

one c harge st roke t he engine tak es t he foll owi n g volu mes :

l it ers of gas

g
.

at

295

l it ers of a ir
liters of bu rned gas at

68 3

04 9 4

cu ft
.

gas

of

at
cu ft

3 26 5

C = 28 05

of

a ir

cu ft burned gas at
1 26 1 F

533

04 94

cu ft

of

gas at

5 33

cu ft at 4 93 F
wh ic h weig h
cu ft of air at 5 33 F
3 020 cu ft at 4 9 3 F
w hic h weigh
c u ft bu rned gas at 1 26 1 F
1 09 1 cu ft at
4 93 F w hic h weigh
Henc e total weight o f charge
.

04 5 7

2805

00 1 78

lb

024 3 7

lb

008 6 2

lb
lb

(d ) Com posit io n of exhaust gases

03 4 7 7

Fro m above c o mposit ion of illu minat ing gas t he t heoret ical
rat i o of a i r t o gas by volu me is
Henc e excess c o e fc ient is

Lg

The weight s of t he produ cts of co mbust ion t herefore fro m

d o f gas w ill be
,

CO,

fro m gas burned

l b H, O
lb N
lb N

00 6

originally in gas
fro m a ir used for co mbust ion
.

lb N
.

fro m excess a ir
340

lb 0
.

t his t he com posit ion per c ent by weight of t he exhaust

c o,

HO
,

and C for t h e fres h c harge and t he exhaust gases

fo u nd by c o m putat i o n t o be as fol lows :
,,

a re

I N T ERNA L

1 14

For fres h c ha rge C,,

,

For burn ed gases C,

,

COM B US TI ON ENGINES
.

265 , C,,
26 8 , C,,

191 ,
1 96 ,

g
g:

1 70

04

FI G

5 1

Heat i ng valu e o f t he f u el is fou nd by c o m put at i on t o be

B T U per c ubic foot
Heat ing valu e of t he c harge as c om put ed f or t he w eight o f
B T U
gas i n a c harge is
2

THE

TEM PERA T UREEN T RO P Y DIA GRA M

1 15

The a bsolut e pres sure at t he end of th e suct ion st roke

see d iagra m Fig 5 1 was

lb B rooks a nd S tewa rt c a lc u
lat ed t he absolut e t em perature fo r t he sa me point at 7 3 9 degrees
Fahrenh eit B y using t he equat ion
3

T,

t em peratures were c o mput ed fo r various points around t he cycle

as ind icat ed on t h e card
I n Fig 51 t he full l ine shows t he actual
c a rd enlarged from t he original of B rooks and St ewart w hile the
broken l ine i n d icat es t he ideal cyc le w hic h recei ves t he same
a m ount of heat
4
4 6 0 cu ft
S t roke vol u me
280 cu ft
Clearan c e vol u me
.

Total volume
7 4 0 cu ft
I ndex for expa nsion and c o mpression lines
.

The ind ex of t he ideal card is

for t he c om pressio n and
for t he expans ion l ine as c om put ed u nd er ( 1 e) For t he
rea l d iagra m it is often fou nd t hat t he index is n o t a c onst ant for
t he ent ire l ine For t hat reason eac h l ine should be d ivid ed int o
o f pa rt s and the ind ex det erm ined for eac h
.

FI G

2
5

met hod of doing t h is is as foll ows : To determine t h e

ind e x betw e en any t w o poi n ts a a nd b on t he expansion o r c om

pre ssion l ine Fig 5 2 nd t he volu mes and a bs olut e pres sures
Th e

116

COMB USTION

I N TE RN AL

for ea c h point fro m t he d iagra m

i n th e equ at ion p v
c onsta nt is

E N GI N E S

Then t he ex ponent

or

ind ex

"

'

I n t he c ase

l og

l og

pa

p,

of

t he d iagra m u nd er d iscussion t h is m et hod when

a ppl ied t o t he expansio n and c om pression l ines ga ve t he fol l ow
ing results :
E xpa ns i on
Part

of

l ine

I ndex

l ine

to

68 2 1b

to

lb
lb
lb

to

to
Com pression
P art

of

l in e

I ndex

l ine

to
to
to
to

W e are n ow read y t o mak e t he ent ro py c o m putat ions S inc e

entropy d i fferen c e fro m point t o poi n t and n ot absol ut e val ue o f
ent ro py is t he i m port a nt t hi ng w e may cal l t h e ent ropy at any
c on venient poi nt i n t he c y cl e equal t o zero We t her e fore assu me
t he ent ropy at t he e n d of t he suct ion st rok e equal t o 0 and w e
w il l call t he ent ropy d i ff erenc e bet ween any tw o poi nts 46,
.

T2

"

I d ea l Ca rd

( S e e t em perat u res i n Fig 5

1 Com pression l ine is a d iabat ic h enc e ent ropy
t h e end o f t his l ine
.

a lso at

Co mbu st ion

and

l ine

E xpa nsion
.

3 1 66

1 96 l0 8

5 3 23
1 05 8

3 1 66

l ine is ad iabat ic h enc e ent ro py is not c hanged

at end o f t h is l ine
,

THE

TEM PERA T

D ischarge l ine

TRO P Y DIA GRA M

1 17

73 9

4: m

qb

URE EN

3 166

37 1 6

Th is locat es t he end po ints o f t he c o mbust ion a nd d is c harge

l ines in t he ent ropy d iagra m B u t t he s e l ines are cu rves a nd
henc e several int ermed iat e poi nts on eac h l ine s hould be det er
min ed by si milar c om putat ions Th e d iagra m obta ined by
plott ing t em perat ures and volu mes of entropy a bove co mput ed
is show n in broken l ine in Fig 5 3
.

MG

10

FIG
Ac tua l Ca r d

14

12

5 3

16

18

33

?0

J l

20

25

For t h e actu al card we proc eed I n an exactly

S i mila r ma nner us i ng equat i o ns
o r ( 23 ) as t he case
de ma nds
The c om put at io ns a re given bel ow in d et ail No
fu rt her ex pl anat ion seems n ec essary except perha ps for t he case
w here bo t h pre ssu re a nd volu me c hange but th e ind ex of t he
c urv e is n o t k n own
Then n one o f t h e equat ions given d irect ly
apply
Take t he case o f the d iagra m Fig 5 4 To d etermine t he
e n t rO p y at point a nd ent ropy at point b using equ ation
and t hen add t he ent ropy from b t o a as c o m pu ted fro m eq u at ion
P rolong
S imilarly for the po int c on t h e exhaust l ine
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 18

t he expans i on l in e a nd det ermine t h e ent ropy at d by equ ation

Then subt ract fro m th is t h e
(23 ) ( ind ex n must be k nown )
e n t rOp y c ha nge du e t o t he dro p in t em perature fro m d t o 0
ao
c ord ing t o equ at io n
.

r
FI G

5 4

The foll ow ing are t he cp m p u t a t io ns i n detail :

E n t ro py
at

P re ss Te m p
a b so l u t e
.

su m e d O
a d ia ba t i c = O
a d i a ba t i c = 0

7 39

86 7
191

9 26

1 00 5

191

1 36 5

1 96

1 816

1 96

1 35 f
'

1 390

'

3 1

l og
l og 433%
4

36 1 5

l og 341%
1 96 log
44%
1 96 l og 31 %
1 96

1 96
.

1 49

1 96
.

30 70

1 96

28 1

0
o
00 1 4

00 1 4

00 66

00 80

l og

+ 0 511

05 59

+ 1 0 70

26 8

l og 33 %
2 6 8 l og
26 8 l o g

268

(a b o v e

ig

16 g

32 3 5

3 290

27 4 0

3 5 20

as

81 7

35 6 0

To t a l E n t ro py

26 8 10 g.

3 5 20

l og

3 5 60

l og

l og

329 0
3 5 20
3 0 70
3 29 0

0029

+ 2 5 24

00 33

25 5 7

000 5

25

T EM PERA T UREEN T RO P Y DIA GRA M

THE

2860

1 96
.

27 50

2640

1 96

log

4 33
1 3 70

23

1 4 33

'

196

L 3 70

4 3

16 9
10 gc

28 60

+ 2 533

30 70

333
ggg

+ 2 5 26
1 96

12 30

739

00 5 3 , + 2 4 6 3

g8

1 9 6 loge

20 1 0

196

1 4 33

'

1 3 70

4 3

10 gc

1 19

E
gg

1 9 6 lo
g
.

1 5 50 ,

09 76

433

1 96 10 ge

Ha ving t hus w ork ed arou nd t he c ycle t he error seems t o be

v e ry sl ight I n V iew of t he fact t hat t he exponent n for t he p ro
l onged ex pans i o n l ine h a s been assu med
Plott ing t h e s e val ues o f ent ro py and t em perat ure nall y re

the
d
iagra
m
shown
in
full
l
ine
in
Fig
5 3
s ult s in
,

I NT E R P R E TAT I O N

E NTR O P Y

o n T HE

D IA GRA M F IG
,

5 3

I n o rder t o evalu ate t he d iagra m it is necessary t o know t h e

nu mber of hea t u nits per square inc h Th is is most easily o b
t a ined by mult iplyi n g one inch o f t e mperatu re scal e by one inc h
of ent ro py scale and t hen mult i plying t he result by t he c harge
weight per cycle s inc e t he ent ro py d iagra m is d rawn for 1 pound
of c ha rge weight
I n t h is case we have :
.

V alue

of

square inc h in

T U
.

8 00

04 X 03 4 7 7
.

The ind ivid ual areas of t he original d iagra m were next gone
o ver w it h a pla n imet er and after multi plying eac h area by t he
squa re in c h eq u ivalent t he results were as foll ows :
,

Hea t re ce iv e d d ur i n g e xp l osi o n a re a a A B b a
Hea t re ce ive d d u r i n g e x p a n s i o n a re a b B C D d

T U
.

Zl H

To t

ea

hea t re ce iv ed as sh o wn by di a gra m
To ta l b ea t s upp l i e d as c a l c u la te d ( see fo o t n o t e )
Diffe re n ce i n he a t lo ss t o Jac k e t a nd Ra di a ti o n
To t a l

d DC B E F
6

of

a re a

/d

He a t l o s s t o e xh a us t a re a 9 G D d g
Hea t l oss du r i ng c o m p re ss i o n a re a a
,

he a t l os t pe r c y c l e
I n dic a te d w o rk a re a A B C D G

A G g

23 3

79

To ta l

A
1 00 00

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINE S

1 20

The above results d o n ot agree w it h t hose o f B rooks and

Their result s are given i n t he foll ow
S tewart for t he s ame t est
ing t abl e :
Heat in ind icat ed w ork
per c ent
Heat l oss i n hot gases
per c ent
Heat l oss i n w at er j acket
per c ent
Heat l oss in rad iat ion
per cent
.

Tot al

per c ent

The agreement a s regards in d icat ed work is f a ir The rest

of t h e gures of B rooks a nd S t ewa rt a re abnorma l in t hat t h e
rad iat ion l oss is as large as t he exhaust l oss and in t hat t h e
j ack et wat er l oss is muc h t oo large B rooks and St ewart t h em
sel ves ad mit t hat t h e j ack et wat er l oss wa s not ac cu rat ely det er
m ined F or t hat reason t o o t h e rad iat ion l oss ca nnot be fou nd
separat el y i n t h e ent ropy analys is abo ve given I f t h e j ack et
wat er l oss had been ac cu ratel y fou nd it em 5 i n t he ab ove an a lys is
c ould have been separated int o ja ck et wat er a nd rad iat ion loss
Th i s q u a n tity is gre a t e r t h a n t h e l a t e n t he a t e n e rgy i n t h e ga s
N OTE
B T U p e r c y c le by t h e he a t e q uiv a le n t o f t h e a re a A X g a
.

25 6

T U
.

D IA G RA M
The gra phica l met hod t o b e d escrib ed is d ue t o P rof H T
Ed d y and is by hi m expl ained in t he Transa ct ions o f t he Ameri
c a n S oc iet y o f Mec hanical E ngineers V o l 2 1 p 275
I t is based
u pon t he fol l ow ing c onsiderat ions :
p 1 1 0 a ft er int egrat ion may be writt en :
E q uatio n

II

G R A P H I CA L CO N ST R U CT I O N

or

T HE

E N TR O P Y

C,,

d i ff eren c e ( I)

D ivid ing equ at io n (24 ) by ( C,

C,

C,,

l og

TI
,

( C,

loge

T2

1g

'

(y

T,

C,

V,

The probl e m t hen resol ves itsel f int o nd ing gra ph ic al

t a t io n for t h e qu ant it ies
Cv
Cp _ CW

VI

V2

( 24 )

w e ha ve

E nt ropy

( 25 )
re p res e n

T and 1o _
V
l og
g
T
,

V2

Th e c onst ru ct ion d ivides itsel f int o tw o ma in parts :

1
Th e c ha nge o f t he pressure-volu me d iagra m int o a t em pe ra
t u re -volu me d iagra m a nd
.

TEM PERA TUREE N TRO P Y DIA GRA M

THE

Th e c hange of t he t empe rat ure-volu me d ia gra m

t a ined int o a temperat ure-ent ro p y d iagra m
.

1 21
ob

so

04

06

12

20

24

32

no

FI G

5 5I

40

44

43

52

56

00

04

08

72

76

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 22

th e a ct ual a nd ideal p
v d iagra ms o f Fig 51
ha ve been reproduced Choose a ny c on venient vol u me ordinat e
in t h is c ase V
3 8 c u ft h as been tak en a nd from t he points of
i nt ersect ion o f t he various pressu re l evels wit h t h is ord inat e
d raw st raight l ines t hrough t he origin Thes e st ra ight l ines are
c onstant -pressu re l ines in a t em peratu re -volu m e eld Thus t he
line A B i n t his case is t he 6 0 pounds c onst ant -pressu re l ine To
s e e t he reason fo r t h is c onsider t h e general equat ion
1

I n Fig

5 5

Pv_
R
T

Th is may be written
v

is

B ut

t he t angent of

3
_
_

an v

I
0,

_ e
_

given angl e

B A C,

I
-

and hen ce : is
IB

c ons t ant for any point al ong A B The sa me holds for any
st ra ight l i n e dra w n t hrough a n y ot her pressu re l evel
N ext t o c onst ruct t h e t em perat ure-vol u me d iagram c o n
sid er a ny pressu re l evel as E F
1 00 l b
Th is cuts t h e real
d iagra m i n t he point s a a nd b At a and b erect perpend icul ars
1 0 0 l b i n t he
unt il t hey i nt ersect t he c onst ant -pressure l ine
points a a nd b
Thes e will be t wo po ints i n t he t em p erat ure
volu me d iagra m I n th e sa me manner t he ent ire d iagra m may
be out l ined Th e t em perature scal e wh ich u p t o t h is point has
We k now t hat G t he
been arbit rary m ay next be det erm in e d
l ow est poi n t o n t h e t em perat u re d iagra m must represent t he
t e m perat ure in t he cycl e at t h e end of th e su ct ion stroke
Th is at onc e determines t he t em pe ra
7 3 9 degrees Fa hrenheit
ture scale
2 To obtain t h e gra ph ical represent at ion o f t h e expression
.

l og

c hoose a ny c on venient h ori zontal l ine as t he zero

In

t h is cas e t h e l ine A C has been t aken W it h A as a cent er a nd

any rad ius A X d raw t h e arc X Y t o cut an y c onvenient l ine as
A B pass ing t hrough t he origin
Fro m Y d raw t h e p e rp e n d ic u
la r YX
Aga i n w it h A as a c ent er and A X as radius d raw t h e
arc X Y t o int ersect w it h A B and d raw t h e perpend icular Y

X
Where t hese perpend icular l i n es YX , and Y, X cut any
suc cessive pair of equ id is t ant h ori zont al rul ings w ill be fou nd t wo
.


H
E
T
EM
P
ERA
T
URE
EN TRO P Y DIA GRA M
T

1 23

po ints on t he requ ired cu rve The horizontal ru l ings c hosen in

22 cu ft
t h is case are marked serially on t he ord inat e V
Thus m a nd n are t wo points on the cu rve M N sought I t is

e vident t hat t he int e rsect ions of perpend iculars YX and Y X

wit h any ot her t wo suc c essive hori zontal ru lings might ha ve been
c hosen as two p o ints on t he curve This w ould ha ve result ed
merely in movi n g t he curve b od ily u p or down o n t he eld t he
s ha pe would ha ve been exactl y t he sa me For the sa me reason
it is i m material whet her t he l ine A C or any ot her hori zontal l ine
The res ult in g curve is in
is us ed as t he base of const ruct ion
any c ase asympt o t ic t o the vert ical l ine V
Choos ing an y
0
ot her s e t of equid istant horizontal rulings nearer t ogether or
furt her a part has t he e ff ect of making t he curve ris e sl ower -o r
fast er as t he case may be As w ill be seen lat er by inspect ion
t h is merely changes t he posit ion of t he ent ropy diagra m in t he
c oo rd inate eld but does not a ffect t he nal result
To prove t hat t he ord inat es o f the c urve M N represent t he
.

Professor Eddy

valu es of l og

proceed s as fol lows :

t he volu me A X
V
AX
V , AX
V , AX
I t can be shown by pla ne geometry that wit h t he c onst ru c tio n
Le t

, ,

:2
Z V0

or

V , , Z V,

=Z =

consta nt

V
,,

V,

Hence
2 V,

V, , N

N o w le t Z

d istanc e
su m ed

V,

V,

Z Vo
"

in whic h e
N a pe rian base
a nd y
bet ween t he equid istant hori zontal rul ings abo ve as
ey

Then
ey

b
V0

ff

V
2
V0

a nd tak ing t he l ogarit h m

n

of

"y

v
V0

bot h sid es of th e last t erm w e ha ve

,

t he o rd inate at any given volu me

V ,,

l og

V I!
,

VI)

It

is

evident that
t he u nit o f c om parison may be a rbit rarily c hosen
The n e xt st ep is t o obtain t he gra ph ical repres entat ion o f th e
.

0g

Considering

th e pa rt l og

T
,

by itsel f

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

1 24

it is evident t hat t he curve represent ing t h is may be c onstruct e d

B ut t he c oord inat es are in
in t he same manner as curve M N
t h is case t he l ine of zero t em peratu res A C a nd a ny arb it rarily
c hosen vert ical l ine in t his case V
The curve must be
74
asympt ot ic t o A C but t he c hoic e o f t he ot her l ine o f referenc e
is u nrest rict ed as it merel y m oves t he curve bod ily t o t he l eft o r
right
I n t h is case equ id ista nt vert ical rul ings having t h e sa me
c o m mon d ist anc e as t hose used for cu rve M N have been em
pl oyed henc e c urve 0 P is a d u pl icat e of M N
The ord inat es of t his c urve 0 P must next be mult i pl ied by
.

C6

t he fact or

Professor E dd y ,

Cp

i n order t o m ak e t he

c on

st ruct ion gra p hic a l t h roughout ass u mes t hat t he va lue o f t h is

fact or is
in al l cases T he l i mits of ac c urac y regard ing t his
assu m pt ion have al read y been pointed o u t
I t is probabl y n o t
su fc ient ly ac cu rat e fo r most cases and henc e a separat e c om pu
Th is d e
t a t io n o f t h is fact or is n ec essary for every given case
st roys a great deal of t h e v a l u e of t he e n t ire met hod but enough
is l eft t o mak e t he met hod muc h l ess laborious t ha n t he mat he
m a t ic a l c onstru ct io n
I n t he case u nder d iscussion for t he burned gases
,

C,

1 96 ,

and C,

26 8 ;

C,

henc e

C,,

C,

1 96

072

Th e ord inates o f t h e cu rve 0 P are t herefore mult i pl ied by

giving t he c u rve marked R S
B y th e a id o f t h e cu rves M N a nd R S t h e ent ropy d iagra m
may n o w be c onst ru cted in t he foll ow ing manner :
Tak e any t em peratu re level as T U This cuts t he t em pera
t ure -vol u me d iagra m of t he real c ycl e i n t he point s c a nd d a nd
t he cu rve R S in e W it h a pair of d ividers determine t h e ord i
.

gh

of

point

c,

nat e
of

nat e f e

t he c urve M N

lo g6

c orrespond ing t o t he volu me

and si nc e t his ord inat e is positi ve add it t o t he ord i

,

0"

C , C,,

l og

of

t he curve

It S

This gives t he point

as one point of t h e ent ropy -t em perat ure d iagra m I n t he

sa me manner for t he sec ond point o f inte rsect ion d o f t h e t e m
c orres po nd i ng
p e rat u re level T U d et ermine t he ord inat e g h
t o it s volu me a nd ad d it t o t h e ord i nat e fe of t h e cu rve R S Th i

THE

T EM PERA T URE EN T RO P Y

DI AGRAM

1 25

gi ves 6 as a sec ond point on t he entropy d iagra m B y tak ing a

su fc ient nu mber of t emperatu re l evels t he ent ire d iagra m may
be cl osel y outl i n ed as show n by t he full l ine
The same t h i n g has been d one for th e id eal t em peratu re
volu me d iagra m gi ving t he id eal ent ropy d iagra m ind icat ed i n
brok en l ine
The last st ep in th e const ruct ion is th e d et erminat ion of t he
ent ro py scal e if t h is is d esired D etermine by planimeter t he
area u nder t h e c o mbust ion l ine o f th e ideal d iagra m d ow n t o
t he l ine T
I n t he o riginal d iagra m t h is w as found t o be
0
square i n c hes S ince t he heat a ppl ied t he cycl e w as
.

T U t he t hermal val ue of eac h square i n ch of area

.

T U
.

E ac h

inc h of ord inat e

hence t he ent ropy scal e per i n ch is

w as

equal t o

6 14

degrees

614

00 1 6 7 fo r

t he charge

weight of 03 4 77 pound s This is equi val ent t o an entropy scale

of 0 4 8 per inc h for one pou nd of c harge w ei ght
The foll ow ing t abl e shows how cl osel y t he ent ropy d iagrams
obtained by th e t wo met hods outl ined agre e :
.

Mat h Met h o d
.

G ra ph Met hod
.

of

I d eal Cycle

3 16 6

3 1 58

of

R eal Cycl e

25 5 7

25 7 2

Ma x E n t ro py
Ma x E nt ro py

Th e agreement may be pronounced qu it e s at isfact ory I t is

qu it e l ikel y h ow ever t hat t he l ow er part of t he gra ph ical ent ropy
d iagra m w ill sh ow d isc repanc ies These are in great pa rt due t o
t he fact that t oward t he l ow e r end of t he cu rve R S t he int er
sect ions wit h t he h ori zont al t em peratu re levels bec ome l ess d e
nit e im pa iri n g t h e ac cu racy Anot her source o f error may l ie
in t h e fact that t he c om pression l ine has been c onst ruct ed fro m
t he cu rve R S w hic h was itsel f c onst ruct ed fro m burned gas
data w h il e e vid ent ly t h e dat a o f t h e fres h c harge should h a ve
been used
.

CH AP T E R V I

C O M B U ST I O N
I

Th e Pe rfe c t C a se s Th e
.

follow t he general l aw :

p v

t hose

where

perfec t gases are

w hic h
( 1)

pressure expressed in pounds per square f oot

v
vol u me in c ubic feet
T
absol ute t emperature
R is th e amount o f work don e by 1 pou nd of gas when heated
1 degree F ahren heit
t he pressure rem aining const a n t at p
pounds per squ are foot R is t hus a const a n t for any one ga s
but differs for different gases
T he dat a for t he gases o i\ most use i n gas -engine pract ice are
those of atom ic and molec ul ar weight density a nd weight per
c ub i c foot T he following t able gives t h ese gures for som e of
t h e more i mportant gases :
p

Gas

Hyd r oge n

H,

Oxyge n

16

O2

32

N i t ro ge n

14

N2

28

Ca r b o n Mo n o x id e

14

CO

28

CO,

Ca r bo n

D i x id e
o

D ry i
W t rv p r
a r

a e

Ace ty le n e

Me tha n e
E t hy le n e

Bn l
e

zo

Al c o h o l

H, o
CZ HZ
CH4
CZ H4
CGHO
C, H, o

0
3

5- K
I

U KCR
G

OO

0892 1

97 1

0 78 3 1

967

0 780 7

44

1 1 26 7

29 *

0807 2

18

6 23

05 020

26

915

0 7 25 1

16

554

04 4 6 4

28

9 74

07809

78

2 1 75 8

46

1 29 5 8

n l y a pp a re n t v a l u e

*O

06 92

T he weight o f a c ub ic foot of any of t he above g as e s u nder

st andard conditions m ay be fou nd w it h sufc ient acc uracy by
1 26

COMB US TION

1 27

dividing t he molecul ar weight of the gas by th e co nstant 3 5 9 *

The weight of a c ubic foot of CO2 under standard c onditions for
,

insta n c e

44

iS

pounds

3 59

as c omputed by sl ide rule

Th is is sufc ientl y ac curate for al l pract ic al purposes

To nd t he weight o f a c ubic foot of gas u nder ot her t h an
standard cond it ions t he formula
.

p l vl
TI

Povo
TO

(2)

may be employed for a ch ange o f either pressure and tempera

t ur e separately or a simultaneous change o f both T he weight o f
a cubic foot is i nversel y proport ional t o the volume
2
Co m bin in g W e i gh t s a n d V ol u m e s , C o m bu st ion , Hea t i n g
V a l ue , Air R e qu ire d
All elements when
CO M B I N I N G W E I G HTS A N D V O L U M E S
they do co mbine u nite onl y in cert ain xed proport ions although
there may be several proport ions for any given pair of elements
Thus carbon form s two co mbinat ions wit h oxygen CO and C0 ,
The gases also co mbine i n denit e volu me proport ions The
resulting volu me is either t he s u m of t he original volu mes or is
in a de nite ratio less than t his s u m I t is necessary to remember
merely t hat a n yt hi n g that c an be said o f molecules according t o
Avogadro s L a w applies wit h equal force to combi ning volumes
T hus take t he combination of C and O to CO A lways re
m e m be ring to us e t he combining weights of t he various element s
we can wr i te
.

02

that is

02

1 vo l C

t hat is
a nd

H2

vols H

again

CZ

or

vol

02

vol 0

S imilarly ,

2C0

H2

H0
2

vols CO
.

vols H, O
.

2 CH4

4 vols H
vol C
2 vols CH,
The elements mostly c o ncerned in c ombustion pheno men a
are c arbon a n d hydrogen t oget her w it h t he c om pounds c arbon
mon oxide and the v arious hydro -carbons
Th e fol lowing t able
De rive d i n c o nn e c t i o n w i th Av oga d ro s La w f ro m t he fa c t t ha t t he
kil o gra m me-v o l u m e o f pe rfe c t gase s is e q u a l t o
c ubi c m e t e! s un de r
st a n d a rd c o n d i t i o n s
1

1 28

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

sh ows the co mb ust io n formul a a ls o o xygen and air req uired for
t he rst t hree o f these co mbu stibles :
,

m
.

t
a

m
a
m

5
0
.

o
n
e

9
m

v
c
s
o

5
5
n

h
0

m
o

s
6

:
o

>

E
G

E
E

mm

>

D
>

>

>

m
m

m
a

3
8

c
>

N
a

h
m
m
m

d
a

m
.

5
5

o
s

m
m

O
.

2
3

E
n

O
U

04
0

O
N

O
0

0
.

8
0
o

0
0

a
u

5:

u
n
.

r
e

m
O

COM B U S TI ON

1 29

I f t he combust ible be a hydrocarbon t he combustio n of t he

,

carbon and t he hydrogen i n its co mposit ion can be treated sepa

T hus 1 lb o f CH, may be con
ra t e ly and t he results co mbined

7
s id e re d to co nsist o f 3 lb o f C and 1, lb of H
H E A TI N G V AL U E E very ch e mical ch ange is ac compan ied
by a t hermal cha n ge eit her positi ve or negat ive i e either heat
is given out o r it is abs o rbed d uring t he c ha n ge
I n the c ase
of the co mbustibles t he uni o n with o xygen is ac compa n ied by a
very dec id e d dev e l o pment o f heat The heat given o ff when one
pou n d o f a n y combusti ble is c o mpletely burn e d is k nown as its
I t is to be noted t hat the h e at
h ea ting va lu e o r c a lo r ic p o we r
i n g value o f any c o mbustible is c onst a n t whether the combustible
.

FIG

is

6- l

Ma hle r

om

Ca l o r i me t e r

burn e d in oxygen theoretical am o u n t of ai r o r an excess o f

a ir
The result ing temperature the c a lo r ic in ten s ity so c al led
is how e ver diff ere n t for eac h of these cases as will be explained
l ater
The heating val ues o f the simple c o mbustibles l ike hydr o gen
a n d carbon c an only be det e rmin e d by mea n s o f the c alorimet e r ;
that o f a c o mpl e x fu e l like hydro c arbons the vari o us c o als
etc can be fo und eith e r by the calorimeter o r it may be co m
p u t e d with fair ac curacy fro m it s ch e m ic al composition
Fo r solid and liquid fuels t he c al o rimeters used are mostly
o f t h e typ e o f t h e M ahler b o m b
or t he Carpenter c al o rimet e r ;
for gase o us fu e ls l unk e r s gas cal orim e t e r h o ld s t he rst pl ace
The princ iple of any o f these c al o ri mete rs is t o transmit to wa ter
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

13 0

the heat e vol ved by burni ng the fuel i n o xygen o r air an d from
t he temperature ri se of t he water to compute th e heating val ue
T he Mahler B o mb Calori meter Fig 6 1 is a strong steel o r
bron ze vessel into w hic h t he nel y powdered fuel is int roduced
hel d i n a smal l c up or cru c ible T hrough t he cover o f this vessel
or bo mb two wires pass w hic h at their lower ends are c ross-con
n e c t e d by a ne iron wire w h i c h i n turn di ps i nto t he powdered
fuel T he bo mb is ch arged w it h oxygen to a pressure of about
The oxygen c an n o w be obt ained co m merciall y
1 5 0 pou nds
prepared in steel t ubes u nder pressure The ch arged bo mb
is t hen pl aced i n a v essel cont aining a k now n qu ant it y o f
water ; t he t wo wires above ment ioned are connec ted t o a s ou rc e
,

FI G

62

Ca r pe n t e r Co a l Ca l o r i m e t e r

el ectric al energy P wh ic h fuses t he iro n w ire c onnect ing t heir

ends and res t he fuel The water is kept t horough l y st irred
by means of t he apparat us L K S a n d t he tem perature rise is
carefull y determined T he whol e apparatus is c are full y pro
t e c t e d agai n st radiation b y an outer vessel A
Fro m the o b
served tem perature rise t he weight o f water and suc h correct ions
as are necessary for radiatio n heat o f fusio n o f w ire et c t he
h eat ing val ue o f th e sampl e is easil y co mputed The drawback s
o f th e inst rument are t he l abor of c h arging
a n d th e fac t th at if
t he wire fails to ignite t he coal all l abor of weigh i n g an d c harging
is lost T he j oint at t he t o p whic h must b e t ight agai n st c on
Th e M ahl er is
pressu re also often gi ves tr o ubl e
s id e r a ble
appl icabl e to bot h sol id and l iqu id fuels
of

COMB U STION

13 1

T he Carpe nter c alo rimete r Fig 6 2 is o f a different type

Th e fuel is powde red and held i n the cu p 22 just as i n the Mahler
The co al ho we ver is red by the he at of a pl ati nu m wire 1 5
whic h does not fuse and is extingu is hed o n the i nstant the c oal
res
N o co rrec tio n is the re fo re necessary for the heat o f the
wire
The c ombustio n c hambe r 33 is kept c harged w ith a
ste ad y st re am of oxyge n u nder a pressu re not e xceed ing one -hal f
pou nd
T he hot g ases o f co mbustio n p ass up and down the
S pi ral t ube 28
and nally esc ape at 4 1 p ractic ally at the tem
.

FI G

6 3

J u n ke r

G as Ca l o r i m e t e r

of the surrounding air the noz zle at 4 1 regulating the

outow veloc ity t o produce t his result
The calorimeter is
complet e ly l led to so me height on t h e gl ass t ube 1 0 wit h wat e r or
kero sene o il s o t hat th e gases in their passage heat t he u id ex
panding it u p t he tube 1 0 The amount of expansion gives a
relat ive measure of the heating value of t he fuel I t is onl y n e c es
sary to c alibrate the instru ment i e to o btain t he amount of
heat required to expand t he u id u p t he tube s a y 1 inch This
is qu ic kly and accurately done by us ing c arbon obtained by
p e ra t u re

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE S

1 32

burning and c ok ing sugar The c al ori meter is subj ec t t o on e

correctio n o nly t hat for radiat ion I t is enc ased in a bright
nic kel c ase to red uce radiat ion as far as possibl e but t his c an
n o t be ent irely done away wit h
The c orrect ion is m ade by
determining t he d i s t an c e the l iq ui d l evel i n the tub e will fal l after
t he fuel sampl e is burned out for t he sam e lengt h o f ti me t hat
t h e fuel bu rned Care must be taken to ha ve the temperature
o f t h e calorimeter sl ight ly abo ve t he tem perature of t he roo m to
start wit h and if t he temperature o f t h e roo m h as not changed
during t he t ime o f burning and th at o f th e determinat ion for
radiat io n t he fal l in th e wat er l evel is a t ru e m easure o f the heat
loss due t o radiation

u
n
k
e
r
6
For gas fuels J
s c alori meter Fig
3 is u sual ly preferred
T he gas t o b e tested is led rst t hro ugh th e gas m eter w here its
vol um e and temperature are determined and second t hrough the
regul ator g whic h mainta ins any desired gas pressure during t he
determinat ion I t is burned i n air wit h a burner o f t h e B unsen
type T he heat evol ved is transmitt ed t o wat er entering t hrough
t he vessel b and d isc h arged t hrough t he v essel c t h e gases
esc aping at o r near t he roo m tem perature at K T he vessel b
maintains a const ant head o f water o n t h e c al ori meter Th e
a mount of water owing is regul ated at e T he water is measured
in t he graduate h Th e water of condensation formed during t he
c ombust ion is c aught and measured at d Tem peratures of cold
and hot water are m easured at t and t respect ively The appa
rat us is very simple easily s e t u p i n any desired place and t he
results obtained by its use are consistent and rel iable I t s opera
t ion m ay be made cont inuous by furn ish ing suitable means fo r
m easuring the water owing
T he heat ing val ue of carbon when b urn ed to C0 2 is n o w
denitely determined as 1 4 6 4 7 B T U per pou nd (8080 c alories
per k ilo ) t h at of c arbon t o CO at 4 429 B T U I n act ual pra e
t ic e t he gures 1 4 5 00 B T U for C t o C0 , and 4 500 B T U
for C t o C0 are easier to remember and ac curate enough for most
p urposes T he co mbustion of C t o C0 is usually k nown as t he
inco mplete c ombust ion o f c arbon T he heat ing val ue of the
combust ion o f CO to CO, h as been f ou nd to be 4 3 8 0 B T U
H ydrogen gi ves for t he high er h eating v al ue 6 2 1 00 B T U
an d for t h e lo wer val ue 5 2230 B T U
Hydrogen m ay burn
.

COMB US TION

1 33

either to water vapor or if condensation oc c urs to water I n t he

former case t he heat necessary to maintain t he water as va po r
is lost and hence we obtain the lower heat ing value 5 223 0
B T U the temperat ure being 2 1 2 degrees Fahren heit before
and after combust ion I f condensation occu rs the heat in the
water vapor is rec overed and t he higher val ue 6 2 100 B T U
results
I n gas -engine prac tice t he water result ing fro m t he c o m bu s
tion of hydrogen al most always escapes a s water vapor and hence
it is usual to employ the lo wer heating value in com putat ions
For the same reason we distinguish a lower and higher heating
value in all c omplex fuels co nt aining hydrogen to any consider
able e xtent and al ways use t he lo wer val ue in c ompu
,

t a t io n s

If

no direct dete rminat ion o f t he heating value of a com plex

fuel can be made by means o f a c alori meter t he heating value
can in most cases be found with fair accurac y by computation
p rovided t he c hemical analysis o f the fuel is known
I n t he c ase of hydrocarbons t he st atement o f its c hem ic al
fo rmula gives at t he same t ime t he weight proportions o f its
c h e mical composition
The com putation of the heating values
of t h e hyd roca rb o n grou ps C H and
may be based upon
t he following considerat ions :
C H contains n atoms o f C and n atoms o f H
Henc e the
gram-mo lec ule weighs l 2n
N ow 1 gram of C
n
l 3 n grams
develops
B T U and 1 gram o f H
B T U lower
h e a t ing value The heat ing value of C H is therefore
,

,,

"

,,

,,

( 12 X

( 12

(1 X
1) n

It

T his red uces to :

heating val ue of C H
1 7 5 40 B T U per l b
c o ntains n ato ms of C and 2n at o ms of H one gram
molec ul e therefore weighs l 4 n grams T he lower heating value
o f th is family of hydrocarbons is therefore generally
Lower

,,

( 12

n I

( 12

(1 X
2) n

2n

20 0 1 6 B

T U per Ib
.

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 34

I t shoul d be remembered ho wever t h at t hese formul ae give

,

approximat e results onl y

*
i n his Cal ori metri c I nvest igations
S l ab y quoted by G iild n e r
gives a formul a based upon exper i ence for heavy h ydro c arbons
ac c ording t o wh ic h :
1 05 00 y c al ories per cubic
1 000
L ower heat ing value
meter w here y
weight of a c ubic meter of t he gas in K g s
I n E ngl ish u nits t his formul a woul d b e :
.

L ower heat ing val ue

1 8880 y] B T U per c ubic f oot
(3 )
[ 1 12
t he c ubic foot being u nder st andard condit ions
inc hes Hg
baro meter and 3 2 degrees F ahrenheit and y
weight of a c ubic
foot
T he fol lowing t abl e of heat ing val ue o f hydrocarbons is taken
fro m G iild ne r t he gures bei ng t ransposed t o E ngl ish u nits
T he l ast t wo col u mns sh ow for p urposes of comparison t he val ues
as c omputed by S l aby s formul a and t he approxim at e formul ae
rst given :
.

HE A T I N G
W e igh t
cu

ft

in lb s

of

D e n s it y

a ir

S t d rd
an

CH4

=1

VA

H igh r
H ti g

r H ti g
V lu

o we

ea

a ue

lb

L wr
ti g V l u
o

ea

c u.

B T

04 4 6 4

5 54

2384 2

21 38 5

95 2

95 2

0 7 25 1

9 15

21 4 29

206 7 3

1 4 99

1 4 79

1 272

0 7 809

974

2 1 4 29

200 25

1 56 4

1 5 84

1 56 2

0 83 29

22399

204 3 4

1 700

1 6 82

1 1 157

209 92

20009

223 2

223 8

C3 H6

1 1 699

21 224

1 9 8 20

23 1 7

23 1 8

O3 B ,

1 225 6

21 8 25

200 3 9

24 5 5

24 24

209 1 2

1 9 5 08

30 32

3 05 5

0 2H4

CZ HG

C, H8

1 9 34 9

1 5 5 99

I n t he c ase

of

ft

C, H,

r o xi

per

m at e
po rm ula

Ap
l

ea

V l

HYD R O CA R B ON S

OF

er

LUE S

234 1

3 1 20

th e li quid hyd roc arbons t h e c rude oils an d

their dist il l ates it is usual to co mpute t heir heat ing value directl y
fro m t he c hemic al c o mposition T hu s t he lower heat ing val ue
G iild n e r E n t w e r fe n u n d B e re c h n e n d e r Ve r b re nn u n gs m o t o re n 2d e d
p 581
,

COMB US TION

1 35

of a P ennsyl vania crude oil c ontaining C

per cent 0
per cent would be

per cent H
,

= 1 4 500 C

(4 )

5 223 0

[ 1 4 5 00 x

8 4 9]

5 223 0

= 1 23 1 0
1 94 1 2 B T U

7 1 02

T he determ inati o n of t he heating v al ue o f th is oil by means o f

the calorimeter gave 192 1 0 B T U a di ff erenc e of
per cent
bet w e en t his and t he computed v al ue
I n ma ny inst ances however t he agreeme n t is not as close
and it S hould t herefore be made a general rul e t o obt ain actual
cal ori meter d eterminations w henever possible and to r e sort t o
co mput at ion only w hen u navoid a ble
may be t reat ed in a
S ol id fuels as coal cok e wood et c
si m ilar m anner For hard coals the com putat ion gives results
whic h agree fa irl y clos e ly w it h cal orimeter determ inat ions As
the a mount of volatile matter in t he coal increases i e as t he
h ydrocarbons inc re ase t here is less cert ainty of fair agreement
alth ough t h e comput e d resul t is usu al ly within 5 per c ent of th e
t ru e val ue T he general formula for a sol id fuel may be stated
as follo ws :
.

Heat ing val ue

1 4 5 00 C

5 223 0

4 000 S

1 000

H, O

(5)

percentage of xed and vol atile carbon

H
percentage of hydrogen
0
percentage o f oxygen
S
p e rc e n tage of sul phur
H, 0
percentage of water in coal as received C H and S
bei ng determined on the dry fu e l and then re c o mputed to t he
basis of fuel as recei ved
T he following table shows the analys e s o f two coals and t he
heat ing values as found by calorimeter and by ab o v e f o rmula

B oth analyses are t aken fro m P oole s

The Ca lo ric P ower o f
.

Fu e ls z

I N T E R NA L

1 36

COM B US TION ENGINE S

I t wil l

be n oted t hat th e agreem ent in th e results fo r

t h e h ard c oal is good in t he c as e o f t he soft coal t he
co mputed result is
per cent smal ler th an t h at d et erm ined
by c al orimeter
A ttempts h ave been mad e fro m t ime t o t im e t o ad apt formula3
t o t h e approx imate anal yses o f coal i e
t hose in wh ich only
xed c arbon vol at il e m atter water an d ash are determined All
t hese att em pts h ave not given sat isfact ory results owing t o t he
varied co mpositio n of t h e vol at il e m atter in va rious coals
AI R R E Q U I R E D F OR CO M B U ST I O N A N D THE P R O D U CTS O F CO M
B U S T I ON
As already pointed o u t t he co mbust ion of 1 lb o f
2 X 1
1h 0 and t h at o f 1 1h o f H t o
,

pound onl y
will b e
.

5 X 16

23

l b of oxygen th e air required for th e tw o c ases

.

l b an d

23

lb respect ivel y
.

23

Th e products o f c ombust ion are in t h e c ase of c arbon

pounds o f CO, a n d in th e case o f hydrogen 9 pounds o f
H, O if th e theoret ic al amount of ox ygen h as been used in
eac h c ase
Wit h t he aid o f t h ese fu ndament al gures the air required
and t he result ing produ ct s o f co mbu st ion m ay be com puted for
any given fuel sol id l iqu id o r gaseous if th e c omposition o f th e
fuel is k nown
I n general any fuel wh ic h c ont ains per pou nd say C l b c ar
bo n H lb h ydrogen and 0 lb oxygen requ ires
,

2 66 O + S
.

23

of

pou nds

air fo r it s c om pl et e combustion

I n gas engine pra ct ice ho wever th e case of

fuel s is o f
mu ch more im portan ce and for t his we c an deri ve the foll ow ing
general formul ae :
-

gas

COMB US TION
(a ) FO R ON E
N , lb CO

POU N D

N , lb

or

N3

+ N e lb O + N , lb
.

pound

G AS

lb

L et t he ga s consist of

N , lb C2 H , + N 5 lb C, H,

CH,

of

t heo ret ic ally required per pou nd

Air

137

N,

N,

8 N,

5 7 N,

gas
N,

pounds
(6 )

P roducts

of comb ust io n per pound of

N3

N,

CO,

ga s

N5

N,

N8 ]

pounds

(7 )

and

H0

N3
N,
N 9 ] p o unds
69 N5
(8 )
[9 N2
B es ides the abov e am o unt s o f CO2 and H, O t he produc t s o f c o m
bus t io n will also cont ai n any excess oxygen t hat may h ave be e n
used tog e t her wit h the n it ro gen brought i n by t he oxygen
I f t he analysis of t he exh aust gas shows free oxygen the e xcess
coefficient for t he air used pro vided t h e fuel ga s itself ca rries
no nit rogen may be computed fro m t he formul a
,

where N
per cent o f n itro gen O
per cent o f free o xygen
in the exhaust gas by v o lume a n d
is t h e v o l um e ratio o f
N t o 0 in ai r T his fo rmula together with the t wo given ab o ve
for CO, and H, 0 allo w of a complete determi n at ion o f t he p ro
ducts of co mbusti o n
I n c a se t he fuel gas itself ca rries N t he de t erminat i o n o f
the e Xes s c o e fci e nt fo r t he a ir us e d is n o t so sim ple an d S houl d
be ma de a ccording t o t he met hod out lined o n p 1 4 4
,

(b) FO R ON E CU B I C F O O T
h as

or

GAS

Assu me

t he followi ng analysis :
N,

N,
N,

N,
N,

per c e nt
p e r cent
r
e
c e nt
p
p e r cent
per cent

by
by
by
by
by

v o lume o f C0
v o lume of H ,
vol ume o f CH,
vol um e o f C, H,
volu me o f C, H,

that the

gas

I N TE R N AL COM

1 38

N6

per
N 7 per
N 8 per
N 9 per

cent
cent
cent
cent

B US TI ON ENGINES
volu me o f 0 2
vol u me o f N2
volu me o f CO2
vol u me o f H20

by
by
by
by

Air requ ired per c ubic foot , t heoret ic all y ,

N6

P rod u
ct s

of

CO2

N
[ 1

H20

[N 2

co mbu s tion per cubic foot

N3

2N 4

2N 3

ZN5

2N 4

N5

of

gas

N 8]

c ubic feet

( 1 0)

N 9]

cubic feet

(1 1)

t hese am ou nts o f CO2 and H20 t here will in

cases be addit ional a mount s of f r ee oxygen and of n it rogen
volu me s o f t hese c an be det er mined fro m t he ex h aust gas an alysis
as before
T he t abl e page 1 3 9 gives t h e m ain c onst ants for t he principal
gases met in gas engine pract ic e
T he cons t ant B c an be c o mputed fro m
B esides

(Cp

T
i
w here

Cv) T

t he m ec han ical equivalent of heat

7 78

an d
m

mol ec ul ar weight of t he

S A M P L E CO M P U TA T I O N
s is

oi

a prod ucer gas p

,

mol ec ul ar weight

171

CI,

ga s

t he fol l owing c h emic al a n a ly

to determ ine its heat ing v al ue its

G iven

1 40,

an d

and

Al s o

t hese quant it ies

for v arious m ixtures of t h is gas w it h air an d th e am ount of and

the constants fo r t he burned gases aft er co mbustion of t h ese fuel
mixt ures
,

B US TI ON

COM

m
o m
h m
m

3
o

m
m
m
m

2
.

m m m
a
m : 2

a
s

m
m

3 8 2

9
0

m
m
m
m

m m
m
3 2 e m
m

a
n

1 39

E
:
m
3
3
m 3 m a u
v

w
e

m
e

wo

k
m

m m
m m
m H

m
u

a
o

a
E

I3 E

g
o

w
h w

<

h
n
e

w3
.

m
.

8 3
.

2 w

3
n

o
n

m 2
o
.

m w

m
m

"

lI II
II

l
l

S g S

3
8
8
2
8 2
m

s
o
N

m m m

IIl

l
l

I
I

0
n 0
0

3 8
3 2 :

II

o
v
e
n

m
.

g w 3
m
v

m m m

m
m
m
m

n
e

8
.

s 3

o
n

2 E 2

m
9 m
2
m m

m
E m 3
m m m

Z o

l
.

ca

6
0

8
3
8

a
o

3
8 3

<

53
9

m
m

0
5

%
$

$ 5
3 3

a
.

3
5
0

8
2

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 40
m

~
~

m
w
m

6 d 6
n
v 5
2 m
.

33
a

D mo

a
p
o

a
:

w
o
o

0
.

w
w
m

0
.

:
.

m
o
m

m m m m
m m m m
m n m m
m o m m

q
0
Z
O

B
o

Q
m
o

m
q

m
z

m
m

m
n
o
o

d
i

mx

w w v v n
w o o w
w w w m m

a
n

A
n

C
O
N

m w w m m m m
A
u
m
n
m
m
o
v w w m g

2
0

E m
m

W
N

m
Im

0 1

6 S

o o Q

3 0
5

k
n

:
o

3
9

III

m
p

w
x

o
a

s m

m 3 m
o
o

5
0

n
o

a
n
s

m
a

o
o

o
o

6 em

8
2
3

w
a

o
n
a

w n
m m a o 3
o o w o 6
H

v
.

9 c m
o
c
8 a 0
0

C
Z O

Em Z O 0
O

hm
s

v
:
0

E
9 m
%

X 5

m
N

m
9 o w o m a w
3
w v m w m m
m m
h
h
v b

m m
m w w m
m w m o
m w
o
m
am
o

o
o

e
e

8 wa

m m a
m m m

2
5

S8

Bg

m m
m

2
2
3

"

E
E
E

d
o

~
3
0

a 2

g 5
o
n 4

COM B US TION

14 1

Ac cording

to equ ation
the t heoret ical amount
quir ed by t his gas p e r c ubic foot

cubic feet

of

air

re

T he

following t able gives in t he rst col u mn the c onstants for

t he t heoret ical ai r-gas mixtu re
T he sec ond a nd th ird c olu mns
assu me t hat a n excess of a ir is used in t he rst case equal to
c u bic feet in t he last case equal t o
c ubic fee t :
.

CO N S T A N TS

FO R

V A R I O U S MI X T U R E S

or

A B O V E Do w s o N G AS

W T H AI R

Ra ti o

a ir

t o gas

vo l u me V
B y we i gh t W
We igh t o f s ta n da rd
By

cu

m ix t u re

Hea ti n g v al u e
B T U
.

64

R =
C9 =

ft

of

06 73

080 72 V

st a n d a rd

1
cu

ft

of

074 4

0 75 3

0 7 72

25 9 5

2560

25 29

1 824

m i x t u re ,

W
l

2 88 7 + 238
.

W:

of

1
206 4 + 1 6 9

W
.

1 84 9

1 800

C,,

Th e

next ta ble gives t he c o rre s p o nd ing c o ns t a nt s fo r t he

bu rn ed gases resulting from t he c om busti on ( if t he fuel m ixtu res
a ss u med a bo ve
The changes oc curring du ring combustion cause a ch ange in

the v alues of

R,

et c

For the theoretical c ase

w it h
cubic feet of air t o 1 cu bic foot of gas the products of
comb us tion wil l be ac cording to equations ( 10 ) and
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 42
CO2

H0
2

00 3 1

006 2

006 2

006 2)

06 5 7 )
.

1 997

S ince

n e c es

c ubi c feet of air were used there must also

be n itrogen to t he vol ume o f
X 7 9)
4 8 98 ]
c ubic feet

s a rily

c ubic feet being du e t o t he n it rogen in t he fuel gas

4 8 98

itsel f

3 25 7

c ubic feet
c ubic feet
.

T he volu me o f t he exh aust gases i n the second c olumn of t he

t ab le are found as follows The volu mes o f CO2 an d o f H20
are of c ourse t h e same as before since 1 c ub ic foot of gas is
burned in every c ase
cub ic feet o f air are
B u t since only
requ ired and
c ub ic feet h ave been used t he excess air is
T his consists o f 3 8 X 7 9
3 002
3 8 c ub ic feet
cubi c feet o f N an d 0798 o f 0
H en c e t he excess 0 a ppearing
3 00 2
will be 0 7 98 c ubic feet w hile t he N n ow is
cub ic feet
s

CO N S T A N T S
R a ti o

Vol

by vo l
o f e xh a u s t ga se s c u ft
a ir

t o gas

of e
.

THE

B U R N E D G SE S

xha u st gase s t o
c u ft
V o l o f m i xt u re be fo re
Co m bu s t i o n
V ol

FO R

CO2

cu

H20

ft

of

3 25 7

1 99 7

3 25 7

1 99 7
.

0 798

9 12

3 25 7
1 997

1 84 8

D w so n g
o

as ,

V2

VI

V2

2 12
.

896

VI

R, = R

V2

G
d
e

u a

B
a
p
c

n
i

24 7 8

24 6 2

1 809

1 78 7

per

po un d

n
o

24 4 6

1 769

COMB US TION

1 43

T he values of C, and C i n t he foregoing t able are found as

follows Consider the mixture wit h rat io
,,

B rn d
u

By

G as

H20

00 2

C,

E 20

0,

C,

C,

For

3 25 7

03 99

1 99 7

0 1 00

0 798

00 7 1

131 1

03 99 x 20
.

0 1 00 x 4 8
.

007 1 x 2 1 7
13 1 1

x 24 4

1 88 1

l bs 2C9

c,

C,,

ft

1 88 1

008 0

004 8

03 20

04 6 3

04 6 3

p o u nd s

24 6 2

1 88 1

o,

0 0 15

C?

S ince 0 ,

cu

For

B y W ight

V o l um e

f
.

24 6 2

7 78
1 78 7

and

C2

79

Cu

Att ention

shoul d be cal led to t he fact t h at alt hough c onsider

ab le contract ion of vol u me oc c urs in t he c ase of t his gas during
co mbustion still t he val ues of R C,, and C are not greatly dif
fe re nt fro m t he corresponding v al ues before combustion
I 11
so me oth er gases as ill uminating gas for inst ance t he ch ange is
even l es s S o t hat in most ordinary c ases it is su ffi c ientl y ac curate
to assume that these gas constants are the s ame before and a fter
c ombustion
Only in cases where extreme ac curac y is desired
is t his assu mption n o t perm issible
3 Co m p uta tio n of t h e am o u n t of a ir u se d in e xce s s of
th e o re tica l r e qu ir e m e n ts fro m t h e e xh a u st gas an a ly si s
I n ac tual pract ice t he exhaust gases are analy zed for CO2 0
a nd N
B y t he ord inary met hod o f c ol lect ing these gases t he
wat er va p o r origina ll y pres ent is t h row n d own and d o es n o t a p p ear
As ment ioned befo re if t he fuel gas itself carri es
in t he analysis
,

,,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 44

no n itrogen t he exc ess c o e fcient for t he air actua l ly u sed m ay

be c o mputed fro m t he formu la gi ven on page 1 3 7
To show a n e xa m ple of t he met hod o f c o mputation w hen t h e
fu el ga s c arries N w e w ill ta ke t h e c ase o f t h e D owson gas above
giv en and a ssu m e t hat th e exhaust gas a nalysis gi ves t he fol low in g
resu lts : CO2
and N
by volu me
0
We proce ed as fol lows :
P rodu ct s o f Combust ion f or t heoret ical rat i o per c u bic foot
o f ga s are :
CO2 3 25 7 cu ft
,

H20

N
N

1 997

0000
O

4 8 98

due to
due to

88 4 8

Of

itself
ir u s ed

as

1 3 74 6

0 11

'

ft

is d u e t o gas
is du e t o a ir

bl ob

'

0f

Total
On

c u ft
.

t he basis of t he abo v eexhau st gas anal ys is w e n ow ha ve :

,

T ot al N

X
L ea ves N d ue t o t h e gas it sel f and t o a ir a c t ually burn ed
is d ue to t h e
Of t hi s rema ind er a s a bo ve shown
fuel ga s
L e aves N d u e t o t he air a ct u ally burned
H enc e t h e excess c oeffic i ent
Of

t his amount N d ue t o e xc ess a ir w ill be

,

a nd t he rea l rat io of ai r t o ga s for t h e origina l fu el m ixture was

X 1 12
.

I n te n sity

c al orifi c intensit y is meant t he

temperat ure t hat ca n be real i zed t heoret ic ally w hen a un it weight
o f an y fuel is co m pletely burned u n der st ated condit ions o f o xy
gen o r air su ppl y I f H represents t he heat ing val ue o f t h e fuel
i n B T U A B C et c t he weight s o f t he v arious resu lt ing
product s of co mbust ion an d C,,A C, B C ,,C et c t he spec ifi c
heat at const ant pressure o f t hese products t he genera l stat e
ment for c alori fic int ensity supposing t he pressure t o remain
constant is
4

Ca lori c

By

COMB US T ION

1 45

+ 3 0

C C

Thus t he caloric intensity of hydrogen with theoretical air

woul d be t he products of co mbu stion being water vapo r and
nitrogen
,

5 223 0

4 800 F
o

x 2 44]
[ 9 x 4 8]
T hat of C to CO,3 with theoretic al air would similarl y be

1 4 5 00

5 000 F
o

x 244 ]
[ 3 6 6 X 20]
S U Ch
tem peratures however are Pract ic al ly never reali zed
d ue p robably to t wo causes On the o n e hand it is cl aimed that
t he spe c ic heat of gases is not const ant at al l temperatures but
t hat it r ises with the temperat ures ; on th e other dissociat ion is
These
sup p os ed to set in before suc h temperat ures are reached
matt e rs will be taken up so mewhat more in detail in a l ater
.

CH APT E R V I I
GA

S -E N G I N E F U E LS ;

T HE S O L I D

F U E LS

GA

S PROD U C E R S

engine fuel is t hat it must

eneral
requirement
for
a
gas
g
m ix readil y wit h air to form a c o mbust ible gas or vapor F urther
it shoul d burn wit h l ittl e o r no residue T his latter requirement
is not met by t he sol id fuels as coal dust for inst anc e and w hile
isol ated attempts at using po wdered coal directl y h ave been
m ade t hey h a ve so far n o t been suc cessful o wing t o t h e fact
t hat t h e resu lting ash soo n seriousl y interferes wit h operat ion
T he gasengin e fuels may be c lassed u nder t hree heads :

THE

Th e

o lid fuels

Th e l i qu id

Th e ga s

It

f u el s

fue l s

t he rul e t h at t h e work ing m ediu m in al l intern al c o m

bu s t io n eng i nes 1 8 either a co mbust ibl e gas or a c o mbust ible
vapor no m att er wh at t he fuel m ay h ave been fro m w h ic h it w a s
derived T h is im pl ies ga s ic a t io n o f t he sol id an d vapori z at ion
o f t he l iquid fuels
As already pointed o u t above t h e sol id fuels c an not be em
ployed i n t heir natural state Fro m coal we derive by dist ill ation
illu m inat ing ga s an d fro m coal and somet imes other m aterials
as wood refuse et c by ga s ic a t io n t he v arious cl asses o f pro
d u c e r o r power gas
I ll u minating gas w ill be furth er considered under t he head o f
gas fuels
I
Th e Conversion of the S oli d F uels t o G a s : P ro d u c e r G a s e s
G as ic a t io n o f sol id fuel d i ffers fro m dist il lat io n in t he fact
t hat t he p rocess is carried o n e step furt her t e not onl y are
t he gases i f any dri ven o ff fro m t he fuel but t he c arbon
itself i s ga s ie d l eaving beh ind not h ing but ash
T he funda ment al pri nc iple o f al l produ cer-gas processes is
is

'

14 6


GAS ENGINE

F UELS

147

therefore rs t dry distill ati o n o f t he fu e l and sec ond the c o n

v e rsi o n o f the soli d c arb o n i nt o a c o mbustible gas whic h c a n o n l y
be c arbo n mo n oxide
I f the pr o duc er gas is fo u n d to c o n t ai n
ot h e r gas es t h an t h o se menti o n ed i t c an onl y be due to c hanges
in the pro c e ss un avoidable o r otherwise
P roducer prac tic e m ay be c arried o n in the fol l o win g ways :
N o s team or w ater i ntr o duc ed wit h the ai r resul ting in
1
,

P roducer

blo wn u p wit h air for one period then blown

with stea m alone P roduct during first stage is air gas during
t he second water gas
3 Producer fu rnished w it h air carrying a certai n quantity
P roduct is ordinary producer gas D owso n gas
o f water vapor
2

The rst of t hese is seldo m employed on ac co unt of l imita

tio ns pointed o u t below The second and t hird introduce modi
gas process owing to t he presence of
c a t io ns int o t he simple air
water or steam
Co nsidering t h e c ase of t h e gas ic a t io n of carbo n
AI R G A S
alone resulting i n t he production o f t he s o -c alled air gas assume
t he co mb ust ion o f C to CO co mplete ; we t hen have
.

lb

of

lb 0

lb CO

I f C had been burne d completely to C0 , , the c aloric power

wo ul d have been 1 4 6 4 7 B T U burning only to CO however we
.

obtain onl y 44 29 B T U so th at the remainder or 1 02 1 8 B T U

is carr ied o u t o f t he producer by t he gas made and t h us rep t e
sents its heat energy 4 4 29 B T U appears as sensible heat in
t he gas and if the ga s is co o led before e n tering t he engin e cyl inder
as it usuall y is for good reas o ns t he greatest possible effic ienc y
wh ic h can be reali zed fro m t he gas i c a t io n o f 1 pound of c arb o n
.

in

t his way

is

1 02 1 8
14 6 4 7

per cent

It

will be shown below that

t hi s is by no means t he maximu m possible producer efc ien cy

W AT E R G A S Wh e n water vapor is le d t hrough or o ver
incandescent carbo n t he following react ions t ake pl ac e :
.

II

+ 2 11 ,

IN TERNA L C OM B U STION ENGINES

148

I oc c urs at t emperat ures le s s t h an 1 25 0 degrees F ahrenheit

while I I alone oc c urs at temperat ures exceeding 1 8 00 degrees
,

Fahrenheit ; bot h m ay oc cur bet ween t hese temperature limits

but t he higher t he t emperat ure t he great er t he formation o f C0
The maxi mu m amou nt of CO is o f course t he end i n view and
assu m ing t hat no CO, is formed t e t em perature at or above
1 800 degrees Fahrenheit
we have t h e following qu ant it at ive
statement :
,

lb H, o

1 1b 0
.

lb 0 0
.

fro m whic h

17

lb H,
.

pou nd o f water gas mu s t cont ain

93 2

lb Carbo n m o n o x1 d e

06 8

lb Hy dro g en

17

an d
'

17
.

17

T he gas i c a t io n o f 1 pou nd of c arbon t herefore i n t h e pres

ence o f water vapor results in pro ducts wh ic h o n c omplet e c o m
bu s t io n develop t he fol lowing amount o f heat :
,

lbs 0 0 x 4 3 8 0

1 0205 B T U
.

1 7 lbs

H x 6 21 00

1 05 5 7 B T U

Tot al
Heat ing val ue of C t o C0 ,

207 6 2 B

1 46 4 7 B

E xcess ,

6 1 15 B

T U
T U
.

T U
.

The exc ess of 6 1 1 5 B T U c an onl y be due t o heat rendered

latent during t he process Wat er vapor o n c oming in c ont act
wit h inc andescent c arbo n dissoc iat es int o H , and O Th e latter
u nit es wit h C t o form CC, but as t h e t emperat ure o f t h e producer
is at or over 1 8 00 degrees Fahrenheit CO, is dissoc iated t o CO
T he h eat t h us rendered l atent ac c ou nts for t he excess above sh own
N o w it is evident t h at t h is heat c an onl y c ome fro m t h e stock o f
h eat present i n t he producer when t he bl owing wit h steam rst
st arts H en ce t here must be a cont inual c ooling o f t he producer
c ontents during t he perio d o f water-gas m ak ing T his results
n ally i n a serious product ion o f CO, ac cording t o reaction I
when t he steam must be sh ut o ff an d t h e content s of t he
producer brought back t o inc andescenc e by blow i ng w it h air
.

GA S- ENGINE F UELS

1 49

Th e most unf avorable operat ion of the producer oc c urs when the
react ions are acc ording to equat io n I
U nder th is conditio n
.

1 1b
so

that

lb H, O

00 ,

pound of water

gas

3 66

34

H,

34

t hen c ontains

9 15

lb CO,

085

lb Hyd rogen

and
3 66

34

The product ion of water gas rec koned o n t he basis of c oal o r

carbon is not at all effi c ient sinc e t he heat in t he poor gas made
during t he blowing-up period is very often wasted and only i n
instanc es of util ity Ot her l o ss es are of course t hose
ra re
t h ro ugh incomplete combust ion radiat ion et c but t hese are
inherent in all producers to a greater or lesser extent
PR O D U C E R G A S
Midway bet ween air gas and water gas we
nd the great cl ass o f p o wer gases for t he prod uction of whic h
t he producer is blown cont inuously wit h a m ixture o f air and
water vapor
To get a fair insight into t he work ing of a power gas pro
d uc e r and o f t he effi c ienc ies t hat may be reali zed we will assume
t he fol lowing denitions and quantities *
l
The heat suppl ied to a producer con 8 1sts of the heat fur
n is h e d to it in t he fuel pl us t he heat contained in stea m and
air a bo ve a cert ain xed temperat ure s a y 3 2 degrees Fahrenheit
2 The heat leaving the producer i n the ga s is m ade up o f
the latent heat of t he gas pl us the sensible heat What the
q uantity of heat considered as the useful e ff ect in effi ciency should
be depends u p o n circ u mstanc es
I n furnace work where it may
be of ad vantage to employ t he hot gas the useful e ff ect would be
the su m of the latent and sensibl e heats of the gas I n gas -e n
gine practice on the contrary t he opposite is the case and the
useful eff ect would be the latent heat only I n the rst c ase we
s p eak of the h ot-ga s efficien cy in th e second of t he c old -ga s
,

Ad a t e d

f ro m

de u t sc he r pnge n io u re

di s c u ss i o n
1 89 5 p 1 5 23

t he
,

of

Me ye r

Z e i t s c h r i ft d e s

V r in
e e

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINES

1 50
3

I nside of t he produ cer t he following react ions t ak e pl ace

so m e endot hermic ot hers exot herm ic

Of every pou nd o f c arbon t he l arger p art burns to CO the
remainder to C0 , T he heat generated fro m t h ese t wo c o m bus
tions is util i zed i n th e following ways : P art o f it disso ciates t he
steam present form ing H and C0 or C0 , or bot h H ow t h is
act io n v aries wit h t he t emperat ure of t he producer h as a l
ready b een point ed out
A sec ond p art of t h e heat s e r ve s t o
bring t he fresh fuel up t o t he tem perat ure of t he produ cer a
th ird is lost by radiation from th e ext erior produ cer w alls and
the rem ainder appears as sensible heat in t he g as m ade
T he fo rm ulas to be derived will be based upo n o n e pou nd of C
rat her t h an upon o n e poun d of coal for the reason that coal s vary
greatly in com posit ion an d it is i n e very case quite easy to ch ange
fro m t his basis to t hat of coal if t he qualit ies o f the coal be kno wn
L et
,

T U
4 4 00 B T U
1 0 1 00 B T U
1 4 5 00 B

6 900 B T U
.

heat o f c omb ustion of

heat o f co mb ust ion of
heat of c o mb ust io n of

lb
lb

of

to
C to
lb CO t o

water vapor under producer cond it ions

lbs CO
.

lb CO,
.

heat requ ired t o disso ciate

lb C0 ,

lb

of

part of 1 lb of C b urn ing t o C0 ,

x)
part o f 1 lb of C b urning t o CO
(1
f
f
o
C
pounds
stea
m
int
rodu
ced
per
lb
o
y
A
heat furn ished i n stea m
B
heat furnished i n air
heat requ ired to bring f resh fuel to temperat ure o f
C
produ cer
R
heat lost by radiat ion
S
sensib le h eat o f t he gas
All o f t he above heat quantit ies are per pound o f c arbon gasi
e d and abo ve a t emperat ure o f sa y 3 2 degrees Fahrenheit
With t his not ation t he general heat equat io n fo r t he producer
m ay be st ated as follo ws b ased on 1 lb o f c arb on :
:1:

The heat t h at wil l be generated by t he co mbust ion of th e vol ume

o f gas formed co mes fro m C0 and H
.

GA S- ENGINE F UEL S
Heat generated in gas per po und of

1 51

C gas ied

x)
6 900 y ] B T U
[ 1 0 1 00 ( 1
6900 y for t he heat generated by H is obt a ined by consider ing
th at we must receive as mu c h heat fro m t he co mb us t ion of the H
in the gas as was rendere d latent d u ring dissoc iat ion o f t he amoun t
of H, O requ ired to f urnish it
1 4 500
A
B
Heat supplied per pound of C ga s ie d
.

Co ld -gas

(1

1 0 1 00

ef c ienc y

:r

1 4 5 00

(1

1 0 1 00

Hot -gas effi ciency

6 900 y

:r

1 4 500

6 900 3;
A
B

t he latter case no part of t he sensible heat of t he gas is

I n practic e there is always
abst racted before t he gas is used
so me loss of temperatur e bet ween the producer and the pl ace
where t he gas is used hence S is never fully obtain e d
A B C
If in t he above general heat equat ion the val ues of
R and S are kno wn the val ue of y t e the pounds of stea m to be
T he co mposition
us ed per pound of c arbon may be co mputed
of the res ult ing p roducer gas may be comput ed as follo ws us ing
the above not ation :
In

CO M P O S I T I O N

WEI G HT

BY

x =
)

co

=
2

:1:

:1:

PO U N D

P ER

:r

CA R B ON G AS I FI E D

OF

) po und s

po unds

p o u nd s

9
a mount of N is found as fol lows :
18

Th e

equ ired for CO

Oxygen

(l

Oxygen

Oxy gen

3%

requ ired for CO,

18

req uir ed fro m air bl as t

8
9

y p ounds

:5

) po unds

p o unds

a:

produc ed by d isso c iation of H, O

16

(1

x)

I N TE RN AL COM B US TI ON E N GI N E S

1 52

Henc e

(1

x)

(1

x)

r e q u l re d

an

Hen ce also
N

(1

pounds

pou nds

1 00
y

pounds

brought in b y air bl ast is

(1

:13

of

Th e t otal w eigh t
th erefore is
(1

pounds

gas produ ced b y

x)
a:

(1

33

y)

pounds

CO M P O S I T I O N B Y V O L U M E P E R P O U N D
V olu mes

x)
of

pou n d o f c arbon

one

pounds

produ cer gas

CA R B O N G A S I F I E D

OF

at 3 2 degrees an d
l b pressure
Weight per cubic foot o f t he various gas u nder st and ard

d it io n s

con

CO

078 07 1b

CO2

1 226 7 1h

0055 9 , N

Hen c e fro m t h e above weight c om pu tat ion s

,

direc tly

0 78 3 1

we may writ e

V ol u me

Of

7:

CO
.

V ol u me

(1

x)

y
9 X 005 5 9

of

07 8 07

(1

c u ft
.

c u ft
.

V ol u me

of

(1

x)

23 5 X 07 8 3 ]
.

y)

cubic feet

Fro m th is

Total vol u me o f gas per poun d of C gas ie d

a: )

c ubi c feet

a:

y]

y)

c ubic feet

GA S-EN GIN E

1 53

F UEL S

of P r od u c e r
I f it is supposed that
no CO2 is formed t hat al l t he sensible heat produced in the
generator is reco vered in making stea m and preheat ing air and
fres h fuel and t h at no radia t ion has t aken place we shall have
2.

Th e ore t i ca l Yi e l d

R = 0,

x a nd

S = A + B

a nd

U nder t hese t heo reti cal condit ions t he general heat e q uation
,

(p

15 1)

t hen beco mes

4 4 00

T he val ue of C is approxi mately

4 140

fro m whic h

4 1 40

31

6 900

600

6 900 y

3 60 B

2 X 1 8 00

T U
.

6900 y,

pou nds of steam per poun d of C

The th eo retical yield of gas per pound of c arbon under t hese

conditio ns will be
cubic feet of

CO

c ubic feet

X 6 00
.

X 6 00

of

H
of

c ubic feet

Total vol ume of yield

c ubic feet per pound of C
Com p osit ion of gas p e r cent by vol u me

per cent CO

per cent H

per cent

T ak ing the h igher heating value of H at 3 4 6 B T U pe r

c ubic foot and the heating value of CO at 3 4 2 B T U per cubic
fo ot the gas yield fro m 1 pound o f C will develop
.

X 3 4 2)

X 3 46 )

Th e h igh er heating value

gas is t herefo re
1 424 9

I n ac tu al practic e howe ver

A

heat in the

B;

gas

T U
.

per cu ft
.

and R c anno t
0 neither
e
not all o f the heat ap p ea r ing as sensi bl e
le a vi n g the producer is e ver rec o vered To
,

is S

c ubic foot of this t heoretical

pe r

1 4 24 9 B

at

I N TERNAL COM B US TI ON

1 54

ENGINES

mak e clear wh at h appens u nder t hese c irc u mst ances t he follo w

ing t able is constru ct ed I n t his t able it is assu med t h at t h e
heat furnished in steam an d air per poun d o f c arbon equal s 1 000
B ) i n al l c ases and t h at t he Su m o f t he heat
B T U
(A
losses due t o radiat ion R an d sensible heat of t he gas S = 1 6 4 0
B T U per pou n d o f c arbon
T he h eat furnished t he produ cer per poun d o f C w ill t h en i n
al l c ases be 1 4 5 00
1 000
1 5 5 00 B T U
w h ile th e heat
ac cou nted for w ill b e 1 5 500
1 3 5 00 B T U
3 6 0)
( 1640
,

so

t h at th e generator effi c ien c y

on

h o t gas

in al l cases

1 3 5 00
1 5 500

per cent I t is fu rt h er assu med for il lustrat ion t hat o nly

t he amount of c arbon burned to CO2 per p ound of c arbon gasi
fied varies
.

GA S-E N GINE F UEL S

9

n
d

3 c e 3
m
9

8
0

>

m
m

m
m
.

a
n

m
H

w
m
m

a
n

m
m

ta

m
o

a
n

w
h

8
d
w

a
w

m
m

m
m

1 55

3
8

0
c

ma
n

3
.

5
0

w
w
d

m
N

w
d
m

O
U

2
m
w

m
c
a

d
.

8 :a
:

a
s

w
d

m
d
m

m
m
o

8
0

m
m

i
n

d
m

w
m

m
m
o

o
n
e

O
H

IN T ERNA L

1 56

COM B US TI ON

I n co m ment ing upon t he above t abl e

ENGINES
Meyer points

th at
as th e percentage o f CO2 i n t h e gas increases th e h eating value
O f t he gas decreases b ut since at th e same t i me t he percentage
of H and th e vol u me Of gas per pound O f C in crease it is not
al ways right t o concl ude frOm an alysis al one th at t he effi ciency
of t he generator is less w it h a fairly h igh t h an w it h a l ow percent
age o f CO2 in th e gas I n general terms it c an be stated h ow
ever t h at t he lo wer t he temperature Of th e generator t h e greater
t he format io n o f C0 2 and t he greater also t he loss o f heat in
sensibl e h eat of the result ing gas
R eferring to t he gas engine itself a h igh perc entage o f CO2
i n t he gas m eans a l ow engine c apac ity sin ce t his h igh percent age
is usu al ly also acc ompanied by an increased a mou nt o f t he ot her
ind i ff erent gases
Turni n g no w t o a ct ual gen
3 Ga s P ro d u cers i n P r a cti ce
c rator pract ice
we find t he following m ain points o f d i fferen ce
T he fuel is not pure c arbon but so me i mpure form of it as c oal
c oke lignite peat or wood T his in itself merel y resul ts i n a
lower yiel d o f ga s per pound o f fuel fired t ha n t h at above c o m
p u t e d and t his decrease is further e mphasi zed by th e fac t t hat
so me of t he unburned carbo n i n t he fuel is al ways lost in th e ash
A c omplex fu el being used c ontain ing gases whic h are distil led
o ff during t he rst part O f t h e process
th e result ing producer
gas will have a so mewh at di fferent co mposit io n t han t hat above
co mputed
T he main d i ff erenc e is due t o t h e addit ion o f
h ydro carbons and th is di fferenc e is t herefore great er wit h
bit uminous coals t h an wit h any of t he other fuels
Th e u se
of an y o f t he abovementioned fuels results al so i n other
co mpl ic at ions more o r less diffic ult depending u po n the fuel
used S uc h are t he formatio n o f tar dust c arried by the gas
et c all O f wh ic h m ake a cleaning of th e gas imperat i ve before
it can be used
The primary considerat ion in the operation of t he ga s pro
d u c e r s is perhaps t he k ind o f fuel used
Th e po ints t o be c o n
s id e re d i n t his connection are : percent age o f water c arried by
fuel amount and k in d o f ash t ar-forming ingredients o f th e fuel
si ze o f fuel and w het her it c okes or n o t
A h igh percentage o f wat er h as a direc t eff ect in l owering t he
temperat ure of t he prod ucer besides l owering t he heat ing value
,

o ut

GA SENGINE F UELS

1 57

t he gas per c ubic foot as made A l arge amount of as h makes

more frequent clean ing out nec e ssary or it is likely to result in a
part ial stoppage o f t he air supply I f the ash shoul d be easily
fus ible t he c ase is muc h more co mpl ic ated as this results in bad
c linkering T he si ze of the fuel should be a h appy med iu m
clog up easil y and in any case
S mall fuel i e scr eenings etc
requ ire a higher blast pressure L arge fuel on the ot her hand
O ff ers t o o l ittle su rface for gasifi cat ion and is apt to let muc h water
and CO2 es cape unreduced A cok ing coal nearly al ways gives
trouble from this c ause and it necess i t ates constant break ing up
O f t he charge
T he format ion of tar wh ich results espec ial ly when bitu mi
nous coals are gasifi ed makes a clean ing of the gas for engine pur
poses indispensabl e T ar results when some o f the hydroc arbon
gases are condensed through c ooling in th e gas m ains and pipes
I f these gases reac h the c yc lind e r their co mbustion is l ikely to
resul t in a strong deposit of soot I n either case t he operation
of the engine will soon be seriously inte rfered with Tar c an be
almost entirely removed fro m the gas by wash ing it but t his
pro cess requ ires construct i ons fully as costly as th e producer
itself and hence other methods have been employed
The tar-form ing gases are al w ays t hose wh ic h are formed
f r om the d ry distill ation of the coal hence most trouble is e n
countered w ith bituminous coal less wi t h l ignite and still l ess
wit h anthrac ite
F or th is reason anthracite and c ok e producers
have been most suc cessful although producers using brown
coals and l ignites are in operat ion as are also t hose us i ng bitu
minous coal but wit h l ess suc cess This does n o t apply t o steel
works where bitumi nous coal is used extensi vel y for gasification
B ut t here the ga s is used mos t ly h o t and less trouble from tar is
ex p e rienced

T he tar gas e s can be fi xed

ie
c hanged to permanent
gas es when the producer gas containing t hem is led through an
incandescent bed of fuel before entering t he gas m ains I n th is
c ase the tarry hydroc arbons are changed eit her to H20 and CO2
or spl it u p into CO and H I n some producers onl y t he gases
resulting fro m the dry d istillation are h andled in this way I n
either c ase the tarry hydrocarbons are xed and no elaborate
cleaning apparatus fo r the ga s is required The necessity for
of

158

COMB US TION ENGINES

I N TE R NAL

treat ing bitu minous produ cer ga s i n th is way h as resulted i n

various constru ct ions of producer a fe w of which are given
below
G as produc er i nst al l ations m ay be di vi ded int o t hree c l asses
a P ressure P ro d u cers
I n these air an d steam are
furnished t o t he fuel bed by a bl ower or fan T h e ash pit of t he
producer must be enclosed m ak ing t he removal Of ash c om
pl ic ated o r t h e act ion of t he produ cer inte r mittent u nless t he
water-bott o m type is used S tea m for blowing is usually fur
n ish e d by a separate boiler
S ince t he rate of product io n of ga s
is usuall y not regul ated ac cording t o t he dem and fo r gas directl y
a ga s holder is usual ly nec essary fo r t his t ype

I n t his cl ass t he air and steam

u
ct
o
ro
u
ers
i
n
d
b S
P
c
are drawn t hrough t he producer by the su ction Of t he engine
c yl inder T he pro duct io n o f gas is t hus d ire c t ly re gu la t e d b y
t he demand T he ash pit rem ains O pen a nd st ea m en oug h c a n
usu al ly be generated by th e sensible heat o f t he gas
S uction gas produ cers h ave nearl y repl aced pressure produ cers
for gas -engine purposes S o me o f t he O bvious advant ages as
O pen ash pit absence O f sep arate boil er an d o f gas holder h ave
been pointed o u t above T he dangers at rst supposed t o be
i nherent i n this system h ave failed t o m at erial i ze L eaks i n a
pressure system m ay l ead to a poisoning o f t he at mosphe r i c air
by t he col or an d odorless CO posit ivel y d angerous t o attendants
L eaks i n a su ct ion system onl y result in an in -leak age o f air
Th at th is c an never h appen t o su c h an ext ent as to form an ex
plosi ve mixture except through a co mb ination of extraordinary
c ircu mst an ces is at on c e evident when we consider t h at t h e rat io
o f air t o produ cer gas fo r su c h a m ixture woul d h ave to be at l east
1 to 1
I n S pit e of suc h advant ages t he su ct ion system is by n o
means perfec t The regul atio n o f the water su ppl y to c ont rol
th e amou n t o f H i n t he gas t he va po r i z e r fo r t he w ater and
t he cl eani ng ap paratus are s til l p oin ts w hic h admi t o f i mp ro ve
ment e ven i n t he m ost rec ent form
c
Co m bi n a tio n P ro d u c er s The ai r a nd s team mixtu re
is d r aw n t hroug h the p r od uc e r by a fan and t he resul ting gas
forc ed by th e s ame fan t o t he engine The p r od uce r i n t his
syste m is t hus Of t he suct i o n t ype
,

'

GA S-E N GI N E F UELS
PR E S S U R E PR O D U C E R S

Ta l0 7
y

Fig

1 59

71

shows the Taylor

CO o f P hiladelphia
producer m ade by R D Wood
I n their
public at ions on t he producer t h is company
lays d o wn t he following requirem ent s for a
Most o f t hese
suc cessful pressure producer
however apply t o producers in general
1 A cont inuous and auto matic feed ; th e
former for regularity and uniformit y of gas
productio n with i mproved qual it y t he latter
for eli minat ing negl igen ce of attendants
2 A deep fuel bed c arried o n a deep bed
of as hes ; t he first to make good gas and t he
second t o prevent waste of fuel
3 B last carried by conduit t hrough the
as hes to the incandescent fuel
4 V isibility o f the ashes and ac cessibil ity F ro 71 - Ta yl o r
Pm d u c e r
apertures for their removal arranged
o f t he
so that operator can see what he is doing

5 L evel grateless support fo r t he burden insuri ng uniform

depth of fuel at all points and consequent uniformity i n t he pro
duction of gas
These points are wel l covered i n the design o f the producer
T he fuel is ad mitted t hrough a distributing hopper whic h keeps
t he l ayer O f fuel level o ver t he cross-section The bed o f ashes
is kept at about 6 inch es over the top Of the air pipe thus protect
ing it fro m d irect heat
T he entire ch arge in the producer is
suppo rt ed by a pl ate w hose d iameter is somewhat greater t han
t hat at the bosh As nec essity requires this p late c an be revolved
and the ashes are scraped o r t hey fall o ff into th e closed as h pit
wh ic h is u nder blast pressure T he grinding actio n ensuing when
t he plate is revol ved settl es t he contents of t he producer and
thus c loses up any free air ch ann els t hat may h ave been formed
Once a day t he pit must be opened for t he removal of the a s h
B last is supplied generally by a steam j et
M orga n
S o mewhat si milar in design is t he Morgan p ro
d uc e r Fig 7- 2
The main point of diff eren ce is i n th e removal
Of the ash
The fuel here is also admitted through a continuous
autom atic feedin g device The blast is controlled by a steam
in j ector so designed as to maintain a proper proportio n b etw ee n
.

'

IN TE R NAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 60

air and steam T he m ak e o f ga s c an be c ompletely control led by

t he adj ust ment of a -inc h steam val ve
T his producer is o f the water
botto m type t e t he ashes fal l i nto a
water seal at t he botto m and m ay
t here be removed without stopping
t he operat ion of t he produ cer T his is
n ot easily done w he n a g r ate o r si mil ar
de v ice is used in a pressure producer
Fo r c ert ain
fuels especially those
h ighly bit u minous or t hose w here ash
is apt to c l inker t he wat er-bottom
producers possess so me advant age over
t he others A bout t hree feet above t he
water level in t he ash pan and some
inc hes abo ve t he top o f t he bl ast dis
FI G 7 2 ~Mo r ga n
P I Od u c e F
tribut ing pipe a n umber o f sight
h oles are arranged arou nd t he c i rcu mfe renc e o f t he produ cer
T hroug h t hese t he z one o f co mbustio n may be wat c hed T he
top o f t he producer is co vered wit h a shallow wat er pan P oke
holes t hrough t he top w it h water-sealed co vers are also provided
.

FI G

Wile

73

W il e P ro d u ce r I n s t a lla ti o n

A complet e Wil e pressure gas pl ant is shown in Fig

7
S team under about 4 0 po unds pressure is generated in t he
boiler A and enters the generator t hrough t he inj ector I m ixed
wit h air The gas m ade passes th r ough t he seal box D and t he
J I W il e in P o we r
.

GA SENGINE F UELS

161

sc rubber to the gas ho lder T his is the ordinary arrangement

but it is open to O bj ect ion when the load is extremely va r iabl e
I n suc h a case it is usual to arrange t he gas holder s o that it shuts
T he contents of the pro
o ff steam at I when t he holder is full
d uc e r then cool and a furt her cooling results when t he steam is
next t urned on Th e temperature ranges in the producer a re
therefore apt t o be h igh u nder suc h c onditions To meet this
d i ffi cul ty the design can be c hanged by plac ing t he stea m inj ector
at B above the seal box D The gas holder is connected with the
seal bo x by a retu r n pipe E When t he gas h older is up catch H
in the gas hol d er opens th e return val ve and the inj ector B merely
draws o n the gas holde r placing the generator temporaril y o u t of
co mmission W hen the gas holder falls the return val ve closes
the inj ecto r draws on t he generator and gas is again made I n
t his design t he arrangement at I is then merely a satu r ator and
t he pl ant is real ly a co mbinat ion plant t he generator being under
sucti on
.

FI G
Ko er ting,

7-4

Ha n n over

Koe rt ing P re ss u re P ro d uce r

Fig 7- 4 shows a Koe rt ing pressure plant

The gases made during the firing -u p period escape through t he
S hould t he natu ral draft not be strong enough it may
pi p e
be increased by means O f a small steam blower in pipe a A fter
the fl ame at t he t ry c ock shows dark re d and not blue the valve
b is c losed and th e ga s made sent through the p ro-heater scrub
*

G iildne r, En t we r fe n

u nd

Be re ch n e n d e r

Ve r b re nn ungsmo t o re n

384

IN TERNA L C OMB US TION ENGINES

1 62

ber and sawdust purier t o t he gas holder The m ak e Of gas is

c ontrolled by t h e gas h older t hrough t he c h ain C w h ic h acts
upon t he bl ast t hrough a t hrottl e valve at d A ccording t o pub
lis h e d gures t he average analysis of t he gas m ade is b y volu me
H 1 8 per cent ; CO 26 per c ent ; C H2 2 per cent
C0 2 7 per cent ; N 4 7 per c ent ; E ffic iency 8 08 2 per cent
.

D eu tz
Fig

" ,

FI G

7 5

,,

75
.

D ut z Pr
e

r P rod uc e r

e ss u e

T he steam used for t he bl ower a in the D eut z pl ant

is superh eated in a coiled pipe above the fuel in th e boiler
*

FI G 76
P o e tt e r P rod u c e r
E nt we rfe n un d B e re c h n e n d e r V e r b re nn u n gs m o t o re n
.

G iildn e r ,

3 84

,
.

GA SEN GI NE F UELS

1 63

The air is pre

h eated b y t he h eat of gases in th e heater C The
opening b is used to try the gas during ring u p A rrangements
of scrubber and purier are simil ar to t hose already described

*
P
r
T
he
oetter
produ
cer
Fig
t
e
7 6 is espec ial ly de
P oet
signed for b ituminous coal The fuel ch arged is distilled whil e
st il l in t he h opper the gases formed are drawn Off by spec ial
steam blower and are led t hrough the pipe Cd unde r the grate
A ir fo r blast is provided t hrough c f T he gas made escapes at a
and is rst used to raise the steam requi r ed in a boiler I t is
then led t hrough cooler scrubber coke and sawdust purier t o
the gas holder S c h Ot t le r i n describing a pl ant o f P oetter pro
d uc e rs at J oh annesb urg surmises t hat their operation m ight cause
trouble al t hough t he k ind o f c oal use d at J o hannesbu r g is n o t
.

FI G

77

Mo n d

P rod u ce r P l a nt

When a producer is blo w n wit h a l arge excess Of

steam a great deal of it will go through undecom posed A t the
same t ime however t he qual ity of t he gas made undergoes so me
radical c hanges T he quantity of H i n t he gas will be h igh
sometimes u p to 25 per c en t whil e on ac co unt o f t he lo w p ro
du oer temperatu re a great deal mo r e O f t he C is bu r ned to CO2
t han is o r din aril y t h e c ase
A fu rt he r an d i m portant c hange is
that a g reat deal o f t h e N is c h anged to am monia a reac tion
wh i c h does not t ak e pl ac e i n p r oduce rs ru n unde r the ordin arily
higher tem pe ratu res To rec over t his am moni a is an i m po r tan t
consideration T his is t h e p r oc ess O f Mo nd
A Mon d gas pl ant c onsis ts es sen ti al l y o f two p a r ts t he pro
-7
d u c e r an d t he c ondensi ng an d rec o very pl ant Fig 7
M en d

R e v Me c
.

1 90 4 , p

4 84

IN TERNA L CO M B USTION ENGI NE S

T he det ails of t he produ cer A do not di ffer muc h fro m t hose
already desc ribed I t is of th e water-botto m t ype
T he gas
m ade p asses t hrough t he regenerators B T hese consist of double
wro ught -iro n t ubes u nited alte r natel y top and botto m Th e hot
gases pass t hrough t h e inner tubes heat ing t h e m ixture of steam
and air used for blo wing t he produ cer w hic h ows through the
o uter t ubes in t he opposite direction T he gas n ext passes
t hrough t h e washer C T his is a la r ge c h amber partly lled wit h
water B y m eans o f dashers driven by D t h e c hamber is kept
l led wit h water spray T h e gas is cool ed considerabl y in pass
ing t hrough C t h e wat er vapor i n t he gas being condensed t o a
great ext ent
U p t o t h is point all o f t he apparatus is necessary
even if no a m monia recovery is attempted
F o r a gas ic a t io n c apac it y o f l ess tha n 3 0 t ons of coal i n
t wenty-four h ours it is not usu al to inst al l a recove r y pl ant on
ac count o f th e h igh cost o f i nst al lat ion B eyo nd t h is capacity
the installat ion is j ust ied A recovery plant consists of t he
a cid tower E th e gas cooling tower F an d th e a ir h eating an d
sat urat ing t ower G (se e Fig 7
The gas after leaving t he condenser C enters t he t ower E at
th e botto m an d flows u pward th rough re bric k c heck er work
I n doing s o it meets a descending rain o f sulfuric a cid l iquor
containing ab out 4 per cent of free ac id a d by t his th e free
a m monia i n t h e ascending gas is xed being c hanged t o sulfat e
T he a cid l iquor is circu lated by a special p u mp and k ept
at t he proper st rengt h by d raw ing o ff t he sulfate l iquor an d
adding a corresponding amount of fresh a c id sol ut ion fro m t ime
t o ti me
T he ga s t hen enters t he cool ing t ower F at t he bott om an d
i n its ascent is c ool ed by descending col d w ater T he gas gives
u p it s burden o f steam wh ic h i n t urn h eats t h e descending cold
water The gas is then c on veyed t o t he ga s m ains
Th e hot water leaving t he gas-cool ing tower is pum ped t o th e
t op o f t he air-saturat ing tower Here it o ws dow nw ard th rough
c hecker work and i n its descent saturates and h eat s th e air
whic h is driven u pward t hrough th e tower by blowers L eaving
this tower th e air -wat er v apor m ixture th en goes t o the
regenerator B wh ere it is furt her pre-heated before entering th e
produ cer
.

GAS ENGINE

F UELS

1 65

states t hat t he amount of steam us ed is about 21

tons per ton of fuel and esti mates t hat about t wo tons of t his
go through u ndeco mposed
The met hod has t he ad v antage t hat slac k coal may be gas ied
wit h suc cess The recove r y of ammonia amounts to about 1 t e n
for 23 tons Of coal ga s ie d or adding t he fuel required for
making steam about 1 ton for
tons of fuel
The average analysis o f Mo nd gas is by vol ume
S exton

11

per cent CO

per cent C0 ,

27

per cent CH4

per cent H and

per cent

This gas is free fro m tar and excess

non -luminous a m e

of

per cent

moisture and burns with a

,

FI G

7-8

De ut z

S U C T I O N Pa o n u c na s

S uc t i o n

Dc utz r
.

P rod u c e r

I n the D eut z suction

p ro

du oer Fig 78 t he vapori zer is arranged around the top of the

generator
D uring t he suctio n stroke Of t he engine fresh air
enters t he vaporizer is here mixed wit h w ater vapor and then
flow ing through t he connecting pipe at the left side of the genera
tor reac hes the under side o f the grate T he gas m ade leaves th e
generat or th rough t he pipe at t he right and enters t he wet sc ru b
ber at the botto m Fro m here it passes to t he engine t hrough a
S e x t o n P rod u c e r G a s p 90
.

1
'

G ii ld ne r, p 386
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 66

regul ator J ust before entering t he engine t he gas passes a v essel

containing a wire brush for a n al clean ing of t ar
T he
larger D eut z suctio n i ns t al lat io ns show a so mewh at di fferent
construction
.

FI G

79 K oe rt in g S u c t i o n

P ro du ce r

K oertin g *

Fig 79 shows a Ko e rt in g suction p l ant designed

for fro m 3 0 3 5 horsepower I n t his case the vaporizer is inde

pendent of t he generat or T he l atter is heated by t he h ot gases
D uring t he heat ing-up
o n t heir way to scrubber and p urier
period t h e air is furn ished by t he blo wer show n T he smoke
escapes t hrough a pipe whi c h branc hes o ff beyond t he vapori zer
so t hat t h is w ill be heated during t he b lowing -u p period
.

FI G
A co mplet e

71 0 K o e rt in g I n s t a lla ti o n
.

iew o f a Ko e rt ing pl ant is shown in Fig

G uld n e r , p 3 86
.

71 0

GA S-E N GI NE F UELS

1 67

The A meric an Crossley su ction gas pl ants

M in ing Mach inery Co m
in t his country are built by the P ower
pany Fig 7- 1 1 shows a complete plant The producer is of con
The fuel bed rests on a sh aking grate Th e
ve n t io n a l design
fuel is ad mitted as shown The wast e heat boiler o r saturator
s urro u nds t he feed tube The water level in t his saturator is
automat icall y regulated D uring t he ring-u p period t he pro
du oer is blown by means of the fan shown t he gases escaping by
t he purge pipe A new idea seems to be t he sat ur ating of onl y
p art of t he air suppl y The makers point out t he difc ulty of
Am eric a n Cr ossley

FI G

7- 1 1

Arn e ric a n Cross l e y P ro d uc e r

mak i ng u niform gas at all espec iall y at low loads owing to the
d iffi culty of controlling th e amount o f steam admitted To
part of the air onl y passes through t he saturator
re m e d y t h is
V alves on t hes e
W hile the r e st is d irectly ad mitted to t he ash pit
two air inlets c an be se t s o as to give sat isfactory gas over wide
rang es of load
A nother a rrangement in wh ic h t h is produ cer pl ant diff ers fro m
most ot hers is that of the cleaning apparatus This consists of
a wet sc rubber an hydraul ic box and a com binat ion wet and dry
sc ru bber The gas enters the rst and passes downward pas sing
upward in th e combi nation sc rubber T he operatio n is show n
plainly in t he cut
,

168

INTERNA L COMB Us TION ENGINES

F ig 7- 12 shows a F airb anks -Morse inst al l a

t ion for 21 horse-power the producer itself being show n in Fig
T he general design of t he produ cer is very
71 3 in greater det ail
F a ir ba n ks-M ors e

FI G

71 2

F a i r ba nk s Mo r se I n s t a ll a ti o n

simil ar t o t h at o f th e A meric an Crossley except th at al l o f th e

air passes th r ough th e vapo r i zer A p parently onl y a wet sc r u b
ber is provided it being eviden t ly int ended t o use ant hracite
o nl y A gas t an k o f co nsiderable volu me is interposed bet ween
scrubber and engine
T he su ct ion producers so far desc r ibed h ave been for anthra
cite coke or c harcoal T he desi r e to util i ze soft c oal lignites
et c h as led to spec ial designs o f wh ic h th e foll owing are a fe w
exampl es I n some of t hese all o f t he gas m ade fro m the fuel
is passed through ot her highly i nc andescent but gas -free fuel t o
x th e t ar-form i ng gases i n oth ers onl y th e gases o f d istill at ion
a re so t reat ed
,

F UELS

GAS -E N GI N E

FIG

R iche

7- 1 3

1 69

Fa i r b a nk s P ro d uc e r

s producer F ig 7- 1 4 is espec ially designed

for wo od but it may also be used for hard coal and coke T he
,

F IG

714
.

R i c he

P rod uc e r

Genie C i v il , 1 90 1-2, p 39 8
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 70

c ol umn at t he right serves as a m agazine for t he fuel bed at b

The gases formed are su cked u p t hrough C whic h is kept lled
w it h in c an descent c harcoal T he xed gas p asses t hrough pipes
d and 6 being washed by means of sprayed water i n it s passage
L en c a uc hez
I nstead of using two separat e stacks t he t wo
fuels m ay be put toget her in one furnace as is done by L e n c au c h e z
Fig 7 1 5 L ong - a m ing b itu m inous coal is ch arged t hrough a
wh ile t hrough b cok e fro m c oke ovens o r gas works is c harged
Water is evaporated in t he ash pit Th e open ings 0 and d show
onl y black smok e w h il e 6 shows a colorless gas The gases fro m
t he soft coal are xed i n passing t hrough t he in candescent cok e
l ayer S c h Ot t le r ment ions t ha t t h is gas is n o t used as power
.

FI G

71 5 Le n c a u c h e z

P r od u c e r

gas b ut for heat ing purposes Th e proport ions Of t he c harge are

about 2025 per cent cok e to 8 075 per cent soft coal
L en c a u c h ez 1 A not her w ay of reac hing th e sam e end th at is
xing t he t arry gases is by t h e use o f s o-c alled d ouble genera
tors I n t hese generato rs t he c harge b urns bot h t o p and bott om
t he gases bei ng d ra wn o ff at abou t t he m iddle o f th e produ cer
Fig 71 6 shows a generator of t h is t ype d es igned by L e n c a u c h e z
I t consists essent ially of t hree conical part s Th e upper o n e
serves as a magaz ine I n t he m iddle o n e t he re bu rns o n t op
i n th e bott o m o n e at t h e bott om A ir ent ers at D and B
Water
is i ntrodu ced at A and evaporat ed i n t he ash pit The air and
gas c urrents are show n by t h e arrows T he gase s o f dist il latio n
formed in t he m aga zine are drawn downward t hroug h t he
Ze it sc h r ift d e s V e re in s d e u t sc h e r I n ge ni e u re 1 90 5 p 1 90 3
TZ e it s c h r ift d e s Ve re in s d e u t s c h e r I n ge ni e u re 1 905 p 1 90 5
.

GA SENGINE F UELS

FI G

7- 1 6 L e n ca u c h e z
.

Dou bl Z n
e

1 71

Ge n e ra t o r

incandescent fuel i n t he m iddle sect ion and are so xed A ny

u nburned
coked fuel t hen passes on toward t he grate and is
gas i ed on reac h ing t he in c andescent zone in the lower sect ion
.

7-1 7

K oe rt ing P rod uce r

fo r

Pea t

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 72

producer for peat Fig 7 1 7 is bu ilt

along lines si milar t o t he above T he produ cer consists of two
parts O f w hic h t he upper and larger o n e is tted wit h step grat es
W hen in operat ion
a a t he lo wer o n e wit h a n O rd in a ry grat e b
t he charge Of peat in t he u pper pa rts burns o nl y near the grates
while t he inner co r e of peat is only coked The gases s o
a a
formed pass i nto t he perforat ed pipe 0 and are l ed t h ro u gh d
u nder t he grate b T he cok ed peat formed in t h e u pper part
passes do w n w ard an d is ga s ie d over t he grate b T he gases
h
fro m d pass t hroug h t e in c andescen t l ayer above b are xed and
t oget her wit h t he gases formed o ver b p ass o u t a t 6 On e w ould
naturally assu me at rst sight t hat t he gases o f dist illat io n w ould
pass direct ly do wn ward an d o u t at 6 inst ead o f ent eri n g c and
passing t hrough d T he d i r ect ion o f t he mo vem e n t i s regul at ed
by creat ing a slight vacu u m u nder t he grat e b and by contract
ing t he produ cer sect ion at f T his cont ract ion produ ces an ext ra
resist ance to t he passage of gases downward and t hey c o n se
quent ly t ak e t he more con ven ien t way t hrough c and d S c h Ot t le r
gives t he analysis o f a peat gas so made as
K oer ting

K oe rt ing

'

14

per cent C0 2

per cent CH,

an d

57

15

per cent

per cent CO

FI G 7- 1 8 Cros s l e y P ro d u c e r
Z e it s c h r ift d e s V e re ins d eu t s c h e r I n ge n i e u re
.

per c ent H

10

N,

producer effi c ienc y bei ng about 75 per c ent

1 90 5 , p

1 909


G A S ENGINE

F UELS

CO M B I N A T I O N S Y S T E M S Cro s s lc y

1 73

The Crossl ey producer

F ig 7 1 8 is suitable fo r bi tu minous c oal o r ot he r fuel high in

vol atile m atter The fuel is rst c harg ed i nto t he retorts A and
is the re d istil led by the sensibl e heat o f the gases formed bel ow
When c ha rgi ng the val ve B is d rawn tigh tl y agai nst i ts seat and
the fuel is proj ec ted down ward by tu rning the spi ral D by means
o f the c apstan When t he d is till ation is c omplete t he c as ti ng B is
lowered and the coked fuel is t hro wn into t he ma in part of t he
producer by turning D A t t he sa me t i me it is broken up by
t he spirals The gases of distill at ion are drawn out Of t he
and pass under t he g r ate T at M
reto rts t hro ugh t he pipe F
The suct i on is produced by a fa n blower w hic h at t he same t ime
d r a ws a ir and stea m to th e main bed of fuel and d isc harges t he
result ing producer gas into a holder at su it abl e pressure
.

FI G 7- 1 9 De u t z Do u bl e Z o n e P ro d u c e r
D eut z The D eut z pl an t for bitu mi nous coal is shown in
Fig 71 9
The prod ucer is of t he double-generator t y pe The air
enters t he v a p o ri zer at a and reac hes th e ash pit th r ough pipe b
T he re bu r ns to p and bottom G reen coal is c harged at t he top
I t is dis t ill ed t he gases formed pass downwa r d through incan
d escent fuel and are so xed p assing out at c The greater part
of t he fuel coke d near the to p passes downward and is nally
gas ie d in the lower part of the p r od ucer t he gases also passing
out at c S u ction is maintained by a fan con nected beyond th e
coke sc rubber Owing to the xing of the tarry gases it is found
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 74

that a coke scrubber is al l t hat i s requ i red The fan wh ic h is

al most a necessary part of suc h a plant owing t o t he increased
frictio n ent ailed by t he design o f t he p r oducer del ivers th e gas
t o a holder
The h ol der regul ates t he m ake of gas b y controll ing
t he fan
D uring t he ring-u p period a p urge pipe is l ow ered
over t he t op o f t he generator wh ic h has n o spec ial ch arging bell
T he sam e fan is then used as a b lower t o furnish air to t he pro
du oer by-passing t he scrubber
.

F IG

720 L o o m i s-Pe tt ib o n e

L oomis-P ettibon e

P ro d u c e r

T he L oo mis -P ett ibone gas apparatus Fig

720 may be used for t he mak ing of producer gas alone or for
alternat e m anufacture of water gas an d l ean power gas E ac h
pl ant co nsists o f t wo producers a boiler a comb inat ion wet an d
d r y scrubber and an exhauster w h ic h del ive r s t he gas m ade to
t he proper hol der o r t h e purge p ipe depending upon th e posit ions
of the val ves :13 y an d z T he produ ce r s are ch arged through th e
t op T hrough th e sam e doors th e air also enters T hu s th e
gases pass downward t hrough inc andesc ent fuel so t h at any k ind
of fuel may be employed L eaving t h e p r oducers at th e bottom
t h e gases p ass th r ough t h e boiler where t hey are c ooled an d
then t hrough t he scrubber and purier T he m ak e of gas is con
trolled b y t he speed Of the exh auster t he su ct ion pressure being
ordinaril y fro m 1 2 to 24 inc hes th e del ivery pressure about 6
inch es of water
S uppose it is desi r ed to m ak e water gas
T he feed doors E
Th e P owe r P l a nt o f t he Mo nt e z u m a Co p p e r Co J o h n L a n gt o n
,


GA S E N GI N E

F UELS

1 75

and F and the val ve B are c losed S tea m is then admitted

under t he grat e o f producer No 2 the right -hand pro ducer in
F ig 720 T he water gas formed in N O 2 is passed t hrough t he
to p connect ion to N o 1 passes down No 1 out at A and t h us
up the boiler and through t he scrubber to gas holder T he next
t ime water gas is run the d irections are reversed or this may be
done when one half of a wat er-ga s run is co mpleted To make
water gas the aim is to blow t he producers up with air as hot as
p o ssible and t hen pass steam only t hrough t hem unt il a great
dea l of it goes t hrough undeco mposed T hen air alone is again
us ed t o get t he res hot T his procedure means a wide range of
t emperature in t he produ cer and wh ile t his does not aff ect t he
f
ual
ity
t
he
water
gas
seriously
it
does
af
ect the produ cer
o
f
q
-u
made
dur
i
ng
t
he
blow
ing
as
p periods as a great deal of CO2
g
is fo rmed when t he producers are comparat ively cool I n a l arge
plant where several producers are at one t ime del ivering to t he
s a me gas holder this irregul arity is not m uc h felt at t he m ix i n g
val ve of t he engine w here t he t wo gases are m ixed in proper
p ro po rt ion F Or a singl e set pl ant t his feat ure of varying pro
d uc er gas mak e is more serious and for t h is c ase t he producers
may be o p erated in a diff erent manner
To th is end t he steam connections M are used so t hat steam
ma y be int roduced along wit h t he air t hus making water gas
and l ea n gas concurrently ; maint ain ing t he producer tem pera
tu re fa irly constant for a long t ime ; in ot her words true producer
To get around t he too ne adj ust ment of air and
gas is made
st ea m fo r const ant temperatu re somewhat less top steam than
coul d be used is employed t hus allowing t he temperature t o
slowly r is e A short wate r-gas ru n b rings i t do wn agai n t o the
p ro pe r po int The water ga s made is slowly fed from it s holder
to t he main gas h older t hrough a cont rol led t hrott le val ve so that
its rate of feed ing approx imately equals its rate of production
Ma t ho t in The E n gin eer ing
4 S o m e P ro d u c e r De ta i l s
M agaz ine Ma y 1 905 gives t he following data for suction por
,

'

d uc e rs :

To get t he greatest product ion of H a nd the most effective

red uction of C0 ,
make the c ross -section o f the base o f the pro
d u oer fro m
to
o f t he piston area o f the engine
This is
fo r a single cyli n der 4-cycle engine at fro m 6 008 00 feet piston
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 76

speed T he dept h o f fuel bed shoul d be fro m 3 to 5 ti mes the diam

eter at t he base fo r -inc h to -inc h l ump coal A mo unt of
water dissoc iated is fro m
to
ti mes t he weight o f coal con
su med
More t han t wenty analyses give t he fol lowing average gures :
.

CO, 24

per c ent ; COZ

per c ent ; H

17

per cent ; N

54

per cent

power fro m 1 3 5 t o 1 5 0 B T U p e r c ub ic foot A verage

coal use d shows 8 9 per cent C 2 per c ent H 4 per cent 0
N
a nd 5 per cent as h B est si ze coal is fro m inc h t o 1 1-in c h l u mp
wit h 8 to 1 0 per cent o f ash and not more t h an 8 to 1 0 per cent
volatile m atter
Water i n t he ash pa n is sa t isfac t ory for st ea m produ ct ion if
t he a ir is preheated B u t preferenc e is n o w given t o internally
heated vapori zers T ubul ar vapori zers produce su ffi c ient st ea m
aft er 1 0 t o 1 3 m inut es Wit h wel l -designed apparat us any s u c
t io n plant shoul d be i n operat io n 25 minutes after l ight ing up
T he vol ume o f t he scrubber shoul d be fro m 6 t o 8 t i mes t hat o f
t he producer I t s height shoul d be fro m 3 t o 4 t i mes its diameter
T he lling is c ok e in pieces 3 to 4 inch es i n diameter t he coarser
pieces near t he bott o m t he smaller near t he t op A m ount o f
water used for w ash ing is fro m 3 t o 5 gall ons per horse-power per
hour for ant hrac it e gas
A c cording t o t he De L a ve rgn e Co mpany t he i mpurities t o be
remo ved fro m o n e to n o f fuel are for ant hrac ite fro m 1 t o 2 pounds
of am monia traces o f sulfur and fro m 5 t o 1 0 pounds of t ar ;
for bitu m inou s coal fro m 4 t o 5 pou nds o f a m monia su lfur fro m
trac es to 5 per cent and fro m 1 0 to 1 2 gal lons o f t ar
The M organ Const ru ction Company point out the e ffec t o f
su lfur o n t h e format io n of cl inker A coal w it h a l arge per
cent o f ash m ay work sat isfact orily in a producer prov ided t he
sul fur does not exceed 1 per cent A bo ve 3 per cent t he e ffect
o f sulfur in forming cl inker is b adly felt u nless spec ial fac il ities
are at h and t o break u p su c h formations
T he same co mpany makes th e foll owing st atements regard
ing pressure-produ cer ca pa c it ies Th e best rat e o f co mbust ion
seems t o be about 1 0 pou nds o f bitu minous coal per square foot
c ross -section per hour t he coal carrying 1 0 per cent o f ash a nd
1 %per cent O f sul fur
Wit h c oals of lower ash c ontent t he rate
Ca loric

1 77

GAS ENGINE F UE LS

ma y be incre ased to 1 2 pounds and

some spec ial c ases t o 1 5

pounds For poorer coals however t he rate may sink to 6 or 8
po unds R egarding t he size o f ga s ue s and pipes t he statement
is made that each square foot of gas fl ue will t ak e care of a gas ic a
tio n of 200 pounds of coal per hour a n d will serve a gas -mak ing
area O f 1 6 square feet in the produ cer
,

CHA PT E R V I I I

G A S -E N G I N E F U E L S : L I Q U I D F U E L S C A R B U R ET E R AN D
V A POR I Z ER S

TH E

their D i stil l a tes

The crude
petroleu m oils are practic ally mec h anical m ixt ures Of v arious
hydro c arbo n families I t is t herefore t o be expected t hat crude
O ils fro m v arious elds sho w composit ions c onsiderably di ff erent
F ro m t hese crude O ils we obta in by d isti ll at ion al l of t h e m ineral
O ils now s o w idely used fo r a great v ariet y of purposes Of th ese
O ils t he various gasol ines kerosenes and t he s o-c alled distil lat es
besides crude Oil itself are used for gas engine fuels
CR U D E OI L T he following t able * gives a few analyses Of crude
O ils fro m di fferen t pa rt s o f t h e world T hese o ils are usuall y o f
a dark green c olor t he spec ic gravit y is between
to
at 3 2 degrees an d t he ash point bet ween 7 6 an d 9 3 degrees
Fahrenheit
I

Cru d e

Th e

Oi l s

an d

H e vy c ru d e W V i rg ini
L i gh t ru d W V i r g ini
H vy c rud
L i gh t c ru d P
H vy r u d O h i
S lt Cr k W y m in g
a

ea

ea

ee

8 73

1 8 3 24

84 1

1 84 00

88 6

1 921 0

8 26

1 7 9 30

88 6

1 9 21 0

194 63

B o t h w e ll , Ca n a d a

85 7

204 1 0

86 1

1 8 78 1

87 2

1 80 1 0

88 5

1 84 1 6

88 4

1 94 4 0

956

1 1

1 94 96

L im a , Oh i o

S c hw a b w ill e r , L o we r R h in e
G a llic ia , E a s t
G a llic ia , E as t

L i h t Cr u d e , B a k u

H e v y C r ud e B k u
Ke nd on g J v
a

1 8 330

Po o l e

t h e Ca lo ri c
1 78

P owe r O f F ue l s


GA S ENGINE

GA S O LI N E

F UELS

1 79

A fter the dist illation o f the very l ight products

f ro m c rude o il we o bt ain a series of gasol in es of varying as h
i
s 86 degree gasol ine
o
nts
a
nd
gra
ity
T
he
fi
rst
of
these
v
as
i
p
measured on t he B eaum e sc ale T his forms a mix ture wit h air
so re adil y even at ordinary temperature t hat it is so mewhat
dang e ro us and not O ften us e d The next gasol ine the original
l iquid gas -engine fuel is 7 4 degree gasoline Owing t o t he muc h
greater co nsumpt ion of gasol ine due to the introduction o f the
automobile mainl y t he gravity O f gasol in e and also the ash

6
9
po int ha ve slowly gone up until to day
degree gasol ine is
q uite com mon
G as ol ine vapo ri zes readil y at ordinary roo m temperatures
and it is t he refore necessary to keep it co vered not on ly to pre
vent loss but also ac cidents due to explosions I nsurance com
p e nies us ua lly S pecify t hat any q uant ity of it must be kept i n
an un derground t ank outside of t he building and t hat is
undoubtedly t he best way
D at a on t he heat ing y alu e of gasol ine is not at all plentiful
A sa mple the writer had t he opport unit y of testing recentl y gave
the following gures :
at 6 0 degrees F ah ren heit
S pec ic gra v ity B eaum e
per cent C
per cent H
Composition
L ower heating val ue as computed from anal ysis 204 1 1 B T U
Heating value as determined by J un ke r s calorimeter higher
v al ue 196 06 lower val ue 1 8 4 8 2 B T U
I t should be no t ed t h a t this is one of th e inst ances where th e
hea ting value as co mputed is muc h h igher th an th e actual val ue
n ea rly 2000 B T U
I t shows the
10 per cent in th is c ase
nec essity of cal orimetric determination for acc urate work
K erosene t he next heavier dist illate beyond
KE R O S E N E
gasolines is not as ext ensively used as gasoline in t his coun try
for gas engines I t will not form an explosive mixture with a ir
at ordinary t e m p e ra t u res f a n d therefore requires more el aborat e
apparatus for t he formation of such a mixture T he following
dat a is given by Mr S A Moss for ordinary A meric an kerosene :
.

Sp

Gr

at 60

80

Flash point
open

by weigh t

10 0

85

15

L ower

Hea t ing

per lb

V a lu e
.

1 8 5 20

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 80

Further rel iabl e dat a on k erosene is given i n a lecture by

D iesel in 1 89 7 in c onnect ion wit h S c h Ot t le r s t est of t he D iesel
engin e

S pecic

gravity at 24 C ( 7 5
A verage com position C

H
O

F ) 78 9
per c ent
per c ent
per c ent
.

66

L ower

h eat ing v al ue co mput ed fro m an alysis

L ower heat ing value by J u n ke r s c alorimeter
average of ve tests

1 987 4 B

1 8 24 2 B

T U
.

D I S TI L L A T E S
A dist ill at ion produ ct resembl ing k erosen e
i n its general propert ies is somet im es used as fuel Th ese S O
c al led d ist ill ates are not as wel l re ned as kerosene but are h andled
t he same w hen used for engine work
T he following tabl e due t o H ofer and transposed fro m G iild
ner sh ows a good method o f present ing th e v arious dist il lat io n
produ cts fro m c rude O il :
.

(a ) V ola til e Oils

SP

GR

F L A S H PO I N T BE L O W
B E L O W 300

65

70

B O I L I NG -PO I N T

Sp

( b)

I llu m ina tin g Oils

SP

G IL ,

Gr

B o i l i n g -P o i n t

F L A S H P O I N T 70
A B O V E 3 00 F

B O I L I NG -P O I N T

78

Sp

Am e r i c a n K e ro s e n e

78

R us s i a n K e r o s e n e

82

S t a n d a rd

80 8

W h it

P r i m e W h it e

80

As t ra lin

85

Gr

8 12

86

GA SENGINE F UELS
( 0 ) Hea vy Oil s
SP

G IL

F LAS H

86

Sp
S o la r O il

L u b r i ca tin

a nd

1 81

Cylin d e r Oil s

PO I N T 3 74 4 82 F

Gr

86

88

et c
o

can

nly

be

u se d as

l u b r i c a tin g O i ls

A lco h ol T he use of al cohol as a gas engine fuel in t h is

country is as ve t of no g reat i mportance al though t he recent
action Of Congress i n removing internal revenue under certai n
res t rict ions will do a great deal toward hel ping alcohol to t he
place it deserves as a fuel I n so me European countries G ermany
for ins t ance the price o f alcohol is not muc h greater t han th at
of gasoline and it may therefore co mpet e wit h gasoline with so me
succ ess especially when so me O f its ad vantages are c onsidered
I t is muc h safer than gasol ine as regards re risks and S inc e
it always contains so me water a higher degree of co mpression
may be empl oyed i n the engine guaranteeing better t hermal
effic iency T hese ad v antages compens ate largely the greater s p e
c ific heat cost of alcohol
*
w hose chemical formul a is C2HBO may be
E thyl alcohol
made in various ways but t he commerc ial al cohol of to -day is
the re sult of fermentation generally O f grape sugar I n t h e nal
stage The ra w materials are v arious Th us ac cording to
S a ud i they may be divided into three classes :
potatoes wit h 1 5 to 24 per c ent
1 T hose contain ing starc h
starch
rye with 5 0 t o 56 per cen t
starch
corn with 60 p e r cen t s t arc h
2 T hose cont aining sugar sugar beet with 8 to 18 per
c ent sugar
sugar cane wit h 1 2 to 1 6 per
cent sugar
3 Those c ontaining alcohol wine wit h 9 to 1 6 per c ent alcohol
2

W h t f ll

a co ho

as a

1 Sa n d

re p rin t fro m a n a rt i c l e by t he w ri t e r o n
fue l fo r gas e n gine s in Ma rin e En g in ee r in g J un e 1 906
Ze i t sc h rift d es V e re in es d e u t sc he r I n ge n i e u re 1 89 4 p
o

o ws

is

t h e use

933

of

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGIN ES

1 82

T he met hod of m anufact ure o f co urse varies wit h t h e

raw m aterial b ut n eed not be described i n det ail here T heo
1 00 pounds o f grape sugar shoul d yiel d 5 1 pou nds
re t ic a lly
al cohol ; in reality t he yield is fro m t o g less t h an t h is
o f pure
a mount
A seco nd met ho d of produc ing al cohol not abl y ment ioned

b y Wit z i n h is M oteurs a G a z e t a P t role is to st art wit h

c al c iu m c arb ide as a raw m at erial Th is by a so mewh at co m
plic ated process c an be c hanged fro m Ga C2 t hrough t he st ages
O f C2H2 and CZH4 to al coh ol CZHGO B ariu m carb ide o r st ront iu m
c arbide c an be used i n t he sa me way Wit z st ates t h at fro m 1
k ilogram
pou nds ) o f c al c i um c arbide
l it er
pints )
U nited
o f al cohol c an be O bt ained ; t h is is equ ivalent t o
E sti mati ng
S t ates gal lons Of al c ohol fro m 1 pou nd O f c arbide
t he pric e Of c arbide at 3 c ents per pound wh ic h is even n o w so me
wh at below t he m arket price 1 gallo n o f al coh ol wo uld t herefore
cost in raw m aterial alone
cents t o s a y not h ing of t h e cost
of t he c hemical operat io ns T he by-produ cts in t he c ase O f t h e
c al ci u m carb ide do not am ount to mu ch Th ere is consequent ly
l ittle l ikel ihood t h at t he S O-called synt hetic o r m ineral al coho l
will ever seriousl y compete w it h gasol ine o r k erosene fo r
power
The heat ing val ue o f al cohol cannot be acc uratel y c omp uted
fro m it s c h em ic al composit ion because not hing denite is k nown
of th e arrangement o f t h e ato ms ent ering t h e composit ion
We
therefore h av e to depend u po n t h e c alori meter T h e gures
det ermined for absol ute al cohol b y v arious experi menters are
as follows :
,

'

H ig h e r H e ati ng
per

Va

po un d

lu

Lo w e r H e a ti ng
p er

Va

po un d

lu

Th o m s o n

1 3 3 10 B T U

1 2036 B T U

Fa vre

1 29 1 3 B T U

1 1 664 B T U

S ilb e r m a n

The val ue 1 1 66 4 B T U is t he o n e most gen erall y used

A bsol ute al coh ol h as a spec ic gravity o f
at 1 5 degrees
Cen tigrade (59 degrees F ahren heit ) s o th at one gall on o f pure
al coh ol weigh s
pounds and h as a lower heat ing v a l ue o f
7 7 274 B T U
.

GA S-ENGINE F UELS

1 83

pound of C, H, O c ontains
pound c arbon
pound
hydrogen and
pound oxygen
A c cordin g to t h is there will be required for t he comb ustion
of one po un d of absolute or 1 00 pe r cent al cohol
One

x 8)

pounds of

a ir

Th is is t he equivalent of
cubic feet of air at 6 2 degrees
Fahr enh eit per pound of CZ HGO Co mmercial alcohol h owever
is never pure but nearly always cont ains a cert ain quantity of
water t he adm ixt ur e being meas ured according to volu me per
cent Th us 90 per cent alcohol means th at the mixt ur e c arries
T he heating value o f suc h
1 0 per c ent by volume of water
al cohol is of course c orrespond ingl y reduc ed fro m that o f
1 00 p e r cent al cohol according t o t he follow ing table due to
,

S c h Ot t le r :

A bso l u te
v ol

a lc o h o

ume p e

Lo w e r

r ce n t

g ra v

i ty

95

1 08 80

90

1 00 80

936 0

It

80

86 30

75

79 20

70

7 200

70

7200

is

eq uired by l aw in count ries where al cohol is no w used

in the ind ustries to so x t he fuel t hat it is rendered undr ink able

This proces s is c alled

denatur i zing
t he al cohol The bill
p ass ed by Cong ress at t he l ast sess ion provides for t he same
t hing The materials used for t his purpose di ffer in the various
E ur o pe an countri e s
S o me of them try t o keep t he process a
sec ret hence s o me of the i nformation given in t he following table
is bas ed u p o n analyses
Ze it sc h ri ft des Ve re in e s d e u tsc he r I n ge nie u re J u n e 1 90 5
r

IN TE R NA L C OM B US T ION ENGINES

1 84

MA TE R I A LS U S E D

Gr

e na

t l

Al c o h o l

n ry

i m p uri t i

1 5

F ra n c e
G e rm a ny
D e n a t Al c o h o l
Mo t o r A l c o h o l
Au s t r i a
D e n a t A l c oh o l
Mo t o r A l c o h o l
R u ss i a
I t a ly
Mo t o r Al c oh o l
S w it z e r l a n d
.

a nd

it s

at

E T HY

Me h y e n e
(wood
a c oho )

of

u r iz e d

Cu t
o

t
.

D NA TU R I Z E

TO

per

es

ce n

AL CO HO L

P y r i d i ne
Ac e

or

P y r i d i ne
B a se s
pe r

ce n

one

per

t ra c e

cen

Be n z o l

p er

t ra c e

ce n

B e n z i ne
pe r

ce n

2 5

5 0

2 2

I t will be noted fro m t he tab le t hat t h e m ateri al most used

for denaturi z ing ethyl al coho l is wood al cohol The heating
val ue Of t he fuel is by t he add ition o f th e denat uri zing li qu id
c hanged bu t lit t le in most c ases
B en zol C,,Ho besides being used for den aturi zing is some
t imes used in l arger quantities t h an indicated in t he above t able
for th e p urpose o f in creasing the heat ing val ue of t he fuel mixture
per pound B en zol h as a S pecic gravity of
and a heating
val ue of 1 7 1 90 B T U per pound A m ixture o f :1: per cent
by weigh t o f absolute al co hol wit h g per cent o f ben zol wil l t here
fore h ave a heating val ue o f
.

1 7 1 9 0 g] B

4
1
1
x
66
[

I f th e al cohol

per l b

absol ute its proper h eating val ue S houl d

be su bstit uted fro m t h e t able abo ve given
I n t his way fro m
1 0 to 4 0 per c ent o f ben zol i s som eti mes employed t hus raising
t h e h eating v alu e o f t he fuel and at t he sa me t i me decreasing
t he S pec ic heat c ost i e th e cost per heat un it
There is a sec ond reason wh y ben zol is employed
U nder cer
t ain c ircu mstan c es t here wil l be formed acet ic acid in the produ cts
O f co mbustion o f al c oh ol T his c auses rusting o f t he engine parts
On examinat ion i t w il l be found th at t his is d ue to a co mbustion
is

not

GAS EN G l N E

F UELS

18 5

wit h ins u ic ie n t ai r supply and t he surest way to prevent rust

ing t herefore is to use a good exces s of air and to ha v e a perfect
U nder suc h c onditions t here wil l be no danger of cor
mixt ure
I t is also found t hat a good addition of ben zol acts as a n
ros io n
additional safeg uard
I t S hould not be forgotten in t his con nec
t ion however t hat t he great ad vantage possessed by al cohol in
its odorl ess exhaust is sacric ed to some extent by t he use of ben
zol
A s has been already
3 M ixing De vi c es for L i quid F u e ls
pointe d out t he fuel mixt ure of a gas engine is al ways a gas or
va p o r mix e d with air Hence in t he case of liquid fuels spec ial
d evices are required t o convert t hese fuels i nto gases o r v a por
S uc h devices are indisc ri m inately known as carbu reters vapor
i zere mixers or mixing v al ves I n t he st ric t sense a carbureter
is a de vice in whic h t he mixt ure is forme d by passing air o v er o r
t hro ugh t he l iquid fuel
When no spec ial heating of t he fuel is
done these de v ices are appl icable to t he more volat ile fuels only
as gasoline The name carbureter ho wever is also used w hen i n
this device gasol ine is mec han ic ally atomi zed or sprayed into the
c u rrent of inco ming air The term vaporizer is usually employed
when considerable heat for ga s ic a t io n or vaporizatio n is re
qu ired as is t he c ase for kerosene crude oil and alcohol
MIX I N G D EV I C E S FO R G A S O L I N E : CA R B U R ET E R S Ca rbu
re t e rs in which the air is passed over o r through gasol ine h ave
t he d ra wbac k that when the carbureter c ha mber is lled with
fresh gasoline t he ligh t er constituents Of t h e liquid dist il o ff
rst T he pa rts h arder to vapori ze remain beh ind s o t hat the
fuel m ixture is anything but const ant growing leaner as t he
va p o ri z ation progresses
A tomizing or spraying c arburet ers are not open t o t his Obje c
t ion a denite amount of gasol ine being in j ec ted eac h t i me
Hence t hey are muc h used espec ially in auto mobile work
F igure 8 1 sho ws a carburet er whic h is o f what has been very
aptly termed the bubbl ing t ype T he suction st roke of t he
e ngine es tabl ishes a part ial vacuum in a t hrough the c heck
val ve e and t he c ham ber d interposed for reasons O f safet y
This causes air t o en t er t h rou g h the sc ree n I) rising t hrough c in a
B ubbling up t hrough t he g asol ine it c arries with it some
sp ray
of the va po ri z ed li q uid and goes through d and e to the engine ,
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 86

w here a normal co mbust ion m ixt ure

is formed b y t he additio n Of more
air T he j ack et water fro m t he engine
m ay be c irc ul ated through i a ssist ing
i n t h e vapori zat ion
I n special c ases
a part of t he exh aust gases may also
be c ircul ated t hrough t h e bottom 9
Figures 8 2 and 8 3 are properl y
t ermed su rfac e c arb uret ers
I n t he
former the R e it h m a n c arburet er t he
gasol ine is fed fro m the reservoir a in
drops int o t he c h a mber b where it is
absorbed by broad suspen ded wick s
Fro m t he surf aces Of t hese t h e gaso
l ine vapori zes adding itself t o t he
strik es through c h a mber
a ir w hic h
b o n every suc tio n strok e
Ch amber
f is lled wit h c lean gravel o r w ire
.

FI G

1
8

F IG

8 2

R e it h m a n Ca r b u re t e r

screens to act as a safet y de vic e against po ss ible back ring

Ch amber b is surrounded by a water j acket t he water in
whic h is heated b y t he exh aust g ases passing through t he
.

t u be s d d


GA S ENGINE

F UELS

1 87

The Pe t re a no c arburet er F ig 8 3 will serve for either gasol ine

or alcohol T he exhaust gases pass through a central pipe
whic h is su rrounded by a j acket V The pipe r h as a covering
d of spongy asbestos l m whic h is cons tantly kept mo ist wit h
the liquid to be vapori zed The
liquid fuel enters b y one open
ing i n t he top t he air by a n
ot her T he c hamber V h as four
cones as S hown two o f whic h
are also partially covered with
B y means of these
as bestos
cones t he fuel vapor and air are
thoroughly mixed before enter
ing the chamber M and nally
the suction pipe to th e engine
The smal l openings 0 are for
t he purpose Of drawing off the
h eavier parts Of t he l iquid t hose
that vapori ze l ess easily if t here
be any in ord er not to interfere
F
IG
Pe t rea n o c a r b u re t e r
wit h t he regulari ty of c arbureting
A tomizing or spraying c a rb u ret ers are howe ver m uc h more
f requently employed and the following to be described are all of
t h is type
,

S e ml S ec t onal

Si mon on e

Vi

e ws ,

SI CYIOI

FI G

4
8

ng le

Pat te rn

OII kl

L un ke nh e im e r

M ixing

V a l ves

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 88

T he S im plest design o f t his t ype o f carbureter is S h own in

Fig 8 4 w hic h S hows two of t he L u n ke n h e im e r c arbureters I n
eit her design gasol ine is furnished t hrough t he open ing 0 and
its admissio n to t he val ve seat o f t he m ai n suction va lve E is
regul ated by t he needle val ve A On t he suct ion stroke o f the
engi ne t he val ve E auto m at i cally lifts and t he air rushi n g t hrough
t his O pening c arries wit h it a cert ain a mou nt o f gasol ine owi n g
fro m t he s mal l hole K I t is qu ite evident th at t h is type o f car
F o r any
bu re t e r gives best servic e o n hit -and -m iss e n gines
Ot her t ype a varying load would prob abl y c ause trouble as th ere
is no auto mat ic regu lation Of t he gasoline su pply
S t il l o f very simple design but
c apable Of regulation o f t he gasol ine
supply is the S in t z c arb ureter Fig
3
T he lift o f t he gasol ine needle
8 5
val ve b is regul ated by t h e lift of
t he mech anically regu lated su ction
valve a B y means o f t he cock 0 it
possible to ad mit part of th e air
uncarbureted t o t he cylinder
Figures 8 6 and 8 7 are examples
so -cal led
oat -feed type of
o f t he
c arb uret ers
T he D ai mler F ig 8 -6 is wel l
FI G 85 S in t z Ca r b u re t e r k no wn A oat B in t h e C han]
ber A operates a pair of co unterweight levers E and t hrough
t he m the v al ve spindle D w hic h co nt rols t he adm ission o f
gasol ine at C keeping it at a const a nt level in t he no z zle G aso
line ent ers a t N fro m a t ank under S light pressure o r at a h igher
level O is a clot h lter an d t he plug P serves t o c atc h any grit
t hat m ay be brought in T he oat c h amber is vented t hrough a
smal l hole i n t he c ap o ver t he val ve spindle t o rel ieve any pres
sure wh ic h may be formed due to varying position s O f t he oat B
T he action o f t he carb uret er is as follows : A t each c h arging
strok e o f t he engine air is drawn into t h e annul ar c ha mber H
a nd passes wit h great velo c it y t hrough t he drop t ube F surround
ing t he gasol ine no z zle T he gasol ine is drawn in a j et fro m t he
no z zle and wit h t he air striking t he deector K t he t wo are very
t horoughly m ixed passing t o t he engine t hrou gh M
A n aux ;
'

G l S -ENGINE

F UELS

1 89

ilia ry

air supply can be ad mitted through t he c ap at t he top the

o pe n in gs t hrough whi c h can be regulated
,

FI G

FI G

86

8
7

D im le r
a

Abe ill e

Ca r b u re t e r

Ca r b u re t e r

The A be ille carbu reter F ig 8 7 embodies the same idea as

the D aimler The oat B by operat ing the lever D O p ens and
clo s es a need le val ve at the lower end of the weighted spindl e C
to maintain a constan t level j ust below t he op ening in the no z zle
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

1 90

t he su ct io n strok e air enters at H and rushing u p t hrough

t he double c one draws t h e gasol ine fro m t he n o z zle ato mi z ing it
by strik ing t he perforated cone G A secondary air suppl y is
ad mitted t hrough t h e c ap L an d t he holes in G being regulated
by t he positio n o f th e cap L

On

FI G

8
8

- De

Of

D ion

Ca r b u re t e r

more co mpl ic ated design b ut in principl e th e same a s t he

ot her oa t -feed c arb uret ers is t he D e D ion Fig 8 8 A ir is
ad mitted t hrough t h e t ube t B y th e posit ion of th e v al ve V ( se e
hori zont al section ) w hi ch posit ion c an be regulated by t he lever I
( see v erti cal sect ion ) part o f t h e air goes d irectl y into t he d is
c h arge pipe t w h ile t he rest is deected downward to be c ar
bu r e t e d
Th e c o urse of t h is l atter body of air is indic ated in the
right vert ic al sect ion by the arro w T he level o f t he gasol ine in
t he no z zl e D is again k ept co nst ant b y t h e annul ar oat C i n t he
c h amber H operating t h e lever G and th rough it t he valve F
I t will be noted t h at none of t h e ato m iz ing or spraying c a rbu
r e t e rs for gasol ine s o far described are heated in any m anner
Occ asionall y however we nd one i n w h ic h t he ato mi zing is
assisted by heat T he W Ha y v aporizer Fig 8 9 is o f th is
t ype G asol ine enters t h e an nul ar c h amber a a t hrough the
pipe d Fro m t his c h amber a nu mber o f sm al l O peni ngs l ead
t hrough the seat o f t he su c tio n val ve E S o me o f t hese o pe nings
are p r o vi ded w ith adj us ting sc rews as s ho wn at t he l eft On
,

'

GA S E N G] NE F UELS

19 1

the opening of E the i nrush of air at omi zes the gasol ine o w
ing f ro m t hese smal l openings and t he c urrent of air and g aso
l in e st rik ing t he wings e of th e
fan h support ed o n t h e spindle
j sets t he fan in mot ion t hus
pro moting a t horough mixture of
a ir and vapor before th e fuel
nally passes through :c to t he
admi ssion val ve A
The ex
haust gases from B are passed
t hr ough t he ch amber F nal ly
es cap ing t hrough t he S lotted
o p enings 9
I n t heir passage
they be a t bot h t he gasol ine
storage ch amber a a and t h e
fan c ha mber
nd
Oc casio nally we also
carbureters whic h co mbine t h e
9 W Ha V a o r i z e r
I
G
F
8
y
p
several princ iples o f t h e s e de
sc ri bed Thus in the G autier c arbureter F ig 81 0 the gasol ine
is ad mitted th rough A t he supply being regulated by t he val ve
,

FI G

10
8

G a u t i e r Ca r b u re t e r

K whic h o pe ns at the proper moment o wing to suct ion th rough

,

pi p e E Part of t he su p p ly falls on t o the saucer F and fro m

there into t he res ervoir H I nto the l iquid at H d ips a pipe G
.

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

1 92

supported as sho wn T h e air supply th rough I c irc ulates t hrough

t he c h amber L bubbles t hrough t h e li quid at H into t he ch amber
surrounding t he saucer F licks u p so me o f th e gasol ine i n the
sau cer and t he m ixt ure nally esc apes t hrough E
V A P O R I Z I N G D E V I C E S F OR CR U D E OI L A N D K E R O S E N E
Wh ile it is fairly easy to satisfact orily atom ize o r vaporize
gasol ine and t o mai nt ain t he m ixture t he t hing is a l ittle more
d iffi cult wit h k erosene an d m uc h more S O wit h crude oil I n
eit her c ase th e agen cy O f h eat is requ ired an d t h is is appl ied
either i n a separat e vapori zer o r retort o r t he kerosene o r crude
O il is inj ected directl y int o t he cyl inder t he vapori zation tak ing
pl ace i n t he co mbustion c h amber
On e t ro uble with kerosene is t he readiness w it h w hic h some
o f t he vapor is c ondensed o n strik ing co mparati vel y c ool s u r
faces T h is m ay happen On t he m ixt ure striking parts o f t he
w ater-c ool ed walls I n suc h a c ase part o f th e fuel m ay go thro ugh
t he cyl inder unburned a nd t his is a point t h at shou ld be c are
fully guarded against w hen a spec ial vaporizer fo r kerosene is
e mployed
I n t he c ase o f c rude oil t h e heat ing in th e vapori zer results
i n t he dist ill at io n o f t he l ighter produ cts rst T he am ount o f
vapor formed w ill natural l y be less an d less as t he distillation
proceeds resulting in a co nstant i mpoverishing o f th e fuel m ix
ture T he remedy woul d t herefore see m t o be a const ant suppl y
o f fresh O il and a remo val Of t he O ld b efore it has c om menced
t o s eriously decrease its yield
T h is is w hat is actually done
i n so me devices T he method however nat ural ly results in th e
fact t h at t he pl ant can onl y u se part o f t he cru de o il I t is
c laimed by so me t hat only 1 0 per cent o f th e O il is s o wit hdrawn
fro m t he vapori zer but t his seems ext remel y doubtful
A cru de O il-air mixture is O pen t o the same obj ect ion as a
kerosene m ixt ure as regards condensat ion of so me o f t he heavier
h ydro carbons and c onsequent l oss B ot h of t h ese m ixtures are
also subj ect t o crack ing ; t hat is a break ing u p o f t he hea vier
hydrocarbons into t he l ighter wit h a c onsequent deposit o f carbon
F o r large power pl ants t h e best solution i n t h e c ase of c rude
Oil woul d see m t o be t h e use o f some t ype Of O il
ga s producer
S o me o f t hese are i n a ctu al use along th e P ac ic coast and will
be described l ater
.

GAS ENGINE

F UELS

1 93

Figure 8 1 1 shows t he kerosene atomi zer used on t he Hornsby

engine With it is co mbined t he regul at ing val ve K erosene
is pumped u p through t he lower right -hand pipe i n t he sectio na l
c ut T he governor regul ates through c the position of the over
ow valve b the surpl us kerosene owing back through d to the
res ervoir T he kerosene at the moment demanded by the engine
.

H o rn s by-Akro yd At om i ze r
FI G 81 1
is forced by t he pu mp through t h e pl ug a issu ing fro m its end i n
a ne S pray This plug is kept c ool by a water j acket a s shown
A not her atomi zing kerosene c a r bureter is
t he G ibbon sho wn i n Fig 8 - 12 I n t his a
val veless pu m p a: w actuated by a ca m
inj ects keros e ne f r o m the t ank u p t hrough
t he atomi zing openi ng into t he c hamber U
T h is is fu rn ished with wings U t o pre
sent a larger su rface for heating Chamber U
is d irec t l y connected with the combustion
c ham ber and is su rrounded by a light case
t o p reven t rad ia t ion
A t the s t a r t i t is
heated by a la mp but af t e r a sho r t p eriod
of O pera t ion t he c harge ignit es by com pres
sio n as is t he c ase also in the H ornsby
engines
I n t he Crossley vapori zer F ig 8 - 1 3 a
cert ain xe d amou nt o f oil is measured and
d ra wn in to t he va pori zer by t h e air o n t he
FI G 8 12 G i bbo n
o p en i ng of t he v a l ve I n t h i s case I gn i t i on Ke rosene Va p o riz e r
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE S

1 94

produced b y means o f a hot t ube a nd t he eng ine is of course

governed o n t he h it and m iss system T he l amp heat ing t he h ot
t ube at t he same ti me heats t he vapori zer
is

FI G

81 3 Cr o ss l e y
.

V a p o riz e r

T he Prie s t m a n engine is designed for eit her crude Oil or kero

sene
I ts vapori zer is S ho wn in Figs 8 1 4 and 8 1 5 Oil is ad
m it t e d t o t he S praying n o z zle K fro m a reservoir under pressure
.

FI G

FI G

81 4

8 15

P rie s t m a n

Va p o r i z e r

P rie s t m an

Va p o r i z e r


GA S ENGINE

F UELS

1 95

The pump fu rn ishing t he air for t his purpose also furn ishes air to
t he ann ular space J surrounding the noz zle K for t he purpose
of ato mi zing the oil T he nely divided Oil enters t he vapori zer
c hamber and mixing wit h t he larger body of air admitted o n
the suction stroke to t he vaporizer c hamber t h r ough the val ve L
pass es o n to t he c y linder T he vaporizer c ha mber Fig 81 5 is
heated by the exhaust gases passing through the j acket space C
t hus vapori zing t he oil spray in its passage On sta rt ing the
vapo ri zer c hamber is heated by a l am p whose h o t gases pass
t hroug h t he j acket spaces d T he governor by regulating the
positio n of t he plug val ve H regul ates at t he sa me t ime bot h t he
oil an d t he air su pply to th e vaporizer
A c rude oil vaporizer q uite extensivel y used o n the P acic

c o ast is t he E cono mist retort Fig 8 1 6 T his consists Of

,

FI G

8 1 6
.

E c o no m ist

C rud e Oil

Va p ori ze r

two concentric shells as shown

I n th e j ack et space between
them the engine exhaust gases are circul ated to furnish t he heat
for vapo ri zation The inner d ru m is S lowly rotated upon its axis
as shown by t he gearing at the right and it is furnished o n t he
inte rior wit h a cont inuous spiral rib The c rude o il is a d m it t e d
t hroug h the central pipe at t he left B y the rotation of the
d rum it is carri e d u p the sides turned over and over thus
ex posi ng a thin sh eet all the ti me to t he act ion of t he heat
whic h is most favorable for com plet e vapori zat ion A t t he same
time owi ng t o the act ion of t he spiral rib t he o il is sl o wly carried
forwa rd t hrough t he d rum T he residue is nally d is c harged
t hr oug h an outlet at t he right i n a m anner not clearly shown
T he make rs cl aim that during the progress of the O il through
the d ru m the tem pe rature is m aintained j ust h igh enough to
get all the gas from t he oil T he method of regul ati on by this
de vi ce is not clearly s tated I f it is done by regulating the o il
.

'

COM B US TION

I N T E R NA L

1 96

EN G INES

suppl y to th e retort ac cording t o th e l oad t here woul d be con

s id e r a ble l ag i n t he regul at ion ; if done by regul at ing t he air
suppl y t hro ugh the retort t here woul d be a l arge variatio n i n
t h e composit io n o f t he m ixture A n auxil iary air suppl y between
generator and engine woul d help bu t wh ether t his is used or not
is not stated
R etorts as above described are m ade u p t o fro m 1 25 t o 1 5 0
h orse -power B eyond t his t hey bec ome u nsatisfactory an d
other devices h ave to be employed T he one t h at seems t o
promise best at present i s an O i l -gas generator o f the t ype o f t he
L owe
The principl e of t he L owe system is to h eat u p t o a very high
t emperature a m ass O f rebr ic k c heck er work c ont ai ned i n a re
brick -lined steel shell by means of a c rude o il-air blast
When
t he desired temperature is reac hed t h e c h i mney connect io n t o
t h e generator is c losed o ff and crude o il and superheated steam
i n an i nti mate m ixture a r e sent do w n t hrough t he h ighl y heated
c hecker work T he result is t he form atio n o f an impure o il
water gas wit h a good deal o f lam pblack as a by-produ ct T his
by-product may b e ut il i zed as fuel t o furn ish t he power necessary
fo r blowing engines etc
aroun d t he plant The ga s itself is
washed i n t h e ordinary m anner a nd is a h igh -g r ade gas of good
illu minati ng power T he product io n of t h is gas is t herefore
c a r ried o n i n t he t wo st ages a heating -u p period an d a period o f
mak e Fro m published gures t h e effi c ien cy o f these O il-gas pro
I n th e J o ur n a l of E lec tr ic ity
d u c e rs is as yet not very high
P ower an d Ga s S ept ember 1 904 a c onsu mpt io n o f
gal lons
o f O il per 1 000 cub ic feet O f gas m ade is given as t he average
for o n e plant for J uly Ot her plants have S hown 9 and 1 0 gal
lo ns per 1 000 c ubic feet of gas o f about the sa me h eat ing value
A ssu ming the c rude o il to weigh 7 pou nds per gallon its h eating
v al ue at 1 9000 B T U per pou nd and t he h eating value o f t he
gas at 6 5 0 B T U per c ubic foot t h e effi c ienc y of generat ion
on c old gas woul d be for th e most favorable c ase above given
,

1 000 X 6 5 0
9 X 7 X 1 9 0 00

DE V I C E S

A L C O H O L Th e al coh ol engine
h as perh aps rec eived its gre atest develop ment i n G ermany
V A POR I Z I N G

F OR

GAS ENGINE

It

F UELS

1 97

for that reason t hat we S hall have to t urn to the literatur e o f

that cou ntry for t he best and latest informatio n o n t he details
o f alcohol engines
The fo llowing material is a reprint fro m an art ic le published
by t he writer on the alcohol quest ion in M a rin e E ngin eer in g
J u ne 1 906 The informat ion is mainly due to t he work of E
Meye r and o f A S c h Ot t le r also to t he disc ussio ns by G iild ne r
D iesel and ot hers
Regarding t he format io n of t he fuel m ixture with alc ohol it
is found t hat it is less volatile than gasoline but easier to h andle
t han kerosene I n nearly all of t he v apori zing devices for alcohol
now on t he market t he agency of heat usually the exhaust heat
of the waste gases is used to aid i n t he formation of the mixtu re
This sc heme has t he dra w bac k that no heat is a vailable at t he st art
when the engine is c old
To a v oid an open fl a me for t he purpose
of heating t he vaporizer at t he st art wh ic h is bot h dangerous
and c umbe rsome the engines in most c ases a re started with gaso
line and when after a fe w strokes enough heat is available the
c hange is usually m ade by t hrowing o v er a S ingle lever I n
tes ts Of ten di fferent engines made by Meyer it was shown t hat
this c hange to alcohol c oul d be m ade in t he slo w est c ase in 6
minutes and 4 0 seconds t he t ime of the fastest being 55 sec onds
B as ed on t he manner of heat ing th e vapori zer we c an d is
t ingu is h t he follow i ng classes :
1 T hose in whic h no heat i s emplo y ed
2 Those in w hic h the air is pre-heated
3 Those in w h ic h the mixt ure is heated and superheated
Of the rst type is the D eut z F igs 8 1 7 and 8 1 8
W hen the
engine is regul ated by t he throttl ing method and not by the
hit-and -miss system it has been found that no pre -heating of
ai r or fuel mixture is required T he reason for t his is u n
doubte d ly that in a hit -and -miss engine under less t han normal
load a succ es sion of misses cools the cylinder do w n so far as to
throw down so me of t he alc ohol vapor on t he next explosion
unl ess it is superheated
The D eut z engine is g overned by
thr ottling T he inlet val ve
is ac tuated th rough the levers
E Me e r Ze it sc h r ift d V d I
19 0 3 p a ge s 5 1 3 600 6 32 6 6 9 ; Ii
y
S c htit t le r Z e us c h rift d V d
1 90 2 p a ge s
1 1 5 7 1 223 ; H G iild n e r Z e i t
El l
li d V d
1 902 p a ge 6 23 ; Di e se l Ze it s c h rift d V d
1 90 3 p a g e
is

gg

IN TERNAL COM B US TION ENGINE S

1 98

shown by th e c a m a wh ic h is of t aper form and u nder t he

c ontrol of t he governor Fig 8 - 1 7 U pon t he position of a
depends t he lengt h of t ime t he v alve
Through t he bel l crank
f is open
c d e t he c a m also
acts upo n t he
plu nger o f t he fuel pu mp h operat
ing i n suc h a way a s t o c ause suction
during t he rst part o f t he c am
movement and pu mping o f t he
li qu id during t he seco nd Thus t he
fuel is inj ected during the secon d
h
alf
o f t he su ctio n strok e o nly in s u r
A l c oh o l
FI G
Va p o r i z e r
ing a ric h m ixtu r e arou nd t he igniter
The al coho l is forced t hrough the sprayer or atom i zer i
Fig 81 8 into t he curre n t o f air w hi c h ent ers t hrough t he
val ve k T hus no preheating what
ever is done but t he atom izing is
t horough ; and t he ports into t he
cylinder are as direct and S hort as
possib l e hence n o vapor is t hrown
down
The A lt man vapori zer Fig 81 9
is o f t he secon d c lass The a ir pip e
a
b is surrou nded at its lower end
by t he exh aust pipe ; t he air is thus
pre-heated by t he exh aust gases
A regulat ing v al ve for t he air is
placed at e T his w hen draw n u p
ward dec reases t he amou nt o f air
passing b ut al ways m ak es th e air
-18 ~
F
I
G
8
e u t z Al c oho l
c urrent strike t h roug h t he upper part
D
V a p o ri z e r
O f t he p i pe i n t h i s m anner d i rect i ng
it always against t he fuel no z zle d
T he inlet val ve 0 is
operated by t he lever f act u ated by t he c a m l t h r ough t he
pendul u m h it -and -miss go vernor 0 m p T h is val ve lever f at t he
same t ime opens t h e fuel v al ve d t hrough t he reac h rod shown and
t he nger h i Fig 8 2 1 Ho w t his is do ne is shown i n Fig 8 20
T he lever f o n being depressed forces down t he point o f t he screw
19 t hereby turning the re a c h rod about its axis w hic h depresses
,

'

GA SE NGI NE

F UELS

19 9

the po int i Fig 821 opening the valve d T he amount of O pening

depends upo n th e positio n of the screw k and t h is c an be very
nely adj usted by the worm and wheel arrangement sh own I n
this vaporizer the fuel supply is ato mi zed part ly by the cu rrent o f
air and is afterward s vaporized by the heat of the pre-heated ai r
,

FI G

8 1 9

F ig

Al t m a n Al co h o l vap o r i z e r

20
8

FIG

8-2 1

- 22
e
The followi n
thre
vapori
zers
are
of
the
th
ird
class
Fig
8
g
s hows the S widerski -Lo ngu e m a rr e
He r e also t he exhaust gases
a re used for heati ng
They pass through the a nnular c hamber a
and the ir action is aided by t h e radiating webs b b T he oat d
ma in tains a constant level in the su pply ch amber F rom this
cham ber the o w of alcohol is regulat e d by t he needl e val ve f
.

IN TERNA L COMB U STION ENGINES

200

T he l i q uid ows into t he S pace 9 and over ows t hrough a num

A ir entering t hrough i is m ade t o
be r o f sm al l openings h h
pass partl y out side part l y inside the con centric spaces created
,

FI G

F IG

22 S w i d e rs ki -L o n gu e m a rre Al c oh o l Ca r b u re t e r
8

823

Dr

esd e

Va p o r i z e r

Al c oh o l

FIG

824

Dr

e sd e

Vap o r i z e r

Al c o h o l

GA S ENGINE F UELS

20 1

by the sl eeve k T he amo u nt of a ir pass ing outs ide is regulated

by t he open ings n n which are c ont roll ed by t h e lever l The air
c urrents p a ssing upw a rd carry along w it h t hem some of th e l iqu id
t he mixt ure be in g hea t ed by t h e ex ha ust gases in a
Th e per
fo ra t ed plate 0 t end s t o a id in formi ng a un iform m i xtu re
The va porizer o f t he D r esd ener G as mot orenfa brik is s hown i n
I n t his c ase t he warm cool ing w at er of t he
Figs 8 23 and 8 - 24
engine is used for heat ing I t ente rs the water s p ace at r Fig
8 24
On very cold days t he vapori zatio n may be assisted at
t he start by pouring so me hot water into t he fu n nel a A ir enters
at y 8 23 T he inlet valve b is auto matic I t ma y be pushed
do w n at will at t he st art by pressing do w n o n t he proj ecting stem
0
The dow nward mo v ement of t he inlet wave opens t he fuel
valve d to w hic h alcohol is furnished t hrough t he needle val v e
e
F ig 8 - 24
Th rough a number of ne O pen ings t he fuel ows
i nto t he current o f air a nd is c arried along wit h it the thorough
mix ing being assisted by the c urrent
st ri king the cone g AS will be seen
f ro m the drawing t he heating of t he
c ha rge c annot be ve ry h igh I n th e
rst place onl y the co mparat ively coo l
j acket water of t he engine is used
and s econdly t he m ixt ure it self is not
in t he heat ed c hamber for any lengt h
of t ime
I n contradist inct ion to the D resden
va p orizer t he Diirr F ig 8 25 pro
duc es a h ighly heated mixt ure
A ir
en t ers at 1: and its amount is regu
lated by t he th rottle val ve a T he
i nl et val ve 5 is automat ic A lcohol
is supplied throu g h the needle val ve
c
as shown s o that when (I is closed
no o w of al c o hol takes place The
c urr ent of air charged w i t h al cohol
p a rt icl es passes d own th r ough d u p
the annula r s p ace e and out at y to
the cylinder T he exhaust gases enter
D U I T Al c o h o l
I IG
at Z
and
means of ba f e plates
Va o r i z e r
.

'

'

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

202

are made to t ak e t he course S how n by t he a rro ws t h ro u gh t he space

f Fu rt her t he S pace e is lled wit h a large nu mber o f metal
spirals whic h c on nect t he outside wall of e wit h it s inside wall
t h us furnishing a large heated surfac e to the passage o f t he c h arge
and facilit at ing t he transfer o f heat fro m t he spac e i t o t he
space d E very possible w ay is t herefore m ade use of to apply
t he heat o f th e ex h aust gas es and t his vapori ze r co nsequen tl y fu r
nish es a mixture more h igh ly superheated t h an t h at of t he
others
,

F IG

26
8

Ga so lin e-Al c o h o l

V ap o ri ze r

Finally Fig 8 26 S hows wh at m ay be c alled a doubl e oat

c arbureter wh ic h is t he form t hat al cohol v apori zers are l ik el y
t o t ake T h is is used o n th e M arienfel de mac hines A ssu me
that t h e c hamber a is used fo r gasol ine b for al cohol Th e need le
suppl y val ves c an b e hel d closed by t he springs c and d as S how n
On start ing with gasol ine t he c ha mber a is used
S pring c
is p ushed aside s o t h at fuel c an enter being k ept at c onst ant
level b y th e oat T he val ve g is S O s e t t hat t he pat h is open for
t he air fro m h past t he gasol ine no z zl e e t hrough 9 into t h e
cylinder A t every suct ion strok e t h e in -ru sh ing air is th en
c harged wit h gasol ine issu ing in a small j et fro m e I f it is d e
'
s ired t o c hange to al cohol S pring c is p u s h e d int o pl ac e spring d
,

GA S
is

E N GI

NE F UELS

203

pushed aside an d val ve g is th row n over into t he position

show n in F ig 1 0 all the work of a mo ment T he air suppl y to
this vapori zer is pre
heated
I t is qu ite evident f r o m an exa min atio n o f the va p o r i zers above
desc ribed that t he nal temperat ure of the mixture is very d i ffer
ent in t he di ff erent devices U pon this temperature however de
pends in a great measure the only other point o f d i ff erence between
gasol ine and alcohol engines i e the amount of compression
A ll other t h ings being the same that fuel m ixture entering t he
cyl inder at th e highest temperature will soonest give rise t o pre
ig nit ion or at least to pounding under an increase in compression
H igh temperat ure of c harge also e ffects engine c apacity unfavor
ably I t therefore becomes i mportant t o determine a p p ro xi
mately the lo west practic al temperature O f vapori zation and the
heat necessary
Of course the amount of heat required depends upo n the
a mount Of al cohol ( and its purity ) per pound or c ubic foot of
a ir
A ssumi ng that 90 volume-per c ent alcohol is used the
t heoretic al am ount Of air required for perfect co mbust io n is
pou nds A ssuming that an excess O f 5 0 per cent of air is used
w hic h is a desirable al lowance 1 pound of 90 per cent al coho l
would require i n rou nd numbers
pou nds of air With the
air temperature at 6 0 degrees F ahrenheit and the at mospheric
press ure
pounds per square inch this amounts to
po un d of 90 per cent alc ohol per c ubic fee t o f dry air
90 ( vol ume ) per cent alc ohol is equivalent to
( weight )
r
cent s o that 1 pound of air w ill c arry ac cording to t he above
e
p
as sumed ratio o f mixture
,

and

1
1l 7
1
11

pound of absol ute al c ohol

po und of water

To compute the air temperat ure required s o t hat it m ay tak e

u p the above quant it ies of al cohol and water vapor we must
know t he rel ation between t he temperature and t he degree
of
Meyer i n h is c om putat ions used t he data
saturatio n
cont ained i n t he Physikalisc h -Chemisc he Tabellen Of La n d o ld t
,

B Orns t e in

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

204

po r Te n s i o n

nc he s

Me r c u r y

po u nd

con

Q)

g
3g
8
8 3
0

At

W a te r

p r

V a po

d it io n

in

in

sa

p o u nd s
At

nc he s

Hg P re s s
.

A lc o li o l
Va o

o f a in c o n t a in s

t ur t d

Hg

a e

i
Pr

nc h es

e ss .

50

59
1 7 33

68

77
1 24 0

3 090

86

1 04

2 1 62

1 22

3 6 20

For our purpose t he gures of th e table h ave been t ransposed

i nto E ngl ish units
I n t he ordinary c ase t he air drawn into t he vapori zer is n ot
dry but c ont ains a cert ain quantit y o f water A ssu me th at t he
air is at a temperat ure of 5 9 degrees an d j ust saturated A t a
pressure Of
inc hes of merc ury th is wo uld correspon d to
poun d o f water per poun d o f air i n it s initial c ondit ion
N o w i n t he c ase of th e average m ixt ure above co mputed the tem
p e ra t u re o f vapori z ation m ust be h igh enough to vapori ze an
addit ional
po und o f water m aki n g th e t otal
poun d
that t he air must cont ain per pound I t is seen fro m th e t abl e
t h at a t emperature o f 7 7 degrees is quite su ffi c ient t o do t h is
I t is al so seen t hat at th is temperature t he air m ay tak e u p
po u nd of ab sol ute al cohol wh ile t he q uantity in the above m ixtu re
is o nl y
pou nd per pou nd o f m ixtur e A t a tempera
ture of 7 7 degrees t he mixt ure ready for th e cylinder m ay there
fore cont ain t he al c oh ol vapor in a st ate o f so me superheat I f
t herefore th e temperat ure o f th e w
alls wit h w hic h the mixture
co mes i n cont ac t is not less t han 77 degrees n o fear o f c ondensa
tion o f al cohol vapor need be entert ained I n t his c onnect ion
a statement in the E n gin eering R ec or d is of i nterest I t is t here
c l ai med th at t he consumpt ion o f al coh ol with t h e j acket w a ter
leaving at 6 0 degrees Fahrenheit is 1 00 per cent higher t han wit h
j acket water leavi ng near 2 1 2 degrees ; i e wit h c ooling by
.

GA SEN GI N E F UELS

205

vaporiz ation I n t he light of the above facts some suc h increase

in t he consumption is q uite poss ible
I n order to convert the li q uid al cohol into vapor a certain
quantity of heat is re q uired A ccording to R egnault this amount
is for t he various temperatures given and computed above 3 2
degrees Fah renheit a s follows :
.

At

32

68

1 22

2 12

F
F

T U per
T U per
T U per
T U per

pou nd
pound
pound
pou nd

so that in
The spec ic heat of liq uid alcohol is c lose to
o rder to c onvert t he quant ity of 90 vol ume-per cent alcohol co n
t a ine d i n t he assumed mixture to alcohol vapor at 7 7 degrees
Fahrenheit would require approximately assuming the l iquid
alcohol at 60 degrees Fahrenheit
X [4 58
( 28 X
B T U where 1 100 B T U is assu med
X 1 1 00 ]
as t he heat of vapori zation of water under t he existing conditions
No w t he hea t ing value of 90 volum e-per cent al cohol has been
shown to be 1 008 0 B T U per pound S O that the heating value
o n one pound of o u r assu med m ixture will be
X 1 00 80
,

756 B

T U
.

The heat of vapori zation required is therefore

34

756

cent of th e hea t ing val ue o f the fuel I t c an be shown

t h a t the amount Of heat is easily obtainable fro m t h e exhaust
I t can also be shown t hat t he pro blem m ay be solved by
gas e s

of
heating
h
air
only
for
assuming
that
th
e
spec
ic
heat
e
re
t
p
air at constant pressure is
we would h ave to pre
heat the
pe r

a ir

77

for the ass umed mi xt ure to

26 2

degrees Fahren

heit wh ich is e asily possibl e

I f on the other hand not the air but the mixture is heated
then t he walls n ee d to ha ve a tem perature only su ffi c iently h igher
t h an 7 7 degree s to transfer the required amount of heat for va pori
To furnish more
za t io n t o t he mixture in the time avail a b le
heat t han t his is harmful if anything for it a ffects unfavorably
bo th t he p ossible d eg ree of c om pres s ion and the capaci t y of the
mac hine T he c ooler t h e m ixture after formation and va poriza
tion t he better
,

CHA P T ER

ENG I NE

G AS-

OU T S I D E

of

IX

G A S F UE L S

UELS !

prod u c er gas w h ic h has been t reat ed i n a previous

c ha pt er t he gases used fo r gas engine fu el a re :
1
I llu m inat ing gas 2 Oil gas 3 Cok e oven gas 4
B last furnac e gas
5 A c et ylene
6 Wat er gas
7 N atu ral
,

gas

I l lu m in atin g

G as

I llu minat ing gas is mad e by

d is

t ill ing bitu minous c oal i n ret o rt s Fro m 1 00 pou nds of a verage
c oal are ob tai ned abou t 4 004 50 c u ft o f c ool ed gas 5 07 0 l b

o f coke
l b of t ar a nd 8 1 0 l b o f a m monia l iquor
E ach 1 00 po unds of c oal also re q u ire a bout 20 pou nds o f coke
for t he heat ing O f t he ret ort
Th e co m posit io n of t h e gas varies c o nsta nt l y so mewhat even
i n t he Sa me pl ant The a verage c o m posit ion is about 4 5 4 8 per
cent by volu me o f hyd rogen 3 5 3 8 per c ent CH4 5 8 per c ent CO
and t he rest hea vy hydrocarbons oxygen n it rogen a nd carbon
dioxide The gas ow es its ill u mi nat ing pow er t o t h e hea vy
hydrocarbons it c onta ins
I ts heat ing value h ow ever is not
proport ional t o its candl e power To d et ermine t he h eat ing
value t he best w ay is t o use a cal ori met er I t may h owever
w it h su fc ient ac cu rac y be c o mputed fro m t he anal ys is o f t h e
V arying somewh at in t h is sa me l oc al it y t h e a verage l ower
gas
heat ing valu e is probabl y n ot far from 600 B T U per c u bi c foot
it s a verage w eight
I t s d ensit y a verages about 4 air being
per c ub ic foot t herefore being n ot far fro m 03 2 l b
The foll ow ing t abl e s hows a few t ypical a nal yses o f ill u minat
ing ga s *
Mo s tly f rom P oo l e t h e Ca lo r ic P o we r o f F ue ls
.

'

206

GAS -EN G I N E

N wt n
o

Mas s

F UELS

l 16

Cl e ve la n d
Bos to n

40

1 04

B i rm in h a m

85

65 1

41

645

l 50

36

671

29

Live rp oo l

65 7

82

go w

06

830

792

81

66 1
50

1 50

Ave ra

i 00
.

1
1

19

1 70

Han v r
o

599

20

Cin c in n a ti
G las

207

667

6 86

gas is made by va porizing and su p erheat

I t may be mad e by va pori zing these oils in ret orts
ing c rude oil s
w hic h are external ly heat ed as in t he case o f the Pintsc h method
or t he ma nufact ure may be c arried on as in t he Lo we process in
w hich as previousl y desc ribed t he generat or is rs t internally
hea t ed by bu rn ing c rude o il t he o il t o be gas ie d being th en sent
into t he heat ed c ha mber t oget her w it h stea m u nder exc lusion of
2

Oil G a s

Oil

Pintsc h gas mu c h used

*
d
n
r
ac cord ing to G iil e ,
,

per cent C,,HU

for ra ilwa y ca r illu minat ion c ont a ins

,

pe r

cent CH, and

,

per c ent H by

vol ume
Another gas obta ined fro m a by-produ ct paraffi n oil showed
the follow ing c om position by volu me :
per cent C, H,
per cent CH
per cent H
pe r
cent CO and 9 per cent
Oil gas as ma de by the Lo we process is a water gas ; t he c o m
po sit ion w ill t herefore show muc h more H t han is ind icat ed in t he
a bo ve a na lysis o f Pintsc h gas
W ye r f in h is Ga s P rod u c er gives t he follow ing gu res :
3 2 per cent H 48 per cent CH 1 6 ) per cent CzH 3 per cent
N 5 pe r cent 0
.

Va l ues e v i de ntly t oo h i gh
G iild ne r Ent we rfe n u nd Be re c h n e n d e r V e r b re nn u n gs mo t o re n
f W ye r Prod uce r Gas and G as P ro d uce rs
.

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

208

est imat es t hat t h e yield O f gas fro m 1 pou nd of O il in

t he P intsc h proc ess is fro m 7 1 0 c u ft O f c ool ed gas a bout 7 5

l b o f coke being used i n t he sa me t ime for heat ing Th is a mou nts
t o about 1 00 l b of oil o r about 1 4 gall ons o f o il per 1 000 cu ft

a
as
against 9 1 0 gal lons per 1 000
o f ga s in t he most favorable c se
c u ft in t he Lo we process The heat ing valu e per cu b ic foot o f t he
P intsc h gas h ow ever is h igher t ha n t hat of t he L ow e in t he rat io
G iild ne r

about

of

65 0

so

t hat

on

t h e basis

of

t hermal effic iency t he tw o

met hods o f mak ing o il gas are probabl y not very far a pa rt w it h
t he c hanc es in fa vor o f t h e L owe syst em on ac cou nt of t h e cok e
used fo r heat ing in t he ot her syst em w h ic h mu st of cou rse be
considered in mak ing t hermal calculat ions
h
C
o
ven
ok
e
oven
gas
w
en mad e in t h e old
k
G
a
s
e
O
C
3
ty pe B ee -h ive oven is fu n da mentall y t h e sa me as illu m in a t in g
Co m pare t h e fol low ing analys is given by Wyer of a sa m pl e
ga s
of t h is gas w it h t h e a verage a nalysis given for illu minat ing gas
o n page 208
H
per c ent ; OH4
p e r c ent ; C2H4 4 per c ent ; N 2 per
c ent ; CO 6 per cent ; 0 5 per c ent ; CO,
per c ent
W hen made in modern by-prod uct o vens however t h e gas
yield is so met i mes d i v ided and t hat part o f t he gas used fo r fuel
has a so mew hat d iff erent c o m pos it ion Fro m a d iagra m publ is hed
*
o
w
Y
by t he U nit ed Cok e a nd G as Co m pany f N e
ork it a ppea rs
t hat t he gas e vol ved du ring t he c ok ing o f t he c harge in a retort is
d ivide d int o tw o part s The ent ire c ok i ng period c o vers nearly 25
hou rs The gas evol ved during a pproxi mat e l y t h e rst t en h ou rs
c alled t he surplus o r ric h gas is sepa r at ed fro m t hat m a d e d uring
t he rest o f t he period cal led fuel gas Th e su rplus gas is h igh i n
illu minat ing power a nd in heat ing v a lue a pproxi mately 720
The fuel gas has an a verage heat ing valu e
B T U per cu b ic foot
of about 5 6 0 B T U per cubic foot The gu res quot ed are for a
med iu m volat ile coal The rich gas fro m a t on o f t h is c oa l in a n
act ual case a mount ed t o 4 3 00 cu bi c feet w h ic h was 4 6 per c ent
of t he t ot al yield per t o n t h is pa rt o f t h e ga s carrying 5 2 pe r cent
of t he t otal heat valu e of t he gas A t on of t h is c oal t herefore
yields about 94 00 cu ft of gas
The sa me t reat ise a bove qu ot ed gives t he fol l ow ing gas
,

Th e U n it e d O tt o S ys t e m

of

B y-p r od u c t Co k e O ve n s

GAS ENGINE

nalys is for a coal carrying fro m

matt er :

F UELS

209

0
3 32

per cent of volat il e

l ll u m i na nt s

B T U pe r
.

cu

ft

h i he r

va l ue

Whe re no illu minat ing gases are desired t h e ent ire gas yield
is rec ove red t oget her
The gas is excellent for pow er pu rposes
except for t he somew hat high percentages of H w hic h render t he
fuel mixtu res l ia ble to pre -ignit ion u nder high co m pression in t he
cyl ind er
The blast fu rnace is really a large
4 B la st F u rn ac e G a s
gas generator w it h t he d iff erence t hat to t he charge o f fu e L is
ad ded t he bu rd en of ore and o f ux a nd t hat t he bl ast is air al one
w ithout ad mixtu re of stea m Ow ing to t he cal cinat ion of the
u x whic h is l im e stone o rd inarily and t o t he fact that no stea m
is us ed t he gas is h igh in
and conta ins l itt le H t he main
c ombu s t ible being ( IO
This gas had been used a l ong t ime in
hot blas t st oves for blast h eating and under boilers to prod uc e
st ea m for p o wer purpos e s a round t he works I t was Thwaite in
Engl a nd and Liirma n in Germany w h o about twenty yea rs ago
c a ll ed att ent ion to t he fact t hat t h is gas alt hough low in heat ing
value could be read ily bu rned in gas engines w hen su it ably c om
p res sed The c red it o f ha v ing ca rried out t his idea rst on a large
s c a le be longs t o the S oc i t Cockerill o f S era ing
Belgiu m w ho
a bout 18 98 put a 1 5 0 ho rse -pow er engine using t h is gas into
o p e rat ion
I t is es timat ed roughly that fo r eve ry t e n o f pig iro n prod uced
one t on of coke is requi red t he c ombust ion resulting in about
5 to ns o f gas
Taking a fu rnace t herefore wit h an ave rage da ily
ca pa c ity of 200 t ons of p ig iro n t he gas a va il a ble pe r hou r a mounts
.

I N TE R N AL COM

21 0

B US TI ON

E N GI N E S

t o about
t ons o r
cu ft E st i mat ing t hat
cubic feet are necessary for t h e o perat ion of t he h ot blast st oves
th i s lea ves
c u ft a va ilabl e w h ic h if d irectly used i n gas
engines w ould develo p about 5 000 I H P Of t h i s a mou nt 1 000
1 200 h orse -power are probably requ ired fo r power pu rposes
arou nd t he furnac e l ea ving fro m 3 8 00 4 000 horse -power avail
able fo r ot her work The sa me a mou nt of gas if used u nder boilers
wou ld ha ve result ed in only about 1 200 boiler h orse -power o r
perha ps about 24 00 horse -power t otal i n st ea m engines lea ving
1 200 horse -power a va ilabl e for ot her purposes
The co m posit ion and heat ing val ue o f blast furnac e gas natu
rally varies so mewhat i n d i fferent furnaces a nd even in t he sa me
furnac e u nder varying acc ident al c ond it ions o f o perat ion A large
nu mber o f det erminat ions led M W it z t o t he c onclusion t h at
t he average heat ing valu e of a st andard cub ic foot wa s 1 1 0 B T U
and t hat it very rarely fel l below 95 B T U or rose above 1 1 8
.

B T U
.

The average c o m po s it ion of t he gas a c cord i ng t o L ed ebur

a ppears t o be
,

by V o l u m e by We ight
2

The abo ve analysis shows no w at er va por so me o f w h ic h is

present in t he gas as it l ea ves t he sta c k a nd it t herefore probably
refers t o cl eaned gas I t is a p p arent t hat it is a n excel lent gas
for int ernal c ombust ion engines I ts l ow c ont ent o f H mak es it
su itabl e fo r h igh c o m pressions t hereby o verco m ing any o bje c
t ion t hat may be made regarding its l ow heat ing valu e and
d i ffic ulty of ignit ion
The most serious t roubl e enc ou nt ered in t he use of bl ast fur
nac e gas is t he fact t hat it carries more or l ess d ust w h ic h renders
c leaning of t he ga s im pe rat ive before use in engines
I t is also
a pt t o c arry metall ic va po rs w h ic h d o not however bec o me
,

Mo t e u rs a G a z

et

P t ro l e p
,

26 7

GA SENGINE F UELS

21 1

harmful unt il after c o mbust ion in th e cyl inder The a mou nt of

i mpu rities carried de pends altoget her u po n t he k ind of ore re
I n some cases it is so sl ight t hat t h e ordi
d u c ed in t he furnac e
nary dust settlers c ombin ed w it h a sc rubber o f some sort are
qu it e su ffic ient t o red uc e t he amount t o bel ow t he al lowable
l imit Th is is h owever t he except ion and t he fact t hat t he gas
mus t be clea ned and t horoughly cl ea ned cannot be em phasized
t oo st rongl y
I t is com parat ivel y easy t o take out t he c oa rser d ust carried
by t he gas by a ppl ianc es whic h have l ong been in use for t h is
pu r p ose t o prepare t he gas for stoves and bo ile m The fine d ust
however causes more trouble and s pecial cl ea ning a pparat us is
n e c essary t o red uc e t he am o unt carried
The o rd inary met hod of proc edure is t o gi ve t he gas a prel im
ina ry clea ning by all ow ing t he c oarse dust t o settle
The ne
d us t toget her with t he water va por and t he metall ic va pors are
t hen taken out by passing t he gas t hrough washers of wh ic h
t here are various forms as spray t owers c ent r ifugal fa ns etc
Cok e sc rubb e rs are n o t s atisfactory on ac c ou nt o f the cl og
gi n g u p by d us t whic h soo n takes pl ac e
A dry sc rubber
l led wit h sawdust or sha vings is somet i mes used t o c om plet e
t he out t of cl ea ning apparatus The amou nt of wat er used
i n t he washers varies w it h d i fferent ty pes
I t may be fro m
5 5 0 gall ons p e r 1 000 cu ft of gas c lea ned d epend in g u pon
t h e e fc iency of t he a ppa ratus
The a mou nt o f dust
na lly ca rri ed by t he gas should not be higher t han about
2 g ra ins per cu bic foot
I t is only in rec ent years t hat t he means
5 Ace tyl e n e
for mak ing ac etyl ene gas in any qua n t ity were fou nd To -d ay
calc iu m ca rbid e is mad e in quant ity in t h e el ect ric furnace The
gas is p rodu c ed by d ec om posing t h is carbid e by means of water
as p e r following react ion :
.

'

~
ca o H o

The generat ors em pl oyed usually regulat e t he a mou nt of wat er

s u ppl ied t o t he carbid e rece ptacle
The gas is l ed t o a hold er
wh ic h by t he pos it ion of its bell regulates t he wat er su pply Th e
a m o unt of gas prod u ced per p ou nd o f ca rbid e sh o uld be t h eo re t i
cally
c u ft of d ry acetylene gas Owing to impu rit ies how
.

EN GINE S

I N TE RNAL COM B US TI ON

21 2

e ver t h is is usually redu c ed t o abou t

cu ft
t h is gas tak es pla c e a cc ord ing t o t he formula
.

0 2H,

I ts heat ing valu e

H, o

50

is 20673 B

of

zoo,

T U per po und

Co mbust ion

1 4 99 B T

or

per cu b i c foot l ower valu e

The gas is d is t ingu ished by l ow t em peratu re of ignit ion l ower
t ha n t hat o f H a pprox imat el y 8 6 5 d egrees Fa h ren heit h igh
vel oc it y of a me pro pagat ion at t h e best rat io of a ir t o gas about
1 2 t o 1 and h igh ma xi mu m t em peratu re o f e xpl osion ow ing t o
t he h igh heat ing val ue The first of t h ese l ow -ignit ion t em pera
t u re leads t o pre -ign it ion a nd requ i res t he use of c om parat i vely
l ow co m pression pressu res
The t h eory o f t h e produ ct i on of wat er gas
6 W a te r Ga s
has been alread y out l ined in a previous c ha pt er Th e a verage
co m posit ion of t he gas may be t ak en t o a pproxi mat e by volu m e
4 2 per cent CO
per c ent H
per cent C0 , t he rest being
O and N
I n med iu m s ized wel l hand l ed generat o rs ea c h po u nd o f c ok e
w ill yield about 3 2 c u ft of gas eac h pound of good ant hra cite
c oal fro m 24
cu ft Th e a verage lower heat ing value o f t he
gas may be t ak en at 290 B T U per cu ft

t
r
l
N at ural gas is fou nd in ma n y pa rt s o f
N
a u a
Gas
7
t he world
I t has h owever perha ps received t he most ext end ed
use as a fu el for power i n t he U nit ed S tat es
I t is t here fou nd in
N e w Y ork Pennsyl va nia Ohio I nd ia na West V irgin ia K entucky
Tennessee Colorad o a nd Cal iforn ia This gas is n o t of c onst ant
c hemical c o m po s it ion in t he d iff erent wel ls a nd n ot c onst a nt
even in t he sa me wel l Mars h gas OH4 however is nearl y al ways
t h e ma in c onst it uent Ac c ord ing t o Pool e t h e Oh io and I nd ia na
elds yield a gas o f t h e most c onst ant co m posit ion The foll ow
i ng is t he c o mposit ion at Findlay Ohio and is ty pical o f t he
eld
.

CH4

C,,H4
.

35

CO

o
.

39

41

00 2
.

25

s
.

20 p e r

ce

n t by

vo l

The above c om posit ion h ow ever is somet i mes rad icall y

c hang ed Thus a gas w el l near Pittsbu rg c ha nged t he c o m posi
'

GAS EN (I I N E

F U ELS

21 3

t i o n of the gas in t hree m o nths fro m

per cent H t o
per
cent H mostly at the ex pense of Ma rs h gas
The hea t ing va lue of t his gas is high t h e above Find lay gas
showing a l o wer heat ing value of 9 62 B T U per c ubic foot as c om
a s it is c hea p and n o t
I
t
a
good
fuel
for
gas
engines
u
t
e
d
i
s
p
very l iable t o pre -ignit ion w hen th e hyd ro gen is low I t is how
ever o f dec reasing im po rtance on a c count of t he gradual failure
of t he su pply

1 give a reca pitulat ion o f the

9
The fol lowing tabl e and Fig
m os t i m p ort ant data for t he fuel gases most oft en found i n gas
e ngine pract ice I t is t o be remembered t hat t he gu res gi ven
re p res ent a pp roxi mat e a verage resu lts only but for ra pid calcula
t io n they a re su ffic i e ntly ac c urate
.

AG

AVE R

APP R O X I M T E

DA T A
Wt
cu

No

K i nd

of

G as

Ill u m i n a ti n g gas
2 Na tu ral gas
e

wa te r gas

ii gas

P i n t sc h

i]

Lo we

gas

ve n gas
Pro du ce r gas f ro m c o ke
Pro d u ce r ga s f ro m a n t h ra c it e
Pro du ce r gas f ro m so ft c o a l
Blast fu rna ce gas
o

7
8
9
10

pt

an

Bl u

FU E L G A SE S

er

St d d
i
p u d
ar

FO R

L wr
L t i
H t i g r q ir d f
it y
V
lu
C
m bu ti
=l p
ft
ft
B T U
ft
p
o

D e ns
A ir

e as

ea

032

40

565

04 5

55

9 50

05 7

71

05 6

70

1 000

04 0

49

650

029

36

54 5

075

93

1 35

0 65

80

145

0 73

90

1 45

0 79

98

1 00

e r c u.
.

a r
or

on

cu

er cu

70

21 4

IN TERNA L

COM

B U S TI ON ENGINES

m
m

9
0

3
a

m
.

m
o

m
w
a

s
:

5
.

m
w
.

8
h
e

m3
o

6
a 5
n

3
8
0

0
o
a

x
o

a
m

<

a
.

5
.

CH APT E R X
T HE

FU EL

M I XT UR E

EX P

LOS I B I L IT Y

PR

E SSU R E

T E M P E R AT U R E

W hen we mi x a c ombust ibl e gas or

va p or wit h air t here result explosi ve mixtures if c e rta in ratios
of ai r to c o m bus tible are used i n eac h c ase Fo r e ac h o f t hese v ari
o u s mi xtu res the produc ts o f c ombus tio n attai n c ertai n p ressures
a nd tem perat ures und er t he sa me c ond itions I t is also found
that t he ti me interval between ignit ion and attain ment o f highest
p ress u re varies wit h t he ratio of mixing t e t hat t he veloc ity of
a me pro pagat ion d i ffers
That mixt ure in w hic h j ust enough oxygen is present t o c o m
p le t e t he c ombust ion of t he c ha rge of gas or of va por shows t he
hig hes t explosive pressures a nd t em peratu res and also very
nea rly t he highest veloc ity of a me propagat ion Queer and as yet
not expla ined is t he fact that acc ord ing t o Clerk t he highest
veloc ity of pro pagat ion is fou nd when t he ga s is a l itt le i n exc ess
of t he t heoret ical rat io in t he m ixture
As the pro p o rt ion o f oxygen o r of air is decreased fro m or
inc rea s ed beyond t he theoret ical a mou nt for c omplete c o m bu s
t ion t he res ult ing maximu m pressures and t emperatu res are not
so hig h t h e explosion oc cu rs more a nd more slowl y u nt il at t he
outsid e l imits of expl os ibil ity it a pproxi mates sl ow c o mbust ion
The re is therefore a range of mixtures for eac h gas a nd va por
in whic h ra nge t he mixt ure is expl osive When t here are c on
s t it u e n t s present ot her t ha n t hose result ing fro m m ixtu res of gas
o r va o r and a ir suc h as burned gases t he results are aga in mod i
p
I

E xp lo s i bil ity

ed

The foll ow ing tabl e shows t he volu me of a ir required per

c ubic fo ot of va rious gas e s u nd er standard cond it ions for c o m
p le t e c o mbusti o n i e for what m ight be c all ed t he t ru e explos ive
m ixt ure To fac ilitate c o m putat ion t o a weight basis a colu mn
giving t h e d ensit y of t he gases or va po rs wit h air
1
,

2 15

IN TERNA L

21 6

COM B U S TI ON

ENGINES

pou nds per c ubic foot stand ard is add ed

The t abl e also shows
a verage heat i ng v a l ues a nd nally t h e heat ing value o f t he true
expl os ive m ixt u re I t will be not ed t hat t he heat ing valu es o f
t he m ixtu res s how mu c h less d i fferen c e t ha n d o t he gases t hem
sel ves
.

Av l w r
h ti g
Av l w r v l u
h ti g
f t ru
v lu
xp l
w
fg
m i x tur
B T U
B T U
p
p
ft
ft
o

V ol
fo r

o f A ir

os

D e n s it y

tr u
xp l
iv
m i xtur
ft
.

of

A ir
1
08 0 7 2
lb s

cu

g as

pe r
cu

ft

ea

ea

os

cu

er

cu

34 2

06 9

29 7

55 4

95 2

915

1 4 99

1 18

9 74

1 56 4

1 03

40

72

290

93

1 35

80

145

36

54 5

98

1 00

n a tu ra l ga s
A v i ll u m i n a t i n g gas
Av wa t e r ga s
Av p ro du c e r ga s f ro m c o k e
Av p ro du c e r gas f ro m a n t h ra c i te
Co k e -o v e n gas
B l ast -fu rn a ce gas

er

96 7

O2H

as

OgH

Av

1 02

70

To give vol u me rat ios fo r t h e l iqu id fu els is n o t s o easy because

t h e volu me of va por obta ined fro m a c ert ain w eight of a l iqu id
fuel is n ot c onst ant but d e pe nds u po n t he t e m perat u re E xp e ri
ments along t h is l ine a re not nu merous
Those m a d e ind icat e
t hat fo r l ight a nd m ed iu m hea vy o ils t h ere is a 200-fold increase
i n th e original volu me at ord inary t em perat u res w h il e t he in
c rease is a bout 4 00 fold at t he ord inary va pori zer t em peratu re
I t a ppea rs also t hat for h ea vy o ils a t em perat u re exc eed ing
1 4 00 d egrees is requ ired t o anywhere n ear c o m pl et e va po rizat ion
T his expl a ins in pa rt t he d ifcu lt y enc ou nt ered in th e u s e of c rude
o il in va pori zers
W it h t he a bove inc rease in volu mes t h e rat io
o f air t o o il va por by volu me proba bl y is in most cases bet w een
25 and 3 0
I t is mu c h m ore usual h owever t o cal cul at e t he air -l iqu id
fuel rat ios by weight This rat i o fo r th e pet rol eu m oils is a p p ro xi
,

T H E F UEL MIX T URE

21 7

matel y 1 5 , and for alc ohol about 9 , for t he t rue e xplosive mixtu re

To get some idea o f t he heating value per cubic foot of t he e xp lo

si ve m ixtu re t he volu me added to t he air by th e va por is so me
t i m es neglec ted Th is gives results w hic h are close enoug h for
mos t pu rposes I n th e following tabl e h owever ac count has
bee n taken of t he va por volu me by assu ming a 3 00-fold i nc rease
in t he v ol u me of t h e l iqu id d ue t o va pori zat ion :
.

W e igh t

o f a ir

r q u ir d
lb
p
f
fu l
f
tru
x l
iv
p
m i xtu

Av

er

F uel

Sp

60

H20

os

at

or

e a

Gr

Av r g
Av r g
l w r
l wr
h ti g
h ti g
v lu
v lu
p
lb
ft
p
f
f t ru
fu l
xp l
iv
B T U
m ix t
B T U
e a

Liq uid

ea

er

cu

rude
Li gh t Pa c rud e
Hea vy W V a c rud e
L i gh t W V a c ru d e
Pa

ure

A pp ro x i m a t e l y

lb

8 86

1 92 1 0

826

1 7 9 30

873

1 8 3 20

84 1

1 84 00

80

1 85 20

69

Ga s o l in e

os

Hea vy

re

ea

er

19000
.

71

86 6

1 7 1 90

794

1 1664

8 15

1 00 80

Be n z o l C,,H
,

Al c o h o l 1 00 p e r ce n t
Al co h o l 90 p e r ce n t

make su re of c o m pl ete c ombust ion o f t he c harge wh ic h is

one of t he pri ma ry objects it is not usual h owever t o w ork w it h
t he t h eoret ic a ir su ppl ies abo ve c o m puted ma inl y because a
perfect m ixt ure is ha rd l y ever o bta i n ed
An exc ess of air is
therefore em pl o yed in nearly al l cases Th is acts benec ially in
sev e ral ot her ways The ma ximu m ex pl osi o n tem peratu res are
red uc e d
and pre-ignit ion is rend ered less l ikel y Es pec ially is
th is no t i c ea bl e w ith a gas carrying muc h hyd rogen o r wit h a c e t y
lene The onl y l imit s e t t o t he a mou nt of excess air t hat can be
us e d is t he l imit of t he ex plosi ve range o f th e part icular gas or
va por B ut t h is range is in m o st cases so w ide t hat in p ract ice
t he l imit is ra rely reach ed
U nd er full l o ad a n excess o f air o f

fro m 30 4 0 p e r cent is usual and fo r t he ric h m ixt u res even more

ma y be used Th is exc ess d ec reases the h eat ing val ue of t h e
To

IN TERNAL

21 8

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

mixt ure c orrespond ingly below t hose c om put ed a bove for t h e

t ru e expl osive mixt ures
Th e a mou nt o f excess air any g i ven gas c a n carry a nd st il l
form a n expl osive m ixt u re varies w it h t he k ind o f ga s E xp e ri
ment s ha ve been mad e not onl y o n pu re gas -air m ixt ures " u nder
ord inary cond it ions o f pressu re a nd o f t emperat u re but also on
mixt u res t o w h ic h had been added inert gases as 0 0 2 t o t est t he
e ff ect burn ed gases would have u po n a fresh ch arge The fol low
ing t able sho w
s t he u pper a nd lower l i mits o f ex pl osibil it y for
so me o f t he most c o m mon gases t oget her w it h th e t heoret ical
rat io I t is hardl y necessary t o point o u t t hat t h e real l ower
l i mit o f operat ion as far a s econo my is c onc ern ed is t h e t h eo ret i
c al rat io :
.

<

Dr

E it n e r

results ha ve been gra ph icall y represent ed i n

Fig 1 0 1 by F E J u nge a nd pu blished in P o wer for August 1 90 6
Fro m t h is d iagra m it ca n be seen at a glan ce h ow mu c h w id er t he
ex pl osi ve range is for so me fuel s t ha n fo r ot hers Thus for in
stanc e o n e cu bic foot of mixt u re w ill be expl osiv e u nder ord inary
c ond it ions o f pressure a nd t em perat ure w hen it c ontains any
w here between 1 6 a nd 7 4 per c ent o f CO a ra nge of 58 per c ent
Th e range for ill u minat ing gas is
per cent and for gasol ine
o nl y
per cent
R egard ing t h e experiments w it h ad mixtu res o f inert gases
it ca n be said i n general t hat t he result is a narrow ing o f t he ex
pl osive ra nge i e t he e ffect is harmful R a ising t he t empera
t u res of m ixtu res t hus c onta minat ed has a not iceabl y benec ial
e ffect in t h e c ase o f h yd rogen a nd illu minat ing gas m ixt ures only
R egard ing t he e ffect u pon t h e expl osi ve l i mits of i ncreasing t he
init ial pressu re of t he m ixt ure not h ing d enit e is k nown
Carbon monoxide and hyd rogen are t he t wo most i m port a nt
.

"

P ro fe sso r

E i tn e r ,

in

t h e Jo

u rn a l

fur G a s be l e u c ht u n g , 1 90 2

TH E F UEL MIX T URE

21 9

c onst it uents found in our power gases and t he quest i on

t o t he most desirable a mount of eac h of t hes e in t he
as
This po int is taken up by F E
gas has often been raised
J unge as foll ows :

The tem peratu re at whic h hydrogen ignit es is cons iderably

below t hat of carbon monoxide a nd t he rapid ity o f a me propaga
,

M
f

m
e

u
l

V
l

a
t

T
n
i

d
e
l

n
u

u
o
c

u
O
f

o
e
g
a

n
o

r
e

3
-

3
O

_
9

3 3

FI G

10 1

'

3
g

3
z

t i on at at mospheric pressure is about 3 0 t imes great er I ts

d ifiius io n pro pe rt ies a re by fa r more favorable t han t hose of car
bo n monoxide s o t hat its ad mixtu re wit h a ir is ac c ompl is hed in
a muc h shorter t ime I ts p resence therefo re determ ines the
ma nner of ignit ion and t he t em peratu res prevail ing at various
po ints of t he i n ner walls On t he ot her hand m in or varia t i ons
Po we r Augu s t 1 906
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

220

i n t he hyd rogen c ontent are of great in uenc e on t he speed o f

ign it ion o r rat her o f a me pro pagat ion t hroughout t he whol e
m ixtu re and t herefore o n engine out put and c onsu mpt ion
A gas t o be of ideal c o mposit ion for t h e engi n e bu ilder must
t herefore not c ont a in t oo mu c h hyd rogen s o as not t o make t he
engine over-sensit ive t o prematu re expl osions but enough so as
t o ass ist t he slow a nd aft er -burn ing carbon monoxide and t o

a cc elerat e a me propagat ion t hrough out t he m ixt ure

2
I t has
P r e ss u r e a n d Te m p er a tu r e aft e r C o m bu stion
al read y been ment ioned t hat t he pressures and t em pe ratures
real ized in expl osi ve c o mbust ion are n ot as h igh as t hose cal
c u la t e d by t he ord inary met hod o f assu ming s pec ic heat c on
st ant The d et erminat ion of t he causes o f t h is ph en omenon has
al ways been a fa vorit e subj ect for experiment at ion w it h invest iga
t ors a nd t h is is fu lly warra nt ed by it s im po rt ance t o t he t heory
of internal c ombust ion engines I t w ill hardly be nec essary t o
review t he earl ier efforts in t h is eld F or t hem t he rea d er is
referred t o t h e works o f Clerk
G rover T R obinson 1 W it z a nd
ot hers T he sub j ect h as already been briey d iscussed in Cha p

t er I V o f t h is book u nder t he head of Co mbust ion and E xp a n

sion S trokes
T he ent ire quest ion seems o n analysis t o narrow
d own t o va r ia tion of s p ec ic h ea t with tem p er a tu r e a n d to a fter
D issoc iat ion as o n e o f t he causes t end ing t o produ ce
bu r n ing
t he eff ect s ment ioned is now regard ed by most w rit ers as possible
but im probable
The most i mport ant work o f recent years al ong t he l ines
u nder d iscussion has been d one by Langen H
and by Cle rk I t
would seem t h at t hese t wo invest igat ions co mbined w it h t h e
earl ier one o f Mallard and L e Ch at el ier should lead t o some fa irly
d enite c on clusions They w ill t herefore be reviewed in som e
great er deta il
Langen in his ex peri ments u sed a c a st -st eel s pherical vessel
about 1 5 } inc hes in d ia met er This wa s furn ished w i t h t he ne c es
,

Cle r k , Th e G a s

an d

Oil E n gi n e

TG ro v e r Mo d e rn G a s an d Oil E n gi n e s
1 R o bi n so n G as Oil a n d Air E n gi n e s
,

W it

P t ro le
HA La n ge n Z e itsc h rift d V d I V ol 4 7 p 6 22
1[ D Cle r k P ro c o f t h e R o y a l S oc i e t y A V ol 7 7
z,

Mo t e u rs a G a z

a
.

et

. .

1 906

T H E F UEL MIX T URE

221

sary connect ions for exhaust pu mp gas su pply cyl inders ind ica
The ign iter reac hed t o t he c ent er of t he s phere
t o r gages et c
The vessel itsel f was surrou nded by a wat er bat h w it h t h e rm o m e
t ers at inlet and out let so t hat t he t em perat ure of t he body of
gas in t he vessel c ou ld be a c cu rat ely d et erm ined The ind icat or
was of t he ord inary t ype exc ept that t h e osc illat ing mot ion o f
t h e d ru m was c hanged t o c ont inuous mot ion
The deta ils
t h e ent ire const ruct ion were very i n ge n ious
Th e press
of
ing of a s ingl e butt on su fficed by elect rical means t o rst
press t he penc il aga i n st t h e d ru m a nd i m m ed iat ely aft erward
I t was o n l y nec e ssary t o break t he cu rrent
t o re t he ch arge
when t h e d ec rease in pressu re d ue t o c ool in g of t h e burned
gases had bec ome s o s mal l in t wo revol ut ions o f t he d ru m
t hat t he l ines int erfered
The met hod o f t est w a s t o exhaust t h e vessel and t hen t o l l
it wit h a ir a nu mber o f t imes u n t il it was fair t o ass u me t hat all
burn ed gases fro m a previous expl osion had been replaced T he
vessel was t h en aga in exhaust ed t o su ch a d egree t hat by ll i n g
w it h c ombust ibl e gas and inert gases o f t he k i n d desired t he
vessel would at at mospheric pressu re be l led w it h c ombust ibl e
Aft er e n ough t i me
a n d inert gases in t he proport ion requ ired
had been given fo r d i ffusion and t he t hermomet er sh owed t hat
c o nst ant t em peratu re had been reac h ed t he c h arge wa s red and
t he d iagra m t aken
I n order t o obt a in a c o mm on bas is fo r c om parison w ith t he
work o f previous ex peri ment ers L angen recom puted al l o f his
results and t hose o f B unsen B ert hel ot and V ieille and Ma llard
and Le Chat elier o n t h e assu m pt ion t hat t he t em peratu re at t he
mo ment of ex pl osio n w a s 0 d egrees Cent igra de I igs 1 0 -2 and
3
1 0~
show gra ph ically t h e results o f all o f t hese experiment s
t he rst fo r CO t he sec ond for H a s t he fuel gas I n t he d iagrams
#0 stands fo r t he rat io of ex pl osion pressu re observed t o t he pres
sure before ignit i o n if t he t emperatu re o f t h e fu e l m ixture is
0 d egrees Cent igrade at t h e st art
m is t h e rat io o f t h e vol um e
o f in e rt gases c om pared w it h th e volu me o f fu e l gas
These inert
gases were N O H o r CO o r a ny m ixtu res o f t h ese f o u r a s ind i
o s t ed
The results mark ed e were obtained for a ir -fuel gas m i x
tures
,

Z e it sc h r ift d V d I
.

1 903 ,

6 23

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

222

e
r

u
s

s
e

m
.

A
o
t

n
o
l

x
E
0
0
u

R at io

of

I n e rt

Gm

a es t o

FI G

Fu e l G as ( C O) by V ol um e
.

1 0-2

'

3
P

g5

E
g4

2
at io o f

rG

Ine t

J
as es

by V o l um e

t o F ue l

Fro

10
3

7"

T H E F UEL MIX T URE

223

La ngen , i n a naly z ing t he resu lt s shown in t he above d i agra ms ,

mak es t he fol lowing observat ions

1 The c omputat ion o f explosion pressur es o n t he assu m pt ion
spec ic heat and c om plet e c ombust ion furnishes
o f c onst ant
values w h ic h c onsiderably exceed t hose act ually observed
2 For equal rat ios o f i nert d iat omic gases t o fuel gases t he
kin d o f inert gas used seems t o ha ve no inuenc e u po n t he e xp lo
sion pressure a s fa r a s th e s o m e obs er ver is c onc er n ed Th is w ould
l ead t o t he c oncl us i on t hat t he molecular heats of t he s e -called
simpl e o r d iat omic gases are equal t o eac h ot her at least u p t o
4 5 00 degrees Fahrenheit
R egard ing t he results of his ow n experiments La ngen is of
t he O pinion t hat in fuel m ixtures c ont a ining CO d issociat ion o f
CO2 sets in when t he t em perature exceed s 1 900 d egrees Cent igrade
He bases h is O pinion o n t he a bn or
(3 4 50 degrees Fa hrenheit )
ma l posit ion of t he c ool ing cu rve as observed o n t he d ia grams
taken fo r suc h mixtu res And sinc e t he a mount of t h is d is soc ia
t ion is indet erminat e n o denit e equat ion expressing t he relat ion
of ma ximu m pres sure t o init ial pressure can be establ ished at
l ea st for t emperat ures exceed ing 3 4 00 For hyd rogen m ixtures
o n t he ot her hand t he c ool ing curves o n t he d iagra ms are always
normal Henc e t h e d issoc iat ion l imit for st ea m d oes n ot seem
t o ha ve been reac hed even w it h t he st rongest m ixtures
Fro m t hat pa rt o f h is ex peri ments for w h ic h c om plet e c o m
bus t io n c an be assu med La ngen deri ves equat ions for mea n
molecular heat o f d iat o mic gases a nd for carbon d ioxide and
st ea m Th e t em perat ure l imits for t he eld s o c overed are not
very wid e 1 5001 700 degrees Cent igrad e ( 273 03 1 00 degrees
F ahrenh eit ) a nd fu rt her it was assu med t hat t he molecular heat
is a l inear funct ion o f t h e t em perat ure
Transposed t o read mea n
s pec ic instead o f mea n molec ular h eats t hes e equ at ions are as
fol lows :
.

F o r 0 0 2 , C,,

For H20 C
,

,,

Fo r N ,

For 0

Cv

1 52

00005 9 1 t

3 28

000 1 1 9 t

171

000021 5 t

1 50

0000 1 8 8 t

where t is in degrees Cent igrade

The formul a of Mallard a nd Le Chatel ier agree w it h t he
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

224

a bo ve as regards t he d iat o mic gases 0 and N

For CO2 and
H20 t hes e observers obt a in ed results w hic h ga ve t he fol low i n g
relat ions :
.

For C0 2 C
,

Fo r

H20

,,

C,,

143

00008 3 4 t

3 12

000 1 8 2 t

l
l

Thes e

formul a show a so mew hat more ra pid increase of C

w it h t em perat ure t han d o t hose of La ngen
La ngen observes i n
explanat ion o f t h is d isc repa nc y t hat Mallard a nd Le Ch at e lie r s
formula for CO2 is obt ained fro m results for w h ic h t h e t em pera
t ures were fro m 1 7 00 t o 2000 d egrees Cent igrade and t hat t he
formula for H20 is based on ex peri ments for w h i c h t he t em pera
tures were very m uc h h igh er t ha n for h is ex peri ments I n t h e
former case d is soc iat ion was sh own t o be more t ha n l ikel y in t he
latt er t he formula gives results w h ic h d o not see m t o a ppl y very
cl osely for t he im port ant t em peratu re range bet ween 2250 and
4 000 degrees Fa hrenheit
I t is pla i n t herefore t ha t Langen s
formul ae pro mise great er ac cu rac y
The sec ond i mpo rt ant invest igat ion in t h is eld was mad e by
His met hod o f
Clerk a nd by hi m repo rt ed t o t he R oyal S oc iet y
o perat ion is s o d ec idedl y d iff erent fro m t hat of La ngen a nd t he
earl ier ex peri ment ers t hat it bec o mes bot h int erest ing a nd im
port ant t o s ee how far h is res u lts agree w it h t h os e a lrea dy men
,,

t io n ed

The met hod o f ex periment is bes t d es cribed in Clerk s own

words :

I t c ons ists in subj ect i ng t he w hole of t he h ighly heat ed

products of t he c o mbust ion o f a gaseous c harge t o alt ernat e c om
press ion and ex pansion w it h in t he ent ire c yl inder w h il e c ool ing
proceed s a nd obs e rving by t he ind icat or t he su cc essive pres su re
a nd t em perat ure -falls fro m revolut ion t o revol ut ion t oget her
w ith t he t em perature and pressure r is e and fall due t o alternat e
c ompression and expansion The engine is s e t t o ru n at any given
s peed and at t he d esired mo ment aft er t he c harge o f gas and air
has been drawn in c o m pressed a n d ign ited t he exhaust val ve
and c harge inlet val ves are prevent ed fro m O pe ning s o t hat w hen
t he pist on reac hes t he t erminat ion o f it s p ower st roke t h e e x
haust gases are ret ained w it hin t he c yl ind er and t he pist on c om
presses t hem t o t he m ini mu m vol u me ex pand s t he m aga in t o

THE

F UEL MI XT URE

225

t he ma x i mu m vol u me a n d s o c o mpresses a nd expa nds d uring

t he des ired nu mber of st rokes

To atte m pt t o expla in t he met hod o f evaluat ing t he expa nsion
a nd c o mpression l ines so obta i n ed would l ead t oo fa r for t he sc o pe
*
of t his book The reader is referred t o t he original a rt icle
The engine O perated w it h c oal gas The a verage c o m posit io n
of t he working u id as cal culat ed fro m t he a nalys is of t he gas
was H20 ( assu med gaseous )
per c ent by vol u me ; CO,
per c ent a nd N 7 5 per cent The m ixt ure as
p e r cent ; 0
actually used varied somewhat fro m t h is c o m posit ion but sinc e
t he percentage of N is nearly c onst ant t h is variat ion ca n ha ve but
s mall e ffect u po na ny s pec ic heat cal c ul at ions
For t h is m ixture Mr Cl erk o n t he basis o f h is ex periments
found t he fol l owi n g mea n spec ic heats expressed in foot pou nds
per c ubic foot o f w ork ing u id at 7 6 0 m m and 0 C
'

an

ge

of

p r tur
e

1 00

32

212

200

32

3 92

4 00

32

752

6 00

3 2 1 1 3 2

8 00

3 2 1 4 7 2

236

0 1 000

3 2 1 83 2

24 6

0 1 200
0 1 4 00

3 2 2 1 9 2

0 1 50 0

32

3 2 255 2
- 27 32

t o c o m pare t hes e results w it h t h ose o f Mallard a nd L e

Chatel ier and o f La ngen t he easiest way w oul d be t o redu ce t he m
t o t he ord inary s pec ic heat bas is and t hen t o c o mpute a series
o f s pec ic heats for t he sa me t em perat u re ranges and for t h e
sa me m ixtu re as used by Cl erk by t he a id o f Mal la rd s and o f
La ngen s formul ae
Th is in vol ves t he assu m pt ion that t hese
formul ae h o l d for t he l ower t em perature ranges The fol l owi n g
tabl e shows t he gures so obta ined a nd Fig 1 04 gives a gra ph i
cal c o m paris on
Now

Se e

foo t -n o te p age
,

221

IN TERNAL COMB US T ION ENGINES

226

M E A N S P E CI F I C

HE A T

H20

em

an

MI X T U R E

O NT A I N I N G
O,

C0 2 ,

p r tur R g
e a

FOR

Le

a nd

ll rd
a
C h a te l ie r
a

BY

75

V
N

L g
an

OL U M E
.

C l rk

en

1 00

32

21 2

1 80 5

1 8 26

1 8 54

200

32

3 92

1 84 3

1 85 8

1 9 10

4 00

32

75 2

1 9 30

1 9 22

6 00

3 2 1 1 32

2006

19 85

20 33

800

3 2 1 4 72

208 3

204 7

21 5 7

1 000

32

1 8 32

21 6 1

21 1 2

0 1 200

3 2 21 9 2

2238

21 76

224 8

1 4 00

3 2 25 5 2

23 1 5

223 9

228 4

32

23 5 5

227 1

0 1 5 00

27 3 2

FI G

I t is plai n fro m Fig

1 04

t hat
spec ic heat w it h t em peratu re
sol ved
I t is t rue t hat St evens
c heck t he results o f bot h Mallard
.

Ann

(1

1 0
4

2000

2303

t he quest ion Of t he va r ia t ion of

ca n n ot be c onsidered ent irel y
mad e ex peri ments on air w h ic h
and Le Cha t el ier and o f La ngen

Phy s

1 902

THE

F UEL MIX T URE

227

very c l osel y I t is t herefore fa ir t o assu me t hat t he formu l ae

deri ved for d iat o mic gases are c orrect Th e d isc repa nc ies o b
served bet ween t he results pl ott ed in Fig 1 04 are t herefore w it h
st rong probab il it y du e t o error in t he a va ilabl e dat a for H20 and
Furt her work is t herefore requ ired a nd a c heck o f Clerk s
CO,
results is espec ial ly d esirabl e
3 V e l o c i t y of F l a m e P ro p a ga t i o n a n d Ti m e of E xp l o
E xperi ments on t he veloc ity of a me propagat ion in a
sion
given m ixt u re l ike t he experi ments o n spec ic heat ha ve not led
t o any denit e result An d alt hough den it e informat ion o n
t h is p o int is d es irabl e o n ac c ou nt of t he c onnect ion bet ween
vel oc it y of a me pro pagat ion and possibl e maxi mu m engine speed
in a ny given case t here are s o many fact ors aff ect ing t he proble m
in actual pract ice t hat t he a ppl icat ion of t he results o f laborat ory
experi ments t o act ual c ond it ions is of doubt ful valu e Thus t he
veloc ity w it h w h ic h t he a me spreads t hrough a m ixt ure d epends
u pon t h e k ind o f fuel t he c o m posit ion and purit y o f t he mixture
its t emperature and pressu re a nd u pon t he locat ion of t he ign it er
Fu rt her t ha n t his t h e
an d t he sha p e of t he c o mbust ion c ha mber
d egree o f mec han ical agit at ion in t he m ixt u re at t he mo ment of
expl osion has a marked inuence u pon the velocit y
I f we ign it e a m ixture in a t u be cl osed at one end fro m t he
cl osed end the pressure generated seems t o proj ect th e a me
a head o f t he pressu re wa ve t oward t he O pen end o f t he t ube w it h
a muc h h igher a me vel oc ity t ha n would ha ve been observed if
t he ignit ion had t aken plac e fro m t he o pen end T he sa me eff ect
shou ld be obs e rved in a t ube c l osed at bot h ends I gn it ion fro m
t he o pen end gives t he t rue vel oc ity as t he a me t hen s preads by
c ontact onl y I n an actual engine c yl inder w it h t he vol u me in
c reas ing w it h t h e mo vement o f t he pist on we may expect t he
vel oc it y o f pro pagat ion t o be so mew here betw e en t hose fou nd
for ignit ion fro m t he o pen end o f a t ube and t hose for ignit i o n
in a c l osed t u be
Malla rd a nd L e Chatel ier used t he o pen -t u be met hod m e a s u r
ing t he t i me int erval bet ween t he passag e o f t he pressure wave
bet ween t wo points on t he t u be Their results as given by Cl erk
fo r hyd rogen were as foll ows :
.

'

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

228

V l

M i tur
x

t y f P r ur
Pr p g ti
ft p
d

e oc i

1 vo l

vo l

1 vo l

1 vo l

1 vo l

1 vo l

vo l

H
H
H
H
H
H
H

e ss

on

e r se c o n

vo l s a ir
3 v o ls a ir
2 %v o ls a ir
4

1 9 vo ls
1%o

v ls

1 vo l

4 vo l

a ir
a ir

a ir
a ir

The t rue expl os ive m ixt ure fo r hyd rogen a nd a ir is 1 vol of

H t o 2%vols o f a ir I t might be su p posed t hat t h is w ould be
t he m ixtu re show ing h ighest vel oc it y o f propagat ion Fo r some
u nexpl ain e d re a s on a c ert a i n excess o f hydrogen sho ws t h e highes t
.

R ti
a

A ir t o G as by V

FIG

1 05

10

ll

12

13

ol .

resul t A s i mil ar phen o menon w as observed wit h c o al g as and ai r

mixtures by t hese observers
Meyer used an app aratus very simil ar to th at o f Mal l ard an d
Le Ch atel ier e xce pt th at very se n siti ve pl atinu m t hermo mete rs
were e mpl oyed to measure t he p ass age o f t he ame in s tead o f
di aphrag ms t o me asu re t h e passage o f t he pressure w ave The
fuel empl oyed w a s co al gas All t e sts were made wi t h t h e mi x
E J Me ye r S ib l e y Co ll e ge th e s i s 1 90 5
.

TII E F UEL M IX T URE

229

at at mospheric p ressu re at t h e ti me o f ignition Figs 1 05

an d 1 06 s ho w t h e resul ts grap hic al ly the fo rme r being o btai n ed
fo r ig n it ion fr o m t he cl osed e n d t he l atte r for ign ition fro m the
o pen e n d The m uc h higher vel oci ty o f t he rs t c urve bears ou t
t he st atemen t p revi o usl y m ade The fac t th at t he m axi mu m
vel oc ity oc cu rs with t h e s ame gas -a ir ratio s ho ws t hat t he true
rate o f in a m m a b ilit y has n o t been c ha n ged bu t t hat mec h an ic al
actio n s alo ne are responsibl e fo r t he di ffere n c e in the observed
results
Cl osel y c onnec ted wit h t he vel oc it y o f ame prop agation an d
subj ect to t h e i n uenc e o f ac c ide n tal ac c o m panyi n g c o n di tions
to t he s ame degree i s the t i me o f expl osion The m o st extensi ve
w ork i n t h is el d was don e by Cl erk
The a pparatus e mpl o yed
by h im w as very si mil ar t o t hat used by L angen i n his s peci c
t ure

FI G

1 06

heat exp e rim e n ts T he fuel mi xture w as ignited a t c o n stan t

volu m e and a pressu re d iagra m obta ined on t he rotat ing d ru m
o f a n ind ic ator
U n fort u nat ely t he experi ment s were c o nned
to coal gas a fe w gures onl y b e ing o bt ained fo r hydrogen and
no n e for t he power gases so i m port a nt t o day The gu res found
for hydrogen w e re as foll ows t he t i me of ex pl osion being t he t ime
interval fro m t he moment o f ign it ion t o t he att ai n ment of maxi
mu m pressure *
.

M l x m re b y vo mm e
A ir

H dr g
o

T im

e of

en

1 50

'

Cl e r k , Th e G a s

pl

i n se c o n

6
2 5

Ex

a nd

O il E n gi n e

10 1

0 26

o s io n
s

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

230

s results fo r m ixt ures of air a nd Old ha m c oal gas are

represent ed in Fig 1 07 Th e volu me ra t io ri sh owing fast est
t ime o f explosion t e 6 t o 1 agrees w it h t he m ixture for wh ic h
This
Meyer found t he great est veloc it y o f a me propagat ion
m ixture also showed a bout t h e h ighest pressure devel op ment in
Clerk s experi ments 90 pou nds per s q uare inc h
Clerk

FI G

1 0
7

I n Clerk s experi ments t he pressure at t he mo ment

of

ign it ion
was at mospheric in eac h case K o e rt in g carried on sim ilar ex
p e rim e n t s w it h c oal ga s but used c om pressed m ixt ur e s alt hough
t he pressures used were low T he su m mary o f h is results is as
foll ows :
.

M i tur
x

by V ol

A ir

03 2

036

15

01

37

0 125

K oe rt in g Z e it s c h r ift
,

d V d
.

T H E F UEL MIX T URE

23 1

Th is tabl e sh ows t hat com pressing t he m ixtu re retards t h e

vel oc it y of a me pro pagat ion but t hat t he a mount o f ret ardat ion
is less in lean t han in ric h m ixtu res o f t he sa me fuel
K o e rt ing s gures d o n ot agree well w it h t h ose o f Clerk
although t hey were obtained w it h si milar a pparatus Fro m Fig
t o 1 m ixtu re would ha ve been
1 0 7 t he t i me of ex pl osion of a
about 056 sec onds a cc ord i n g t o Clerk as aga inst 03 2 sec onds
found by K oe rt in g Th is is t oo great a d i ff eren ce even assu ming
a considerable d i fference i n t he c o m posit i on o f th e fuel Th e
lengt h o f Clerk s vessel u p t o t he ind icat or pist on was a bout 1 0
i nches w hic h w it h a t i me ex pl osion o f 05 6 sec onds gives a
velocit y o f pro pagat ion in a cl osed vessel o f
feet per sec ond
as against 23 feet found by K o e rt ing
For t he p u r p o s e o f c om paring Clerk s result s w it h t h ose o f
Meyer o n a me pro pagat ion t he t i mes o f ex pl osion as show n by
Fig 1 07 ha ve been t rans posed t o t he basis o f vel oc ity in feet per

second Th e result ing curve has been d rawn in o n Fig 1 05 w it h

Meyer s results
I t is s een t hat t he vel oc it y o f propagat ion in a
closed t ube ac c ord ing t o Clerk is lower than t hat fou nd by Meye r
for ignit io n fro m t he o pen end o f a t ube exc ept for rat ios exceed
ing 8 t o 1 a nd h ere t h e d i fferenc e is in c onsid erable Th is is c on
t ra ry t o what m ight be expect ed bec ause as before e x pla ined
and also ment ioned by Clerk if expl osion tak es pl ace at c o n st ant
volu me in a cl osed vessel t h e part o f t he m ixtu re rst ignit ed
i nst a ntly expa nds and shoots t he a me int o t h e rest o f t h e mass
t hus i nc reas ing t he vel oc ity o f propagat ion As c om pared w it h
Meyer s res ults for ign i t ion fro m t he cl osed end of a t ube Cl erk s
results are very mu c h l ower i n fact only about 316 at t h e best rat i o
for t he ga s K o e rt ing s gu res on t he ot her ha nd sl ight ly exc eed
Meyer s res ults for ign it ion fro m t he open end
,

'

CH APT ER X I

H I S T OR I CA L

S K E TC

OF

T HE

I N T E R NA L

CO

M B U ST IO N E NG I N E

I Ori gin o bscu r e The origin of t he int er n al c ombust ion

en g ine is i m pe rfect ly k n o wn ; as it exists at t h e present t i me it is
t he resul t o f a l o n g -cont i n ued devel o p ment whic h began rst
wit h a period o f s pe cul ation whic h t hrough t he e ff orts o f nu mer
n ally resu lt ed i n a p ract ic al O perat i ve m ac hine
o us i n ve n t o rs
N o s i n gle person c a n be c o n sidered as t he i nvent or o f t he i nter n a l
c o mbust io n engi n e I t s hist ory s ho ws t he existence of t hree
periods : ( 1 ) t h at o f s pecu l at io n an d i n vent io n ; ( 2) t h at of de
ve lo p m e n t a n d ( 3 ) t h at o f appl ic at ion
2
Th e P eri o d of Sp e c u la t i on a n d I nve n tion The gas
engine previ ous t o 1 8 6 0 was not a prac t ic al c o m m e rc ia l mac hi ne
n o r h ad it been used t o a n y great exte n t for t he pu rposes of
produ c ing power Previous t o t hat t i me various pu bl ic at ions
a n d pat e n t s show t h at nearly all o f th e t y pe s k no w n at t he
present t i me had bee n disc overed al t h o ugh t he rec ords are im
perfect as t o t h e act u al a n d pract ic al u s e o f suc h mac hines I t
is reason able t o belie ve t h at m a n y o f t he forms d e sc ri be d o r
pat e n t ed were ac t u ally built and o pe ra t ed ex pe ri ment ally if not
co m merc ially
Aim e Wit z gives t he c redit
fo r t h e rst i n t er n al c ombust io n
engine t o t he Abbe Haut efeuille w h o desc ribes an engine i n 1 6 78
i n whic h wat er is raised by ut il i zi n g t h e part ial vac uu m whic h
results fro m bu rning gu n po wder i n a cyl i n der and c ool ing t he
gases re m aining
A si mil ar e n gi n e was descri be d by Huyge n s i n a memoir e n

t it led
U ne nou velle force mou va n t par le moy e n de l a poudre a

c ano n e t de l air whic h appe ared in 1 680 D enis P api n c on

s t ru cted an i n t er n al combus t io n engine similar t o t h at described
by Huyge n s i n 1 690 but o n acc ou nt o f i m perfect work manship
.

M o t e u rs

Ca z
23 2

et a

P t r o l e

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

233

obt ained r e sult s very mu c h in ferior t o t hose produced by a st e am

engi n e and abandone d t he p o wder e n gi n e as an i m pract ical
mac hi n e
I n t he powder e n gi n es t he met hod w a s a fairly pract ic al o ne ;
a s mal l qu an t it y o f gu n p o wder e xpl ode d i n a l arg e cyl i n dric a l
vessel ex pelled t h e a ir t hrough c h e ck v al v e s t hus l e avi n g aft e r
c ool i n g a part ial vacuu m b e l o w t he pist on Th e pre ssu re O f t he
at mos phere ( lid w o r k by mo v ing t he pist o n do wnward
For a l o n g t ime a fter t his attem pt t he i nt er n al c ombus t i o n
engine see med t o h ave been pract ic a l ly forgott e n as t he n e xt
desc ri pt io n of it s c onstru c t io n w as n o t wri t te n u n t il aft er Wa t t
h ad de velo pe d and i m pro ve d t he s t ea m e ngine Co n s ideri n g t li e
\
lo w c o n dit io n o f t he st at e o f t h e mec hanic al art s and t he d iffi
c ulty o f obt aining goo d work me n and prop e r m a t erials w hic h
Watt ex pe rie n ced a n d whic h he was o n l y able t o o verco me by
s pe nding years o f t i me it c an be readily u nderst ood why l it t le
o r n o su bst ant ial progr e ss w a s m ade
Watt n o t onl y sol ved t h e
proble m rel at ing t o t h e met hod o f i mpro vi n g t he e n gi n e bu t he
also devel ope d i n a very great measure t he art o f c onst ru ct ing suc h
engi n es and o f produ c i n g proper m at erials fo r t heir manu fact u re
The great er po rt io n o f t h e i n forma t io n rel a t i n g t o t he desig n
and i m provement o f t he gas engi ne du ring t he period previous
t o any ext ensive c o m merc ial use is obt ained fro m t he rec ord s o f
t he E n glish Frenc h an d Americ an pa t ent offi ces These recor d s
have t he ad va n t age o ver o t her pu bl ic at io n s o f being denitely
dated and o f concisely a n d ac cura t ely d e scribi n g t he m ac hi ne
a n d its mod e o f o pe rat ion
The rst i n t ernal c o mbust i o n engine d e sc rib e d i n t he pat ent
records was patented by R obert S t reet i n E n gl and o n t he 7 t h
o f Ma y
1 794
I t c o n sist s o f a mo t or cyl inder w i t h a pist o n t h e
bott o m o f whic h is hea t ed by re Th e pat ent shows a pu m p
driven by a lever The fuel is d e sc ribed as a s mall qu ant it y o f
t ar o r t urpent ine whic h is project ed ont o t he ho t p a rt o f t he
cylinder so t hat t he liqu id is inst ant l y c on vert e d int o an i n fl am
m able vapor The raising o f t he pist o n by mea ns o f a le ver S l l ( ks
i n exter n a l air and al so ame fo r ig n it io n whic h c auses t h e ex
pl osion The d e t ails as d e sc ribed are c rude but t h e pri n c i ple o f
o perat i o n is t he s ame as i n t he Le noir engine whic h was patent e d
i n 1 860
.

'

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

23 4

P hillippe Lebo n

pat ented i n France in 1 8 0 1 a gas mot or in

whic h t he gas was c o mpressed i n a cyl inder external t o t he work
i ng cyl inder previous t o ignit ion I n t his patent t here is de
scribed t he use o f an air pu m p for c o mpressing at mospheric air
a gas pu mp for co mpressing gas and t he use o f elect ric it y for

ignit ion
Lebo n died S e pt e mber 22 1 804
Wit z st ates t hat it
is probable t h at t he i ndustry o f bu ilding gas engines wou l d h ave
d ated at t he begi nning o f t he cent ury as a pract ic al c om merc ial

indust ry i nstead o f 1 8 60 h ad he l ived

V arious i nvent ors earl y i n t he century proposed t he u se o f
explosi ve -powders of air s at u
rated wit h hydroc arbon an d
o f hydrogen
gas produced by
c hemic al means as fuels for in
t ernal c o mbust io n engines but
t hese d id not s o far as c an b e
ascert ained result i n any p ra c
t ic al im provement
I n 1 823 and 1 8 26 S amuel
B rown obt ained E ngl ish pat ents
fo r an inge nious at mospheric
air engine whic h alt hough very
cu mbersome and u neconomic al
w as appl ied t o pract ic al uses
The engi n e Fig 1 1 1 w as o per
ated
by
burning
t
he
c
o
mbust
i
FIG 1 1- 1
S B row n 1 82326
ble i n a vessel adj acent t o t he
work ing cyl inder wh ic h resulted i n ex pell ing a port ion o f
t he air it c ont ained
A j et of water w as t hen t hrow n i n
whic h l owered t he tem perat ure and by s o doing produced a
vacuu m Mot ion w as produced by th e at mos pheric pressure
act ing altern atel y o n t he s ides o f t he pist o n i n t he work ing
cyl inder whic h was arranged adj acent t o t he vacuu m -produc
i ng c h amber and put in alternate connect io n wit h it by means
of a pro per val ve motion This engine alt hough re ferred t o by

Clerk
as being t he rst gas engine u ndou btedly put at work
is an external c o mbust ion gas engine somewh at simil ar t o t he
Wilc ox engine already desc ribed except t h at t here was v acu u m
rat her t han pressure i n t he co mbust ion vessel Ac co rding t o t he
,

H IS T OR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

23 5

M echa n ic s M a ga zin e published in L ondon a boat was tted wit h

,

B rown

engine and ran experiment al ly u pon t he Th ames

Anot her en g ine was made i n co mbinat io n wit h a ro ad c arriage
t his is also
( see M ec ha ni c s M a ga zin e D ece mber 24
referred t o in a R eport of a Co m mittee o f t he House o f Co m
mons reprinted as a publ ic docu ment i n t he U nited S t ates in 1 83 2
W L Wright obt ai n ed an E nglis h patent ( N o 6 5 25 o f 1 833 )
for an internal c ombust ion engi ne i n E ngl and This patent is
acc o mpanied wit h el aborat e drawings giving i n det ail t he pro
posed c onst ruct ion The engine Fig 1 1 2 is s hown as double
act ing t he pist on receiving t wo im
pulses for every revol ut io n o f t he
c rank sh aft
I t is also shown as pro
vid e d wit h pu m ps adapted t o c o m
press t he air and gas a few pou nds
abo ve t he at mos phere previous t o
t heir int roduct io n i n t o t he cyli nder
The engine was provided wit h a y
bal l governor for c ont roll ing t he q u an
t it y of gas and air as requ ired t o
produce uniform s peed The c h arge
is ignited w hen t he working pist on is
at t he end o f its st roke by an extern al
ame bu rning i n air whic h is c on
ne c t e d wit h t he c harge at t he pro per
t i me by a val ve O pe ned by t he mec h
of t he engine
The c harge Fm 1 1 2 _W r i gh t 1 83 3
a n is m
was not u nder se n sibl e c om pressio n
at t he t ime o f ignit ion
The engine as shown h as water-j acketed
cyl inder and pist o n poppet exh aust val ves o perate d by c ams
and appe ars well pro port ioned t hroughout Mu c h c redit is due
to t he governing device shown and it woul d be difcult t o st ate
why t he mot or did not su cceed u nless it m ay h ave bee n due t o
the l ac k o f deman d fo r any ot her motor t h an t he st eam engine
J ames J ohnson t ook o ut an E ngl is h pat ent i n 1 8 4 1 for a gas
engine t o be o perat ed by hydrogen gas
I n t his engine t he pist on
is forced t o t he end o f t he cyl inder by t he explos io n of t he gas
after whic h a v ac uu m is fo rmed u nderneat h t he pist on and t he
pist o n is ret urned by at mos pheric pressure I t illust rates t he
.

'

IN TERNA L CO MB US TION ENGINES

23 6

expans ion o f t he product s o f c ombust io n belo w at mospheric

pressure a met ho d whic h as yet h as not met wit h mu c h p ra c t i
c al su ccess in t he o pe rat io n o f gas e n gi n es
Wil liam B arnett obt aine d a pat ent i n E ngl and ( N o 60 1 5 Of
whic h desc ribes th e c o n st ru ct io n and mode of o perat ion
of a t wo cycle gas engine s i n gle and dou ble act i n g i n w hic h t he
e xplos ive mix t ure is co mpressed pre vious t o ig n it io n I t shows
t h ree forms of engines o ne t y pe i n whic h t he com pression is
ent irely pe rformed outside t he worki n g cyl i n der and w hic h is
s h o wn as bot h single and double act ing I t also shows anot her
t y pe i n whic h t he com pre ss ion is c om
ple t e d ins id e t he w orking c y l inder
t h is l att er f o rm bei n g al most ident ic al
wit h t he mode r n t wo st roke cyc l e e m
gine whic h h as al re ady been desc ribed
B arnett also shows an ignit ing
de vice describe d in Ch a pt er X I II
w hic h is ad apted t o ignit e t he gas e
o u s mixt ure while u n der c o m pression
T his met hod o f ignit io n is of i nterest
as it w as used in a sl igh t ly di ff erent
form by Ot t o i n t he Ott o engi n e i n
1 8 7 7 B a r nett also describe s a met ho d
of ignit ing by bri n gi n g t he explosive
mixt ure i n cont act wit h spo n gy pl at i
o c at e d i n a c avity near
nu
m
whic
h
is
l
F I G 1 1 3
Ba rn e t t 1 8 3 8
t he he ad o f t he cylinder
Figure 1 1 3 is reduced fro m pat e n t drawi n g and sho ws a
sect io n of t he single -act ing e ngi ne i n wh ic h A is t he mot or pisto n
Th e cyl inder is o pe n at t he t op B is a double -act ing pu m p wh ic h
serves t o su pply at mos pheric air t o form an expl os ive mixtu re
o n o ne s ide and t o e xh aust t he produ ct s o f c o mbust io n o n t he
ot her ; t he pu mp for su pplyi ng fuel gas u nder c o m press io n st a n ds
b ac k of t he air pu m p and is n ot s ho wn i n t he gu re D uring t he
a scent o f t he pis t on A t he air and
g as pu m ps h ave bee n drawi n g
i n air and g as whic h o n t he desce n t o f t he pu m p pist o n s are
forced i nt o t he receiver D whic h is se para t ed fro m t he working
cyl inder by t he pist o n sl ide val ve E I n t he m e ant ime t he pis
t o n A h as disc h arged t he exh aust gases t hroug h t h e val ve E
,

HI S TOR Y

OF

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINE

237

This val ve c loses c o mmu nic at ion w it h t he air when A reaches

t he l ower dead cen t er and o pens c o m mu nic at ion wit h t he re
At t his inst ant t he c harge is ignited and t he gases
c e ive r D
u n der com press ion pas s int o t he working cyl inder t hrough t he
sl ide val ve E The ig n it ing device s ho wn at F is o pe rated by
t he mot i on o f t he val ve
The gases at t he t ime o f expl osio n are i n t he receiver D and
ow t hroug h t he port after ignit io n precisel y as st eam woul d do
The pressu re i n t he mot or cyl i n de r
falls by expa n sio n wit h i n crease i n
v o lu me due t o mot io n o f pist o n
B arnett s s e cond engine is id e n t i
c al wit h his rst except t h at it is
double act ing
B arnett s t hird engine s hown i n

Fig 1 1 4 is o f great i n t erest since it

is t he foreru nner o f t he modern t wo
cycle engine The engine show n i n
L ike t he
t he gu re is double act ing
rst engine it h as t hree cyl inders
mot or cyl inder A air pu mp B and
a gas pu m p n o t visible in t he gu re
The air an d gas pu m ps are si n gle
a c t i n g but a re o perat ed by mea n s o f
g e ari n g s o as t o m ak e t wice as m any Fm
Ba m e t t s Th i nd
st rok e s as t h e work ing pist o n The
E n gi n e
ignit ion is pe rfo rmed by s po n gy pl at i
nu m wit h whic h the gase s u nd e r c o m pression are brought i n
c o n t act The o pe rat io n o f t he engi n e is as foll ows su pposing
t h at whe n t he pist on is i n t he posit i o n sh own i n t he draw
i n g it is moving u pward and t he u pper e n d o f t he cyl inder
is ch arged wit h air and gas u nd e r c ompression
W he n t he
pist on has co m ple t ed its u p st roke t he c ont act o f the pl at i
nu m wit h t he c o m pressed m ixtu re produ c ed by t he ascent o f
t he pist on c auses ex pl osion whic h i n tu rn i m pels t he piston
t o t he bott o m of it s stroke
D u ring t he rst part o f t he
descent and u nt il t he pist o n passes t he po rt M at t he cent er o f
t he cyl inder t he produ cts o f c ombus t io n be l o w t he pist on are
being exh aust e d ei t her i nt o t he at mospheric air o r i nto an
.

I N TE RN AL CO M B US TI ON

23 8

ENGINES

e xh a ust pu mp w hic h m ay be used i f desired

A t t he s ame t i me
t he air and gas pu mps dra w i n t heir res pect i ve c harges D u ring
t he l atter h al f o f t he descent of t he pist o n t he air and gas pu m ps
are forci ng t he mixed air and g as i nt o t he cyl inder bel o w t he
pist o n where it is furt her co mpressed and exploded at t he end
of its st roke i n whic h c ase t he pisto n is forced u pwards and t he
o perat ion is re pe ated
S t u art P erry patent ed i n t he U nited S t ates Ma y 25 1 8 44
and i n G re at B rit ai n t hrough t he agency o f J oseph R obins o n
a gas or vapor engine
( N o 99 72 of
whic h w as pro vided wit h means for c o m press
ing t he c h arge previous t o ignit io n
The
met ho d o f ignit io n i n t he Per r y engine w as
s imil ar t o t hat i n t he Wright engine
T he
engine w as es pe ci al ly designed for t he u s e o f
liqu id hydroc arbon and for t h is purpo se it
was p r o vided wit h a c arburet er t hrough whic h
a port io n o f t he air on it s way t o t he engi ne
is forced and whic h m ay be heated by t he
exh aust gases T he Perry engine is double
act ing and pro vided wit h a rot at ing val ve
whic h by means of gearing c an be re versed
i n direct ion t hus re versing t he engine
T he Perry patent o f 1 8 4 4 was fol lowed
by o n e i n 1 8 4 6 whic h showed an engine wit h
FI G
5
po p p et val ves and wit h means for ignit ing by
Ne w t o n s Hm" TU be a h 0 t t ube c o ns is t ing o f a l at inu m cu ke p t
p
p
I gnit e r
hot by a gas ame I n t h i s l atter eng i ne t he
c h arge was u nder co m pression at t he t i me of ignit ion I n t he
l att er patent reference is m ade t o t he actu al use of a gas engine
wit h c arburet ing device fro m whic h it woul d ap pe ar t h at Perry
at least ant ic ipated i n design m any l ater c onst ru ct ions
A V N e wt o n obt ai ned a patent i n E ngl and ( N o 56 2 of
for an ignit io n de vice whic h was ident ic al wit h t hat formerly
pat ented i n A meric a by D rake and whic h is no w k nown as t he
hot -t ube met hod o f ignit io n T he ignit ing arrangement c ons ist s
o f a c a st -iro n t u be
c lo sed at t he outer e nd wh ic h project s in to
a recess formed in t he side o f t he cyl inder A gas ame Fig
1 1 5 keeps a sect io n o f t his t ube at a tem per atu re su fc ient t o
.

HI S TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

23 9

e xplode the ch arge whe n t he pist on u nco vers t he o pe ning T he

engi ne shown i n t he N ewt o n patent is a non -com pression double
act ing engi ne wit h water j ac kets
B ars ant i and M atteucc i o f Florence I t al y t ook an E ngl is h
patent ( N o 1 655 o f 1 8 5 7) for a free pist o n vacuu m engine w hic h
is of i nterest fro m t he fact t h at it was o f esse nt ially t he same cl ass
as a suc cessful type o f engine whic h was i nt ro duced some years
l ater by Ott o an d L angen I n t his engine t he force o f t he ex
plos io n was ut ili zed i n moving t he pisto n whe n free fro m t he
c onnect ing rod t he work be ing d one o n t he
ret urn st roke by t he weight of t he pist o n an d
by at mospheric pressure act ing o n its u pper
side
I n co nst ru ct io n t he cyl inder of t he engine
is vert ic al o pe n at t he t o p and very long
Fig 1 1 6 Th e c h arge c ons ist ing o f g as
and air enters w hen t he pist on is drawn u p
a s ho rt dist ance and is exploded by an elec
t ric spark The pist o n rod c arries a rac k
whic h is i n en gagement wit h a gear wheel
c onnected by a rat c het and pawl t o t he m ai n
shaft
Whe n t he pist on is shot rapidly u p
ward t he gear wheel t urns wit hout mo ving
t he m ai n s haft
When t he pist on ret urns
t he rat c het connects t he gear wheel o f t he
main shaft so t h at it is t u rned in t he d ire c
t ion for produc ing work
a n d Ma tt e u c c i
Clerk st ates t h at t he met hod illust rated
i n t his engine possesses t hree advant ages : rapid expansion a
l arge amou nt of expansio n and also some of t he advant ages o f
a c ondens er
L ENO I R
The first internal
3 P erio d of D e ve lopment
combust ion engine t o att ain any marked degree o f co mmerc ial
suc cess was patented by J J E Lenoir in F rance J anuary 4
1 860 and i n t he U nite d S t ates Ma rc h 1 9 1 8 6 1
The Lenoir engine was o f s im ple const ru ct ion and belonged
t o a t ype w hic h had bee n previously described by several in ve n
t ors I ts su ccess was evident ly due t o t he good proport ions
whic h c h aracteri zed t he design The engine cyl inder is s hown
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

24 0

in sect ion in Figs 1 1 7 and 1 1 8 T his engine belongs to t he

c l ass i n whic h t he ignit ion t akes pl aces w hile t he c harge h as
pract ic ally c onst ant volu me and in t he c ase of t he Le noir e ngine
.

FI G

1 1 7

Le n o i r E n

g in

e,

1 860

had not be e n c o m pressed previous t o ignit ion ; it is de v oid of any

c o m pressio n mec hanis m
I n st ructu re it rese mbles t hat o f a
d ouble -act ing steam engine wit h separate slide val ves for t he
.

FI G

1 1 8

Le n o i r E n

gin

e,

1 860

admissio n and exh aust Thus in F ig 1 1 7 t he c h arge is a d

m it t e d by t he sl ide val ve G and is exh austed by t he slide
val ve H
I t is drawn into t he cyl inder by t he partial v acuu m
pro duced by t he mot io n o f t he pist on t he sl ide val ve be i ng
arranged t o o pe n t he port s at t he begi nning o f t he st roke and
.

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

24 1

c lose t he m at about t he center of t he st roke T he c h arge is

ex ploded by elect r ic al means whe n t he pist o n is at about t he
middle of it s st r oke and produ ces t he requ isit e pressu re t o force
t he p ist o n o nward and kee p t he engine i n mot ion T he exhaust
val ve o pens t o disc ha r ge t he product s of co mbust ion during t he
retu rn st roke T he o pera t ion o f bot h ends of t he engine t akes
pl ac e alternatel y and tends t o produ ce a u niform mot io n o f t he
fly -wheel
T he engine is shown provided wit h c ross -head c onnect ing rod
and go vernor si mil ar t o a st eam engine The go vernor is arranged
t o t hrot t le t he su ppl y of g as as requ ired t o produ ce u niform
s peed The engine w as pro vided wit h a device for t i mi ng t he
elect ric al s park The s ou rce o f elect ric it y w as a primary b attery
arranged t o i ntens ify t he current by a n i nduct io n c oil
A lt hough t he c onsu mpt io n o f g as by t his engine w as al ways
h igh and t he power produced i n p o rp o rt io n t o t he cyl inder very
small yet it possessed ce rt ain advant ages I ts mec h anism is
si mple it s e xplosio n nearly wit hout s hock , and its act io n very
smoot h T his engine was sol d i n l arge nu mbers and m a n u fac
t u re d bot h i n France and E ngl and
D ugal d Clerk qu otes fro m an art icle i n t he P ra c tica l M ec ha n ic s
J ou r na l o f A ugust 1 8 6 5 sho wing t hat f r o m 3 00 t o 4 00 engines
were at t hat t i me at w ork i n F rance He also st ates t h at t he
R eading I ro n Works
at R eading E ngl an d m ade and del i vered
1 00 engines
Wit z st ates t h at t his engine w as received wit h great e nt hu
s ia s m and t hat many predict ed t h at t he l ast hou rs of t he ste am
engine had sou nded and t h at t he st ar o f Watt paled before t h at
of Le noir This ent hu sias m resulted in a marked ex aggerat ion
bot h as t o eco no my and c apacit y whic h was followed by a rs
act ion during wh ic h t ime t he engine was c alled a hu mbug and
many were broke n u p fo r o ld iron I t was ho wever apprec iat ed
a t its full value at a l ater t ime
as it wa s fou nd ext remely wel l
adapted for s mal l est abl ish ment s re q u i r i ng fro m 4 horse -po wer
t o 4 ho rse -po wer
F o r suc h uses t he c o n sum pt ion o f gas w as
gu aranteed t o be less t h an 70 cu ft per horse -power h ou r and t his
guarant ee see ms t o h ave been usu ally real ized J uries at t he
e x p osit ions of Lo ndo n in 1 86 2 of P aris in 1 8 6 7 of V ienna in 1 8 7 3
recogni zed t he merit o f Le noir
.

'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

24 2

T he Le noir engine is desc ribed as adapted t o be o perat ed

eit her wit h gas o r wit h t he vapor o f l iquid hydroc arbon and i n a
Frenc h patent o f 1 86 1 a c arburet er is s hown for mixing t he vapo r
o f o il wit h air
The e ngine o f Lenoir was u sed fo r various pu rposes for in
st ance print ing pu m ping wat er driving l at hes and also for t he
purpose o f pro pel l ing a vehicle and a road c arriage
I n t he report of t he V ienn a E xhibit ion of 1 87 3 R H T hu rst on
qu otes t he following st at ement s of M Cl au del in reference t o t he
ex peri ments of M Tresc a on t he Le noir engine :

T he s peed o f t he engine is variable

The failu re t o ignite a single c h arge will st o p it

To st art it it is necessary t o give it several revolut ions by
,

hand f

Sp e e d

FI G

mm

1 1 9

D i gr
a

am

Le n o i r E n

g in

e.

L u bric ant

must be abu ndant an d t he amou nt of oil c annot

be est imated at less t h an

kilogram
l bs ) per day

To obt ain t he best e ff ect it is necessa r y t o o pe n t he i nlet

before t he c om plet e cl osing of t he exhaust val ve

A m ac hine of
m et er
inc hes ) diameter o f cyl inder pro

d u c e d very nearly o ne horse power

The best perform ance c l ai med for t he Le noir engi nes is 70 t o
7 4 c u ft o f gas per horse -po wer per hou r
M T r esc a re po rt ed a
c onsu mpt ion of
cu ft A ty pic al indic at or di agram fro m a
Le noir engine is shown i n F ig 1 1 9
HU G O N
I t h as bee n shown t h at Hu gon h ad experimented
*
B ut
wit h an engine o f t he Le noir t y pe t wo ye ars before Le noir
while t he ob v ious dis ad vant ages o f t he c onst ruct ion did not p r e
ve nt Lenoir fro m putt i ng his engine o n t he market Hugo n w as
not s at isfied wit h t he solut io n o f t h e proble m and t urned his
attent ion t o t he indi rect act ing engi ne of t he t y pe o f B ars ant i
.

Me m o i rs d es I n ge ni e u rs Ci v il s 1 86 0 p 1 5 9
,

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

24 3

and M atteucc i Only after t he Lenoir engine pro ved i n a cert ain
m anner a co mmercial success did Hugo n return t o his former
engine and m aking so me i mpro ve ments o n L enoir brought t he
engine o u t i n 1 86 4
I n t his m ac hine Figs 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 1 1
elect ric ignit ion was repl aced by ame ignit ion whic h w as m uc h
t he surer met hod o f igniting a c h arge i n t hose e arly d ays and
.

FI G

- 10
1
1

Cylin d e r ,

H u g n E n g in
o

e,

1 86 4

bot h exh aust and inlet were operate d by one v al ve i n order t o gi ve

t his v al ve t he advant age o f c ool ing by t he inc oming col d mi xtu re
To overc ome t he very serio u s defect of t he L enoir engi ne exist ing
Hugo n redu ced t he
I n t he ext remely rapid wear o f t he v al ves
t e m perat ures of t he cycle by inj ect ing water int o t he c harge
The Hugo n engine was somewh at su perior t o t h at of Le noir
.

FI G

1 1 1 1

H u g n Fl
o

ame

gniti n V l v
o

i n bot h fuel and lubric at ing oil c onsu mpt ion but it di d not fi nd
t he degree o f appl ic at io n o f t he l atter bec ause appa r ently t he
means were not at h and t o ex p loit it t o t he extent done wit h t he
Le noir m ac hine
I n a patent t aken out i n P aris by
B E A U D E R O C H A S 1 8 62
A l ph Be au de R oc h as o n J anu ary 7 1 8 6 2 he st ates t he c ondit ions
required for t he highest effic ienc y i n an intern al combust io n
,

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINE S

24 4

engine and he also dist i nct ly desc ribes t he worki ng c ycle whic h
i n h is o pinion is nece s s ary t o produ ce t he highest e ffic ienc y
A cc ording t o t his i n vest igat or t he c ondit ions necessary for
high est e fc ienc y a r e four i n nu mber : ( 1 ) t he gre at est volu me
o f t he cyl inder possible h avi ng a mini mu m surface of peri phery ;
( 2) highest poss ible vel oc it y of mot ion ; ( 3 ) greatest possible
expans ion ; ( 4 ) greatest possible pressure at t he c o mme nceme nt
He st ates t h at fo r highest e ffic ienc y it is
o f t he expans io n
necessary t o e xecute t he foll owi ng o perat ions i n t he period o f
four consec ut i ve st rokes i n e ac h e nd o f t he c ylinder
( 1 ) A s pirat io n during an e nt ire o u t st roke of t he pist on
( 2) Co m pressio n during t he fol lo w i ng i n st roke
( 3 ) I gnit io n at t he de ad point and expansio n du r ing t he t hird
st roke
( 4 ) D isc harge of t he burne d gases fro m t he cylinder du ring
t he fou rt h an d l as t st roke
The o perat ions whic h are desc ribed abo ve c h aracter i ze t he
four-st roke cycle e ngine whic h w as first ac t u ally bu ilt by Ott o
i n 1 8 7 6 or 1 8 7 7 T he i m po rt ance o f t he pam phlet o f Be au de
R oc has was not rec ogni zed a nd i t wa s probably l itt le read u nt il
Ott o had est abl is hed t he pract ic al value of t his met hod of o pera
t io n Fi ve years be fore his dea t h in 1 887 Be au de R oc h as w as
give n a pri ze by t he S oc i t de E ncou ragement pou r l I nd us t rie
N at io nale as a rec ognit io n of t he i m port ant part whic h he h ad
pl ayed in t he de vel o pment o f t he i nt e r nal c o mbust ion mot or
A lt hou gh t he i m po rt ance o f c o m pressio n previous t o ig nit io n
i n i ncre as ing bot h t he e ffic ienc y an d c apac ity o f t he internal
c o mbust io n engi ne was full y poi nt ed o u t by Mill io n i n h is E nglis h
and A meric an patent s and by t he pam phlets o f Be au de R oc h as
l itt le or n o pract ic al progress was m ade i n t he c o ns t ru ct io n of
c om press io n e ngines for t he next t wel ve years The pract ic al
appl ic at ions were c onfi ne d i n a l arge me asu re t o t he productio n
of no n -c o m press io n e ngines of t he s ame t y pe as t h at o f Le noir
OTT O A N D L A N G E N E arl y i n 1 86 1 N A Ot t o i n t rying
t o i m pro ve Le noir s engine by giving it a full po wer stroke hit
u po n t he idea i n t he c ou rs e of h is in v est igat io ns t o break t he
igniter c ircu it o f o n e o f t hese m ac hines kee p t he e xhaust val ve
c losed at t h e end of t he out st roke t hen t o t urn t he engine back
in the ot he r direct io n by h a nd a nd w he n t he pist o n reac hed t he
,

H IS T OR Y OI" IN TERNA L CO MB US TION ENGINE

24 5

inner dead center h aving c o mpressed t he c h arge t o c ause t he

s park t o j u m p He t hus half u nconsc iously re produced t he suc
t ion and co m pressio n st rokes of our modern four-cyc le engines
and t he result wa s t hat t he e ngine received a s u dden i m pulse
whic h kept it s pinning for several revolut ions A s near as Ott o
t hus c ame t o t he sol ut io n o f t he quest ion as pro posed by B eau
de R oc has i n 1 8 6 2 pract ic al di fficult ies encou nt ered t oget her
wit h h is o wn failur e s t o real ize t he full i mport anc e o f t he t hing
c aused h i m t o t urn as ide a n d i nve nt an
engine o f a n ent irely different t ype N ot
u nt il t hi r tee n o r fourt ee n yea rs l ater did
he ret u r n t o t he o ld proble m wit h su c cess
The result o f his l abor i n t he early
sixt ies was t he s o -c alled f r ee pisto n e n
gine The i de a h a d been al ready worked
o u t by B row n i n 1 8 3 2 a n d by t he I t alian
B ars an t i i n 1 8 58 but it rem ained for
Ott o and L ange n t o m ake it a co mmer
c ia l success
A fter se veral ve a rs o f experiment at io n
t he fi r st m ac hine w as exh ibited at t he
P aris E xposit io n i n 1 867
F l ame ignit io n was used and muc h
better econo my was obt ained t han wit h
1 1- 1 2
O tt o -La n ge n
t he Lenoir o r Hugo n engine Clerk sta tes
F re e P i st o n E n gin e

t hat
it c om pletely c rushed Lenoir a n d
Hugon and hel d al most sole com mand o f t he m arket fo r t en

years several t hous ands being c onst ruct ed in t hat period

A sect io n o f t he engine is shown in Fig 1 1 1 2 I t c onsists of
a t all vert ic al c y linder water -j acke te d t hrough a part o r t he whole
o f its lengt h wit h t he t op o pen t o t he air
The y -wheel shaft is
su pport ed by bearings o n t he top and c arries a ge a r whic h engages
wit h a r a ck att ac hed t o t he pist on rod o f t he engine The gear
tu r ns f r eely o n t he s haft w hile t he pist on is moving u pward but
is connect ed wit h it by an i ngenious clut c h when t he p ist o n mo ves
downward A sl ide val ve 8 O perated by an ecce nt ric on a shaft
geared t o t he m a i n sh aft c ont rols t h e a dmiss ion ignition and
exh aust intermitten t ly as determ ined by t he go vernor o f t he
engine Whe n o perating at full load t he pist o n is lifted a fe w
,

'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

24 6

i n c hes an d t akes i n t he c h arge t hrough t he s lide val ve whic h soon

mo ves fu rt her and bri ngs i n t he ignit ing ame T he result i ng
explosio n proj ect s t he pist o n u pward wit h high veloc ity T he
pressure be neat h it rapidly fal ls by expansio n u nt il l ower t h an
t h at o f t he at mosphere On t he ret urn st roke of t he pist o n t he
c lut c h is i n engagement wit h t he sh aft and performs work dII e t o
t he weight of t he pist o n fall i ng freely i nt o a part i al vacuu m The
exhaust ga ses i n t he me ant i me are d is pl aced t hrough a po rt in t he
val ve
T he cl ut c h o f t he Ott o -L ange n engine w as a very ingenious
co nst ru ct io n and o n e of t he m ain points of t he invent ion I t is
shown i n det ail i n Fig 1 1 1 3 an d c ons ists of a part a keyed t o
,

FI G

1 1- 1 3

Cl u t c he s , O tt o -La n

ge n E n g in

t he s h aft o n whic h runs t he part b c arrying t he teet h engagi ng

t he rac k The part a re vol ves freely wit h t he sh aft and is dis
co nnected fro m t he part b w hile t he pist o n is mo ving u pward
or is st at iona r y but is faste ned t o t he part b when t he p ist o n
is mo ving do wnward
The parts a and b are engaged by s m all
rollers 6 mo ving o ver wedge -sh ape d c li ps c c when t he part b
moves i n t he s ame direct io n as t he part a and at a higher rate of
s peed T he part s are cl am pe d t oget her by t he rol lers wedging
in bet wee n t he t wo i nc l ined surfaces an d t he steel cl i ps cc I t
will be see n t h at as soo n as t he part a mo ves wit h a higher veloc it y
t han is i m parted t o b by t he rack t he c lut c h rele ases au t o m at i
c ally
D r R H T hu rst on i n t he repo rt o f t he V ien n a exhibit ion in
,

HIS T O RY

I NTE R N A L CO M B US TION ENGINE

OF

247

st ates t hat several o f t hese engi nes were o n exhibit ion and
t he results o f several series o f test s m ade by M Tresc a are given
The di mensio ns o f t he engine tested were as follo ws : diameter o f
pist on
m axi mu m st roke
di ameter o f water j acket
height o f water j ac ket
T he fol lowi ng are t he re
s u lt s o f fou r t rials :
1 8 73 ,

Ti

r als

P ress u re o f gas m illi m e t e rs

D u ra ti o n o f e xp e r i m e nt s h rs
R e v o l u ti o n s p e r m in
B ra ke H P
To t a l ga s p e r h r lit r es
G a s p e r H P h r lit res
Ga s p e r H P h r c u ft
Ga s us ed for i gnit e rs p er h o u r

36

82

36

1 08 5
1 26 6
44

cu

ft

560
1 3 14

5 60
46

T he abo ve resu lts howe ver have been surpassed i n test s by

The engine t ested h ad a c yl -diameter
Meidinger i n 1 868
of
a m axi mu m st roke o f
and was rated at 1 horse
po wer A t maxi mu m load t his engine develo ped 635 B H P
and sho wed a gas c onsu m pt ion i nc lu ding t h at o f t he ignit io n
a me o f
cu ft per B H P hou r T his corresponds t o a
t herm al effic ie nc y o n t he brake of
pe r cent Cu riously e no u gh
a st ill better ec o no my was shown at a lower l o ad Wit h a B H P
per cent T he fuel mixt ure i n bot h
o f 35 t he e ffic ie nc y was
c ases co nt ains
per cent o f gas
R es pect ing t he engine test e d at V ienna D r T hurst on st ates
t h at it h as al ways worke d well and h as great ly reduced t he c on
su mpt io n o f gas o ver t h at used by earl ier engi nes I t is very noisy
i n o perat io n and t he e xce pt ional fuel ec onomy is it s o nly spec ial
reco mmendat ion T his eco nomy is probably due princ i pal ly t o t he
e xt reme rapidit y wit h whic h t he pist on is proj ected u pward at
e ac h expl osio n of gas t he work o f expansio n being t hus ut ili zed
before su ffic ient t ime h as el apsed fo r any serious amou nt o f
c ondensat ion t o oc cu r by cont act wit h c ol d su rfaces A diagram
fro m a 2 horse -po wer Ott o -L angen engine fro m Clerk s work o n
T his diagram s ho ws
t he gas e ngine is shown i n F ig 1 11 4
t h at t he expansion during t he work ing st roke c ont inues bel ow
t hat of t he at mosphere t he pist o n e vi dent ly be ing t aken t o t he
,

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINES

24 8

t o p of its st roke by t he energy st ore d in t he fly-wheel at t he

i nst ant of explosion
The ignit ing device used co ns isted o f a c o nst ant ly burni ng
ame outside t he work ing cyl inder wh ic h w as put in c o m m u n ic a
t io n by a sl ide v al ve wit h t he e x
pl osive c h arge at t he pro per t i me
T he l arge sizes of t his engine were
go verned by c ont rolli ng t he veloc it y
o f disc h arge o f t he exh aust gases
T he more t he exh aust out let was
t hrottled t he slo wer t he descent of
t he pist o n and hence t he fewer t he
nu mber o f cyc les i n u nit t ime
I n po int of t ime
B R A YTO N
t he ne xt i m port ant i nvent ion i n
t he art o f produc ing int ernal c o m
bu s t io n mot ors w as made by an
S T RO KE
A meric an G eorge B B ra vt o n His
FI G
D i a g ram
e ngines were bu ilt i n l arge nu mbers
Ot t o La n ge n E n gm e
and possessed m any advant a es
o ver any previously m ade
T hey h ad t he re m ark able dist in o
t io n o f be ing t he o nly mot ors w hic h had bee n designed i n whic h
ignit io n t akes pl ace at c o nst ant pressu re t he form o f t he dia
gram alre ady s ho wn in Ch apter I be ing s im il ar in m any res pects
t o t h at of t he stea m engine
B rayt on t ook t wo A meric an paten t s for h is engines ; fi rst t he
e arl ier o ne d ated A pril 2
c o vered an engine adapt ed t o
burn gas ; t he l ate r o ne pate nted J u ne 1 87 4 c o ve red an engine
adapted t o burn l iqu id hydroc arbo n or petroleu m
B ot h e ngines
h ave esse nt iall y t he same princ iple of O pe rat ion t he air and c o m
bu s t ible are su ppl ied t o t he work ing cyl inder u nder pressure for
a port io n of t he st roke ignit io n c ont inues during t he ad missio n
of t he air and c o mbust ible c ausing an inc rease o f volu me wit hout
c hange of pressu re The su ppl y val ve c l oses when su ffic ient
c ombust ible h as e ntered and t he pist on fin ishes it s st roke by
expansio n I gn it io n was produ ced by a const ant ly bu rning
ame i n t he po wer cyl inder Wire d iaphragms were used t o kee p
t he ames fro m st rik ing b ac k
Of t he t wo forms of B rayt on engine t he gas engine never
.

'

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

24 9

fou nd mu c h applic at io n o n ac cou nt o f t he fact t hat due t o pu ne

t u ring t he diaphragm t he ignit io n ame woul d so met i mes st rike
back and explode t he c ompou nd mixture st ored in t he reservoir
,

FI G

1 11 5

E l e va ti o n , B ra yt o n O il E n

g in

This act io n t oget her wit h t he high price o f gas led t o t he

de velopment of t he pet roleu m engine Figs 1 1 1 5 and 1 1 1 6
s ho w t he c onst ru ct ion o f t his engine very c learly * The e ngine
.

FI G

1 1 1 6

P la n

B ra yt o n O il E n

gin

cons ists o f a powe r cyl i nder a a n d an a ir-c om pressor cylinder b

t he pist ons of whic h are c on nect ed t o t he w a l king beam 0 The
air drawn int o t he c yl inder b t hrough an aut omat ic val ve is
,

G ii ld n e r , E nt we r fe n

u nd

Be re c h n e n d e r

Ve r b re nn un gs m o t o re n

p 91
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

25 0

d is c h arged t hrough t he val ve 9 i nt o t he re c e ivo r d when t he

pressure h as reac hed t he des ired po int
F ro m d t he c o m pressed
air o ws i nt o t he power cyl inder when t he val ve 8 is o pe ne d by
t he le ver sho wn t hrough t he act io n of a c am o n t he au xil iary
sh aft h Fig 1 1 1 6 On its way t hrough t he val ve t he air is
s aturated wit h th e vapor o f gasol ine o r pet roleu m by pass ing a
l ayer o f sat u rate d felt hel d bet wee n t wo perforated pl ates The
s mal l pu m p
sho wn in bot h gu res and act u at ed fro m t he c am
s haft h serves t o kee p t he felt s at u rated J ust belo w t h is c ar
bu re t ing de vice a needle ame kept su ppl ie d wit h gasol i ne by
t he pu m p
is ke pt c o nst antl y burning ignit ing t he c h arge as it
passe s T he admissio n val ve is o pe ne d as t he work ing p ist o n
reac hes it s u p per end of t he st roke T he m ixt u re t herefore burns
as t he pist on is t ravel ing downward and t he rate o f c o mbust ion
is so regul at ed t hat t he pressure re m ains pract ic ally c o nst ant
during t he t ime of admiss io n Fig 1 1 1 7 s hows a t ypic al work
diagram The c ard fro m t he
air cylinder is of c ou rse j ust
l ike t he ordinary a ir-c o m
pressor
diagram
FI G 1 1 1 7
Po we r Ca rd B ra yt o n
T
he
engine
was
governed
E n g in e
by cutt ing o ff t he m ixtu re at
t he des i re d point This w as ac co m pl ished by m aking t he adm is
s io n val ve c am c o nic al and sl iding it along t he sh aft h by means o f
t he governor s hown t hus varying t he t ime o f o pe ni ng of t he val ve
T his o il engine w as a t horoughly pract ic al m ac hine and fou nd
co nsiderable appl ic at ion R egarding it s econo my a t est by
Clerk s howed t he foll owing gu res :
.

D i m t r f M t r Cylin d r
f M t r Cylin d r
Str k
D i m t r of Ai Cylin d r
a

e e

o o

o o

e o

e e

S t ro k e o f Air Cylin d e r
Me a n R p m
M ea n B
P
N et I n d i ca te d
P
Pum
P
To t a I
Me c ha ni c a l E ffi c i e n c y ,
Pe t ro l e um p r B
P -h o u r ,
.

H
.

g l

a s

T he fuel c onsu m pt io n shown amou nts

o f 6 per cent o n t he brake
.

to

a t hermal e ffi ciency

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

25 1

THE OTT O E N G I NE

T he Ott o engine w as patente d by

N ic hol as A Ott o o f D eut z G ermany i n t he U nited S t ates
A ugust 1 4 1 8 77 and i n E ngland about o ne year earl ier The
engine was shown wit h great suc cess at t he E x pos it ion o f 1 8 78

I t was c alled t he S ilent engine prob ably in c ont radist inct ion
t o t he free piston engine o f t he s ame inve nt or
The patent t ake n out by Ott o is de voted princ ipally t o a
descript io n o f a n -impro ved met hod of int ro du c ing air and gas
int o t he cyl inder of a gas engine in l ayers o r st rat a s o as t o m ake
t he explosion less violent in its n at ure The patent describes
t hree k inds o f engines t o whic h his process c oul d be appl ied vi z
a n o n-co m pression engine an engine o f simil ar st ructure t o t he
non -c om pressio n engine but i n whic h t he c harge is c o m pressed
by external means before pass ing int o t he cyl inder and lastly
t he now c om mon fourcycle engine i n whic h t he c o m pressio n is
pe rformed in t he work ing cyl inder and whic h fol lowed i n its m ode
o f o pe rat ion t he princ iples l aid down in t he Frenc h patent o f Be au
de R oc h as in 1 86 2
The Ott o met ho d o f int roduc ing air and gas i n separate l ayers
t o produ ce slo w c o mbust io n did n ot prove t o be o f pract ic al
value but t he c onst ruct ion described i n Cl ai m 3 o f t he A meric an
patent not onl y revol ut ioni zed all previous met hods of gas engine
c onstru ct ion but formed t he b asis fo r al l subsequent pract ice
Th is cl ai m is st ated as fol lows :
.

A ga s-m o t o r e n
e s o f c o m b u s tibl e

g in
g

re in by o n e o u t s t ro ke o f t h e p i s t o n se p a ra t e
a s e o us m i x t u r e a n d a ir a re d ra w n int o t h e c ylin d e r
c ha r g
wh i c h c h a r ge s a re c o m p r esse d by t h e in s t r o k e a n d t h e n i gni t e d s o a s t o p r o p e l
t h e p i s t o n wh i c h by it s re t u r n s t r o k e e xp e ls t h e p r o d u c t s o f c o m b u s ti o n
3

wh e

T he Ott o engine was so gre atly su perior t o al l t he earl ier o nes

i n ec ono my and c apac it y for a give n weight and regu l arity of
o perat ion t h at it soon dist anced all c om pet it ors
I ts s uc cess led
t o nu m
e rous infringements in G erm any and E ngl and and in eac h
of t hese c ou nt ries a patent su it was brought ; in G erm any t he Ott o
patent was dec lared inval id bec aus e of t he earl ier patent t o B e au
de R oc has but in E ngl and it was sust ained I n t he U nited
S t ates no patent su it was brought alt hough t here were doubtless
many infringements before t he pat ent expired in 18 94
Figures 1 1 - 1 8 t o 1 1 20 s ho w a hori zont al c ross -sect ion , a sid e
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

25 2

vie w and an e nd view of an Ott o engine of

I n t his engine
t he ad missio n o f t he fuel mixt ure and it s ignit ion are cont rolled
by t he sl ide val ve b This val ve is actu ate d by a c rank d and
moves forward and b ac k ward across t he cyli nder head The gas
.

FI G

1 1 1 8

H r i z nt l S ti n O tt
o

ec

En

gin

e of

1 884

val ve 9 is act u ated by a c am

u po n t he side shaft f while t he
e xh a ust val ve 0 of t he n o w usu al po p pet t y pe is actu ated
t hrough a le ver by means o f a c am 6 u po n t he same shaft Th is
t urns w it h o ne h al f t he s pee d o f t he c rank shaft
The
,

FI G

1 1 1 9

E l e va ti o n

of

O tt o E n

g in

e of

1 88 4

ad miss io n sl ide val ve is held agai nst it s seat by a c over pl ate

Th is pl ate co nt ains t he ignit io n arrange ment s and air and gas
po rt s whic h l atter c oincide wit h ot her port s t hrough t he val ve
pro pe r and int o t he c o mbust ion c h ambe r a in cert ain posit ions
o f t he val ve
The gas val ve is c onnect ed t o t he gas po rt in t he
pl ate by a bent pi pe d while ga s is fu rnished t o t he ignit io n
a ppar at us by t he s mall fo r ked pipe s ho wn in F ig 1 1 20
.

'

F rom

G iild n e r , p 4 3
.

H IS T OR Y O F IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

25 3

To expl ain t he o perat ion of t he engine su ppose t h at in t he

posit ion sho wn i n F ig 1 1 1 8 t he pist on is j ust c ommenc ing it s
su ct io n st roke The exhaust val ve 0 h as j ust closed and t he
port i n t he val ve c oincides wit h t he po rt
int o t he cyl inder A s
t he pisto n moves out w ard only air is d r awn in for t he rst part
o f t he st roke bec a use t he c am h as n o t yet o pened t he gas val ve 9
A l itt le l at er g o pens and t he mixtu r e is drawn i n for t he rest of
t he st roke A t t he outer dead center t he val ve h as closed t he
port
and c om pressio n next t akes pl ace By t he t i me t he pis
t o n has reac hed t he inner
de ad center t he val ve has
mo ved far e nough o ver t o
bring t he ignit io n c avity
k i n front o f t h e port
The ame i n k st rikes in
c ausing t h e c h a r ge t o ex
p lo d e E xpansion and e x
h aust follow
The above met hod O f
drawing in t he c h arge was
by Ott o su pposed t o re
sult i n st rat i c at ion t e
ac cording t o his views
t here woul d be a l ayer o f
b m e d g ases h e )
t o t he

F
I
G
1
1
2
0
E nd V i e w o f O tt o E n gin e
T
p i st on t he n a l ayer o f a i r
o f 1 88 4
and l ast t he l ayer o f mix
t ure He also cl ai med t h at t his arrangement was not dist urbed
during co m pression His argu ment was t hat ignition t aking
pl ace in t he ric h mixtu re t he pressure wave woul d soo n reac h
t he leaner mixt ure and t he l ayers of air and bu rned gas i n suc

cession and tone down s o t o s peak i n its i nt ensi t y so as t o

avoid sh ock t o t he engine mec h anism The o pinions o f expe rt s
regarding the sou nd ness o f t h is theory are di vided eve n t o -day
Se e Chapt er I V
The ignit ion apparat u s used in t he earl ier Ott o m a c h ines u p
t o the ge neral int rodu c t ion o f elect ric ignit ion w as very simil ar
t o t hat em ployed by Ot t o in t he free -pis to n engine so me ten years
earl ier Fig 1 1 2 1 sho ws a cross -sect io n t hrough t he ignit ion
,

254

I N TERN A L CO M B Us TIO N

E NGI NES

c a vit ies in pl at e and sl ide One branc h O f t he forked pipe shown

in Fig 1 1 20 su ppl ies a cons t ant ly bu rning ame G Fig 1 1 21
while t he seco nd branc h l ls t he c avit y B wit h gas whic h gets
its air su pply t hrough t he po rt C t he mixt ure ignit ing when it
st rikes t he ame G as sho wn When near t he t ime of ignit ion
c avit y B in t he sl ide is c ut Off fro m it s a ir and gas su pply but
enough burning m ixtu re is left in t he c avit y t o ignite t he c harge
in t he cyl inder when B regis ters wit h t he p o rt int o t he cyl inder
S ince t he pressure in t he c o m press ion c h amber is so mu c h higher
t h an t hat i n t he c avit y t here is danger
t hat t he ame will be blown out w hen
co m munic at ion is rst est abl ished To
pre vent t h is j ust before t he c avit y an d
t he inlet port c om mence t o register c o m
m u n ic at io n is est abl ished wit h t he c o m
bu s t io n c h amber t hrough a very ne
O pe ning t hus equ al iz ing t he pressu res in
inlet po rt and c avit y
The go verning arrangement s were
s im ple and e ffect ive
T he gas val ve
c am g Fig 1 1 1 9 was arranged t o
slide o n t he s haft f A y-bal l go vernor
cont rolled it s posit ion and when t he
FI G 1 1 - 21
speed rose a ce rt ain amou nt above nor
I gniti o n A rra n ge m e nt s
m al t he c am was pul led far enough t o t he
O tt o E n gin e o f 1 8 84
left t o c ause it t o mis s t he val ve lever 1
Thus t he engine received no gas an d an impulse was m issed
E cono my test s o n early Ott o engines were m ade by S l aby and
B rauer 1 88 1 Te ic h m an and B oe c king 1 8 8 7 and by ot hers
T he t hermal e ffic ienc ies o n t he brake ranged fro m 9 t o 12 per cent
T he best gu re obt ained by B rauer in 1 8 8 6 o n a D eut z 4 horse
po wer hori zo nt al engine was a t ot al gas c onsu m pt io n o f
c u ft per B H P hour whic h c orres po nded t o a t hermal efficienc y
per ce nt Tests m ade by B rooks and S tewart at S tevens
of
I nst it ute Hoboken in 1 88 2 o n a 6 B H P engine show about
t he s ame results
The e ngine shown in Figs 1 1 1 8 t o 1 1 20 is fro m t he design
st andpo int a well -bu ilt m ac hine and shows a very m arked a d
v ance in t his res pect over al l earl ier forms I t will be noted t h at
.

H IS T OR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

255

t he cross -head was st ill used T his w as however soon dis pensed
wit h subst it ut ing a t ru nk p ist on and t hus s hortening t he lengt h
of t he m ac hine A not her c hange soo n inst itut ed was t he s u bst i
t u t io n o f elect ric for ame ignit ion
CL E R K The disadvant age inherent in all four-cyc le m a
c hines Of receiving a power impulse only once i n fou r st rokes
led ot her invent ors t o ex periment wit h t he t wo -cycle engine
whic h gets a power i mpul se eve r y tu rn Th e ch ange f r o m t he fou r
t o t he t wo -cyc le princ iple seems very sim ple but is i n real ity
.

FI G

1 1 22

Ve r ti c a l

S e c ti o n , Cl e r k E n

gin

beset wit h m any diffi cult ies Perhaps t he e arl iest fairly su ccess
ful worker was Clerk w ho co m menced t o ex periment u pon t wo
cycle engines soo n after Ott o perfect ed his fou r-cycle m ac hine
I t w as however not unt il 1 88 0 t hat he suc ceeded in produc ing a
23 bot h fro m Clerk

1
1
22
and
1
1
serviceable mac hine Figs

T he G as and Oil E ngine show a vert ic al and hori zont al cross

sect io n res pect ively T he o perat io n of t he engine is as follows :

1
1
23 t he power pist on C h as j ust reac hed t he outer
I n Fig
dead center and t he m ain bul k of t he exh aust gases h ave esc ape d
t hrough t he port s E E
I n t he meant ime t he d is pl acer piston
D whic h o n its previous suct ion st roke h as draw n a m ixture o f
e and
a ir and gas int o B , has c om pleted about hal f of its in stro k
.

IN T ERNA L

25 6

CO MB US TI ON

ENGINES

displ ace d t he m ixtu re int o G and A t hroug h t he c onnect ing

pi pe W A bout t he t i me D h as c o m pleted it s in st roke t he po wer
pist on C h as co vered t he exh aust port s o n its ret urn st roke and
c o m press i o n e nsues in t he m ain cyl inder T he cyl inder volu mes
are s o pro po rt io ned t hat i n t heory no mixt ure c an be lost t hrough
t he exhaust ports A t t he inner dead cent er O f t he power pist on

1
1
23 c omes oppo
C or j ust before t he ignit ing c avit y 0 F ig
site t he port N and t he c harge is red T he pist on is i m pelled
forward and t he next c h arge drawn i nt o B i n t he meant i me c o m
m e n c es t o enter t he space G as soo n as t h e pressu re i n A has
fal len e nough after t he beginning o f exh aust t o c ause t he val ve
i n t he pi pe bet ween B and G t o l ift T he intermediat e val ve
.

FI G

1 1 23

H o r i z o nt l S ti o n
a

ec

Cl e r k E n

g in

arrange ment is sho wn i n Fig

P is an air c ham be r T he
air drawn i n by t he suct io n o f t he dis pl acer pist on D passes
t hrough t he val ve H and i n so doing is m ixed wit h gas wh ic h
enters t hrough a nu mber of ne holes i n t he seat o f t he val ve
fro m t he annul ar s pace K On t he i n st roke of t he displ acer
pist o n t he mix t ure u nder so me pressure c o mes i n u nder t he val ve
F whic h it lifts as soo n as t he pressu re O f t he exhaust g ases
above it has fallen l o w enough
T he di fcult y u nder whic h t h e engine l abored was loss o f
mixt ure t hrough t he exh aust port s and c o nsequent l ow ec ono my
A lt hough t he res pect i ve volu mes of t he t wo cyl inders m ay be in
t he p r o per rat io t he c harge expands by he at on t he t ransfer and
mec h anical agit at io n favors t he l oss I n s pit e O f t h is defect
shop test s o n 2 4 6 8 and 1 2 horse -po wer engines in 1 8 8 5 gave
result s fully equ al t o t hose O bt ained o n t he fou r-cyc le m ac h ine
.

1 1 22

H IS TOR Y O F IN T ERNA L COM B US TION ENGINE

of

t hat day
t hese tests

The fol lowing t able shows t he results

of

25 7

so me of

H o rse -po w e r
Dia M o t o r Cyl

12

in c h e s
S t r o k e M o t o r Cy l in c h e s
Dia D i s p l a c e r in c h es
S t ro k e D i s p l a c e r in c h e s
.

R P M
I H
.

a
o

w
Ob w
[

Me c h E ff
.

Ga s p e r B

P -h r
.

cu

ft

1%

Nh o
nAh
aOb

7
12
7f
12
14 6

m
m

B
1%

20
1%

m
m

m
m

8 %
5 %
% 0
W3

17 %
13 %
s
26 %

27 %
3 21
M5
24 m

1 1 24

and
1
1
25 sho w a po wer diagram and a pu m p
Figu res
diagram fro m a 6 horse -po wer engine
I t is intended in wh at follo ws t o
P e rio d of A p pli c ati on
4
give merely a brief r es u m e of t he fu rt her develo pment of t he in
ternal co mbust ion e ngine s ay
u p t o 1 897 and t o reserve a
more det ailed descript ion O f
t he most im port ant forms i n
t he m arket t o -day fo r t h e
next c h apter
FI G 1 124
Po e r Ca rd Cl e r k E n g in e
On acc ou nt o f t he Ott o
patent whic h pract ic ally amou n t ed t o a mono pol y ot her m anu
fa c t u re rs were forced t o t u rn t heir attent ion t o t he devel opment
of
t he t wo -cycle e n
gine How Clerk sol ved
t he problem wit h fair
suc cess has bee n al ready
H
s
hown
w as fol
e
Pu m p Ca rd Cl e r k E n g in e
FI G 1 1 25
l o wed by Witt ig and
Oc c h e l
Hess
S Oh nle in G iild ne r ( 1 8 93
Be n z
h auser ( 1 896 ) and Koe rt ing ( 1 8 98 ) i n Germ any R obson S o ut h al
and S amso n in E ngl and Be n ie r ( 1 8 94 ) in F rance and Mie t z
Many o f t hese engines are
and Weiss i n t he U nited S t ates
in the m arket t o -d ay and some are describe d i n t he next
c h apter
Wit h t he fall of Ott o s cl aims i n Germ any about 18 85 t he el d
.

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

25 8

bec ame free an d m any m anu facturers o f t he t wo -cyc le e ngine

abando ned it fo r t he m o re si mple fou r-cyc le T he fall of t h is
patent was in a se nse a m isfortu ne as far as t he t wo -cyc le engine
was c oncerned as it hel d back t he developme nt o f t h at t ype of
m ac h ine at least te n years I t is only wit hin t he l ast s ix o r e ight
ye ars t h at t he very ob vious ad vant ages o f t he t wo -cycle princ i ple
again recei ved t he attent io n t hey deserve On t he ot her h and
t he de velo pme nt O f t he fou r-cycle engine after 1 8 8 5 was e xtremel y
rapid
T hus wh ile t he l imit o f power was about 4 B H P
i n 1 8 7 8 and u nits of fro m 1 5 20 ho rse -po wer c oul d be h ad i n 18 8 0
t he l imit soon rose t o 1 00 ho rse -po wer i n 1 88 9 and 200 i n 1 8 93
B l ast furnace gas c al led for u nits O f 6 00 ho rse -po wer i n 1 8 98
while t o -d ay e ngines de velo ping u p t o 4 000 horse -po wer are being
bu ilt
Wit h t he inc rease i n si ze u p t o t he neighborhood of 200
horse -po wer t here c o mes an i ncre ase i n t hermal e fc ienc y T hus
a Crossley e ngine of 1 2 horse -power soon sho wed a gas c o ns u m p
t io n of
cu ft o f illu min at ing gas pe r B H P hou r TO-day
e fc ie nc ies e xceeding 25 pe r cent o n t he brake wit h lean po wer
g as es are n o t rare and G iild ne r , by i ntel lige nt ly applyi ng sou nd
pri nc iples of c onst ruct io n h as suc ceeded i n O bt aining ec ono mic
e fc ie nc ies e xceeding 3 0 pe r ce nt
I t woul d lead t oo far for t he sc o pe o f t his book t o desc ribe
e ve n a fair pe rcent age o f t he various fou rcycle engines brought
T he most prominent names c on
o u t bet wee n 1 885 an d 1 8 9 8
n e c t e d wit h t he de velo pment of t hese engines are perh aps Lo u t z ki
i n Ger many
D el amare -Debo ut e ville
Ma la n d in who i n
1 900 brought o u t t he rs t l a r ge bl ast furnace gas engine i n
Be lgiu m Ch aro n i n France Cross l ey B ro t he rs i n E ngl and ( 1 892
and
and West i ng house i n t he U nite d S t ates
Fou r
cyc le c onst ant pressure O il e ngines were de velo pe d by Capit aine

1
B r ii nn le r ( 1 8 93
and D iesel ( 8 93 9 7 ) in G ermany
( 1 8 89
The D iesel e ngine is t o -day o ne of our most i mport ant i ntern al
c o mbust io n e ngines and is c o nsidered i n gre ater det ail belo w
A mong t he d e le vo p e rs o f t he four -cyc le c onst ant volu me o il
e ngine D ai mler s work i n co nnect ion wit h t he high -s peed engine
deserves s p e cial ment ion Ot her engines of t his t ype brought
Priest
o u t i n t his perio d are S piel
Capit ai ne
man
and Hasel
Hornsby -Akroy d
B ank i
wander
,

H IS TOR Y O F IN T ERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINE

259

One

of t he greatest ac hieve ments o f t his period is t he de velo p

ment o f t he D iesel engine

L
DIESE
T he history o f t he D iesel engine is i nterest ing
I t began i n 1 8 93 when R udol f D iesel i n a pam phlet e nt itled

Theory and Co nstruct ion o f a R at ional Heat Motor t o re place

t he S team E ngine an d ot her existing Heat E ngi nes l aid do wn

t he following
fu ndament al requirements fo r a perfect c o m
.

bu s t io n

A tt ainment o f t he highest tem pe rature i n t he cyc le n o t by

means of c o mbustion and during t he s ame but be fore and i nde
pe ndent o f it by c om pression o f air alone
2 G radu al inj ectio n o f ato mized fuel int o t his highly c o m
pressed and heated air s o t h at during c o mbust ion no rise o f
te m perature t akes pl ace t e t he c ombustio n sh al l be isot hermal
For t his pu rpose t he process o f c o mbust io n c annot after ignitio n
be left t o itsel f but must be go verned fro m t he outside t o m ain
t ai n pro pe r rel at io n bet wee n pressure volu me and te m peratu re
3 Correct c hoice o f weight o f air wit h reference t o t he heat
i ng value o f t he fuel and t he desired co m press io n tem pe rature
so t hat t he pract ic al o perat ion O f t he mac hine lubric at io n et c
shal l be possible wit hout water-cooling
I t is interesting t o fol lo w out t hese points and t o see in ho w
far t he ir o bj ect h a s bee n att ained
The i ntende d fuel was c oal dust t he c yc le t he Carnot A t
t he very outset ho wever a modic at io n was made i n t he cyc le
i n cutt ing o u t t he isot hermal co m pressio n and subst itut ing for
it o ne st age adiabat ic c o m pression B u t a j ac ket was no t t hought
nece s s ary and i n fact a non -conduct ing lining fo r t he cyl inder
was demanded
A s a c onsequence o f t he abo ve pam phlet t wo rms K ru pp
i n Essen and t he Mas c hine n -fabrik A ugsburg u ndert ook t he c o n
struct io n o f ex pe riment al m ach ines A s was t o be ex pected
fu rt her c hanges fro m t he origin al idea were necessary t he t wo
most i mportant of whic h were t he su bstitut io n o f oil for c oal
dust and t he u s e of a water j acket
I n 1 8 98 t he ex periment al st age had been s o far passed t h at
S c h rOt e r c ould re port test gu res whic h more t h an doubled t he
t hermal e ffic iency o f the the n existing Otto engines T he nal
form o f t he engine as no w c ons tructed is sho wn i n Figs 1 1 26 to
1

'

IN T E R NA L

260

ENGINES

whic h represents a D iesel engine bu ilt by K ru pp i n

1 1 -28 ,
1 898

COM B US TI ON

The i nternal
c yli nder c onst ruct io n O ffers not hing new ; a is
t he su ct io n val ve for air b t he fuel val ve and d t he exh aust val ve
0 is t he st art ing val ve not i n c o m mission during ordinary o pe ra
t ions A l l are actu ated t hrough le vers by c ams o n t he shaft i
whic h is o perated fro m t he c rank sh aft t h rough t he i ntermediat e
shaft 6 ; h is t he air pu m p t o furnis h c om pressed air fo r fuel
inj ect io n and for st art ing B ot h of t hese are t aken fro m steel
,

FI G S

1 1 26 t o 1 1 - 28

Die se l

E n in e , 1 898

asks i nt o whic h h deli ve r s ; 1 is t h e o il pu m p u nder cont rol o f

t he governor whic h regul ates t he amou nt O f O il per st roke t o t he
l oad
On t he rst down st roke t h e e n gine t akes air t hrough a and
c o m presses it o n t he ret urn st roke t o a pressure of about 4 60
pou nds wit h a te m perat ure of about 1 1 00 degrees Fahre nheit
J ust befo r e t he end o f t he u p st roke t he fuel val ve b is O pe ned
t o a widt h o f onl y a fe w hu ndredt hs of an i nc h and t he inj ect ion
ai r pre vi ousl y c o m pressed t o about 6 50 po unds by pu m p h o ws
'

'

G iild ne r , p

10 1

H IS TOR Y O F IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE

261

i nt o t he c o m pression c h a m be r c a rrying wit h it and nely at o mi zing

t he o il furnished by t he pu m p
T he O il ignites o n entering due
t o t he high c om press io n tem peratu re I n s pite o f t he fact t hat
isot hermal c o mbust io n is i ntended t he l ac k o f outside co ntrol
c auses a rise not only i n t he pressu re o f fro m 8 0 1 00 pou nds
usu ally n o t very not iceable o n t he i ndic at or c ard b ut also a rise
T hus
o f te m pe rat ure approxi mat ing 1 800 degrees F ahrenheit
while t he i ntended mean tem perat ure o f t he cyc le o f D iesel s
pamphlet was about 350 degrees t hat reali zed i n actu al o perat ion
is about 950 degrees F ahren h eit Th e ti me du ring wh ic h t h e
fuel inj ec tion val v e 0 re main s o pen is c onstan t for all l o ads bu t
the e ffec ti ve s trok e o f t he fuel pu m p
ends t he sooner t he l ower
t he l o ad t hus e ffec ting regul at ion
A fter t he c losing o f b expa ns io n c o m me nces and is follo wed
by exh aust t hrough d o n t he ret urn st roke
T he engine is st arted by t he co m pressed air furnis hed by h
during a pre vious O peratio n and st ored i n a t ank To st art t he
c ams o n t he s h aft f are pulle d t o t he right by t he lever g T his
puts t he val ves a b and d out of co m missio n an d st art ing val ve
On pl ac ing t he c rank j ust beyond t he u ppe r
6 i n c om mission
c enter and o pening t he t ank val ve t he engine t akes c om pressed
air for a fe w t urns j ust l ike a steam engine t akes steam
Whe n
t he requ ired mo me nt u m has been obt ained t he c ams are re
le ased and are s nappe d b ac k i nt o pl ace by a S pring at t he
pro per t i me
The hist ory o f t he de velo pment O f t he D iesel engine is i nterest
ing i n t h at t he nal c onst ruct ion de parts s o far fro m t he patented
ideal t hat t he e ngine o f t o -d ay does n o t see m t o be protecte d by
t he c lai ms o f t h at patent Thg factj ha t n o ign iteL w as ne c es
sary was only inc ident all y c o nsidere d by D ies el and is not ex
pressly c o vered by t he pat ent
The rst test gures o n a D iese l engine were published by
T he di mensions O f t he engine were : Cyli nder
S c h rOt e r in 1 8 9 7

1
diameter
st roke
rated B H
8 20
T he fu el
used was A meric an kerosene h avi ng a heat ing v al ue o f 1 8 400
B TU
The following t able s hows t he resu lts o f t wo full l oad
t ri als and c o m pares t he m wit h so me o f t he t heoret ic al resu lts
gure d by D ies el i n his pam phlet o f
,

G iI ld n e r , p

1 07

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINES

26 2

D ie se l E ng i n e

F u ll

L oa d
R P M
B
P
To t a l I
P
Pu m p
Ne t I
P
O il e r B
P -h r l bs
Co o in wa t e r p r B
P -h r , l bs
Co m p re s s i o n P ress , At m
Ma x Co m b P re ss u re , A t m

Te m p E n d O f Co m re ss io n , C
Te m p E n d o f Co m u s ti o n
I n d i c a t e d The r m a l E ff
Me c h E ff ,
Th e rm a l Eff o n B ra k e ,
.

of

Id l E gi

1 89 7

ea

ne o f

1 8 93

F u ll

1 00

H
H
g

1 00

54 3
1 54

5 23
203

24 7 lbs

O f c oa l p e r I

H P
.

250
250

36
5 50
1 600

36
5 50
1 600

Z e ro

73
72

I t is c lear fro m t he abo ve t able t hat alt houg h t he e ngine did

,

not reali ze t he early e xpe ct at io n of its designer t he res ults s hown

are a re mark able ste p in
advance as reg ards t he
econo my of t he t hen ex
is t ing i ntern al c o mbus t ion
engi nes T O -d ay e ve n bet
ter gures are freq uent ly
E Meyer fo r
obt ained
inst ance h as l at ely tested
a
D
iesel
engi
ne
s
howing

FI G 1 1 29 R e gula ti o n D i a gra m D i e se l
an indic ate d t herm al effi
E n gin e
c ie n c y
excee ding 4 2 per
cent
Fig 1 1 29 * s ho ws t he general form of t he i ndic at or c ard
O bt ained fro m D iesel e ngi ne This is a regul at ing di agra m t he
si ze of t he c ard dec re asi ng wit h t he l oad by short ening t he c ut -O ff
,

G ii ld ne r , p

1 09

CHA PT E R
MO D E

R N TY P E S

OF

XI I

I N T ER NA L C O M B U S TI O N E N G I N E S

THE

previous c hapter brought t he development of t he int ernal

c o m bust ion engine u p t o 1 8 97 S inc e t hen expansion has been
very rapid unt il t o -day we nd t hat t he design of gas engines
has been st andard ized i n t he m ost i m port ant part iculars j ust as
was t he c ase wit h t he st ea m engine some dec ades ago I t is in
t ended in t he present c hapt er t o give a brief desc ript ion of t he
m ost i mport ant engines found in t he m arket t o day A n ex
a minat ion O f t he m arket wil l S ho w so me fairl y denit e division s
a mong m an ufact urers as far as si ze o f engine made is c oncerned
Th us t he r e a r e but a half dozen rms in t his co unt ry and a fe w
m ore t han t his in E urope w h o m ake engines u p t o t he very largest
si zes I t is co mparat i v el y easy t herefore t o describe nearly
al l o f t hese various engines and t his is very desirable o n ac c ount
of t heir i m port ance N ext we nd a somewhat larger nu mber
O f mediu m si zed engines of various t ypes and last l y a very large
number of engines up t o s a y 50 horse -power se r ving t he general
I t is of course im possible t o
c o m merc ial el d for small powers
co ver t he l ast t wo classes of engines t o any great extent T he
m aj orit y o f t hese engines do n ot di ffer except i n m inor det ails
and for t hese reasons t he following list has been c on ned t o w hat
see m t o be t he most rep r esen t at ive m ac hines o f eac h class
R egarding t he gen era l f ea tu r e s of d es ign s mal l engines a re
eit her hori zont al o r vert ical T he cyl inders are al most in variabl y
single act ing m ult ipl ic at ion o f power being O btained by in c re as
ing t he n um ber of c ylinde r s T he vert i cal o ffers some a d va n
t ages o ver t he horizontal form i n t hat t he foundat io n need n o t
be as l arge o r as heavy
F urt her it is cl aimed t hat it is easier
t o l ub r ic at e t h e cyl inders uniform ly and t hat t he wear on t he
cylinder is less A favorit e form o f frame for t h is type of engine
i n t his c ount ry is t he box fra me wit h en cl osed c rank c ase using
S pl as h l ubric at ion S ome E u r o pea n designers o bj ect t o t his
.

203

IN TERNA L C OM B US TION ENGINES

264

form c laiming t hat all supervision o f crank pins and intermediat e

bearings is by t his form o f fra me rendered impossible T he small
t wo -cyc le m ac hine al most invariably uses t he en c losed c rank c ase
for t he pre-c om pression o f t he mixt ure
What has been said O f t he smal l m ac h in e appl ies in general
also t o mediu m si zed engines V ert ical m ac hines here possess
t he added ad vant age t hat it is easier t o dismount t hem by means
o f overhead c rane t han is t h e c ase w it h hori zont al m ac hines
T he l imit t o a vert ic al engine c omes i n t he head room requ ired
F o r t his reason al l of t he very l arge m ac h ines as well a s mediu m
S ized double -act ing m ac hines w hic h require a c ross -head are
hori z ont al A not her reaso n t hat m ay be c it ed is t h at it is easier
t o operat e a m ed iu m si zed or large hori zont al engine t han it is a
vert ic al bec ause al l c li mbing o r mount ing pl atform s is a voided
and t he w hole inst allat ion is more c om plet el y under t he O perat or s
eye
F inally t he u s e of some of t h e industrial power gases fa vors
t he u se o f t he hori zont al m ac hine bec ause any d ust c arried can
be m uc h m ore easil y swept o u t o f a hori zont al t ha n a vert i ca l
c yl inder d uring regul ar o perat ion
T he d ouble -act ing engine i s perhaps n o t used as widel y as it
deserves t o be inc rease in power being generally sought by m ult i
pl ying t he single -act ing c yl inders T here is h owever t o -day n o
reason w hy double -act ing cyl inders are n ot as reliable as t he
single -act ing F o r large m ac hines double -act ing cyl inde r s are
al most a n econom ic nec essit y and t he c l umsy fourcyl inder
do uble-opposed l arge engine has bec ome t horoughl y obsolet e
T he largest engines O f t o -day are double or t wi n two -cyli nder
t andem double-act ing engines
T he very O bvious disad vant ages o f t he t runk pist on c an be
quite suc c essful ly overc om e for smal l an d medi um siz ed m ach ines
and hence it is al m ost un iversally employed fo r t hese si zes B u t
fo r large m ac hines t he use o f t he t runk pist on is indefensible
being opposed al ik e by c onsiderat ions of m anufact ure and o f
reliable O perat ion T he tt ing o f large pist ons O f t his t ype o ff ers
grave di fcult ies in t he shop and in operat ion proper l ubricat ion
is di fc ult ; furt her t h e m ain offi ce of t he pist on is t o c onne t he
gases wit hout l eak age ; t o mak e it also act as t he m ac hine m em ber
t o t ak e u p t he l at eral t hrust o f t h e c onnect ing rod may i n large
mac hines seriousl y i nt erfere wit h it s m ai n purpose
,

MODERN

T YPE S

O F COMB US Tl ON ENGINES

26 5

The c rank shaft of small and medium si zed engines is nearly

al ways o f t he center-c rank type T his type is very rigid and
above all t ransm its t he st resses equally t o bot h sides of t he frame
I n double o r t wi n m ac h ines howe v e r suc h a shaft would c al l for
fou r main bearings t he prope r alignment of whic h might c ause
some t rouble i n large engines of t h i s t ype Fo r t his reason some
A merica n m akers prefer t he s i de-c r ank S haft w hic h is a m uc h
less c ost ly shaft t o m ake and reduces t he number o f bearings fo r
a twin engine t o t wo Of course t he S idecrank f r ame t akes up
t he explo sion st resses ec cent ric ally and t herefore has t o be
designed heavier t han t he cent er-c r ank frame On ac count o f
t his fact and t he generally highe r st r esses in gas engine frames
as com pared wit h steam-engine frames E uropean designers wil l
n o t use t he so -called side crank o r Tangye form o f f r ame
The period of experi mentat ion i n design a nd of freak design
has l argel y passed in gas e n gin e practice and as m ent ioned at
t he out set of t his c ha pt e r st andardi za t ion has made wel come
progress du r ing t h e last few years The al cohol engi n e n o w in
it s devel op ment as far
t he U nited S t ates is c oncerned does not
c all for any radical c hanges i n t he exist ing designs o f l iquid fuel
engines AS far as furt her progress is c on cerned it is n ot unl ik el y
t hat t he next step wil l be t he de v elopment Of a highl y efc ient
c onst ant -pressure gas engine after t he m anner of t he D iesel l iquid
fuel eng i nes t ak ing u p t he t hread a ga in w h e re B rayt on left it in
t he sevent ies
.

G a s E n gin e s

S MA L L A N D ME D I U M S IZ E D EN G I N E S

A mong

t he best
k nown m akers o f smal l and mediu m si zed gas engines i n t his
count ry m ay be ment ioned t he Ott o G a s E ngine Works of P hil a
del phia m akers o f t he Ott o engines ; t he Fai r banks-Morse Co m
pany ; th e J ac obson Mac hine Manufactu ring Company o f Warren
P a ; t he J acobson E ngine Co mpany of Chester Pa t he S truthers
Wells Com pany of Warren P a m akers o f t he Warren engine ;
t he B ruce -Meriam A bbott Com pany o f Cleveland ; th e Westing
house M achine Com pan y ; t he Olds G a s P ower Com pany of
L ansing Mic h ; t he D e L a V e rgn e Mach i ne Com pany of N e w Yo r k
makers o f t he four-cycle Ko e rt in g e n gines ; t he Weber G a s E ngin e
Com pany O f K ansas Cit y MO ; t he A H Albe rge r Com pany o f
1
'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

266

makers o f t he B u ffal o t ande m engines t he F o o s G as

E ngi ne Co m pan y of S pringel d Oh io et c
I n most cases t he sm al l gas engine operates o n ill um in ating
ga s n at ural gas or gasoline b ut in m any inst ances att ac hments
are furnished S O t hat t he engine c an be run on eit her gas or liquid
fuel as desired Prod ucer gas is not usually employed fo r very
B u ffal o ,

FI G

1 21

W tingh
es

o u se

En

g in

sm all units A 1 0 t o 1 5 horse -p ower suct ion gas prod ucer fo r hard
c oal is t he present lower li m it and perhaps t he except ion w hile
soft c oal prod ucers i n t heir present st at e o f development do not
run less t han 5 0 to 6 0 horse -power
T he c ross-sect ional c ut
Th e We s tin ghou se Ga s E n gin e
Fig 1 2 1 shows t he essential parts of t h e West inghouse vert ic al
engine I n t his t ype t he c ran k mec hanism is c ompletel y en cl osed
a nd splash l ubrication is depended upon for t he proper oiling of
.

MODERN

T YP E S

OF

COM B US TI O N E N GI N E

26 7

"

t he intermediate bearings t he crank pins and t he pistons B ot h

t he inlet and exha ust val ves are mec hanic ally operated by cams
and S hafts driven fro m t he main shaft ; t he inlet val ve J by
mea ns of ca m B and lever C t he exhaust val ve E by ca m A and
t he roller lever shown T he igniter operat ed fro m t he inlet ca m
S haft is loc ated at F Ga s a nd air after passing t he c ha mber M
in t he proper propo rt ion enter t he p assage N on t heir way t o
t he inlet val ves T he engine is go verned by means of a governor
of t he y-ball t ype whic h regulates t he a mount o f m ixt ure enter

ing t he passage N ( see Chapt er X I V ) T he sm aller si zes of t his

,

FI G

122

W ting h
es

o u se

En

g in

mac hine ha ve t wo c yl inders and ca n generally be started by

hand ; t he la rger sizes a bo ve about 85 horse-power ha ve t hree
c ylinders and are generally st a rt ed by c ompressed air w hic h is
admitted t o one cylinder sta rt ing t he engi ne while t he ot her
cylinders operate normally Figs 1 22 and 1 23 S how genera l
views o f t hree -cylinder mac hines
E n gin e s m a n u fac tu r ed u n d er th e J a c o bson P a ten ts T here
are t wo rms m anufact u r ing engi nes under t hese pat en t s t h e
and t he J acobso n
Jacobson E ngine Co mpany o f Chester Pa
,

IN T ERNA L CO MB US I 1 ON EN GINES

26 8

Mac hine Manufact uring Company of Warren

T he engi nes
m ade are of t hree types hit -and -m iss a ut omat ic c ut -O ff and
t hrott ling T he Warren Company m ake hit -and -miss engines
fro m 2%t o 25 horse -power an d aut o matic engines fro m 8 t o 27
horse -power T he Chester Com pany make hit -and -m iss engi nes
from 3 0 horse power up and a ut o mat ic c ut -o ff and t hrott ling e n
gines fro m 3 3 horse -power up A l l of t hese engines s o far m en
T he a ut o m at ic c ut -Off and t hrott ling
t io n e d are single -act ing
,

Pa

FI G

1 23

W tin g h
es

o u se

En

g in

t ypes are built as single-cyl inder o r a s t andem o r t win -t andem

units T he Chester Com pany n o w also undert ake t he building o f
double act ing aut om at ic c ut -o ff o r t hrott ling engine as t andem
or t win
t andem unit s up t o any power desired
T he st ru ct ural feat ures of t he engines built by t he t wo c om
pani c s ment ioned are of c ourse ve r y nearly t he same s o t h at one
descri p t ion will do for bot h
T he general feat ures of t he hit -and -m iss mac hine a r e sho w n
T he m ost inte r est i ng det ai l of t he design is per haps
in Fig 1 24
t he removable c vlin d e r bushing w hic h is an un usual but highly
c om mendable cons t ruct ion for smal l engines T his not only
al lows o f c hoosing t he proper grade o f met al fo r t h e cylinder
barrel , but t h e rm al stresses a r e a lso a voided by ad mitt ing o f
.

MODERN T Y PES O F COM B US TION ENGINES

269

free expansion in t his case again st t he packing at t he head O f t he

bushing On ac count of t he m anner of holding it t his pac king
c an ne v er be blown out
,

23

FI G

FI G

1 24 3

1 2
4

J a c o b so n

G o v e r nin g

Me c h a ni s m

Mis s E ng in e

I Iit -a n d -

J a c o b s o n I l it -a nd -M i s s E n g in e

The i nl et v al ve is aut om at i c an d is held in a se p arate housing

The m an ner o f o p erat ing t he exhaust val ve and t he govern or
T he side shaft is operated by
c ont rol are shown i n F ig 1 25
means of S c rew gea rs wh ic h i s t he m ost sa t isfact o r y way of
,

IN TERNA L CO M B US TION ENGINES

270

t ransm itt ing t he mot ion T he governor is O f t he y-bal l type and

is operat ed by t he lay S haft
When t he speed bec omes t oo high
t he blade C F ig 1 25 put in posit ion by t he governor engages
t he block A on t he exhaust valve lever prevent s t h is lever fro m
ret u rn ing t hu s holdi ng t he exhaust val ve open
.

VENY YO M I OS 'NERE

INLET 7 0 6

FI G

1 26

Gas

P r e s s u re

Re

gu l t r f J
a o

or

aco

I l lm

b so n

En

g in

es

Figu r e 1 24 also shows t he make

and -break ign it er On e
bloc k cont ains bot h elect rodes and t he l oc at ion of t he S park is
c ent ral as regards t he vol ume o f t he c ha r ge
This engine can be run on eit her gas o r gasoline d epending
u pon whet her a gas regulat or o r a c arbu reter is em ployed T he
t ype o f regul at or used i s il l ust rat ed in F ig 1 26 I t s const ruct ion
is very S im ple t here is n ot hing a pparent l y t o get o u t o f order
I t is claimed t hat t his regulat or fu rn ishes t he gas t o t he engine
.

MODERN T Y PE S O F COMB US TION ENGINES

27 1

under at mospheric pressure at all t i mes T he rm makes an

att ac h ment whic h allows of t he c hange fro m one fuel t o anot her
at a moment s notice
T he general design O f t he aut omat ic c ut -Off is t he sa me as for
t he hit -and -m iss engine t he di ffer
ence being in t he governor an d t he
val ve gear Fig 1 27 s ho ws t he
met hod o f operat ing t he inlet and
exha ust val ves and t he igniter T he
val ve gear is shown i n greater de
t ail in Fig 1 2- 8 T he seat s and
ste m b ushings are al l easily a ccessi
ble and replaceable T he ex ha ust
val ve is operat ed i n t he ordinary
way by a c a m fro m t he lay shaft
For t he inlet val ve lever a n e c c e n
t ric is used A s t he ec cent ric rod
_ J a c o b so n Aut o
F
I
G
R rises it p ushes upward t he val ve
m a ti c c u t O HE n g in e
lever Q at t he right end and O pens
t he inlet val ve T he inlet val v e spindle carries t wo d iscs t he main
inlet val ve and t he gas val ve J ust before t he exha ust val ve
c loses t he gear c om mences t o O pen t he inlet val ve but only air
enters sinc e t he gas val ve V remains c losed T he air t hus enter
ing serves t o sc a venge out t he c ombust ion c ham ber A moment
later t he valve S pindle h a s descended far enough for t he set
c ollar o n t he spindle t o depress t he gas val ve after whic h t he
m ixt ure begins t o enter t he cylinder B ot h va lves close sim ul
t a ne o us ly when t he n ose o f t he ec cent ric rod R is forced o ff t he
end of t he val ve lever by t he act ion of t he inc lined plane P T he
posit ion O f t his plane is determined by t he governor w hic h is o f
t he y-ball t ype an d direc t l y driven fro m t he main shaft T hus
t he val ve al ways opens at t he same point but it c loses sooner o r
later depending upon t he load
Figure 1 2- 9 shows t he general appearance o f t he autom at ic
c ut -Off m ac hine T hey are built in si zes up t o 27 horse -power
by t he Warren Co m pany and ca n be adapted t o run on gasol ine
and nat ural i ll uminating o r producer gas T he t wi n tandem
type is sho wn i n F ig 121 0 and is built in si zes abo ve 100 B H P
for producer gas and abo ve 1 20 B H P for nat ural gas by t he
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

272

FI G

1 28

V a l ve

J a c o b so n
E ng i n e

G ea r ,

Au t o m a ti c Cu t -o ff

t h is unit t he ta n de m engine is
built i n si zes fro m 6 0 B H P u pward for n atu ral gas a n d fro m
50 B H P u pward fo r p ro
d u c e r gas
T he Chester Com pany s
t hrot t ling engine a gene r al
V ie w o f whic h is shown in
F ig 1 21 1 di ffers fro m t he
aut om at i c c ut -o ff m ac hine
onl y in so me det ails o f
val ve gear A c ross -section
o f t his
engine
is
S
hown
in

Ja c o b s o n Au t o m a ti c Cu t Off
FI G l 2 9
- 12
1 3
Fig
2
w
hile
F
ig
2
1
1
E n g in e

Chester Com pany

On e-h alf
.

of

T Y PES

MODE R N

FI G

1 2- 1 0

J a c o b so n

FI G

1 2- 1 1

OF

COMB U STION ENGINES

Twin -t a n d e m Au t o m a ti c Cut -o ff E n

J a c ob so n

Th r o ttlin

g E n g in

g ine

273

274

IN T ERNA L COMB US TI ON ENGINES

o
r

B
o

m
a

n
.

c
e

m
n
o

q
.

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

FI G

12 13

V a l ve

G ea r ,

J a c o b so n

Th r o ttlin

g E n g in

275

il lust rates t he val ve gear B ot h val ves are O perated by c ams

T he c harge passes t he mixing and t hrot tling val ve w hic h is c on
t rol led by t he governor t hrough
t he reac h rod shown
A bbo t t
Th e B r u c e-M eria m
E n gin e
T he B ruce-Meriam
A bbott Co mpany loc ated in
Cleveland Ohio man ufact ures
engines fo r nat ural il l uminat
i ng an d prod ucer gas and for
gasol ine T he design used for
nat ur al and ill uminat ing gas
a nd for gasol ine is sho wn in
Fig 1 2 1 4
T he si zes range
fro m 1 2 t o 250 horse -power
t wo -c ylinder u p t o 1 25 horse
power and fo ur-c ylinder abo ve
t hat si ze T he design o f c ylin
der and fra me is al ong c o n ve n
t l o n a l l mes
T he cam S haft
FI G 1 2- 1 4 B ru c c -Me r i a m -Abbo tt
a cross t he t o p O f and bet ween
E n g in e
.

'

IN TERNA L C OMB US TION ENGINES

276

t he cylinders is operated t hroug h spur and bevel gears as S hown

T he val ves are Of t he poppet t ype and are l oc ated in t he head
A bo ve 5 5 horse -power t hey are held i n separat e c ages w hic h are
easily remo vable T he c a m shaft O perates t hese val ves by rocker
arms on eit her side T his c onst ruct ion is m ore c learly S hown in
Fig 1 21 5 A n excel lent feat ure
o f t he m ac hine is t he purely c y
lin d ric a l form o f t he c om bust ion
c h amber
G overn ing is e ffect ed by a go v
e r n o r O f t he y
ball t ype O perated
by t he lay shaft T he go vernor
S leeve operates one en d o f a lever
passing bet ween t he cylinders
t he ot her end su pport s t he mix
D e t a il 0 f B r u c e-MB! ing val ve t he det ails o f w h ic h are
F I G 1 21 5
ia m A b
t t E n g in e
sh own i n Fig 1 2 1 6 Ga s an d
air enter t he annul ar spac e shown
On th e suct ion st roke o f t he
engine t he gas ows int o t he S pace surrounding t he pisto n val ve
and mixes wit h t he air by owing out t hrough t he po rt about
h alf way u p T he t wo c o mbined t hen enter t he interior of t he
v al ve t hrou gh t he six ports shown fro m t his c ham ber t he m ixt ure
goes t o t he engine T he position O f t he
valve c ont rols t he amount O f t hrott ling and
t hus regulates t he weight of t he c harge
going t o t he engine I t is st ated t hat from
full t o no load t his val ve has t o move only
1
1 3 inc h
J um p S park ign it ion is used T he
meth od O f su pport ing t he spark coil and
t he system of wi r ing is well shown in Fig
1 2- 1 5
T he t i mer is very si mple T here
M i x in g
FI G 1 2 1 6
are t wo copper pins eac h about i-inc h di
B r u c e Me r
V
a l ve
inc h l ong One of t hem
a m e t e r and
l a m -A bb o u E ngm e
proj ect s fro m t he bott om of a smal l c u p
w hile t he ot her is fastened t o t he end of a at spring an d dips

2
15
1
A
down in t he same c up T he spring m ay be see n at
Fig
The cu p is lled wit h O il and t he point s are n orm all y hel d apart
J ust before a spark is desired t he spring is
a sm al l dist ance
.

'

'

'

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

277

de pressed by means o f a c am t he circ uit is made by bringing t he

point s in c ont act and t he spark is prod uced at t he moment t he
cam releases t he spring W hat a mount s t o an outside spark gap
( see next c hapt er ) is provided s o t hat t he spark may be wat c hed
To convert any gas eng i ne o f t his design into a gasol ine engine
it is necessary merely t o furnish a fuel pum p and t o replace t he
iron piston val ve of t he mixer by brass or bron ze t o prevent rust
ing TO ret ain t he high co mpression used wit h gas however
t h is com pany has adopted t he Bank i principle of inj ecting w ater
into t he cylinder T he device is said t o gi ve entire satisfaction
Fo r producer and nat ural gas t his rm m akes engines ranging
from 25 t o 200 horse -power t wo-cylinder units u p t o 90 horse
power and four-cylinder above t hat T he design o f t hese engines
is apparently somewhat diff erent from t hose a bo ve described
Fig 1 2- 1 7 t he principal c hange being that t he lay S haft evidently
runs alongside t he c yl inders instead of between t hem T he c ylin
der and fra me construct ion is ot herwise t he same but t he i nterest
in g feat ure about t he design is t he fact t hat t he center line of t he
cylinder is off set about one -half t he lengt h o f t he c rank from t he
center line of t he main bearing as near as c an be sc aled fro m
t he d rawing T his is on t he principle of t he R amsey crank
mec hanism t he id ea of wh ic h is t o equali ze t he wear d ue t o t he
S ide t hrust o f t he piston against t he cylinder on bo t h sides of
t he cyl inder and t o i mprove t he t urning m oment
B ot h of t hese
aims are attai ned w it h a moderate O ff set suc h as here used
The Fairbanks
The F a ir ba n ks M or s e ( 5%Com p a n y E n gin es
Morse
Com pany m anufacture a n um ber of diff erent types o f
engines bot h vertical and hori zo nt al for gas and liquid fuel
T he general feat ures o f t he hori zont al design are shown in Fig
1 2 18
I t appears from t his t hat t he exhaust val ve at t he S ide
of t he cylinder i s mec han ic al ly operated while t he inlet val v e
placed i n t he head is aut om atic T he go vernor is placed in t he
y-wheel and may be eit her of t he th rott ling or h i t
and -miss type
I n t he latter c ase it operat es t o h old t he exhaust val ve open
T he ign it ion gear is of t he m ake-and -break type arranged so t hat
at st a rt ing t he spark may be ret a rded
E ngines above 9 or 1 0 horse
power are tted wit h a self -sta rt
ing device whic h c onsists of t wo pa rt s a m atc h de t onator and a
hand pu mp B ot h a re shown in plan i n F i g 1 218 at t he side
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

278

of t he cylinder T he hand pu mp serves t o p ump a c o mb ust ible

m ixt ure i nto t he cylinder wit h t he c rank j ust beyond t he center
w hic h m ixt ure is red by ignit ing a parlor m at c h I nsert ed int o t he
det onat or T he pressure so generat ed is suf c ient t o st art t he
engine un der some load
.

FI G

1 21 7

B r u c e-Me r i a m -Abb o tt E n

E ngines

g in

P rod uc e r

for

G as

are built fo r gasoline n apht ha and disti llate fo r

kerosene for alc o hol an d fo r ga s I n eac h c ase o f c o urse t he fuel
feeding an d m ixing arr angement s di ff er somewhat
I n t he l iquid
fuel engines t he feeding device act s p osit ively a pum p being u sed
t o inj ect t h e proper quant it y Of fuel int o t he c harge of a ir I n
,

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

279

t he gas engine t here is instead a mec hanically O perated gas val ve

arranged t o run on eit her
desired t he engine may

FI G

1 21 8

F a i r ba nk s-Mo rse

En

g in

li q uid fuel
F ig 1 21 9 il lust rat es an engine having t hese feat ures
T he sa me c o mpany also builds t wo dist inct types of producer
engines
T
he
rst
O
f
t
hese
has
t
he
general
feat
ures
of
t
he
a
s
g
standard hori zontal engine abo ve described t he secon d is quite
diff erent a s sho wn in Fig 1 220 I n t his design bot h val ves are
o f t he vert ical poppet type mec hanic al ly operated fro m t he Side
shaft t he inlet val ve on top
t he exhaust at t he bott om
A s in t he ot her Fairbanks e n
gines t he ignition is by make
and break The governor is
of t he y
bal l t ype o perated
from t he lay shaft R egula
t ion is by t hrottling a m ixt ure
of constant propo rtion
T he general t ype o f Fair
banks vertic al engine is shown
i n F ig 1 22 1 T hese engines
g ine
are built for any kind o f fuel
fo r L i q u i d o r G a s F ue l
.

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

280

e ff ected by t hrot tling t he mixt u re ; m a ke a n d-break

ign it ion is used A lt hough t he c rank c ase is enc losed lubric at ion
is posit i ve instead o f by t he
spl as h met hod usuall y em
ployed i n t his design
Th e K oertin g F ou r-c yc le
Ga s E n gin e
T his G erman
m ac hine is m an ufact ured in
t his count ry by t he D e La
V ergne M ac hine Company of
N e w York
T he general fea
t ures of t h e design are c learly
S hown in elevation , Fig

2
1
22 an d t he t wo cross -s e c
t ions Figs 1 223 and 1 2 24
FI G l 2 20 F a irba n ks~Mo rse P rod uce r Th e ent ire design gi ves t he
G a s E ng l n e
i m pression of being very sub
T he fra me i s a very rigid c onstruction
s t a nt ia l and t horough
and t he c yl inder is supported by t he fra me t hro ughout t he
lengt h
T he c ylinder head
is a so mew hat com pl ic at ed
c ast ing T he inlet and o u t
let val ves are placed vert i
c all y over eac h ot her and are
operat ed by c am s fro m a
la y shaft
T he c omb ust ion
c ham ber is di vided by a
water-c ooled t ongue proj ect
ing fro m t he c ylinder h ead
T he pu r pose O f t his p ro je c
t ion is t o e ff ect ually c ool t he
int e r ior of t he c ombu st ion
c hamber and t o t hus draw
dow n t he c o mpression t em
ra t u re adm itt ing of higher
e
p
c o m p rCS S IO I l
T he mixing FIG 1 22 1 Fa i r ba nk s-Mo r se Ve rt i c a l
E n g in e
valve shown at t he left o f
t he t ransve r se sect ion i n Fig 1 224 is aut omat ic R egulat ion
is eff ect ed by means o f a govern or of t he Ha rt ung t ype w hic h
G o verning is

MODERN T Y PES O F COM B US TION ENGINES

28 1

n
i

g
n

E
s

a
e
c

y
c
r

u
o

g
n
t

2
2

O
I

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

282

operates a buttery t hrott le val ve i n t he admission passage as

shown T he speed is t h us c ont rolled by t hrott ling I n engines
exceeding 1 00 horse -power t he pist ons are water-c ooled A ll
engines above 1 2 horse -power have elect ri c igniters w hile t hose
,

n
i

in
g

y
c

F d

u
r
t

3
2

below t his power use t he hot t ube at least as c onst ructed by t he

parent rm

n
e
B
u
ff
a
l
a
n
e
m
E
i
n
T his engine is made by t he
o T
d
Th e
g
A H Albe rge r Co mpany of B uff al o A ful l descript io n will be
,

283

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

foun d in an art icle in P ower fo r February 1 907

2
25
1
following ill ust rat ions are t aken
F ig
26 a vert ic al c r oss -sect ion
and
2
1
view F ig
cross-sect ions of t he val ve c hest at right angles
,

F IG

1 224

V a l ve

G ea r

K o e rt ing

from whic h t he
shows a general

2
Fig 1 27 t wo
t o eac h ot her

F o u r-c yc l e

En

g in

T he engine di ffers m aterial l y fro m t hose previousl y described

in having t wo cylinders i n t andem eac h act ing o n t he four cyc le
p rinc iple T he back pist on is made l ike an ordinary steam engine
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

284

piston sinc e t here is no side t hrust in t his cylinder I t s pist on

T he
ro d passes t hrough a water -c ooled s t u fn g bo x as shown
bac k cyl inder head is a sim ple at pl ate not water-c ooled ; all
.

FI G

1 225

B u ff a l o Ta n d e m E n

g in e

part s re quiring it however are t horoughl y c ooled T he val ves

are of t he do uble-guide poppet t ype a nd are placed side by side
27
1
2
Cam s
i n a val ve c hest at t h e S ide of t he c yl inder Fig
.

FI G

1 226

S e c ti o n Th r ou

gh Cylin d e r

s an d

P i s t o ns

of

B u ffa l o G a s E ng in e

a lay shaft operat e t hese val ves as shown in t he t ransverse

sect ion Fig 1 227
The m ak e -an d -bre ak ignite r w hi c h i s a d
u
s t a ble during operat ion
is placed o ver t he inlet v a l ve at t he
j

on

MODERN

O F COM B US TI ON ENGINES

TYP E S

285

r ight side o f t he val ve c hest T he exhaust pipe is fastened at

t he left side as shown in t he longit udinal sect ion of t he valve
.

FI G

1 227

Va l ve D e ta il s

of

B u ffa l o E n

g in

chest The j acket water after passing t hrough t he j acket is

made t o enter t he exhaust pipe cool ing t he gases and t hus acting
as a m uffler T he m ixing and governing arrangements of t his
,

Th e Va l ve

Th e Valve Cage

FI G

M i x in g

G o ve r nin

a nd

g Arr a n g

em e

nt s

B u ffa l o E n

g in

T he two I nlet val ve c hambers

engine a r e shown i n Fig
25
A t t he c enter
1
2
are c onnected by a header as shown in Fig
1 228

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

286

t his header c arries t he m ixing val ve T his val ve Fig 1 2- 28 is

a hollow cylinder divided int o t wo part s by a t ransverse part it ion
E ac h h alf has a n um ber of slott ed port s w hic h in c ert ain posit ions
of t he val ve register w it h ot her si milar port s in t he c age T he
val ve has t wo o fces I t s position u p o r down i n t he val ve cage
c ontrols t he rat io of air t o gas I f m o ved up t he eff ect ive ga s port
area is reduced w hile t hat of t he air port s is in creased by t he sam e
a mount and vice versa T hus no matter w hat t he ga s used t h e
t otal e ff ecti ve area is i n all c ases t he sa me R ot ary m otion of
t he val ve c ont rols t he c ut -off o f t he m ixt ure along t he suct ion
.

'

FI G

1 229

B u c k e y e Tw o-c y c l e E n

g in

st roke T his act ion is c ont rolled by a R ites inert ia go vernor

w hic h operat es t hrough link age as show n i n Fig 1 225
T his engine m ade by
The B u c keye T wo-c yc le Ga s E n gin e
t he B uckeye E ngine Company o f S alem Ohio ill ust rates a t ype
of mediu m S i zed t wo -c yc le engin e T he following descript ion is
t ak en from P ower S eptember 1 906 I t is a single -act ing sc av
e n gin g t win engine and c an be m ade t o operate a lso on gasoline
or d istillate
T he presen t engine has t wo m ot or c yl inders wit h c rank s se t
at 1 80 degrees t wo fuel pum ps and t wo air pum ps
F ig 1 2 2 9
shows t he side of t he engine on w hic h t he sec ondary shaft is
l oc ated and gives a good gen e r al view o f t he val v e gear Fig
1 23 0 is a sect ional elevat ion of one element O f t he twin engine
T he pist on 2 performs a double dut y ; i n addition t o deli vering
.

..

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

t he power of t he e xp lo
sions t o t he crank it
c om presses t he c harge
i n t he c ham ber 1 8 for
delivery t o t he c o m
T he
b u s t io n c ha mber
c ross -head 6 is i n t he
form of a pl unger and
acts as an air p ump an d
compressor pist on l n
t he c ha mber 7 T he ex
haust po rt s are opened
by t h e pist on 2 as usual
i n engines w orking o n
t he t wo -st roke cy c le
T hese po rt s are shown
at 1 4 1 4 Fig 1 2- 3 0
E ac h pist on c ompresses
its own expl osive mix
t ure b ut eac h cross
head pl un ger del ivers
c om pressed ai r fo r s ea
venging t o t he c o m bus
t ion c h a m ber o f t he
ot her half of t he engine
u nit
T he c yc le of
O perat ion is as follows :
W hen t he pist on
unco vers t he exh aust
po rts t he sc avenging
val ve 1 1 is O pened by
t he val ve gear an d c o m
pressed air a t about 8
pounds per square i nc h
is ad mitt ed t o t he c o m
bus t io n c h am ber fro m
t he air pum p of t he
ot her c ylinder
This
a ir blast sweeps out t he

287

g
o

24

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

288

burnt gases and t he ad mission val ve 1 0 is t hen opened ad mit

t ing a c harge o f gas and air fro m t he c om pressio n c ha mber 1 8 ;
t his c harge is also at a pressure of abo ut 8 pounds per square
inc h T he pist on furt her c o mpresses t he c harge on its back
stroke as usual and it is red by an elect ric al igniter As t he
pist on t ravels bac k c o mpressing t he c harge in t he c ylinder it
draws a fresh c harge int o t he front end 3 o f t he c ylinder and t he
c ross -head plu nger o f t he other h al f o f t h e uni t S i mil arl y d r aws i n
a c harge of air T he del i ve r y o f ai r f r o m t he c h a mber an d p
ages 7 20 an d 1 9 is c ont roll ed ent irel y by t he v al ve 1 1 but t h e
in tak e o f a ir by t he pl unger 6 is c on t r ol led by a piston val ve 6 3 Fig
1 2- 3 1 w hic h takes ai r fro m t he c h amber 6 8 c on necting w it h t he
at mosphe r e t h rough t h e b ase o f t he engine and d el i vers it to
t he c h a mber 6 9 whic h is c onnect ed t o t h e cross -head cyl inder O f
t he other h al f o f t he engi n e The pist on val ve 6 2 t ak es i n a mix
ture o f ga s an d ai r t h roug h t h e c hamber 6 7 whic h i s c onnec ted
wit h t he s upply sourc e an d del i vers it t o t he fuel pu mp 3 Fig
1 2 30 t hro ugh a b al anc ed t hrottle val ve 6 0 F ig 1 23 1
The fuel
p u mp t hen forces t he mixt ure back t hrough t he t hrott le val ve 6 0
t o t he admission val ve c age T he t hrott le val ve t hus regul at es
bot h t he q uant it y of m ixt ure drawn i n by t he p ump and t he
q ua nt it y delivered by t he pum p t o t he c om bust ion c hamber
The m ixt ure and air-intak e val ves are operated by c onnect ing
rods fro m a roc k -shaft as indicated i n Fig 1 23 1 ; t he rod 3 8
a ct uates t he c orresponding val ves for t he ot her half o f t he engine
T his rock -shaft is osc illated by an eccent ric on t he main S haft
and a n ec cent ric rod
T he governor is of t he y-bal l S pring -opposed t ype an d serves
merely t o cont rol t he position o f t he balanced t hrott le val ves in
t he fuel passages S ince t he c ylinder is lle d wit h sca venging
air every st roke t he variat ion o f t he a mo unt of m ixt ure ad mitted
does not vary t he c o mpression pressure but merely varies t he
ric hness o f t he c ylinder content s
T he engine is e q uipped wit h bot h m ake and -break and j um p
S park ign iters but t he former are ordinarily used
T he Fairbanks im pro ved hori z ont al
The F a ir ba n ks E n gin e
e n ign e is of t he four -cycl e t ype and m ade t o operat e on gas or
o n gasol ine distillate o r alcohol
T he general appearance o f t he engine is well shown i n Fig
,

M ODER N

TYPES OI"

COM B US I 1 ON ENGINES

'

y
c

y
e
c

u
f

o
s
l

a
t

g
n
i

n
r

v
o

G
I

28 9

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

290
1 23 2

w hic h shows t he gas engine fro m t he go vernor side while

Fig 1 23 3 gi ves a front
view of t he same m a
c hine T he c ylinder is
pa rt l y suppo rt ed by
t he fram e a s shown
Cyl inder j acket wal l
and c ylinder head are
cast in o n e piec e doing
away wit h all j oints
B ot h val ves of t he p o p
pet t ype work upward
and are mec hanically
operated Fig 1 23 4
shows
t
he
posit
ion
of
FI G 1 23 2
F a i r ba nk s E n g in e
t hese val ves at t he
head o f t he c ylinder E ac h val ve is placed in a separat e cage
and w hen c losed t he val ve
face is pract ic all y ush wit h
t he wall of t he c om bust ion
c hamber T his result s in a
com bust ion c ham ber of very
si m ple form
The lay shaft
at t he side O f t he engine is
driven by t wo -t o -one geari n g
fro m t he c rank shaft
I t c ar
ries Fig 1 23 2 rst t he bevel
gear for operat ing t he hit
and -miss y-ball governor ;
second a cl ut c h arrangement
for m ak ing and break ing t he
c on nect ion bet ween t he in let
and ignit er c am sleeve and t he
lay shaft ; t hird t he exhaust
valve c am and last ly t h e
sleeve carrying t he inlet val ve
and igniter c ams T he go v
by interposing a
e rn o r acts
pick blade prevent s t he ex
FI G 1 23 3
Fa i r ba nk s E n g in e
,

MODERN T Y PES O F COM B US TION ENGINES

291

haust val ve lever fro m ret urning and t hus blocks t he exhaust
val ve open
I n t his posit ion a proj ect ion o n t he exhaus t val ve
lever unlocks t he c l ut c h abo ve ment ioned break s t he connect ion
bet ween lay shaft and inlet ca m S leeve causing t he latt er t o
remain st at ionary T he in let val ve t hen fails t o open as long a s
t he governor does n o t wit hdraw t he blade I t is possible t o
c hange t he S peed o f t he engine t hrough a cert ain range by adj ust
ing t he governor during O perat ion
T he ignit ion system is of t he m ake
and-break t ype as is c learly

1
2
33
indicated in Fig
T he elect rodes are c ont ained in one
block w hic h is easily remo vable for inspect ion
,

FI G

1 23 4

Cylin d e r Co n s t r u c ti o n ,

F a i r b a nks E n g in e

T he met hod O f O perat ing t he gas val ve by means of t he main

inlet val ve lever is also shown i n Fig 1 23 3
T he Fairbanks gasol ine engine is in al l respect s simil ar t o t he
gas engine above descri bed except t hat t he m ixing val ve shown

at t he left of Fig 1 2 3 3 is replaced by a simple t ype of o verow

c arburete r w hic h is supplied by a gasoline pum p O perated by a
c am O n t he l ay shaft

h
e
P
h
l
a
e
h
a
tt
e
T he general feat ures of t he
T
i d lp i O o E n gin
design o f t his engine are shown i n Figs 1 2- 35 and 1 23 6 T hese
part ic ular drawings refer t o a 3 0 horse -power il luminating gas
engine but t he same design is c arried out in all hori zont al engines
fro m 5 up t o and inc l uding 4 0 horse -power E xcellent feat ures
O f t he construction are t he separat e cyli nder l iner and t he re m o v
.

29 2

COMB US TION

I N TE RN AL

E NGI N E S

able val v e cages for gas inlet a nd exhaust val ves Make -and
break elect ric ignition operated by a crank fro m t he en d of t he
l ay shaft is used
.

FI G

1 235

P h il a d e l p h i a

O tt o E n i ne

T he producer gas engines m ade by t his r m t he Ott o G as

E ngine Work s o f P hiladel phia S how t he sa me general m ake -u p
Fig 1 23 7 gives a general vie w of a t ype m ade i n 6 0 7 5 95 and
T his design di ffers f r om t hat o f F ig 1 235
1 20 ho r se -po w er S i zes
m ainly in t hat t he cylinder is support ed also near t he end by an
ext ension of t h e fram e
,

FI G

1 23 6

P h il a d e l p h i a

O tt o E n

g in

T he su ct ion gas engines are go verned by cont rol ling t he fuel

val ve regulat ion t h us being eff ected by c h anging t h e qual ity of
t he m ixt ure
Th e Old s Ga s E n gin e T he Olds G as P ower Compan y of
L ansing Mic h
b uild t w o types of gas engines : Type G from
,

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

293

t o 1 00 ho rse-power and Type K fro m 25 to 3 00 horse-power

bot h being hori zontal single -act ing four-cyc le engines

FI G

1 237

Ph ila d e l p h i a

O tt o

P rod u c e r-ga s

En

g in

Type G is illust rate d in Fig 1 238 T his engine m ay be used

eit her for gas o r gasoline T here appear t o be no very unusual
feat ur es in its general design B ot h inlet and out let val ves
.

FI G

1238

O l d s Ty p e G E n

g in

of t he poppet type but an a uxiliary exhaust o pen ing is used t o

relieve t he main exha ust val ve The exhaust valve is me c ha n i
,

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

294

c ally operated by means o f a straight push rod and c am I gni

t ion is by make and break T he gove r nor is of t he hit -and -miss
t ype and operat es t o hol d t he ex haust val ve open T he mixing
arrange ment s are n ot S pec ial l y described in t he available informa
t ion o n t his engine
Type K engines are O f somewhat di ff erent design an d embody
i n t heir m ake
u p t he best an d m ost ad van ced ideas
A general
view o f t he m ac hine is given in F ig 1 23 9 A mong t he excel lent
feat ures o f t his design are t he fol lowing : T he j acket wal l is in
T he cylinder liner is made of a grade of
t egra l wit h t he fra me
.

FI G

1 2 3 9

O l d s Ty p e K E n

g ine

met al espec ial ly adapted t o t he servi ce and c onsists of a straight

c ylinder wit h a ange at t he outer end T his ange is received
i nt o t he frame and is held in pl ac e by t he c ylinder head T his
construct ion al lows of even and unrest ricted expansion T he
c yl inder head c ont ains t he O penings for t he inlet and out let val ve
c ages and is designed wit h t he greatest possible regard t o e xp a n
sion and cool ing stresses T he following desc ript ion of t he val ve
mec hanism is t aken fro m t he cat alogue published by t he
c om pany
T he inlet and exhaust val ves are of t he vert ic al poppet t ype
.

M ODE R N TYP E S OF COMB US TION E N GI N E S

293

mec hanicall y operated and working in long guides i n t he same

vert ic al axis wit h t he inlet valve at t he t op and t he exhaust
val ve at t he bott om T he inlet val ve an d gas valve have a c om
m o n stem a nd t he c age is so arranged t hat a t horough m ixing
oc c urs j ust at t he ent r ance t o t he cylinder The gas valve O pens
slight ly later t han t h e ai r val ve a nd by special c onst ruct ion used
a perfect seat ing of bot h val ves is assured at al l t imes On t he
smal ler si zes by removing t he inlet val ve c age t he exhaust val ve
is pe rf ect ly ac cessible while on t he l arger si zes t he exhaust valve
m ay be remo v ed t oget her wit h it s hol low water-c ooled seat wit h
out d ist urbing t he inlet val ve
T his is easil y done as its weight
is counterbalanced B ot h val ves are O perated by a single ca m
whic h is designed S O as t o have a quick full valve O pen ing wit h
out noise o r c latter V al ves and val ve port s are of l iberal sizes
so und ue t hrott ling is avoided
The valve S p r ings are of t he
highest grade spring steel and rest o n pl ates whic h being sup
port ed on ball and socket j oints do away wit h side t hrust A l l
parts and part ic ularly al l bearings are made of ample dimensions
wit h pro v ision for oil ing every wearing su rfac e T he lay shaft
whic h is driven from t he crank shaft t hrough spiral gears O perat es
t he valve m echanism governor and ign it ion mec hanism
T he speed is controlled by a govern or apparent ly of t he
Ha rt ung t ype whic h is dri ven fro m t he lay sh aft and serves t o
t hrottle t he mixture admitt ed t o t he cyl inder
F igure 12- 4 0 gives a good view o f t he ign it ion arrangements
The c urrent is su pplied by a low-tension m ake -and -break B osc h
m agnet o t he O peration o f w hic h is explained in Chapter XI I I
The point o f ignit ion ca n be easily c h anged du r ing operat ion by
adj ust ing t he lever al ong t he ro w o f holes AR
Th e Wa rr e n E n gin e s
The S t rut hersWel ls Com pan y of
Warren Pa m anufactu r e v a r ious t ypes o f engines bot h hit
and -miss and t h rott ling al l O perat ing o n t he four-cyc le prin
.

c ip le

ord i nary power pur p oses t he r m builds t h e S ingl ec yl inder

hit -and -miss engine il l ust rated i n F ig 1 24 1 This engine is m ad e
in si zes f r om 1 0 t o 90 ho r se -power
A bo ve 3 0 HP t he inst al
l a t io ns are equi pped w it h special sta rt ing devices
A ll of t he ot her t ypes are apparentl y governed by th rott l ing
The next higher range of power 3 5 to 200 ho rse -power is c overed
Fo r

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

296

by t he t wo -c vlin d e r t hrot t ling engine S hown in F ig 1 2- 4 2 T he

m anner of governing is c learly indic ated
A spec ial type of t he t wo-cylinder engine for w hic h m axi mu m
econom y and c losest regulat ion is c lai med is show n i n elevat ion
in F ig 1 24 3 T his engine is m ade i n t wo si zes onl y 1 1 0 and
1 25 horse -power
Fro m t he vert i c al sect ion F ig 1244 showing
t he cylinder const ruct io n it is seen t hat t he cyl inder barrel and
j ac ket are cast in o n e piece T he val ves are o f t he vert i cal poppet
.

FI G

1 24 0

g nit r D t il
e a

O l d s Ty p e K E n

s,

g in

type opening upward and are pl ac ed in a val ve cage int egral

wit h t he c yl inder head T he m anner of o pera t ing t hese val ves
by c ams and levers fro m a val v e shaft run n ing a c r oss t h e e n gine

44
1
2
a
nd
4
3
under t he c vlin d e rs is shown in bot h F igs 1 2
G o vern ing i s e ff ect ed by t hrot tl ing t he mi xt u re in t he su ppl y pipe
j ust before it divides T he cent rifugal go vernor and it s link age
I n some cases t he go vernor is l ocat ed
are indic at ed in F ig 1 245
-sect ion

A
c
ross
3
4
bet ween t he c yl inders as shown in Fig 1 2
t h r ough t he val ve c hest Fig 1 2- 4 6 sh ows t he met hod of O perat
,

MODERN

T YPE S O F COMB US TION ENGINES

FI G

FI G 1 242
.

124 1

Wa rre n

g E ng ine

Th ro ttli n

297

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

298

FI G

F IG

1 24 4

W a rr e n

V e r t ic a l

S e c ti o n

Th r o ttlin

Wa rr e n

g E ngin e

Th r o ttl in

g E ngine

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

FI G

F IG

1 2
46

1 2
45

P la n

Cro ss -se c ti on

of

Wa rr e n

t h r o ug h V a l v e
g in e
.

Two-c y lin d e r E n in e

Che s t ,

299

War re n Two-c yl ind e r E u

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 00

ing t he make -and -break igniter and t he loc at io n o f t he st a rt ing

val ve in t he val ve c hest c o ver j ust a bo ve t he exhaust val ve
Warren engines c o vering t he range from 200 t o 3 25 horse
power are o f t he t andem single -act ing t ype a general view of
w hic h is shown in Fig 1 24 7 T he c ross -sect ion Fig 1 2- 4 8 shows
t he cyl inder c onst ruct ion w hic h is unique in so me o f it s feat ures
T he bac k part of t he m ain frame forms t he j ac ket wal l for t he
front c ylinder T he c ylinder barrel itself is c ast in one piec e wit h
t he c ylinder head T he c onstruction of t he bac k cylinder is
similar T he d istanc e piece bet ween t he t wo c ylinders rests on a
separat e base and forms for a port ion o f it s le n gt h t he j ac ket
wal l for t he rear cylinder T he front pist on is of t he o r dinary
t runk t ype T he back pisto n is longer t han is usual in pist ons
n ot subj ect t o side t hrust T he m et hod Of water-c ooling pist on
a nd rod is c learl y shown
T he valves are o f t he vert ic al poppet t ype hel d i n separat e
c ages w hic h are easil y rem o vable T he exhaust val ves at t he bot
t o m of t he c yl inde r are wat er-c ooled T he val ve gear is shown
in det ail in Fig 1 24 9 B ot h val ves are operat ed fro m t he same
c am on t h e l ay shaft T he operat ion O f t he exhaust val v e is clear
T he mot ion o f t he inlet val v e va r ies depend ing upon t h e load
T he valve opens and c loses always at t he S a me t ime because t he
lift o f t he act uat ing c a m is n ot c hanged t hroughout t he ent ire
range of load T he go v ern o r however t h rough t he linkage S hown
c ont rols t he posit ion of t he sl id ing bloc k a bo ve t he val ve lever
m oving it in o r out depending u pon w het her t he load falls or rises
T his block ac t s as t he ful c rum about whic h t he val ve lever t urns
a nd hence t he l ift o f t he val ve is made p r oport ional t o t he load
T he inle t val ve st em carries t he gas val v e T he latt er opens
somewhat lat er t ha n t he m ain inlet val ve T he man ner O f mix
ing gas a nd ai r is c learl y ind icated i n t he gure B ut t ery val ves
i n t he air and gas passages serve t o hel p c ont rol t he proport ions
T he ignit ion system operated from t he lay S haft
o f t he mi xt u r e
4 9 is of t he mak e-and break t ype
a s shown in F ig 1 2
T he St rut hers-Wells Com pany also builds vert ic al engines up
t o 6 00 horse -po w er T he older mult i -cyl inder t ypes of t hese
mac hines are pract ical ly not hing but t w o or t hree separat e engines
di r ect c onnected T hus a 4 50 horse -power unit n o w in O perat ion
c onsist s of t hree engines wit h t wo y-w heels bet ween t he cylinders
,

'

MODERN T Y PES O F COM B USTION ENGINES

301

2
.

G
I

3 02

I N TE RNAL

CO M B US T IO N

E NGI N E S

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TI ON ENGINES

FI G

1 24 9

V a l ve

G ea r

of

Wa rre n S ing l e-a c tin g

Ta n d e m E n

g in

3 03

e.

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 04

I n t he lat er designs t his has been m odi ed

A 6 00 horse -power
vert ic al engine latel y c om pleted is of t he four-cylinder A-frame
type mount ed on a solid bedplat e wit h t he y-wheels at t he ends

A
S
E
L arge gas engines of A merican
A
RG
E
G
N
G
I
N
E
S
2 L
design are m an ufact ured by t he Westinghouse Mac hine Com pany
by t he William T od Com pany Yo ungst own Ohio by t he S now
S team P um p Co m pan y B u ffal o by t he R i verside E ngine Co m
pany Oil Cit y Pa and by t he W isc onsin E ngi ne Co of Corliss
Wis m akers of t he S argent engine T he r e are however a fe w
ot her rms m aking large engines o f foreign design T hus t he
D e L a V e r gne Mac hine Com pany O f N e w York m ak e t he Ko e rt in g
t wo -cyc le engine an d t he P ower a nd Mining M ac hinery Co mpan y
t he Crossley engi ne T he A llis-Chal mers Compan y w ho built
t he N iirn be rg engine have apparent ly an engine on t he m arket
t hat is not strict ly of N urnberg design B esides t hese wel l
k nown m ac hines m ade in t his c ountry t he Prem ier engine m ade
in E ngland t he Coc keril l engine made i n B elgiu m and t he G e r
m an Oe c h e lh au s e r and D eut z engines should be ment ioned
T he Oe c he lh au se r and K o e rt in g engines are m ade unde r license
by a n umber of r ms in G erman y a nd i n t he case o f t he K oe rt in g
engine also abroad
While it has i n genera l been easy t o get
su fcient descript ive material on t he a bo ve -ment ioned engines
t his does n ot appl y t o c ert ain m ac hines o f A me r ican design and
t he informat ion gi ven is hence some w hat meage r
Th e We stin ghou se Hor izon ta l E n gin e There seems t o be
available practic al ly n o denit e inform a t ion o n t he c onst ructi v e
a c t in g t andem e n
det ails O f t he Westinghous e hori zont al d o u ble ~
gine * T he older type appa r ent ly used t he cent er c r an k and t h e
c o mb ustion o r at least t he val ve c ham be r s w ere plac ed at t he
sides of t he cylinders T he l ater types o f hori zon t al engines built
by t his c om pany app r oac h m uc h nea r e r t o est ablished E u r opean
p r act ice T hus t he engines inst al led i n t he power p lant o f the
Warren and J amestown railway syst em ha v e t he val v es in t he
c ent r al l ines o f t he cylin de r s as shown i n F ig 1 25 0 T he lat est
design is shown i n F ig 1 2- 5 1 w hic h r ep r esent s a 3 000 horse -po w er
unit for t he power plant of t he Ca r negie S t eel Com pan y at B esse
m e r Pa
I n t his t ype t he side c r ank is used but outside of t his
.

f u ll
P o we r A p r il
*

d e s c r i p ti o n

A
,

1 9 08

of

V e s t in gh o u se
t he \

En

g in

h as

ju s t

a p p e a ed

in

MODE R N T Y PES O F COM B USTION ENGINES

305

IN T ERNA L CO MB US T ION ENGINES

3 06

not hing is den itely k nown t o t he writer regarding t he mec hanic al

det ails A n int eresting develop ment of very recent date is t he
.

FI G

1 2 5 1

W tin gh
es

o u se

D o bl e
u

-a c

tin g

Ta n d e m E n

g in

West inghouse vert ica l S ingle

act ing t andem engine shown in Fig
T his engine was built by t he B rit ish West inghouse E l ec
1 25 2
*
t rio a nd Manufact uring Com pany

e
h
e
o
d
E
n
i
n
T he following desc ript ion o f t his engine
T
T
g
is t ak en fro m t he I ron Age of J uly 1 8 1 907
T he general a p
p e a ra n c e o f t he engine
is S hown in Figs 1 253
and 1 25 4 T he c yl
inders are arranged in
pairs t wo cylinders
being c onnected in
t andem to eac h c rank
pin T he val ve gear
i g n i t e r swit c hboard
and operat or s hand
whee ls are all sit uat ed
bet ween t he c ylinders
and are easily accessi
ble from an O perating
platform plac ed j ust
below
t
he
level
o f t he

FI G 1 2 5 2
W e s tin gh o u se Ve r ti c a l S ing l e
center lines o f t he c yl
a c tin g Ta n d e m G a s E n g in e
.

'

W H
.

Bo o t h , Cass i e r

Ma ga z in e

N o ve m b r
e

1 90 7

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

307

n
i

a
e
l

308

IN TERNA L CO MB US TION ENGINES

M ODERN

T Y PES O F

COM B US T1 O N

ENGINES

3 09

inders and shaft T he found ation level under t he cylinders be ing

severa l feet lower t han under t he frames leaves a mple room be
low t he cylinders to m ake t he exhaust v al ves et c easi ly ac ces
si ble a very desira ble but some w hat un usual feat u r e

T he c yl inders and water j acket s a r e integra l and c ast in

halves sec u r ed toget her wit h anged j o i nt s at t he cent er T he
cyli nders are not attac hed direct ly t o t he m ain bed pl ates nor t o
eac h ot her but a re support ed by t he t ie pieces in suc h a way
that t he ba r rels t hemsel ves are entirely free A l l st rains are
t ransmitted th rough fo ur heavy forged steel t ie bolts ext ending
t he ent ire leng t h of t he cylinders and a t t ac hing d i r ec t ly t o heavy
lugs o n t he bed plate T his ob v iat es t he t r ansmission of t he
st rains t h rough t he cylinder w alls and c ontri butes t o ac cessi bilit y
and t he easy removing o f parts T he pist ons are of steel w it h
cast -iron j unk rings and th e pistons and rods a re water-j ac keted
i n t he usual manner A dj ust able t ail-rod supports t ake t he weight
of t he pist ons and rods fro m t he cylinders
The val ve gear is driven by ec cent rics eliminat ing ent irely
t he ca m drive wh i c h has been an O bj ect ionable feat u r e of m an y
of t he gas engines here t ofore built T here is one ec cent ric for
eac h end o f eac h c ylinde r whic h d r ives bot h t he inlet and exhaust
v al v es
a n arrangement t hat red uces t he n umber of part s
The ec centrics are m ounted on t w
o lay shafts running paral lel
t o t he axes of t he cylinders T he latter are d r iven by a cross
shaft whic h in t u rn deri ves its m otion from t wo eccent rics
mounted o n t he m ain shaft T he inlet valves are o n t op o f t he
c ylinders and t he exhaust val ves on t he bott om T he inlet valve
proper is of t he mush r oo m type sealing t he ports from t he pres
su r e in t he c ylinders T he m ain valve is O perat ed by a rol ling
le ver and ret u rn ed t o it s seat by a spring T he m ixing valves
and govern or valves a re of radial gridi r on type and a re located
in t he upper sectio n of t he v alve bonnet T he m ixing val v es
may be o perated individually o r c o lle c t ive ly by a suitable hand
mec hanism The go v ernor val ve wh ic h c ont rols t he admission
o f gas has const ant t ravel
t he t ime o f O pen ing being c ont rolled
by the go vernor by eit her inc reasing or decreasing t he angle o f
advance of the c rank w hic h operates t hem S ince t he e n gine is of
the const ant -com pression t ype

The governor is o f t he y-bal l pat t ern and is in d u p l ic a t e

.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION

310

ENGINES

control ling t he O perat ing val ves on eac h S ide of t he engine

t wo are driven by Morse c hains t hrough a exible c oupl ing
are c on nected by a c ross rod w hic h m ay be removed i n c ase
desired t o operat e eit her side O f t he engine alone

E ac h en d o f eac h cylinder is equipped w it h t wo igniters o n e

operat ed mec hanically and t he ot her by a solenoid E it her m ay
be used i ndependent l y o r t he t w o t oget her T he igniters are
u nder c ontrol O f t he go vernor and w hen t he engine is at rest are
aut omatical ly t hrown back t o t he dead center T he ign it ion is
on t he m ake-andbreak syst em using direct c urrent at 90 volts
supplied by a mot or generat or s e t wh ic h is s o designed t hat
eit her end m ay be used as a m otor or a generat or o r bot h m ay be
used as generat ors by dri ving direct ly fro m t he engine S haft
Connected i n series wit h eac h ignit er is a t el l -t ale la mp o n t he
swit c hboard givi n g a posit ive indicat ion as t o w het her or not t he

igniters are S parking short circ uited o r b urnt out

Th e S a rgen t E n gin e
T he S argent com plet e expansio n
e n gine m ade by t he Wisc onsin E ngine Com pany o f Corl iss Wis
is shown in general elevat ion in Fig 1 255 and i n t ransvers e se c
t ion i n Fig 1 25 6 A s far a s t he c on struct i ve det ails of t his e n
gin e are con cerned it has t he merit o f great si mplicit y T he
engine is bu ilt a s a double -act ing t andem There i s but one valve
t o c ont rol ad mission an d exha ust for eac h end o f eac h cylind er
and but a single ca m t o perform t hese various of ces while a
sec on d c am operat es t he ignit er T he lay S haft is d riven fro m
t he m ain shaft by a pair of w orm gears T he governor is o f t h e
i nert i a t ype t he R ites an d operat es t o advanc e or ret ard t he
lay-shaft t hus c ont r oll ing t he t i me o f c utt ing o ff t h e adm ission
o f t he inc oming c ha rge t o t he cylinde r
T his cons t ruct ion is
dec idedly di ff erent fro m t hat used by ot her designers
T he c om bination val ve is S hown i n c ross -sect ion in Fig 1 256
I ts operat ion is described as fol lows :

G as is piped t o t he c ham ber A i n t he s u b-base and air t o t he

c hamber B w hic h pass t h rough t he cyl inder support s t o t he
c ham bers A and B ready t o pass int o t h e mi xing ch am ber
w hen t he cam depression M N passes t he roller and t he port s F
i n t h e pist on val ve regist er w it h t h e port s E and D i n t he bus h
ing W hen t he piston val ve goes down t o t his posit ion t he c o n
ned air in t he pist on valve dash -pot forces open t he poppet val ve
one
T he
and
it is

31 1

ENGINES
COMB
US
T
ION
MODERN T Y PES O F

m
c

m
:
o

a
c
a

m
x

m
3
2
9

8
0

0
c
o

w
u
a

m
.

5
5
2
.

G
I

IN T ERNA L CO MB US TION ENGINES

3 12

giving f r ee admission t o t he c harge When t he point N

o f t he c a m reac hes t he rol ler
it is forced down w hile t he ot he r
e n d o f t he lever goes u p c arrying t he pist on val ve w hic h c uts o ff
t he admission T he poppet val ve seat s and bot h val ves rem ai n
t hus

FI G

1 25 6

Tr a n s ve r s e Cr o s s
se c ti o n S a r

g nt E ng in
e

in normal position during c om pression ign ition and expans i on

o r unt il t he point L on t he c am pushes t he rol ler down and t he
pist on up whic h open s t he poppet an d t he exh aust gases pass
o u t t hrough t he ports K and t he el bow W t o t he ex haust pi pe
under t he oo r

The poppet val ve seals t he opening in t he combust ion c ham ber

d uring t he c ompression and i nam mation an d t he pist on valve
,

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US T ION ENGINES

3 13

holdi ng against no pressure works loosely in it s bushing c utting

o ff t he ad mission and guiding t he exhaust
A s t he poppet val ve c ontrols bot h t he inlet and out l et gases
bot h t he val ve and seat keep c ool and need t o be g r o und not over
once or t wice a year T he mec hanism is simple a nd as t he rol ler
is al w ays bearing on t he c am t he val ve mot ion is pract ic ally

noiseless
B y revol ving t he pist on val ve by t he index w heel t he blind
port S varies t he mixt ure t o suit t he gas w het her it has 1 00 o r
1 000 B T U per c ubic foot
T he fundamental idea o f th e S argent engine is t o get complete
expansion of t he c harge in t he cylinder I n t he ordinary engine
wh ic h at ful l load dra ws in t he c harge t o t he ful l st rok e of t he
piston or nearly s o t he terminal pressure is a nywhere from 25
t o 5 0 pound s and t he nal temperat ure over 1 000 deg r ees F a h
r e n h e it
S argent c laims t hat his engine c utt ing O ff t he stroke at
ful l load at t hree-quarters of t he suct ion stroke will S how a t er
minal pressure slightl y above at mosphere and a t em perat ure o f
a bout 4 00 degrees F ahren heit T he system of speed regul at ion
by c utt ing o ff at vario us point s along t he suct ion st roke is o n e
used by several makers but in nearly al l c ases t he engines c ut o ff
at nearly ful l st roke for full load t hat is at full load t he rat io of
c ompression is nearly equa l t o t he rat io o f expansion
I n t he
S argent engine t he rat io of expansion a lways exceeds t he rat io
of c ompression and a lowering of t he terminal pressure and
temperat ure is o f c o urse t he result T here is n o doubt t hat t his
lowering of t he temperat ure has a great deal t o do wit h any
success t hat t he use of a com binat ion val ve suc h as descri bed
a bo ve may ha ve I n t he S argent engine t he rated power is
developed when t he go ve r nor c uts t he ad m ission off at t hree
q ua rter st roke ; t he rest o f t he stroke m ay be considered potent ia l
o ver-capac it y I n spite of t he fact t hat ordinary experienc e
shows a gas engine to be most ef cient w hen it is developing its
maximum not t he rated load as long as normal speed is m ain
t a in e d t he claim is made for t his engine t hat it s best efcien c y
is obt ained w hen c utting o ff at t h ree -q uarter st roke
Th e Ko ertin g Two
T he Ko e rt ing engine is of
Cyc le E n gin e
G erman design made i n t his c ountry by t he D e La V ergne Mac hine
Company of Ne w York
T his is one of t he t wo successful la r ge
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 14

t wo -cycle gas engines i n E urope t he ot her bei ng t he Oc c h e l

h auser not made i n A meri c a Ko e rt in g t wo -cycle engines are
n ow m ade by several G erman rms w hose c onst ruct ions diff er
somewhat a mong t hemsel ves and fro m t he parent design m ainl y
i n fra me and go vern or details T he latter seem t o ha ve an im
port ant bearing upon t he am ount of work done by t he pumps
T he t ype m ade by t he D e La V ergne M ac hine Com pany is best
i ll ust rated fro m t he c at alogue of t he rm
Fig 1 2- 5 7 shows a
c ross-sect ional elevat ion and a plan of t his m ac hine used in t his
c ase as a blowing engine I t is seen t hat t he engine has but a
single c ylinder w hic h is double-act ing T here are t hus exact l y t he
sa me nu mber of power i m pulses per t urn as i n a singl e-cylinder
steam engine T he pist on is very long about seven
eight hs of t he
st roke and is of c ourse wat er-cooled
T his m akes it necessary
t o support it s weight at t h e cross -head an d at a t ail -bearing t o
save bot h c ylinder and s t u fng-boxes A t t he S ide of t he power
c ylinder t here are a gas and a n a ir pu m p w hic h furnish gas and
air by separat e passages t o t he m ixt u r e inlet val ves at t he t op Of
t he cylinder T he manner of d ri ving t hese pu mps fro m a side
c rank and o f O perat ing t he pist on val ves w hic h c ont rol t hem
by means Of rocker arms dri ven by an ec cent ric fro m t he m ai n
S haft is c learly shown in Fig 1 25 8 Fig 1 2 5 9 i llustrat es t he
val ve shaft side o f a pa rtiall y c onst ructed mac hine and shows t he
m anner of operat ing t he i nlet val ves and ignit er gea r T he
exha ust gases are t ak en c are of by a ring o f po rt s i n t he m iddle
O f t he c ylinder T hese port s are unc ove r ed by t he piston alter
n a t e ly on eac h side ( see Fig 1 2
T he operat ion of t he engine is a s fol lo w s :
I t will be see n fro m F ig 1 25 8 t hat t he pum p c rank is i n t he
neighborhood of 1 00 degrees ahead of t he m ain c rank i e w hen
t he l atter is at eit her dead center t he pum ps h a ve c om pleted
about o ne -half t heir st roke From t he beginn in g Of it s disc harge
st roke t he air pum p B Fig 1 260 h a s forced it s c ha rge of air int o
t he passage leading t o t he m ain inlet val ve and h as forced some
o f t his air also pa rt l y u p t o t he gas passage w hic h is t he inner
c on cent ri c passage surrounding t he inlet v al ve s t em
I n t he
m eant ime t he pist on of t he ga s pu mp A t he m otion of w hic h h as
bee n exact l y t he same as t hat of t he air pum p pist on has bee n
al lowed t o shove bac k pa rt of it s c harge int o t he gas suct ion pi pe
,

"

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

3 15

g
i

n
i

e
o

7
5

G
I

316

IN TERNA L CO MB US TION ENGINES

g
n
e
c

y
c

w
T
g

0
e

i
p
m

8
5

T Y PES O F C OM B US TION ENGINES

M ODER N

3 17

A t t he moment t herefore w hen t he exhaust gases have nearly

complet el y escaped fro m t he main cylinder t hrough t he ring of
ports and t he main inlet val ve is O pened t here is at rst a rush
of air fro m bot h t he air and gas passages T his serves t o d rive
t he rema inder of t he exha ust gases o ut of t he cylinder A m o
ment later t he gas pum p start s to del iver gas and t he mixt ure
enters t he cylinder
B y t he t i me t he power pist on has c overed
t he exha ust port s o n it s ret urn stro ke t he a ir and ga s pistons
,

F IG

1 2-5 9

Va l ve

G ea r

of

K o ert ing Two-c y c l e E n gin e

have reac hed t he end o f t heir st roke t he inlet val ve closes and t he
m ix t ure is com pressed i n t he power c ylinder I gni t ion is by
electric s p ark
Th e speed of Ko e rt in g t wo -cycle engines is cont rolled by pro
po rt i onin g t he a mount of gas t o th e load I n t he A merican type
th i s is ac c om pli s hed by pu t t ing butt ery t hrot t le val ves ff F ig
1 12- 60 in t h e disc ha rge passages o f th e gas pu mp
The position
of t hese val v es is c ontrolled by the governor whic h as some of
t h e ot her ill us t rat ions S h ow is o f t he cent rifugal type
This
me t hod o f pump con t rol is ope n t o t he O bj ec t ion t hat if t he
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

318

gas used is at al l dirt y t he frict ional resist ances soon become S O

S ome o f t he im
great a s to render t he governor inoperati ve
p ro ve m e n t s o f t he later K oe rt in g engines ha ve been devoted t o
t his very point
A m odied design o f gas pum p is t hat of K lein
I n t his c onst ruct ion t he piston
B ros D ahl bruc h Fig 1 2
forces t he c harge back int o t he suct ion space t hro ugh t he p ort s
shown at t he middle of t he c yl inder for o n e -half t he strok e The
a mo unt o f gas deli vered t o t he disc harge passage d urin g t h e last
,

FI G

1 2-6 0

half depends upon t he posit ion of t he sm all over ow piston valves

near t he bott o m T his is c ontrolled by t he go vernor t h r ough t he
linkage shown
A not her poi nt t hat has given som e t rouble in
t he rst designs of K o e rt in g engines is t he fac t t hat t he t i m e
available for t he O pening and cl osing o f t he inlet val ve wa s but a
very smal l part o f t he t i me O f o n e revol ution
T he inertia a ct ions
were very severe and hen ce t he engine speed w a s so m e w hat re
T his d if cult y has been overc ome i n an elegant wa y in
s t ric t e d
t he design o f t h e S ie ge n e r Ma s c h in e n s ba n AG as sh own in Fig

H
ere
t
he
l
ay
shaft
m
o
ves
onl
y
at
one
h alf t h e S peed O f
12 6 2
.

H ff m n Z it
o

sch

r ift

S e p t e m be r 1 5

1 906

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

FI G

61
1 2

Ga s

FI G

P ump

1 26 2

K oe r t ing Two-c y c l e E n g in e , K l e in B r os

Mo d i c a ti o n

of

I nl e t

{ oert ing INvo-c y c l e E n

'

Va l ve

g in e

G ea r,

3 19

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

320

t he main shaft t he same a s in fo ur-cyc le engines b u t t he va lve is

opened t w ic e for every t urn of t he shaft
R ein hardt st ates t hat t he K o e rt ing engine is well adapted t o
blowing service beca use it st a rt s easi ly under load and is cert ain
i n it s operat ion t hrough a wide range of S peeds
T his engine is made by t h e R i verside
The River s id e E n gin e
and em bodies in it s details
E ngine Com pany of Oil Cit y P a
several feat ures de cidedly di ff erent fro m t hose o f ot her large
engines Fig 1 2 6 3 sho ws t he hea vy d uty do uble-act ing tandem
type and il l ust rates t he pec uliarit y o f t h e val ve c onstruct ion very
clearly B esides t his t ype t his r m a l so builds single-act i n g
,

FI G

1 26 3 R
.

i ve r s i d e H e a vy D u ty D o u bl e-a c tin g

Ta n d e m G a s E n

g in

ingle-cylinder and twin engines and single-act ing ta ndem engines

On e of t he single-act ing singl e-cylinder engines is illust rated in
F ig 1 26 4 T he following is a d escript ion o f t he main feat ures
O f t he do uble
act ing mac hine
I t a pplies w it h litt le modi cat ion
also t o t he single-act ing t ype Fig 1 265 shows in c ross -sect ion
t he cylinde r val ve and pist on det ails of t he do uble
act ing engine
and wil l serve as an aid in following t he desc ript ion of t hese part s
T he mai n frame or bed is o f t he hea vy d ut y t angye rolling-mi ll
t ype wit h bored guides and m ai n bearings cast in a single piece
and is of great weight and ext reme rigidit y T he cylinder end
o f main frame is squared similar t o cross -sect ion O f cyl inder and
has mac hined holes for receiving t he t ie bars w hic h att ac h t he
cylinder T he design o f t his frame w i t h it s bored guideway is
suc h t hat a large po rt ion o f t he met al is abo v e t he cen t er line
making it except ionally st iff

M O DERN

T Y PES

OF

C O MB US TI O N E N GI NE S

3 21

T he shaft is of side c r ank built -u p t ype and is mac hined al l

o ver
The cylinders are made i n t wo hal ves wit h heads a nd va lve
c hest cast integral wit hout j oint s or packing and are held rigidly
t o t he main f r a me by four heavy st eel t ie bars w hic h t ake a l l
tension st rains T he c ylinders are mounted on a heavy cast iron
sole plate ha ving a ma c hined t o p surface whic h keeps cylinders
i n align ment perm it s perfect freedom for expansion and cont rae
t ion and by remo ving dist ance piece cyli nders can be slid end
wise o n sole plat e giving eas y ac cess t o int eri or o f c vlin d e r pistons
,

Fl o

1 24 54

gl
E n g in

R ivc rs id c S in

e -a c t

in g S in g l e

( y lind c r G a s

and piston rings R ings can be cleaned o r c hanged wit hout dis
t u rbin g pist on or rod
T he sole plat e m akes a d rip pan under all
t he cylinders keeping oi l dri p fro m foundat ion The exhaust and
inlet pi ping is att a c hed t o t he sole plat e hence no piping excep t
t he w ater-j ac ket pi ping has t o be d ist u r bed w hen cylinders are
m oved There is no overhead piping o r wi ring t o int erfere wit h
t ra veling c rane
B ot h inlet and exh aust val ves are of t he semi -balan ced water
cooled poppet t ype operat ed i n a vert ical posit ion A l l wat er
passing to t he cylinder j acket passes t hrough val ves rst giving
pe rfect and p osit i v e c ool ing wit h out any attent ion w hatever
T he balan cing pist ons run in renewable l iners and are lu bri
c a t e d posit ively
T hese pist ons form a large and pe rfect guide
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

n
g

MODERN

O F COMB US TION ENGINES

T YP E S

323

assuring posit i ve align ment fo r t hese val ves i nden itely T he

val ve seat s are renewable a nd are located slight ly below bott o m
o f cylinder bore so t hat al l foreign subst ances are swept fro m t he
cylinder at eac h exha ust stroke A l l val ves are readi ly remo ved
fro m t he t op of t he cyli nder wit ho ut dist urbing cam shaft
P ist on and pist on rods a re wat er-cooled t he water ent ering
t hrough a t e le sc Op ic j oint connected t o side of c rosshead Cir
c ulat ion t hrough eac h pist on is posit i ve and t he o vero w is so
arranged t hat pist ons are kept ful l o f water Water passages
t hrough pist on and rod are large and easy so t hat not o ver ten
pounds pressure is required for Ci rc ulation T he o vero w is
visible so t hat water c annot c ome t o a boiling-point wit hout
at t ract ing engineer s att ent ion A heavy t ail -rod support and
adj ust able shoe is provided fo r carrying weight of pist ons and
rod T he c onst ruct ion of t he pist on ro d is suc h t hat a pist on in
eit her cylinder c an be removed wit hout dist urbing t he ot her
c ylinder or t he c onnect ing ro d c ross-head or any part of t he val ve
gear
The val ve gear of t he R i verside engine is very simple and c on
sist s of a single sh aft mounted on t op of t he engine running i n
self -oiling bearings T his S haft runs at on e half t he speed of t he
main shaft and c arries t he inlet an d exha ust cams c ams for
operat ing t he O il pu mps and t he t ime r s for ignition system
Power is t ransmitt ed t o t he inlet and exha ust val ves by an i nlet
and exhaust lever h ung on a single pin A ll c a ms are keyed
rigidly t o t he c a m shaft T his const ruct ion makes a m inimu m
nu mber of j oints subj ect t o wear A mple adj us t ments are pro
vid e d for t ak ing up wear
I gnition is by an impro ved met hod t hroughout consisting o f
t wo magnet ic al ly operated spark plugs in eac h cylinder T he
spark ing points being i n series w it h t he magnet coils give a posi
t ive external i ndicat io n by t he movement o f t he armat ure as t o
whet her t he spark t akes pl ace w it hi n t he cyl inder T he t iming
is elect rical ; no gearing or mec hanic al t rips being used sim ply
a NO 1 4 st randed wi r e running t hrough i ron armored c onduits
leads t o eac h plug
T he t imer is m ounted on t he sec ondary shaft and is built i n a
heavy substantial m anner The contac ts are O f t he wipe type
and are m ade of t ool steel an d are adj ust able for wea r A visible
.

IN TERNA L C OM B US TION ENGINE S

3 24

indicating spindle shows t he amount of cont act T he ent ire

wearing part s o f t i mer are run i n oil w hic h prevent s burn ing O f
t he c ont acts and reduces wear t o m inimum W iring fro m t he
t i mer t o eac h spark pl ug is prot ect ed by a ve am pere enc losed
fuse ; t h us S ho uld any spark pl ug become damaged o r short -c ir
c u it e d
it would have no eff ect on t he rest O f plugs An v spark
plug ca n be removed and replaced w hile t he engine is i n opera
t ion
T he t i me o f ignit ion i n al l cylinders c an be adj usted simu l
t a n e o u s ly and by an indi vidual adj ust ment t he t ime of ignit io n
i n any c ylinder c an be adj usted independent ly A ll O f t hese
adj ust ment s c an be made w hen t he engine is i n O perat ion
T he met hod of st a rt ing t he double -act ing engine is as follows :
A gas-engine dri ven air com pressor is provided for su pplying
c om pressed air for st a rting t his engine air t o be st ored in a suit able
steel recei ver T he pneu mat i c st a rt ing gear on t he engine consist s
of t wo sh ift er pist ons m ounted wit hin t h e val ve lever carry
ing pin T hese pist ons are S hift ed by t hrowing a smal l t hree
w ay coc k w hic h appl ies com pressed air t o o n e side o f t he pist on
w hi c h in t urn mo ves t he val ve levers 3 inc h b ri nging t he ca m
rol lers in line wit h a n auxiliary ca m w hic h put s al l t he val ves i n
bot h ends of o n e c ylinder i nt o t wo -c ycle a ct ion or i n ot her words
m akes a poppet val ve ai r or st eam engine out o f t his cylinder
w hi c h permit s t he engine being st a rt ed on an y st roke and o n
eit her qua rt er T he o perat io n being ent irel y auto mati c t he
engine will run as long as co m pressed ai r is appl ied T he ot her
doubl e-a cting c yli nder c ont inues t o O perat e as a four-cycle ga s
engine and t akes u p it s explosions after t he rs t revol ut ion
Co mpressed air is t hen shut o ff fro m t he st a rt ing cylinder and t he
t hree-wa y coc k reversed w hic h permits t he ca m levers being
ret urned t o t hei r normal posit ion and t hat cylinder i m mediately
goes i nt o fo ur-c ycle a ct ion and t akes u p its explosions o n t he next
revol ut ion T he st art ing gea r adds pract i cal ly no com pli cat ion
t o t he engine a s t he regular i nlet and exhaust val v es are used fo r
dist ribut ing t he air T here are no extra shaft o r a uxiliary val ves
and no t appings int o t he cylinders T here is onl y o ne com pressed
air pipe leading t o t he sole plat e ai r being deli vered i nt o t he fuel
du ct and entering t he cylinde r s via t he i nlet val ves

h
e
r
e
e
T his E nglis h engine is made i n t his
o
ss
l
E
n
i
n
T
C
y
g
.

MODERN T Y PES

OF

COMB US TION ENGINES

3 25

c o un t ry by t he P ower a nd Mining Mac hinery Com pany Of N e w

York and k nown as t he A merican Crossley
These engines are built as single-c y lin d e r t w o c y lirid e r-opposed
and double-opposed unit s si zes r anging from 5 0 t o 1 3 00 B H P
T his design diff ers radically fro m t hat Of ot her large eng ines in
t hat t he singl e-act ing cylinder is retained u p t o t he largest si zes
i e t he design is i n a way no t hing but an enlargement o f t he smal l
four-cyc le mac hine I t is fu n d a m e n t ly t he same design employed
at rst by t he D eut z Company for t hei r large engines but has
been gi ven up by t hem so me years ago i n fa vor of doubl e-act ing
engines
F igures 1 26 6 a nd 1 26 7 sho w a general elevation and a c ross
sect io nal elevat ion respect ively of t he single-O pposed t ype
T he
cylinder c astings are sec urely bolt ed to eac h end of a cent ral frame
cast ing B o t h con nect ing rods w ork on one c rank pin The
pist ons are wat er-cooled The cylinder proper is a separate liner
resting at t he c r ank end in t he j acket cast ing and held at t he head
end by t he cylinder head T he head carries t he gas and in let
val ves w h ile t he exhaust val ve is placed i n a sepa r at e casting
The po sit ion o f inlet and exhaust val ve is shown i n Fig 1 26 8
B ot h a re o perated in a hori zont al posit ion by means of bel l c ranks
by cams on a lay shaft
I n t his respect t he engine diff ers from
most ot he rs i n w hic h t he val ves a re nearly al ways ve rt ical T he
o bj ection t o t he hori zont al form is at least pa rt ly overcome by
gi vi ng t he exhaust val ve a guide at eac h end T his val ve is
watercooled as is necessary in large m ac hines T he lay s haft 3
Fig 1 2- 66 is o perat ed b y spiral gears and act uat es t he main
inle t t he c ut -Off val v e t he gas val ve t he exhaust val ve and t he
igniter gear
G a s and ai r enter t he m ixing c ha m ber M Figs 1 2 6 6 and
126 9 t hrough a propo rt ioning val v e t he ai r d irect and the ga s
t h rough a special ga s val ve
F rom here t he mixt ure passes a
m u lt i -po rt c ut -o ff val ve w hic h surrounds t he val ve ste m of t he
inlet val ve and is shown in g r eater d et ail in F ig 1 27 0 T his cut
o ff valve is o p erated from t he lay shaft t hrough t he rocker arm
C Fig 12- 7 1
T h e governor shown i n plan in F ig 1 2-6 9 serves
t o sh ift t he fulc rum
of t he rocke r arm c Fig 1 2- 7 1 t hus c utt ing
Of
f t he mixt ure su pply t o t he main inlet val ve earlier or la t e r as
t he load demands
S ho uld t he load d ro p s o fa r t hat t he c o m
.

3 26

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

s
s

o
r

C
n
a
c
i

MODERN T Y P ES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

n
g

c
e

s
s

o
r

3 27

I N TERNA L

FI G

2-6

Am e
at

F IG

69
1 2

CO M B US TION ENGINES

A,

D t ils
e a

ric a n

Cro s s l e y E ng in e , I nl e t
Exh a us t V a l v e a t E

of

Va l ve

C e a r , A m e r i ca n Cro s s l e y E n in e

M ODERN

T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

bus t io n

329

beco mes sl uggish under very low loads t he engine au t o

m a t ic a lly shift s o v er t o t he hit -and -miss go verning by t he gover
nor wit hdra wing t he block b F ig 1 26 9 t hus kee ping t he ga s
val v e c losed alt oget her
I n m ult i -cylinder engines
t he point at whic h t his
oc c urs is so adj usted
t hat o n e c yli nder after
I nl e t V a l ve Am e r i c a n Cr o s s l e y
1 27 0
FI
G
anot her c ha nges o ver t o
E n gin e
t he latte r syst em of regu
lat ion and not al l o f t he m at t he same time
T he A me r ican c om pan y fo r some t ime ad hered t o hot t ube
ignit ion but some o f t he later engines were tted wit h make -a nd
break elect ric ignit ion
Th e S n o w E ngin e F T he S now S tea m P um p Co mpan y build
,

FI G

1 27 1

E nd

Vie w

A m e r i c a n Cr o s sl e y E n

g in

t wo t ypes of hori zo ntal do uble -act ing four-c ycle mac hines called

B ot h of t hese designs
respect ivel y Ty p e A and Type B
d i ffer radically fro m t he const ruct io n of ot her la rge gas engines
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

33 0

in t hat t he val ves are placed i n c ha mbers at t he side o f t he c ylin

ders T here are reasons for a nd against t his const ruct ion t he
m ain disadvant age being perhaps t h e c ut -u p form o f t he com
bu s t io n c ham ber
S o me of t he m any ad vant ages are out lined
below
Type B engines are built i n S ingle-cyl inder unit s fro m 20 t o
1 25 horse -power an d i n t ande m unit s fro m 8 0 t o 5 00 horse
power T he general feat ures o f t he design are shown in eleva
i on i n Fig 1 27 2 an d i n c ross -sect ion in Fig 1 27 3
.

FI G

1 27 2

S n o w Typ e B G a s E n

g in

T he most not able i nst al lat ions O f Type A engines is found i n

t he Mart i n st at ion o f t he S a n Mat eo P o wer Co mpany i n Cali
T his st at ion at present c ont ains t hree O f t he twin
fo rn ia
t andem unit s a fourt h is i n c ourse o f erect ion and t he foundat ion
is laid for a ft h Fig 1 2 7 4 sh ows a genera l view O f t he stat ion
and also serves t o gi ve a general idea o f t he appearan ce o f t he
engines
T he engines of t he M art in st at ion were desc ribed in
great det ail by C P P oole in an a rt ic le in P ower J anuary 1 4 and
.

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

t o whic h t he writer

2 1 , 1 908 ,

is

indebted for t he following

33 1
in fo r

mat ion :
F igure 1 27 5 shows in cross-sect ion t he m ai n feat ures of t he
design w hile F ig 1 27 6 is a t ransverse c r oss -sect ion t hrough o n e
O f t he val ve c h ambers to s ho w t he v al v e con struct io n E ac h c ylin
der O f t he t win t andem unit is 4 2 inc hes in diameter by 6 0inc h
st roke T he engines are di r ect c onnected t o CrockerWheeler
generat ors rat ed at 4 00 0 K W eac h T hey are capable however
of c arrying m oment arily an o verload o f 3 3 per cent and have
demonst r ated t heir abilit y t o carry 1 5 per cent overl oad c o n
These gures make t hese unit s t he largest ga s power
t in u o us ly
.

FI G

1 2- 7 3

Cr o ss-se c ti o n

of

S n o w Typ e

Gas E n

g in

engines i n t he world The fuel used is an o il-water gas m ade by

t he L o we process
The main frame is o f t he side c rank t ype The cyl inders are
cast in t wo pa rts fastened t oget her by anges at t he center as
shown in det ail i n F ig 1 27 7 T his const ruction makes t he outer
wal l independent of t he cyl inder wall proper and a v oids t empera
t ure st r esses The val ve c ham be r s are cast integral wit h t he
cylinder c ast ing T he cylinder heads a r e plain j acketed covers
cont aining not hing but t he s t u fn g-boxes For t he purpose o f
safety against leakage howe ver eac h hea d has a d ouble seat
The fro n t and rear cyl inde r s are connec t ed by a d ist an ce piece of
box -section whic h has l arge openings in t he side t hrough whic h
heads and pis t ons may be removed if required T he pist ons are
.

332

IN TE RNAL

COMB US T ION

E NGI N ES

,
.

TA

n
g
n

M ODERN T YP E S OF COMB US T ION E NGI NES

33 3

made in t wo pa rt s bolted t oget her T hese pist ons t oget her wit h
t heir r ods are of co urse water-cooled t he water ent erin g at t he
fro nt c ross -head and leaving at t he tail c r oss -head
T he d ist inguishing feat ure O f t hese engines however is t he
val v e c onst r uctio n shown in det ail in F ig ] 276 Mr P oole i n
t he art ic le mentio ned d esc ri bes t he gear as fol lo w s :

T he c a m shafts whic h d ri ve t he val ve gear are driven by

steel gea r s bevel gears being used on t he m ain S haft driving back
th rough spur w heels t o sec ure t he pro per red uct ion in speed o f
t wo t o one The igniters and l ubri c at ors are also dri ven fro m
t he ca m shafts
are also t he st art ing val ves whi c h ad mit com
pressed a i r o u t h e cylinders for start ing T he inlet and exhaust
.

val v es are driven by cams m ade o f c hilled cast iron loc ated on
t he c am shafts whic h run in bearings bolted t o t he side of t he
val ve c hambers

The inlet and ex haust val ves are o f t he unbalanced mush

room t y p e w ork ing in c ages sec ured t o t he t op and bott o m of th e
val v e c hamber B ot h valves and t heir c ages are wat er-j ackete d
i n order t o prevent back -ring o r pre -ignit ions on ac c ount O f t he
E ac h inlet v al ve is c o m
t r eac he r ous nat ure of t he gas used
b ine d wit h a c o mbinat ion mixing and t hrott l ing val ve O f piston
fo r m so designed t hat when t he inlet val ve opens gas and ai r
po rts in p r o p e r proportion are o pen for t he p assage o f gas and
air in t he ratio desi r ed t he amoun t of t he o penin g o f bot h bei ng
fixed by t he gove r nor
F rom t his it wi l l be evident t hat t he
engines o perate wi t h v ari able co mpression and constant mixture
t h e supply of ai r and ga s to eac h end of eac h cy linder being
throttled di r ec tly at eac h in let v alve for its end of it s cylinder
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 34

2
a
m

c
o

o
o
n

o c

o
0

3
4
n
o

n
.

3 5
4

3
3

m
E

D
e

5
9
6

B
e

m
.

2
0

n
e

m
p
o

m
v

3
.

2
d
u
b

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

33 5

T he exhaust va lves are of cast iro n wit h n ic kel -steel stems

and are t horoughl y water-j acketed th e water being fed t o and
c arried from t he val ve by positi v e circ ulat ion T he connect ion
of t he exha ust val ve c ages wit h t he ex ha ust pipe is s o made t hat
t he cages can be readily removed wit hout disco nnect ing any ot her

part of t he engine
I n disc ussing t he reasons for locating t he val ves at t he side
Mr P oole q uotes t he builders as follows :

I t perm its Of t he use of an absolutely cont in uo us bedpl ate

un der all cylinders w hi c h is considered essential on engines as
l ong as t hese for m aint aining absol ut e align ment an d permit
t ing un rest ri cted movement t o
com pensate for variations 1 n
temperat ure in cylinder walls
and conn ecting part s

A solid unbroken fo u n d a
t ion from one end of t he engine
t o t he ot her is t hus sec ured
and t he builders consider t hat
a solid unbroken foundat ion is
more essent ial for a gas engine FI G 1 27 7 -Cylin d e r Co n s t r uc ti o n
t ha n for any ot her prime mover
s n o w Ty p e A G a s E n g in e
on
ac count Of t he enormous
weight of t he rec iprocating pa rt s and t he i nability t o fully co un
,

t e rba la n c e

I t enables all working pa rt s of t he engine wit hout except ion

,

to be located above t he engine -room oor and t herefore t o be i n

ful l vie w of t he attendants at all t imes

I nlet and exhaus t -val ve dri ving mot ions from t he ca m

shaft are sho rt and direct

E xh aust val ves are m uc h m ore ac cessible for removal when

located i n a val ve c ham ber on t he side since t he c rane can be
used t hroughout t he entire operat ion and all work i n connection
wit h t he remo val and displacement of t he exhaust val ves is done
from t he engine-roo m oor

Wit h val ves located in a side val ve c ham be r broken inlet

and exhaust val ves canno t get int o t he int erior of t he cylinder
and lodge between t he piston and t he cylinde r-head causing
wrecks
.

IN T ERNA L COMB US T ION

33 6

ENGINES

I t has bee n very general ly t h e O pinion of gas-engine designers

t hat t he loc at ion o f t he val ves in a side val ve c ham b er of t he

kind used on t he Califo rnia engines ent ailed t he cert ain d isa d va n
t age t hat foreign m at erial ent ering t he cylinder wit h t he air and
ga s would deposit on t he bott o m of t he cylinder co unt erbore
while if t he exhaust val ve be loc at ed o n t he bot tom suc h deposit s
wil l be c arried ou t t h r o ugh th at v al ve ; fu rt hermore t h at
l ubri cat ing O il collects i n t he bott o m o f t he co unt erbore and is
c arboni zed causing back - r in g and pre -ignit ions E xpe r ien ce
wit h t hese engines t hus far indic at es t hat if l ub r icat ion is pro perly
e ff ect ed n o c arboni zed O il is found i n t he cylinder and t hat when
oi l is supplied excessi vel y t he result ing deposit of carbon is loc a t ed
not on t he surface of t he c lea r ance space b ut o n t he t op o f t he
pist on barrel direct l y under t h e oi l -inlet holes o n t he pist o n rod
w here it wipes in fro m met al lic pack ing and o n t he face Of t he
cyl inder head di r ect l y under and c lose t o t he pist on -ro d hole

i n t he head
Th e Coc ker ill E n gin e T h is mac hine is built by t he So c
A non J oh n Cock eril l i n S eraing Bel giu m This r m bu il ds
s eve r al ty pes o f engines di ff e ing a mon g t he msel ves m ainl y
r
in t heir val ve c onst ruct ions
F i g 1 2 7 8 * S hows a 1 200 horse
power t andem gas engine in w hic h t he inlet val ve is on t op t he
exhaust val ve o n t he bott o m o f t he c ylinder B ot h are operated
apparentl y f r o m t h e sa me c am on t he lay S haf t
T his t ype of
m ac hine is built eit her fo r qualit y or q uant it y go vern ing i n
w hic h c ase t he c onst ruct ion of t he inlet val ve d iff e r s
F ig 1 2 7 9
shows anot her fo r m a S ingle -c yl inde r double act ing engine d irect
connect ed t o a bl owing c ylinde r T he det ails of t he val ve gea r
O f t his ma ch ine are q uit e clearl y shown i n F ig 1 22 80 1 B ot h
i nlet and o ut let val ves are S ide by side a t t he bot to m of t he cyl
i nder
F igure 1 28 1 shows t he latest form of t he doubl e-act ing t an
dem Coc keril l e ngin e i T he dist inct i ve feat u r es of t his m ac hine
are t hat al l val ves a r e placed bel ow t he cylinder and t hat ec c e n
t r ic s only are used for O perat ing t h e s e v a l ve s
The val ve gear
proper represent s o n e o f t he m ost c om p l ic at ed c onstruct ions used
,

Du bbe l

l G i ild n e r
I G uld n c r

'

479

48 1

S ep t

1 90 5

MODERN

O F COMB US TION ENGINES

FI G

F IG

1 27 8

79
12

3 37

3 38

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

G
I

MODERN T Y PES

OF

COM B US TION ENGINES

3 39

to d ay a nd is shown i n sect io n in Fig l 2~

8 2f I n t his gure at
t he left t he ec c ent ric t hrough it s rod a and t he lever b operates
t he ca m c whic h posit i vely opens and c loses t he exhaust val ve
t hrough t he t ri ple lever d T he inlet val ve ec cent ric Fig 1 2-8 2
at t he right in a si milar man ner operates t he gas val ve c am c
and t he inlet c a m c
T he lever b act uat ing t he ga s v
alve ca m
is disengaged fro m t he rod a w hen t he trip arrangement ff is
brought int o play by t he c a m disc e T he posit ion o f t his disc
t hrough t he linkage
o n its shaft is regulated by t he go vernor
shown t hus e ff ect ing speed regulat ion
T he dash pot h allows
t he gas val ve t o seat noiselessly aft er it s linkage is released
.

FI G
T he
Eu rope
engines
mainly

1 28 1

Co c k e r ill

D bl
ou

e -a c

tin g

Ta n d e m E n

g in

Cockerill

engine has fo und c onsiderable application in

t here being about
B H P in o perat ion in 1 21
ranging fro m 200 t o 3000 B H P T he fuel used is
blast furnace gas

-Chal mers Company

h
e
r
e
r
A
lt
hough
t
he
A
llis
N
u
n
b
E
n
e
n
T
i
g
g
o f Milwaukee have been t he A meric an licensees o f t he Masc hinen
G esellsc haft N iirn be rg m akers o f t he N iirn be rg engine t he large
gas engine now t urned out by t he A me r ic an rm di ff ers i n some
o f t he im port ant det ails fro m t he origina l G erman design
T he N iirn be rg engine is t o -day perhaps t he most important
four-cyc le gas engine built in G ermany and for t hat reason a
descrip t ion is rst gi ven of t he G erm an mac hine t o be followed
by a few det ails of t he A l l is-Chal mers engine as far as t hey could
be obtained
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TI ON ENGINES

w
c

m
8

q
m
E
o

e
@
5
0

0
s
l
i

3
0

m
.

2
3

0
D

i
a
.

IlI ODE RN

T YP E S

OI" COMB US TI ON ENGINES

34 1

A ll O f t he mediu m si zed and large N iir n be rg engines are do uble

act ing eit her single-cyl inder o r tandem T hey range i n si ze
fro m 250 t o 6 000 horse -power t he larger powers being t he t win
tandem type P robably t he best descript ion e ver gi ven o f t his

mac hine is c ont ained in R ie d le r s G ross G asmasc hinen

from
whic h t he c ross-sect ion F ig 1 28 3 t oget her wit h t he t wo fol low
ing gures is taken T his c ut shows frame cylinder and val ve
const ructio n very c learly T he only part rigidly fastened to t he
foundat ion is t he main frame whic h is o f t he center cran k t ype
The cylinders rest o n
a s pre ferred by al l E uropean builders
support s suc h th at t hey ca n freely expand and c ontract under
temperat ure c hanges T he ga s and inlet val ves are placed on
T he
t o p and t he exhaust val ve at t he bott o m of t he cylinder
inlet and exhaust port s are cast in one part wit h t he cylinder and
j acket wal ls This red uces t he cylinder heads t o S imple water
j acketed covers a point o f great advant age as c om pared wit h t he
c omplicated cylinder heads o f former days A l l val ve cages w it h
t heir val v es are easily removable fo r inspect ion
T he exhaust
valves a re water-cooled T he valves are operated from a lay
shaft running alongside Fig 1 28 4 by means o f ec centrics and
not by cams H ow t his mot ion is t ransmitted t o t he val ve stems
by roller levers t o a void shock and noise is very c learly shown
in F ig 1 28 5 T he pistons a r e as sim ple as t hose of a stea m
engine T he met hod o f fastening t hem o n t he S haft t oget her wit h
t he water-c ool ing a rrangements fo r rods and pistons are indi
c a t e d i n Fig
18
83
The weight o f pist on and ro d is carried by
ou t side bearings whic h relieves bot h cylinder and s t ufng-boxes
T he great est attent io n t o ac cessibilit y h a s been paid i n t he
design o f t his engine A s shown in Fig 128 6 by disc onnecting
t he piston rod bet ween t he c ylinders disconnect ing t he connect
ing rod and slid ing t he rod and c ross -head forward and by t aking
o ff t he front a n d rear cylinder c o vers t he entire engine interior is
at once open to inspection
T he N iirn be rg engine regulates by pure qualit y regulation
t hat is t he amount of gas onl y is c ut down as the load drops
To ac complish t his t here is a gas val ve placed ahead o f eac h mai n
inlet val v e on t he t o p of t he cyl i nder Fig 1 28 3 shows t he c o n
st ruct ion of these val v es in section a nd the met hod of O p erat i n g
t hem by eccent rics fro m t he lay shaft may b e seen i n F ig 1 28 4
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

w
a
s

w
e
u

e
3
5
0

m
a

N
.

O
H
r

T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

M ODERN

1 28 4

FI G

Nu

r n be rg

1 28 5

D t il
e a

s of

D bl
ou

e
ac

Va l v e

tin g

Gea r,

Ta n d e m E n

g in

N r nb rg E n g in
u

34 3

T Y PES O F COM B US TION ENGINES

M ODERN

34 5

T he latter illust rat ion also shows t he cent rifugal governor a nd

t he govern or shaft running alongside of t he cyli nde rs
F rom t his
govern or shaft rea c h rods run t o t he gas val ves and cont rol t he
ti me of t he opening of t hese valves in th e manner explai ned i n
I n some of t he lat er engines t he det ails of t he
Chapter X I V
governor mec hanism a re c hanged so mewhat but t he princi p le
t o open t h e gas va l ve later in
o f operat ion is t he sa me in all i e
t he st roke as t he load d r ops and t o keep t he t ime of c losure t he
sa me T he air is not t hrot t led at a ny t i me hence the c om pres
sion remains a bo ut t he sa me I t is int erest ing t o t race out t he
sequence of events in a four-cycle ta ndem engine for w h ic h pur
pose F ig 1 2- 8 7 published by t he Allis=
Ch a l m e rs Com pany is given
.

IO N N
A C TIN G S Y S T E M :
F O UR C Y C L E DO U B L E T A ND M O R T W I
TY E
S E Q UE NC E o r

T HE

PE RAT

S u c t io n
Co m

PO W E R

4 P

au s t

OW

uc

Com

PO W E R

E xh a u s t

p re s s ion

E xh

In S u

ti o n

O
FI G

ko
c

h.
I

3 t d e m u.

on

S t r o ke

KE S I N 2 R E V

20 4 S u

POW E R

E R S TR

OL IO
UT

NS

1 28 7

Most N ii rn be rg engines o perate

bl a st furnace gas T he
o
f
ta ble on page 3 4 6 also f r o m t he catalogue
t he A l lis Chal mers
Com pany will serve t o give some idea O f t he c ylinder si zes speeds
oo r-s p ace et c
I t has already been ment ioned t hat t he engine n o w built by
t he A llis-Chal mers Com pan y is n ot quite like t he N iirn be rg ma
c hine T he following is a d esc r i pt ion of one of t hese engines as
given in Po wer J anuary 2 1 1 90 8 The engine F ig 1 288 is o f
t he t w in -tandem d ouble-act ing t y pe and direct connected t o a
1 0 40 K W Cr ocker-Wheeler gene r at or :

I t is o f t he si d e -c rank ty p e so gene r all y used i n stea m engine

on

Z e it sc h rift d e s V e re in s d e u t s c h e r I n ge nie ure

S ee

22, 1 906

A u g 1 1 , 1 9 06 ,
.

a nd

S ep t

I N TE RNAL COM B US TI O N

34 6

ENGINES

const ruct ion T he pistons a r e suppo rted ent i r ely by t he piston

r ods w hic h a r e t u r ned w it h suf cient cam be r to m ake t hem dead
st r ai g ht w hen t he weight of t he pistons is put o n t hem Th e
r ods a r e equipped w it h inte r mediate and t ail shoes as u s ual w i t h
la rg e t andem const r uct ion r unnin g o n g uides between t he c ylin
de r s and behind t he r ea r cyl inde r in addit ion t o t he main c r oss
head
.

N URN B E R G GAS ENGINE

TA B L E

T
Si e
z

Si e
z

l d s
8

= EmE

'

2
c:

c:

'

32

m
<

mm

_
a

Cd

18
20
21
22
24
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52

24
24
30
30
30
36
36
36
42
42
42
48
48
48
54
54
54
60
60
60

1 50
1 50
1 25
1 25
1 25
1 15
1 15
1 15
1 00
1 00
1 00
92
92
92
86
86
86
78
78
78

260
3 20
3 70
40 5
4 90
5 45
6 30
74 0
85 5
98 5
1 105
1 300
14 60
1 6 30
1 875
2080
2280
24 75
27 20
2950

N O T E Th e

r r a dd iti
dr t
t d
on

op e

i ec

c o nn ec

r:

C3

< 3

2
5

ai

5
'

0
.

92

44
44
44
50
50
50
60
60
60
70
70
70

a
n

m
'

36
36
36
42
42
42
48
48
48

54
54
54

ve n

up o n

e c

:
c

3 85
4 65
5 15
700
8 10
9 35
105 0
1240
1 400
1 55 0
1 7 80
19 80
2 1 70
2350
25 80
2800

'

9
2

U)
o

5
so

8
w

c:

t a bl e s a ll o w fo r
s u b s t i t u te d o r a n

J:

17
17

5 20
7 40
8 10
980
1090
1 260
1 4 80
1 7 10
1 97 0
22 10
2600
29 20
3260
3750
4 1 60
4 5 60
4 95 0
5 4 40
5 900

45
45
45

IS

29
29
33
33
33

o ve

ee

19
19
22
22
22
25
25
25

24 5

93

:5

1 50
1 50
1 25
1 25
1 25
1 15
1 15
1 15
1 00
100
1 00
92
92
92
86
86
86
78
78
78

J:

24
24

c}

3:

g g
gm
Lu

a:

i
th
a ll W i d t h s g i
ab
s t b m ad if a ba d -wh l
th
ra k-sh aft

ove r

mu

(I )

11
18
20
ll
13
21
13
22
24
13
15
24
15
26
28
15
17%
1 74 3 2
17 }
21
36
21
38
21
26
42
26
44
26
46
48
30
30
30
52

33
33
33
38
38
38

'

Sp a c e

a ce

a;

3
H

29
29

2
c

0"

3
.

'

a
n
.

oo

Sp

"

2
3

AN DE M

l r

IN

1 3

8
W

of

Cyh n d e rs

er

T W -T

T W IN

AN D E M

of

Cy i n

S T AN DA R D S I Z ES

OF

a pl
.

el ec

a n

ic

20
23
23
23
27
27
27

32
32
38
38
44
44

h l
ra t r

w
y

ee :

ge n e

T he r e a r e t wo inlet val ves to eac h combust ion chambe r o ne

fo r ai r and one fo r g as but bot h a r e m ounted in a sin g le ca g e
The ai r val ve is o f t he piston t ype and t he g as val ve is o f t he
poppet t ype its axis bein g in line wi t h t hat o f t he ai r val ve
Th e latte r is opened at t he be g innin g o f t he suct ion st r oke and
,

MODERN

TYPE S

OF CO M B US T] O N

ENGINES

34 7

kept open t h r ou g hout t hat st r oke The g as valve howeve r is

open du r in g va r yin g p ropo rt ions o f t he suct ion st r oke acco rdin g
t o t he r equi r ement s of t he load T he en g ine t he refo re ope rates
wit h constant comp r ession and va r yin g m ixt u re p r opo rt ions
Th e comp r ession p r essu r e is about 1 8 0 pounds pe r squa r e inch
absolute
Th e i g nit ion is by make -and -b r eak mechanism elect r ically
ope rated ; t hat is t he movable elect r ode is r ocked by means of an
elect r oma g net and t he latte r is ene rg ized by t he i g nitio n cu rr ent
cont r olled by a t ime r o r s o -called commutato r d r iven sync h r o
.

FIG

1 288

All

i C h l m r D bl
s-

e s

ou

e -a c

t i ng Twin

Ta

nd

em

n in

E g

-t ale incandescent lamps

wi
t
h
t
he
cam
shaft
T
ell
a re
l
connected in ci r cuit wit h t he i g nite r ma g nets and indicate t he

pe rfo r mance o r default

The main di ffe r ences bet ween this and t he N iirn be rg en g ine
t hen appea r t o be di ffe rent cylinde r suppo rts t he combination of
the g as and inlet valves in one housin g and t he use of the side
c rank f r ame
P r e m ie r E n gin e
P r obably t he best desc r ipt ion o f t his

en g ine is found in R obinson s G as and Pet r oleu m E n g ines

It
is o f what is known as t he posit ive scaven g e r type t e t he com
bus t io n cham be r is t ho r ou g hly washed o u t wit h ai r befo r e a new
cha rg e is adm itted T he cylinde r is sin g le -act in g and sin g le

no us y

IN T ERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

34 8

cylinde r and t andem unit s a r e built T he fo r me r g o up t o 250

ho rse -po w e r t he latte r up t o 1 200 ho r se -powe r T he pump
se r vin g t o fu r nish t he ai r fo r scaven g in g is usually placed ahead
o f t he rst powe r cyl inde r but in some of t he late r desi g ns t he ai r
pump is placed obliquely above t he r st cylinde r
F i g u r es 1 28 9 and 1 2 90 a r e t wo illust r at ions f r om R obinson
T he r st shows t he g ene r al appea r ance of t he machine t he met hod
o f ope r at in g t he inlet and exhaust val ves f r om t he lay shaft t he
oblique r od t o O pe rate t he ai r-pump val ve and t he g ove r no r
det ails T he second shows seve r al sect ional views f r om which
T he piston D of t he sin g le
t h e o p e ra t io n may be explained
act in g ai r pump is r i g idly connected t o t he piston C of t he r st
powe r cylinde r T he second powe r pis t on is connected by means
o f t he yoke K and t he side r ods R R t o t he ai r pump piston
T hus t he use of a st u fn g box i n t he combust ion c hambe r o f t he
fo r wa r d powe r piston is avoided H H a re t he combinat ion ai r
and ga s inlet val ves and G G t he exhaust val ves ope r ated as
shown i n t he t r ansve r se c r oss sect ion
T he ope r at ion is as follows : On t he out st r oke ai r is admitted
t o t he ai r pum p D t h r ou g h t he gr id val ve F shown in t he sect ion
X X
On t he r et u r n st r oke t his ai r is co m p r essed into t he passa g e
DE and se r ves t o scaven g e o u t t he powe r cylinde r j ust exhaust
in g when t he inlet val ve H into t hat cylinde r is opened about o ne
half exhaust st r oke On t he next out st r oke t he ai r pum p takes a
new c ha rg e but at t he same t ime t he val ve F has also opened
communicat ion t o t he passa g e E so t hat t he cylinde r j ust cha rg
in g may d r aw ai r f r eely A bove the inlet valve H t he re is placed
a cylind r ical val ve which du r in g t he scaven g in g act ion opens t he
ai r po rt s completely and keeps t he g as po rt s closed but which
at t he be g innin g of the cha rg in g st r oke shifts it s position t o g ive
t he p r ope r r elat ion between ai r and g as W hile t he exhaust and
c ha rg in g st r okes above desc r ibed t ake place in o n e say t he rst
cylinde r t he second has completed its comp r ession and expansion
st r okes On t he t hi rd (t he in st r oke ) o f t he pum p t he r efo r e we
shall have com p r ession in t he rst cyl inde r and exha ust in t he
second T he pum p t hen scaven g es o u t t he second cylinde r du r
in g t he last half o f its exhaust st r oke
S peed r e g ulat ion in t his e ng ine is eff ected by t he g ove r no r
c utt in g o ut t he g as f r om t he back cylinde r alto g et he r below a
.

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

e
r

34 9

3 50

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

x
.

5
2

r
o

u
a

>
h

Z
O

o
z

<
>

H
4

o
z

o
z

9
3

5
E

E
w
c

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

35 1

ce rtain load Above t his a cha rg e of g as is admitted occasion

ally while above half powe r bot h cylinde r s wo r k p r act ically
cont inuously
R obinson states t hat t he tandem desi g n and t he posit ive
scaven g in g act ion make t he P r emie r en g ine well adapted fo r t he
bu r nin g of c heap fuel g as G iild n e r j ud g es f r om t he hi g h e f
c ie n c ie s obtaine d i n conj unct ion wit h mean e ffect ive p r essu r es
exceedin g 1 1 0 pounds pe r squa r e inch t hat t h e combust ion p r ocess
in t his en g ine must be ve r y pe rfect
T he D eut z Company o f D eut z -Colo g ne
Th e D e u tz E n gin e
we r e t he r st r m t o build Ott o en g ines and t hey have f r om t he
r st been p r ominent ly ident i ed wit h t he development o f t his
type of en g ine T hei r p r esent day const r uct ions emb r ace seve r al
desi g ns o f excellent fo r m
T he la rg e en g ines a r e all double -act in g and a r e m ade eit he r
sin g le-cylinde r t win o r tandem T he g ene r al feat u r es of t he de
si g n o f a 6 00 B H P t win en g ine a r e shown in lon g itudinal c r oss
sect ion in Fig 1 2 9 1 and in t r ansve r se section in F ig 12 9 2 *
T he cylinde r d i ffe r s f r o m t hat of t he N ur nbe rg en g ine i n t hat t he
j acket wall is not cont inuous T his is done of cou rse to p r event
tempe rat u r e st r esses Th e cent r al space is closed by a saddle
cast in g as shown I nlet and exhaust val ves a r e placed in sepa r at e
ca g es easily r emovable T he det ails of piston desi g n and t he
wate rcoolin g a rr an g ements a r e clea r l y indicated T he manne r of
ope r at in g t he val ves f r om t he lay shaft is shown i n F ig 1 292
All D eut z en g ines g o ve r n by t h r ott lin g a m ixt u r e o f const ant
composition I n t he pa rt icula r en g ine unde r discussion t he
t h r ottle val ve is a mult i ~po rted cylinde r su rr oundin g t he inlet
val ve stem I t is so desi g ned as to keep t he r at io of g as to ai r
t he same as t hat set by t he hand -ope r ated val ves shown in t he g as
and ai r passa g es but dependin g on t he load t he mixt u r e is
t h r ottled mo r e o r less Ho w t he mo vement o f t he val ve is con
t r olled by va r yin g t he position of t he fulc r um about which t he
t h r ottle val ve leve r t u r ns can be easil y t r aced out by followin g
t he g ove r no r l inka g e
T he a rr an g ement of t he th r ottle val ve is somewhat di ffe rent
i n smalle r en g ines T hus in the 25 0 B H P en g ine a c r oss
section of which is shown i n Fig 129 3 t he t h r ottle val ve is
.

F ro m

H D u bbe l, Z e
.

i t hri f t d
sc

V d
.

S e pt 2, 1 905
.

3 52

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

n
E

m
m
a

E
Q

m
.

m
.

m
.

c
o
o

G
I

MODERN T YP E S O F COMB US T1 ON ENGINES

353

?
a

o
m
.

m
.

m
.

c
o
o

2
9
2

G
I

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

FIG

1 293

Va l ve G e a r De t a i l s

25 0 B

D eutz E ngi n

e.

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINE S

independent of t he main inlet val ve

howeve r a re quite simila r
,

35 5

T he g ove r nin g featu res

The Oec helh a u ser E n gin e Th e Oe c h e lh au s e r E n g ine , built

seve r al r ms in G e r many , is a t wo -cycle machine of dist inct ive

by
desi g n a s may be seen f r om t he c ross sect ions F i g s 1 294 whic h
r ep resents a 1 000 ho r se -powe r machine built by A B o rs ig *
T he powe r cylinde r is open at bot h ends and contains t wo
sin g le act in g pistons T he f r ont piston is connected t o t he
middle c r ank o f a t h r ee t h r ow c r ank shaft by pist on and connect
in g r od in the o rdina r y manne r T he r od of t he back pist on is
fastened to a yok e wh i c h t r ansmits t he mot ion t h r ou g h r ods on
each side of t he cyl inde r t o c r oss -heads and connect in g r od s
wo rkin g on t he two outside c r ank pins T his const r uct ion
while complex and p robably cost ly r esults in almost pe rfect
balance T he re a r e no val ves as such T he exhaust g ases escape
t h r ou g h a r in g o f po r ts which is uncove r ed by t he f ront piston
nea r t he end o f t he out st r oke S im ila r ly t he back piston nea r t he
end o f its out st r oke uncove r s rst a r in g of po rt s admitt in g a
cha rg e o f ai r fo r scaven g in g and a moment late r the g as o r m ix
t u re po rt s On the r et u r n st r oke t hese r in g s of po rts a r e cove red
o n e afte r t he othe r and
com p ression ensues bet ween t he t wo
pistons W hen in t hei r inne r dead cente r posit ion i g nition is
m ade t o take place elect r ical ly and t h e pist ons a re d r iven apa rt
o n t hei r powe r st r okes
G as and ai r unde r ce rt ain small p r essu r es a r e fu rnished t o
t he r ecei ve rs su rroundin g t he inlet po rt s by means o f a combina
tion ai r and g as pu m p which is usually ope r ated by a t ail r od I n
blowin g en g ines t he blowin g cylinde r is usually so connected and
t he ai r and g as pump is t hen placed unde r floo r
At full load t he mixt u r e follows t he p r elimina r y cha rg e o f
pu re ai r used fo r scaven g in g to about t h ree-qua rt e r s o r seven
R e g ulat ion is e ff ec t ed by cont r oll in g t he
e ig li t h s of t he st r oke
a m ount o f mixtu r e admitted t o t he cylinde r T he means fo r
do i n g t his a re d iscussed in Chapte r X I V
Oe c h e lh au s e r en g ines have g iven g ood sat isfact ion o n blast
fu rnace and coke -oven g as The g ene ral appea r ance of a t win
en g ine o f this t ype is shown in F ig 1 2 95
-

H o ff m a

Ze

i t hr if t d
sc

V d
.

S e pt 1 5 , 1 906
.

35 6

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

H
.

G
I

MODER N T Y PES O F COMB US T ION ENGINES

35 7

n
i

g
n

E
e
c

e
c

O
e

T
n
i

O
I

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 58

B L iqu id Fue l E n gin e s

.

GA S O L I N E E N G I N E S

T he ve r y gr eat maj o r ity o f all po rt

able inte rnal combust ion en g ines a r e g asoline en g ines and t he
same is t r ue o f a la rg e pe r centa g e of stat iona r y inte r nal c o m bu s
t ion en g ines fo r small powe r s We m ay t hus di vide all g asoline
en g ines int o t h r ee classes
stat iona r y en g ines ma r ine en g ines
and automobile en g ines T he numbe r o f r m s en g a g ed in t he
manufact u re of t hese en g ines is ve r y la rg e U sually t he va r ious
makes di ffe r only in m ino r det ail and fo r t hat r eason only o n e
o r t wo typ e exa m p le s unde r each class will be consid er ed
T he g ene r al t ype o f t his
S ta tion a ry Ga solin e E n gin es
machine eit he r ve rt ical o r ho r izont al does not diffe r m uc h f r om
t hat o f t he small -powe r ed st at iona r y g as en g ine seve r al makes o f
which have al ready bee n discussed I t is usual ly possible t o c o n
ve rt any g as en g ine o f t his type into a g asol ine en g ine by the sim ple
addit ion o f a ca r bu ret in g device A numbe r o f t he latt e r ha ve
been desc r ibed in Chapte r V I I I

e
e
a
so
l
i
n
E
n
i
n
G
T his m achine is m ade by t he
h
e
F
oos
T
g
T he cylinde r
F oos G as E n g ine Company of S p r in g eld Ohio
F ig 1 296 is pa rt ly suppo rted by t he f r ame makin g an especially
r i g id const r uct ion T he cylinde r head is a plain fl at cove r B ot h
val ves which a r e o f t he poppet t ype wo r k upwa r d and a r e me
c h a n ic a lly ope r ated ; t hey a r e not aff ected by any g ove r no r action
T hus if t he g ove r no r keeps t he fuel val ve closed pu re ai r is
wo r ked t h r ou g h t he en g ine coolin g the cylinde r and clea r in g it
t ho r ou g hly f r om bu r ned g ases T he val ves a r e ope r ated by bell
c r anks and r ods a s shown T hese r ods a r e in t u r n act uated by
cams o n t he shaft o f t he s econda r y g ea r A F ig 1 296 T he
val ves have t hei r seat cast in g s sepa r ate f r om t he cylinde r but in
o r de r t o r emove t he val ves fo r inspect ion o r r e gr indin g it is nec
essa r y only to r emove t he pl u g s in t he t op of t he val ve ca g es I n
F ig 1 29 6 B is t he r od ope r at in g t he fuel val ve C t he fuel pum p
and D t he i g nite r r od T he fuel may be g asoline napht ha o r
3

dist illate
In
F oos en g ines a r e g ove r ned on t he hit -and -m iss p r inciple
Fig 1 29 7 E is t h e i g nite r r od C t h e fuel val ve leve r wh ich is
oscillated by a cam o n t he shaft o f t he seconda r y g ea r G T his
g ea r t h r ou g h a pinion also d r ives t he g ove r no r D T he lat t e r is
.

MODE R N

T Y PES

FIG

FIG

12- 9 7

1 29 6

OF

COM B US TION ENGINES

F o os

G a so l ine E ngi ne

G o ve rning De t a il s ,

Foo s Engi ne

359

360

I N T ERNA L

'

COMB US TI ON ENGINE S

t he fly ball type and when t he speed becomes excessive pulls

t he block B o n t he lowe r end of t he g ove r no r leve r A o u t o f line
w it h t he blade F T hus F m isses t he fuel val ve r od and t he e n
g ine fails t o r eceive a cha rg e
T he speed of t he en g ine may be
adj usted du r in g ope r at ion by
va r yin g t he posit ion of t he ful
c r um A by t u r nin g t he nut H
I n place o f t he o r dina r y ha m
me r b r eak system a wipe spa r k
i g nite r is employed I n F ig
1 29 8 the r evol vin g el ect r ode
eve ry secon d tu r n o f t he en g ine
w ipes ove r and snaps o ff the in
W i p S p r k Ign i te r
FIG 1 298
su l a t e d
elect
r
ode
T
hus
t
he
F o Eng i n
points of cont act a r e al ways
k ept clean and b r i g ht T he i g nit e r is pl aced di rect ly o ve r the
inl et val ve to insu re a g ood combustibl e m ixtu re
Th e Old s Ga so lin e E n gin e
Fig 1 299 shows t h e ca r bu r ete r
of

FIG

1 2- 99

O ld s G a so l

in

n in

E g

side and Fig 1 21 00 t he val ve const r uct ion o f t he Olds T ype A

g asoline en g ine T hi s is an en g ine of ve r y simple desi g n B ot h
.

MODERN T Y PES

COMB US T ION ENGINES

OF

36 1

val ves a r e o f t he poppet type t he up p e r t he inlet val ve bein g

automat ic while t he exhaust valve is ope r ated by bel l c r ank and
push ro d Th e latte r is act uated by a cam Fig 1 2 99 shows t he
ca r bu rete r and its adj us t in g val ve U nt il r ecent ly t he g asoline
was fed t o t he ca r bu r ete r f r om a small r ese r voi r kept lled to a
ce rtain level by a small plun g e r pump d r iven f ro m t he shaft I n
some o f t he recent desi g ns t his pump has bee n eliminated t he
ca r bu r ete r g ett in g fuel by simple suct ion feed
,

FIG

1 21 00

O ld s G a so l

in

n in

E g

T he g ove r no r w hic h is of t he fly -wheel type is shown in Fig

I t ope r ates t o keep t he exhaust val ve open when t he
121 00
speed exceeds t he no r mal at t he same t ime lockin g t he inlet
val ve s o t hat no cha rg e can ente r t he cyl inde r T he g ove rno r
may be adj usted to g ive speeds va ryin g f rom 200 t o 6 00 and a
c han g e o f about 50 t u r ns pe r m inute may be made while t he e n
g ine is in ope ration
T he j ump spa r k i g nit ion system is us ed which is unusual in
small stationa r y en g ines T he g ove r no r se r ves also to t h r ow
t he commutato r o f the syst em o ut of action should t he en g ine
fail t o take a c ha rg e o n a miss -st r oke
T ype A Olds g asoline en g ines a re built in six sizes f r om 3 to 18
ho rse -p owe r
M a r in e Ga solin e E n gin e s T he s e en g ines a r e o f eit he r t he
,

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

36 2

t wo o r fou r-cycle t ype but in nea r l y all cases ve rt ical T he

maximum powe r developed in one cylinde r in t he o r dina r y launc h
moto r is usu al ly about 5 8 ho rse powe r h i g he r powe r th an th i s
bein g obtained by t he mult iplicat ion of cylinde r s
P e r haps t he maj o r it y of en g ines of t hi s type espec ial ly t hose
o f fai r l y hi g h speed 6 00 to 8 00 a r e equipped wit h t he j ump spa r k
system ; many builde r s howeve r fa vo r t he hamme r b r eak i g nit ion
.

FIG

1 21 0 1

S t re linge r

F o u r-c yc l e M a ri ne

n in

E g

S mall

g asoline boat en g ines a r e ve r y r a r ely tted w it h g ove r

no r cont r ol T he speed is c han g ed in most cases wit h t he t h r ottle
o r bot h
o r t he spa r k
as i n automobile en g ines A favo r ite way
o f checkin g t he speed o f small boat s is by t he use o f a r eve r sible
p r opelle r in w h ic h c a se t he speed of t he en g ine need not be
c han g ed in any way
T he followin g t wo t ypes of en g ines illust r a t e t he g ene r al
feat u r es o f t he fou r a nd t wo -cycle ma r ine en g ines
.

'

A 10
Th e S trelin ger F ou r-c yc le M a rin e Ga solin e E n gin e
ho r se -powe r en g ine made by t he C A S t re lin ge r Com pany is
.

illust r ated in Fig 121 0 1 and F ig 121 02 I n t his desi g n t he

heads a r e cast in one pa rt wit h t he cylinde rs T he latte r a re
r i g idly bolted t o t he c r ank case cast in g The cam shaft and its
d r i ve a r e enclosed in t he c r ank case T he cams o n t his shaft
.

MODERN T Y PES

COMB US TION EN GINES

OF

363

ope r ate t he exhaust val ve and the t r ip g ea r of t he make and

b r eak i g nite r B y pushin g in the leve r ma r ked 255 in F ig 1 21 0 1
at sta rtin g t he comp r ession is pa rt l y r elieved and the spa r k re
t a rd e d o n all of t he cyl inde r s makin g sta rt in g easie r
Afte r sta rt
in g t he leve r is r et u rned t o its fo r me r posit ion T he r e seems t o
be no ot he r spa r k cont r ol
-

1 2-1 02 S t re lin g
.

n in

E g

T he inlet val ve is automat ic Above each inlet val ve t he r e

is a t h rott le val ve whose posit ion is cont rolled by t he leve r H
Th e combust ible mix t u r e i s fo r m e d by d r aw in g t he ai r fo r t he
pu r pose of wa r mi ng it f ro m a round t he exhaust pi p e and
t h r ou g h t he pipe X F ig 1210 1 t h r ou g h t he m ix in g val ve B F ig
1 21 02
He r e it picks up a ce rt ain quant ity of g asoline which is
fu rnished t h r ou g h pipe A and t he needle val ve C and t hen passes
t h rou g h pipe Y to t he cylinde rs Mixin g val ve 8 is automatic
adj ustin g t he a m ount of g asoline t o t he amount of ai r passin g
T he latte r o f cou rse depends upon t he posit ion o f t he th rott le
val ve and t he load o n t he en g ine T he m ixt u re is claimed to be
unifo r m t h r ou g h t he r an ge o f speeds
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

364

L ike nea r ly all small

Th e L oz ier Two-c yc le M a rin e E n gin e
t wo -cycle en g ines , t his machine p re c o m p re s ses t h e cha rg e in t he
.

c r ank case I n Fig 121 03 an explosion has j ust t aken place

above t he piston T he new cha rg e o f g asoline vapo r and ai r h a s
j ust been d r awn into t he c r ank case B t h r ou g h t he openin g A
f r om t he ca r bu rete r T he explosion fo r ces t he piston down and
com p resses t he cha rg e in B t o a p ressu r e in t he nei g hbo r hood o f
N ea r t he end of t he down st r oke t he uppe r ed g e o f
5 pounds
t he piston uncove r s t he exhaust po rt F Fig 12 1 04 and t he
la rg e r pa rt o f t he bu r ned g ases escape A moment late r t he inlet
po rt C Fig 1 21 05 is also opened and t he n e w cha rg e ente rs
bein g deected upwa r d by t he baffle G and d r ivin g o ut t he r est o f
t he bu rned g ases On t he next succeedin g up st r oke t he piston
c loses r st t he inlet po rt next t he exhaust po r t and comp r ession
commences I g nit ion takes place w hen t he i g nite r g ea r moves
F ig 1 21 0 3
o ne o f t he elect r odes and b r eaks t he cont act at E
T he i g nite r g ea r is shown in detail in Fig 12 1 06 N o r mally t h e
outside blade E whic h pivot s about F is held down by t he p lu n
g e r D so t hat t he lowe r elect r ode in s ide of t he cylinde r is not i n
contact wit h t he uppe r T he r od B is moved up and down by an
eccent r ic on t he en g ine shaft On t he upwa r d mot ion t he plun g e r
D is fo r ced upwa r d allowin g plun g e r M t o r aise E so t hat j ust be
fo r e t he spa r k is desi red t he elect r odes inside a re i n contact and
t he ci r cuit is made I n t he meant ime t he point of t he adj ustable
sc rew J com mences to fo r ce t he t r i gg e r C t o o n e side until at t he
moment t he spa r k is desi r ed t he plun g e r D snaps o ff suddenly
b r eakin g contact inside by fo r cin g down t he blade E
T he ca r bu r et in g device F ig 121 07 is simple and e ffect ive
T he ai r is p r e-heated by passin g it a r ound t he exhaust pipe
G asoline ente r s at F and mixes wit h t he ai r when t he in r ush due
t o t he suction in t he c r ank case lifts t he automat ic valve B o w
in g ou t f r om openin g A in t he seat of t he val ve Th e dial D indi
cates t he posit ion of t he g asoline val ve
T he speed o f t he en g ine is cont r olled by t he posit ion o f a butte r
y t h r ott le val ve in t he t r ansfe r passa g e as indicated in F ig
.

1 210 3

pa rt icula r const r uct ion of t he t wo -cycle machine above

desc r ibed is k nown as t he t wo -po rt t wo -cycle I n t his type t he
nd S p i d n
f B yn
S ib l y C o ll g Th e i
Th e

s s o

e a

M O DE RN T Y PES O F COMB U STION ENGINES

365

n
i

E
e

M
o

3
9
5
8
.

8
s

d
u

d
o

g
:

I N T ERNA L

366

COM B USTION ENGINES

po rt admittin g t he cha rg e t o the c r ank case is at n o t ime cove r ed

by t he piston Hence t he ca r bu r et in g device is subj ect t o t he
p r essu r es g ene r ated by possible explosions in t he c r ank case
and if t hi s is of such type as t o be hu rt by such explosion it must
be suitably p r otected by check val ve T his dif culty is ove r come
by the use of t he t h r eepo rt t wo -cycle en g ine T his is t he type
of en g ine in which t he piston also cont r ols the inlet po rt int o the
c r ank case as is clea r ly shown in F ig 1 21 08 which illust r ates
.

FIG

1 2 1 06

I gn i te r G e a r L o z i e r Two -c y c l e M a ri ne

n i ne

E g

t he const r uct ion and ope r at ion of t he F ai r banks ve rt ical Ma r ine

E n g ine
T he appl icat ion of t he inte r nal combust ion en g ine t o t he
p r opulsion o f vessels ot he r t han pleasu r e l aunches is becomin g
o f mo r e
and mo r e impo rt ance At t he p resent day seve r al
r at he r small sized ca rg o boats and ba rg es a r e al r eady tted wit h
suct ion g as appa r at us and en g ines Th e question has pe r haps
r eceived t he gr eatest amount o f attent ion in E n g land w he re
.

MODERN T Y PES
Cr ossley

B r ot he rs,

COMB U S TION ENGINES

OF

and V icke r s S ons

have built suct ion g as appa r at us fo r ma r ine p r opulsion
count r y t he S t anda rd Moto r Const r uct ion
Company o f J e r sey City have lately tu r ned
o u t a ma r ine g as en g ine whic h dese r ves spe
c ia l attent ion

367

Maxi m

Th o rn yc ro ft ,

*
.

n this

Th e S ta n d a rd M a r in e Ga so lin e E n gin e

T he followin g desc r ipt ion of t his en g ine

appea r ed in I n te rn a tion a l M a r in e E ngin ee r
T he data g iven r efe r s
in g S eptembe r 1 90 7
t o t he 3 00 ho r se -powe r en g ine of t he moto r
yacht S tanda rd but a 5 00 ho r se -powe r e n
g ine of t he same type fo r t he sc hoone r N o r t h
Ca rbu
land has al ready been built
FIG 1 2 -1 07
r
e be l L Q Z ie r l V O-Cy

F i g u re 1 2 1 0 9 shows a c r oss sect ion o f

f
e le Ma rm e E ng m e
t h e S t a nda r d s e ngin e a n d F ig 12 1 1 0 a view
of t he inlet side T he followin g is t he desc r ipt ion g iven :

T hese en g ines have in r ealit y twel ve wo r kin g cylinde rs

-

'

"

'

FIG

1 21 0 8

F a irb a nk V e r t i c a l

hr P r t Tw y l

ee

o c

c e

M a ri ne

n i ne

E g

g u red f r om t he point of view o f t he usual const r uction o f g as

en g ines T he result is an ext remely smoot h and quiet r unnin g
.

i n t r t ing r t i l b y A V C
i n C i r M g i n N v m b r 1 90 7
S ee

ass e

an

e es

az

e,

c e

os te

on

Gas

Po we r

on

hi p b rd
oa

368

IN TERNAL COM B US TION ENGINE S

FIG

1 21 09

C ro s s-se c t i o n

M a ri ne G a so li ne

of

3 00

n in

E g

HP
e

S ta

nd a rd

M ODER N

369

T YPES O F CO M B US TION

n
e

n
i

I NTE R NA L COM B US TION ENGINES

3 70

machine well balanced and wit h t he val ves so a rr a ng ed t hat

p r act ically t he only vib r at ion noticeable is occasioned by t he
fo r ce feed oil pumps whic h g ive individual feed t o eve r y cylinde r
and bea r in g I g nit ion is o f t he make-and -b reak t ype while
pistons and piston r ods a r e wate rcooled and wate r ows f r eel y
also t h r ou g h t he val ves A ve r y not iceable advanta g e of t he
double act in g en g ine is t he p r actical im p o ss iblit y o f any leaka g e
of g as int o t he en g ine r oom because t h e pist on inst ead of bein g
open t o t he at mosphe r e as in m ost t ypes of sin g le act in g en g ine is
ope r ated f r om a pist on r od r unnin g t h r ou g h a metall ic st u fng
box T he ope r at ion of t he val ve shaft is obtained as in a la rg e
steam en g ine by usin g a small ai r cylinde r ; t his is also used fo r
t u rnin g t he en g ine ove r

Th e bo r e and st r oke of t he S tanda r d s en g ine a r e each 1 0

inches ; t he wei g ht is 7 5 00 pounds o r 25 pounds pe r ho r se powe r ;
t he len g t h ove r cylinde rs is 8 feet 3 inc hes ; len gt h ove r all 1 0 feet
4 inc hes ; t he t otal hei g ht is 5 feet 6 %inches of which 4 feet 9 %
inc hes come above t he cente r o f t he shaft ; t he widt h of t he base
is 3 0 inches ; while t he gr eatest widt h ove r cylinde r s is 34 inches

T he illust rat ions o f t he new moto r as shown se r ve t o con r m

t h e im p r ession o f a t o r pedo boat en g ine as t he same t ype of
suppo r ts connect in g r ods c r oss -heads and g uides a r e he r e used
t hat one is accust omed to in t he ot he r kind o f en g ine Th e
double act in g p r inciple necessit ates some r adical c han g es f r om
t he usual ma r ine g asoline m oto r desi g n such as wate r-coolin g t he
pist ons connect in g r ods val ves and ot he r pa rt s exposed t o
t he intense heat p r oduced in cyl inde r s of such la rg e vol ume
I nlet and exhaust val ves a r e located o n t he opposite sides o f t he
head as is customa r y w i t h many automobile and ma r ine en g ine
builde r s T he uppe r and lowe r ends of t he cylinde r s a r e alike
wit h a r e g ula r ma r ine en g ine piston and connect in g r od

Th e met hod of g ett in g t he g as into t he cyl inde rs is ve r y

neatly and simply wo r ked out as is shown in t he inlet side On e
b r anch pipe leads up t o t he cyl inde r s f r om t he cente r and t hen
r uns t o eac h end of t h r ee cyl inde r s T he spa r k and t h r ottle
cont r ol leve rs a re mounted on t op o f t he ai r cylinde r w hic h c o n
t r ols t he t r avel o f t he cam shaft On e essent ial point of di ffe r ence
between t he o r dina r y mot o r and t his mo t o r is t hat t h e val ves
a re pul led u p instead of bein g p u shed up t hat they a r e
,

MODERN T Y PES

COM B US T ION ENGINES

OF

3 71

balanced

and that t hey a re wate r-cooled by a st r eam of w at e r which

ows t h r ou g h t hem c o n s t a n t lv T his type of valve has bee n
adopted by t he S tanda r d Com pany fo r al l thei r l a rg e type of moto rs
and h as been found to wo rk exceedin g l y wel l On this side also
a re located t h e t r ips wh ich ope r ate the s pa rke rs fo r al l cylinde rs

Th e exhaust val ves a r e ope r ated f r om a cam shaft which is

a duplicate of t hat upon t he inlet side The s e valves a r e also
wate r cooled and discha rg e di r ect ly into a la rg e wate r-cooled
exhaust box f rom which t he g ases a re led to t he mufe r T he
o il feeds a r e di r ect ly unde r t he exhaust box wit h i ndi vidual leads
to dist r ibute t he o il to t he di ffe r ent bea r in g s D i rectly below
and behind t his a re shown t he ai r inlets t o the cylinde r s fo r sta rt
in g I n a la rg e moto r of t his kind t he p r oblem o f p r ope rly coolin g
it and keepin g it well oiled is a di fficult o ne and t he wo r kin g out
of t he systems by w hic h t he s e r esults a re accom plished is mo r e
complicated t han it would be fo r a small moto r but t he owne r
o f a moto r o f t his size could ha r dly expect t o ope r ate his own
en g ine and in r ealit y t he successful wo rkin g of t he moto r does not
demand a hi g he r o rde r of sk ill t han is to be expected f r om t he
en g inee r o f an o r dina r y t r iple expansion steam en g ine W hile
t he appea r ance of t he moto r is com pl icated this com plicat ion is
mo r e appa rent t han r eal E ve r y funct ion of t he moto r has bee n
ca refully thou g ht out and p r ovision made to assu r e its p rope r
wo rkin g unde r all conditions All S tanda r d moto r s o f la rg e
powe r have been made self sta rt in g and r eve r sin g t he same p r in
c ip le s w hic h have bee n found so successful bein g employed i n
t his latest type : but in t he double act in g t ype bot h t he inlet and
exhaust valves a re mec hanically ope r ated as a g ainst t he exhaust
val ves only in t he ot he r self sta rt in g and r eve rsin g m oto rs
Anot he r i m po rt ant di ffe r ence is t hat in t h i s type all t he cyl inde r s
a re cast sepa r ately and t he moto r is r eally t wo t h ree -cylinde r
moto rs coupled t o g et he r fo r pu r poses o f economy in const r uct ion
and replacement should suc h be necessa r y

The self -sta rt in g is accomplished by comp r essed ai r bein g

admitted on o n e end of th r ee cylinde rs by a spec ial set of cams
T he cyl inde r s tu r n the moto r until it t akes up its cycle upon g aso
line Th e ca m shafts whic h actuate all val ves a r e so made as t o
move lon g itudinally on thei r axes and to b r in g app rop r iate c ams
into action fo r eithe r d ir ect ion As t he physical l abo r r equi r ed t o
.

IN TERNA L COM B US T ION ENGINES

3 72

pe r fo r m this ope ration would be conside r abl e in a moto r of this

size an ai r cyl inde r is added to pe r fo r m thi s wo rk so t hat t he
on ly m anual l abo r in connect ion wit h r unn in g t he moto r is
t hat in ope r atin g t he two h andles shown on t he left side o f
F ig 1 21 1 0
On e leve r cont r ols t he posit ion o f the c ams
whet he r fo r ahead o r aste r n w hile t he ot he r cont r ols t he spa r k
and t h r ottle I n t his moto r t he necessity o f a y-w heel is ent i r ely
done away wit h and ope r at in g at any speed f r om maximum
t o m inimum little o r no vib r at ion is f elt
T he moto r is mounted
upon a base o f an g le i r on wit h castin g s fo r eac h individual bea r

in g and has t he usual ma r ine col la r t hru s t bea r in g

,

1 21 1 1

n in

E g

e of

1 90 7

F ra nk l i n Ca r

Th e A u tomobile Ga s olin e E n gin e

I t w ould be beyond t he
scope o f t hi s book t o ente r into any extensive not ice o f automobile
.

en g in es F o r t hat r eason only a few illust r at ions a r e g iven t o

sho w t he va r ious met hods of placin g t he val ves and ope r at in g
t hem t he met hods o f coolin g t he cylinde r cylinde r and f r ame
const r uct ion et c I n g ene r al t he fou r cycle en g ine monopolizes
t he automobile eld t he r e bein g but o n e o r t wo make rs wh o use
t wo -cycle en g ines F o r l i g ht ca r s t he ho r izontal oppose d t wo
cylinde r t ype of en g ine is often emplo yed but t he heavie r ca rs
uni ve r sally use fou r o r six-cylinde r ve rt ical en g ines R e g a r din g
t he position o f t he val ves some make r s place bot h inlet and
exhau s t val ves in t he head T his t ype is best exempli ed by t he
F r anklin E n g ine o f 1 90 7 F ig 1 2 1 1 1
T his const r uct ion is of
advan t a g e because it does away wit h all pockets in t he c o m bus
.

MODERN T Y PES

COMB US TION ENGINES

OF

37 3

t ion c hambe r I n t hi s en g ine bot h val ves a r e mechanically

ope r ated S ome make rs use t he automat ic type o f inlet valve
.

FIG

1 2- 1 12

C on t ine nt a l Aut o m o b il e Eng i ne

whic h in such cases nea r ly always opens downwa rd T his val ve

while it pe r mits of sim ple r en g ine const r uct ion t han t he m e c h a n i
cally ope rated val ve does
n o t g ive as g ood se r vice
and fo r t hat r eason is not
as f requently used as fo r
me rly I n t he Co ntinental
En g ine * Fig 1 21 1 2 both
val ves a re placed at o n e
side o f t he cylinde r and
bo th a r e mechanically o p
openin g upwa rd
e ra t e d
I n t he 1 8 h o r s e -p o w e r
Ho r ch e ngine F ig 1 21 1 3 T
the inlet val ve is placed in
t he head t he exhaust val ve
at t he side T he 3 5 ho rs e
powe r en g ine o f t he same FIG 121 1 3
1 8 HP H r c h Au t om b il e
make r F ig 121 14 1 has
E ng i n
.

The

Cyc l e

a nd

bi l
ik A p i l

A u to m o

1 G as m o t ore n te c h n

rd
a

1 9 06

Jo

u rn l
a

Oc t

1 907

I G a s m o t o re n t e c h nik A p ri l
,

1 906

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINES

3 74

bot h val ves placed at

side but t he inlet val ve ove r t he ex

haust val ve B ot h a re
mechanically ope rated
T he Moo r e en g ine Fig
12
shows t he val ves
upon opposit e s ides bot h
mechanically O pe r at ed
T he 1 908 model o f t he
F r anklin en g ine nally
of
val ve
s ho ws a t ype
g ea r diffe r ent f r om any o f
t hose so fa r desc r ibed in
t hat t he main exhaust
and t he inlet val ves a r e
combined in o n e c on c e n
t r ic val ve placed in t he
head T hi s as may be
FIG
1 14
35 HP H r c h Au t o m o b il e
seen f r om F ig 1 21 1 6
E ng i n
re s ult s in an ideal fo r m
of combust ion c hambe r T he outside la rg e r val ve is t he inlet
val ve T he la rg e inlet a r ea
imp r oves t he volum et r ic effi
T his howeve r is in
c ie n c y
la rg e pa rt also made possible
by t he fact t hat t he gr eate r
pa rt o f t he hot bu rned g ases
escapes t h r ou g h t he aux ilia r y
exhaust val ve which opens
when t he piston is nea r t he
lowe r dea d cente r The re
m a in d e r of t he gases passin g
o u t t h r ou g h t he inne r val ve
at t he t op du r in g t he up
st r oke of t he piston does n o t
t end t o heat t he val ve ve r y
much
M r A u t m bi l
FIG 1 21 1 5
Of t he aut omobile en g ines
E ngi n
o ne

Cyc l e

ut

an d A

omob

il

r d
a

Jo

urn l
a

oo

Ap

ri l

1 906

MODERN

T Y PES

CO MB US TION ENGINES

OF

375

illust rated t he F r anklin en g ine shows t he const r uct ion employed

fo r ai r cooled cylinde r s ; all o f t he ot h e r en g ines a r e wate r cooled

o il en g ines
usually refe rs to
Th e te r m
4 OI L EN G I N E S
en g ines us in g ke r osene c r ude o il o r any o ne of t he so-called dis
All of t hese fuels a r e mo r e di f cult t o vapo r ize than
t illa t e s
g asoline and t he fo r mat ion o f t he p r ope r fuel m ixt u r e is t he r efo re
gene r ally a less simple p r ocess S ome of t he types use a special
vapo r ize r in othe r s t he fuel is sp r ayed di rectly into the c o m bus
t ion chambe r o r in t o an extension of it
,

FIG

1 2- 1 1 6

19 08

M o d e l F ra nkl i nEng i ne
,

L iquid

fuel en g ines in g ene ral la bor unde r t he disadvant a g e

as compa red wit h g as en g ines in t hat t he limit of po w e r in a sin g le
cylinde r is reached much ea r lie r T he r eason fo r t his is t hat as
t he cylinde r volume grows the dif culties of fo r min g and main
tainin g a unifo r m fuel mixt u r e inc rease ve ry rapidly and the
dif culties o f p rope r i g nit ion inc rease co rrespondin g l y T he
result is at least as fa r a s p resent p ractice is conce r ned that
while t he econom ic limit in o ne sin gle-act in g cylinde r usin g g as
is in t he nei g hbo r hood of pe r haps 4 00 ho rse-powe r t he limit in
s i n gle -cylinde r sin g le ac t in g o il en g ines is not o ve r 200 ho rse-powe r
Hence t he subdivision o f the powe r r equi red amon g seve r al
cylinde r s commences m uch soone r in o il t han in g as en g ines
T he most im po rtant point o f dist inction amon g t he va r ious
.

COMB US T ION

I N TE RN AL

376

E NGI N ES

en g ines is p r obably t he way i n whic h t he comb ust ible mixt ur e

is fo r med We dist in g uish t he followin g met hods :
(a ) T he fuel is fo r ced di rectly into t he combust i on chambe r
at t he end o f o r d u r ing t he comp r ession st r oke U sually a sp r ay
in g nozzle is employed
( 6) T he fuel is mechanically atom ized and sp r ayed int o t he
cu rr ent of ai r o n t he suct ion st r oke
(0 ) T he fuel is sp r ayed int o a vapo r izin g chambe r connected
t o t he cylinde r wit hout inte r posit ion o f a val ve
(d ) T he fuel is vapo r ized by t he a g ency o f heat in a sepa r ate
vapo r ize r T he ai r passin g t h r ou g h t he vapo r ize r fo r ms t he fuel
mixt u r e and t hi s ente r s t he en g ine al ready p repa r ed
Th e followin g desc r ipt ions o f va r ious o il en g ines will illust r at e
t he va r ious met hods out lined :
Amon g t he most impo rtant oil en g i nes found o n t he Ame r ican
ma rket a r e t he followin g : T he Ho r nsby -Akro yd ke rosene en g ine
a machine of E n g lish o r i g in made by t he D e L a V e rg ne Mac hine
Company o f N ew Yo r k ; t he D e L a V e rg ne two -cycle o il en g ine
b r ou g ht o ut by t he same company wit hin t he last mont h o r t wo ;
t he Mie t z Weiss o il en g ine made by t he A Mie t z I r on F ound r y
Machine Wo rks o f N ew Yo r k ; and t he Ame r ican D iesel en g ine
manufactu red by t he Ame r ican D iesel E n g ine Company I t
should be stated t hat many of t he en g ines desc r ibed unde r t he
head of small and medium sized ga s en g ines can be r un o n o il by
usin g su itable vapo r i ze rs T hus t he F ai r banks Mo r se Com pany
and seve r al ot her make r s fu r nish vapo r izin g att achments by
means of which t hei r en g ines may be successfully r un o n ke r o
sene c r ude oil o r dist illate
F i g s 1 21 1 7 and 12 1 1 8
Th e Ho r n s by-A kr oyd Oil E n gin e
show a lon g it udinal and a t r ansve r se sect ion r espectively o f t hi s
im po r tant o il en g ine while Fig 1 21 1 9 shows t he g ene r al appea r
*
ance of a sin g le cylinde r en g ine
T he Ho r nsby en g ines built in
t his count r y a r e all ho r izont al machines of the fou r cycle t ype
Th e exhaust and inlet val ves a r e of the poppet type and located
in a val ve box at t he side of the cylinde r F ig 1 21 1 8 T hey
open upwa r d and a r e ope r ated by lever s passin g unde r t he c ylin
de r by m eans of cams on t he half -t ime shaft T he exhaust cam
is so desi g ned t hat on sta r t in g t he com p r ession can be r elieved
C t l gue f t h D L V rgne M c hin e C
o il

a a o

MODERN T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

Y
E
L

C T

N
I

L O
O

O
C

3 77

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 78

by shift in g t he cam o n t he shaft The suppl y of O il is taken f r om

a t ank in the base of the machine by a pum p O pe r ated f r o m t he
l ay s haf t and fo r ced into t he vapo r ize r chambe r A t h r ou g h a
sp r ay noz zle T he g ove r no r is Of t he fly-ball ty p e and cont r ols
t he speed by dividin g t he const ant quant ity of oil fu r nished by
t he pump int o t wo pa r ts one of w hich in p r opo rt ion t o t he load
ente r s t he nozzle t he ot he r pa r t ows back t o t he t ank T he
noz zle and ove r flow val ve a r e shown i n gr eate r det ail in Chapte r
.

VIII

OUTL E T

FIG

1 21 1 8

r n v r S t i n H rn b y
yd O il E ng i n
s

Akr o

e se

ec

vapo r i ze r chambe r is fu r nished w it h inte r nal webs t o

inc r ease t he vapo r izin g su rface and 1 s p r ot ected a g ainst r adiat ion
o n t he out side by a hood
T o sta rt t he en g ine t he vapo r ize r is r st heated by a lamp
w hic h const it utes a pa rt of t h e equipment Afte r t he c h a m be r
Th e

MODERN

TYP ES

O F COMB U S T] ON ENGINES

3 79

is hot enou g h a few quick st r okes O f t he pump by means o f t he

hand leve r Fig 121 18 while t he en g ine is bein g tu rned ove r in
t he no r mal di rect ion usually suf ces t o sta r t it Afte r st a rt in g t he
heat of combust ion is enou g h to keep t he vapo r ize r at a dull red
heat and t o explode t he c ha rg es r eg ula r ly so t hat n o special
i g nite r is r equi r ed
,

FIG

1 21 19

i ngl Cyl i nd r
e

Ho

rn b y Ak
s

roy d

i l Engi n

T he met hod O f ope r at ion may be explained as follows : On t he

suct ion st roke O f t he pist on t he pump inj ects oil int o t he vapo r ize r
Thi s is almost instant ly vapo r ized but as yet t he mixt u r e is n o t
explosi ve because the vapo r is mi xed m ainly with bu r ned g ases
whic h r em ain f rom t he p r evious explosion On t he ret u r n st roke
t he piston comp r esses t he ai r and fo r c es a pa r t Of it int o the
vapo r ize r I t is possible t hat some t ime du r in g t he comp ression
st r oke t he vapo r may commence t o bu r n in t he vapo r ize r but t he
ame does no t st r ike out because t he velocity O f ai r owin g in
t h r ou g h t he na rrow neck of t he vapo r ize r is greate r t han t he
veloc it y o f ame p r opa g at ion N ea r t he end of t he com p ression
st r oke t he r eve r se takes pl ace t he ame st r ikes out wit h e xp lo
sive fo r ce and d r i ves t he p is t o n fo rwa rd on t he expansion st r oke
T his is followed by the exhaust st r oke afte r whic h the ope rat ion
is r e p eated
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

3 80

n g ines have g i ven ve r y sat isfact o r y se r vice and many

of t hem a r e in use fo r a va r iet y of pu r poses T hey a r e m ade i n
sizes f r om 2%t o 1 25 ho r se -powe r t hose above 3 2 ho rse-powe r
bein g of t he t wo -cylinde r t ype ill us t r at ed in F ig 1 21 20 T his
desi g n h a s latel y been modi ed in t hat t he t wo ove r han g in g y
wheels have been r eplaced by a sin g le wheel placed next t o t he belt
pulley bet ween t he t wo cylinde r s
T he s e

FIG

1 21 20

Tw

i n C yl in d r
e

Ho

rn b y-Ak
s

ro yd

i l Engi n

a ve r t ical
machine recent ly b r ou g ht out by t he D e La V e rg ne M achine
Company and desc r ibed in P owe r N ovembe r 1 90 7 t o whic h t h e
follo win g illust r at ions a r e due :
F i g u r e 1 21 21 shows t hat t he cyl inde r is Of t he o r dina r y t wo
cycle const r uct ion t he piston cont r ollin g t he inlet and exhaust
po rts T he vapo r i ze r chambe r V is fo r med by an extension o f
t he cylinde r but in cont r adistinct ion t o t he Ho r nsby en g ine n o
cont r acted neck is used openin g into t he vapo r ize r On t he down
st r oke of t he piston t he ai r com p r essed in t he c r ank case r ushes
into t he cyl inde r as soon as t he inlet po rt is uncove r ed On t he
up st r oke only ai r is comp ressed t he O il not bein g inj ected by t he
Th e D e L a V e rgn e Two-c yc le Oil E n gin e

Thi s is

'

MO DERN T Y PES O F COM B U STION ENGINES

38 1

pump t h r ou g h the nozzle N unt il nea r t he uppe r dead cente r

Th e O il inst ant ly vapo r izes and bu r ns i g nit ion bein g p r oduced
by t he h o t vapo r ize r walls Of cou r se t he vapo r ize r must be
.

FIG

1 2121

De La

Ve rgne

Two -c y c l e O

i l E ng i n

exte rnally heated t o sta rt t he en g ine T he met hod o f ope r at ion

outlined has t he advanta g e t hat since only ai r is comp r essed no
p re-i g nit ion can take place
T he details of t he sp r ay nozzle N a r e sho w n in Fig 1 21 22
.

FIG

1 2- 1 22

Sp

r yN
a

ozz e

De La

n in

E g

Ve rgne

Two-c y c l e O il

simple as to ha rdly requi re explanation T he bal l

check shown se r ves t o p r otect t he oil pipe a g ainst the fo r ce o f
the explosions

T hey a re

so

382

I NTE RNAL

COMB US TI ON

EN GI N ES

T he en g in e is g ove r n e d by suit i ng t he quant it y of Oil t o t he

load T his is done by puttin g t he pump pl un g e r un d e r cont r ol
O f t he g ove r no r in t he ywheel Powe r g ives t he followin g
desc r ipt ion o f t his device ( see Fig 1 2
.

n
i

E
:

0
O

5
2

3
?

o
.

5
n
r

v
o

3
2

f
i

2
.

t
t

l
i
4

1
L4
.

f r ame F is fastened wit h two studs concent r ically t o t he

inside o f t he yw heel and t o t he f r ame is pivot ed a cam r in g R
w hich has o n t he ywheel side a p r oj ection B and back of t hat
Th e

MODERN

T Y PES O F COMB US TION ENGINES

383

t he cam p r oj ection C which lifts t he r olle r A once eac h r evolution

of t he y-wheel t he r eby actuat in g t he oil -pump plun g e r P
T he len g t h O f st r oke im pa rt ed t o t he plun g e r is dete r mined by
t he leve r L pivoted to t he f r ame A wed g e W on t he leve r L
sepa rates t he cam r in g f r om t he f r ame F When t he en g ine is
s ta rt ed t he g ove r no r does n o t come into act ion until no r mal speed
is app roac hed A dec rease in load will cause t he speed t o inc r ease
w hen t he cent r ifu g al fo r ce of t he counte r wei g ht K will ove r come
t he tension o f t he sp r in g S movin g t he wei g ht out wa r d and
t he reby wit hd r awin g t he wed g e W T he sp r in g E keeps t he
r olle r A in contact wit h t he cam r in g R and when t he wed g e is
wit hd r awn the bu ff e r G cannot act uate t he pump plun g e r T he
knob H is used fo r inj ectin g oil at t he sta rt and t he lock n uts N
se r ve fo r li m it in g t he st r oke of t he pump T he t wo concent r ic
slots in t he f rame F allow fo r adj ust ment w hen it is desi r ed t o
great ly chan g e t he no r mal speed of t he en g ine F o r smalle r speed
va riat ions t he sp r in g S and t he wei g ht K can be shifted in t he

holes o f t he leve r L
At p r esent t wo sizes o f this en g ine a r e made
T hat illust r ated
is o f 1 5 ho rse powe r the sin g le cylinde r ty p e g ives 7 %h orse -powe r
I n eac h case t he cyl inde rs a re 7 inches by
inches t he no r mal
speed bein g 4 50 r p m

e
e
t
e
e
h
M
i
e
W
i
s
s
i
l
E
n
i
n
Thi s is a ve r y successful
ft
T
O
g
en g ine whic h has been o n t he ma r ket fo r some yea rs W hile it
O pe rates on t he o rdina r y t h r ee -po rt t wo -cycle p r inciple it em
bodies some un usual feat u res Fig 1 2 124 shows t he ho r izontal
type in c r oss section and Fig 1 21 25 it s g ene r al appea r ance in
elevat ion Fr om F ig 1 2 1 24 the O pe r ation o f t he en g ine must
be clea r without much fu rt he r explanation
T he fuel pump P takes the oil f r om a tank mounted on t he
~
c r ank case and injects it in t o the cylinde r j ust afte r t he piston
has cove red t he exhaust po rt E T he O il falls o n t he p r oj ection
V and is instantly vapo r ized by heat f r om t he hot bulb I and
f r om t he cylinde r head w hich as will be noted Is n o t wate r
jacket ed I gnit ion is p roduced by means Of t he bulb I which
acts ve r y muc h like t he o rdin ar y hot t ube A ke r osene o r o il
lam p shown in position se r ves t o heat t h e bulb befo r e sta rtin g
F i ve minutes is usually suf cient fo r this ope r at ion
The unusual feat u r e O f t his en g ine con s ists in t he coolin g
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

384

wate r a rr an g ements I nstead o f c i r culat in g t he wate r as is

o r dina r ily done it is allowed t o evapo r ate in t he j acket bein g
kept at a constant level by a oat val ve T he vapo r fo r med c o l
lects in t he dome S Fig 1 21 24 and is by means of t he bent pipe
shown led t o t he int ake po rt o f the cyl inde r w he r e it mixes wit h
t he ai r The r e a r e seve r al excellent r easons fo r t hi s a rr an g ement
i n o il en g ines T he wate r vapo r helps t o fo r m a m ixt u r e o f hi g h
spec i c heat t hu s r educin g t he dan g e r of p r e
i g nit ion and allow
.

FIG

1 24 24

D e ta i l

s of

M ie t z

W e i ss

B r o-c y c l e O

"

i l Engin

in g of higher com p r ession p r essu r es T he p r inciple howeve r is

not new since B ank i and pe r haps seve r al ot he r s befo r e him have
used it I t is also claimed t hat t he vapo r assists in t he p r even
t ion of ca r bon deposits T he met hod fu rt he r has t he g ene r al
advanta g e t hat but l itt le j acket wate r is used compa r ed wit h t he
o r dina r y met hod of O pe r at ion
T he met hod o f g ove r nin g t his en g ine is n o t cl ea r ly shown
but it consists i n adj ust in g t he st r oke o f t he fuel pu m p t o suit
t he load by means o f a shift in g eccent r ic o n t he main shaft
Weiss en g ine is built in sin g le-cylinde r
T he stat iona r y Mie t z
.

MODERN

T Y PES

COM B USTION ENGINES

OF

units f r om 1 to 30 ho rse -powe r while t he

sizes a r e t win en g ines
,

40

and

60

385

ho rse-powe r

E
u
s

m
n

O
0

9
3
5

%
.

W
'

z
t

e
i

2
1

2
1

T his

also builds ve rt ical ma r ine en g ines t he o pe r at ion

O f which is t he same as t ha t o f t he ho r i zontal machine except t hat
t he wate r inject ion scheme is n ot used
Th e D ie s el E n gin e Th e D ies el en g ine is t o -day built by a
n um be r o f rms in E u r o pe and by t he Ame r ican D iesel E n gine
rm

'

IN T ER N-AL COM B US TION

386

E NGI N E S

in t his count r y I n all cases t he va r ious const r uct ions

a r e o f t he ve rt ical fou r-cycle t ype but E u r opean builde r s favo r
t he open A-f r ame while t he Ame r ican make r s have adopted t he
enclosed bo x f r ame
F i g u r e 1 21 26 g ives a g ene r al idea o f t he appea r ance of t he
Ame r ican D iesel en g ine while Fig 1 21 27 shows t he const r uct ion
Company

FIG

1 21 26

Am e

ri n D i
ca

e se

l Eng i ne

T he m assive self -cont ained build of t his machine necessit ated o f

cou r se by t he hi g h p r essu r es occu rr in g in its cycle of O pe r at ion
is ve r y not iceable T he met hod of O pe r at ion O f t hi s machine h a s
al r eady been explained i n Chapt e r X I t o w hich t he r eade r is
r efe rr ed
T he val ve const ruct ion o f this en g ine is ve r y simple a s shown
in F ig 1 2- 128 T he exhaust val ve opens upwa r d t he inlet val ve
,

M O DERN T Y PES

OF

COM B U S TION ENGINES

38 7

downwa rd ; bot h a re located in a small cham be r at t he side O f the

cylinde r T he fuel inj ection valve I is O pened by t he bel l -c r ank
B which is ope r ated by a cam o n t he lay shaft and closed by
a helical sp r in g S S u rr oundin g t he spindle of t he inject ion val ve
.

FIG

12- 127

C ro s s-se c t i o n

Am e

ri n D i
ca

e se

l Engi n

a re placed t he atomizin g a rran g ements by which the O il is ve r y

nely divided th r ou g h t he a g ency of hi g hly comp ressed ai r as
soon as B opens the val ve T he st r oke o f t he leve r B is unifo r m
hence t he injection val ve always O pens t o t he same amount and
fo r the same len g t h o f t ime whateve r t he load o n t he en g ine
TO g ove r n t he speed t he g ove rno r cont r ols t he st r oke of t he
,

I N T E R NA L

3 88

CO M B US TI ON ENGI N E S

pump w hic h fu rnishes t he Oil t o t he val ve T he lowe r the load o n

t he en g ine t he late r in t he st r oke of t he Oil pump does t he d e liv
e r y of o il t o t he inject ion val ve commence One met hod of doin g
t hi s is explained in Chapte r X IV unde r D etails of G ove rno rs
.

FIG

1 21 28

Va l ve C ons t ruc t i o n Ame ri ca n D i e se l

n in

E g

T he Ame r ican D iesel en g ine is built I n s 1 2 es f r om 75 t o 4 5 0

cylinde r units
B H P mostly in t h r ee
T his E n g lish machine F ig
Th e P rie stm a n Oil E n gin e
12
is ment ioned here because t he means used fo r fo r min g
t he combust ible mixt u r e a r e di ff e r ent f r om t hose so fa r desc r ibed
T he en g ine is of t he ho r i zontal sin g le -actin g type The exhaust
val ve is mechanically O pe r ated by an eccent r ic o n t he shaft T he
same eccent r ic r od also ope r ates a small ai r pump e which keeps
up an a ir p r essu r e of f r om 3 0 to 40 pounds o n t op of t he Oil in t he
'

G iildner ,

1 18

MODERN T Y PES

COMB US TION ENGINES

OF

3 89

supply tank b The inlet val ve 0 is automat ic On t he suction

st r oke t he piston d r aws a c ha rg e Of nely di vided o il mixed wit h
ai r fu rnished by t he sp r ay make r into t he vapo r ize r a to g et he r
wit h a la rg e quan t ity Of auxilia r y ai r to fo r m t he p rope r c o m bus
t ible mixtu r e T he vapo r ize r heated at t he sta rt by e xte rnal
means is du r in g ope r ation kept by t he exhaust g ases at suf cient
heat t o com pletely vapo r ize t he oil befo re it passes ou t on its way
to the inle t val ve T hus the mixt u re r eaches t he cylinde r com
T he sp ray make r and vapo r ize r a re explain ed
p le t e ly p repa r ed
i n great e r det ail in Chapte r V I I I
.

'

FIG

1 21 29

Prie s t m a n O

i l Engi n

T he cylinde r ope r ates on t he o rdina r y fou r-cycle p r inciple ;

i g ni t i o n is by elect r ic spa rk I n t he late r Pr ie s t m a n en g ines a
s m all amount of wate r f r om t he j acket is adm itted t o t he cylinde r
each cycle afte r the p r inciple of B anki
- I n t he fou r t h
The F a ir ba n ks -M o r s e C r u d e Oil Va p o r iz e r
type O f vapo r ize r t he O il is not p relimina r ily sp rayed o r atom i zed
as is done in t he Prie s t m a n vapo r i ze r but simply vapo ri zed by
t he heat of t he exhaust g ases T he piston then g ene r ally d r aws
a pa rt o f t he necessa r y ai r t h r ou g h the vapo r i ze r and satu r ates
t his wit h t he o il vapo r T he r est is ad d e d t o fo r m t he p r ope r
m ix t u re j ust befo re the inle t val ve Of t his ty p e is t he E c o n o

mist re t o rt al ready desc r ibed in Chapte r V I I I Anothe r type

is t hat made by t he Fai r banks -Mo rse Company and illust rated
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

390

in F ig 1 21 3 0 G is t he main vapo r ize r chambe r T he O il pump

f u r nishes oil t h r ou g h t he pipe F t o t he r ese r voi r R o n top o f t he
c hambe r T he r e g ulat in g val ve T r et ur ns t he excess pumped
to the main supply t h r ou g h t he pipe 0 F r om R t he oil is allowed
to t r ic k
le slowly downwa rd o ve r su rfaces heated by t he exhaust
g ases T hese come in t h r ou g h t he pipe N but t he vol ume ente r
in g G is cont r olled by t he posit ion of the val ve E which sends a
pa rt into G t he r est di r ectly out t h r ou g h X dependin g upon t he
demands O f t he vapo r ize r Air ent ers t he chambe r t h r ou g h C
.

FIG

1 2- 1 3 0

F a irba n ks-M o

i th C r d
u

il

n in

E g

se

Va p o ri z e r

its
upwa rd it sat u r ates itself wit h Oil vapo r and nall y
ows out t h r o ugh B t o t he en g ine T he auxil ia r y ai r supply is
fu r nished t h r ou g h A
An y vapo r ize r of t his type labo r s unde r t he disadvanta g e

al ready ment ioned in t he case of t he E conomist ret o r t t hat

not al l Of t he o il can be ut ilized As t he vapo r izat ion p r ocee ds
t he O il g ets heavie r t he amount of vapo r evol ved gr ows less at
t he te m pe r at u re maintained and t he useless r esidue m ust nally
be d r awn o ff I n t he appa r at us above desc r ibed p r ovision fo r
t his has been made t h r oug h t he d r ain cock D W is a heat in g
lamp t o heat t he vapo rize r o n sta rt in g
T he points o f diffe re nce bet wee n
5 THE AL CO HO L E N G I N E
t he alcohol en g ine and any ot he r g as engine have al ready been
On

MODE RN T Y PES

OF

COM B USTION ENGINES

391

ment ioned in Chapte r V I I I I n const r uctive details these en g ines

d o n o t di ff e r f r om the r est except t hat t h e comp r ess i on 1 8 ca rr ied
hi g he r t han in othe r liquid fuel en g ines T he main feat u r e dis
t in gu is h ing t hem is in t he a rr an g ements fo r fo r min g t he c o m
bus t ible mixt u r e and the va r ious expedients adopted have been
t ho r ou g hly discuss ed unde r t he head Of vapo r ize r s in t he chapte r
mentioned R ecent expe r i m ents have disp r oven t he o ld state
ment t hat an alcohol en g ine cannot be sta rted f r om t he cold
Much depends u p on t he posit ion Of t he ca r bu rete r wit h r efe rence
t o t he inlet val ve po r t s and aft e r payin g due attent ion t o t his
po int a g asoline au t omobile en g ine has bee n successfully O pe r ated
o n alcohol without chan g e
T his bea r s o ut the expe r ience o f t he
De utz Company in whose alcohol en g ines only a sp r ay nozzle
placed ve ry close t o t he inlet val ve is used An o rdina r y g asoline
ca r bu rete r can be made t o act in somewhat the sa m e Wa y Ame r i
can p r act ice r e g a rdin g alcohol en g ines is fo r obvious r easons
somewhat behind t hat of E u rope but t he indications a r e at p resent
that t his condition will n o t lon g exist
.

CHAPT E R X I I I

GA S E N G I N E

A U X I L I AR I E S I

I G N I TI O N ,

MU FF L

ER S A ND

S TART I N G

A P PARAT U S
I gn it io n

a r e fou r met hods o f i g nit in g t he c om

S ome o f t he s e a r e st il l i n u se
bus t ible c ha rg e i n a g as en g ine
othe rs belon g t o t he pe r iod o f gas -en g ine
development The s e met hods a r e t he
follo w ing :
1 I g nit ion by an O pen ame
2 I g nit ion by h ot t ube
3 I g nit ion by heat o f com p r ession and
4 I g nit ion by elect r ic spa r k
I g nit ion by O pen ame is p r actic ally
obsolete and i g nition by hot t u be is also
f ast fall in g int o disuse As a matte r O f
fact ex cept fo r t he D iesel en g ine t h e
Ho r nsby -Akro y d and a few ot he rs which
ignite t he c ha rg e o r fuel by heat o f com
p ression t he met hod O f i g nit in g t he
m
c ha rg e by t he elect r ic spa r k is t o -day
t he means mo s t g ene r ally em ployed
B rne tt s
F I G 1 31
I
I gn ition by Op e n F1a m e T his
I gn i t i n C k
met hod h as been su pe rseded p r obably
bec ause Of it s occ asional failu r e and t he O b vious da n g e r c o n
n e c t e d w it h its use unde r ce rt ai n condit ions
T he simplest a rr an g ement o f t hi s type is B a r nett s i g nit ion
cock F ig 1 3
T his consists of a hollow plu g whic h wo r ks in
a shell havin g t wo po rts 1 and 2; T he fo r me r O pens t o t he
at mosphe r e and communic at es wit h an out side ame A t he
l atte r O pens int o t he cyl inde r T he po rt 3 in t he plu g is o f such
a size t hat it m ay com mu nic ate eit he r w it h po rt 1 or 2 but never
d O il En g i n p 20 7
C l r k Th G
.

There

'

oc

as a n

392

e,

GAS

A UXILIA RIES

ENGINE

wit h bot h at t he same t ime

39 3

the plu g is pl aced a gas jet

G as should be admitted to t his at suc h a r ate t hat
as shown
t he ame bu r ns inside o f t he plu g and n o t o u t t h r ou g h t he po rts
T he p r ope r size of t he po rts has muc h t o d o wit h t he
3 and 1
p r ope r admission o f ai r to t he inside o f t he plu g to keep t he
ame al ive as shown by t he a rr ows I f now t he plu g is quickly
tu r ned t h r ou g h 90 de grees mak in g t he po rt 3 re g iste r wit h po rt 2
enou g h ai r is cont ained i n t he plu g t o keep t he ame bu r nin g
du r i ng t he inte r val and t he combust ible mixtu re ente r in g t he
plu g much as t he ai r ente rs it in t he first posit ion is inst antl y
He re a g ain t he p r o p e r size of t he po rts is of impo rt ance
ig nited
fo r if t he mixtu re c annot ci r cul ate t h r ou g h t he plu g i t must r eac h
t he ame by di ffusion T he chances a r e t hat i n t hat t ime t he
ame h as died out and
.

I nside

ignit io n fa ils

The a m e

is blown o ut by the
fo rce o f the explosion
o r d ie s o u t fo r l ack o f
a ir but is i m mediately
by t he o u t
reli g hted
side ame A when t he
plu g r etu r ns t o its fo r
me r posit ion
B a r net t s s c h e m e
FIG 1 32 K t ing Ign i t r
was O pen t o the Obje c
tion t hat since t he ame c hambe r i n t he plu g was al ways unde r
at mosphe r ic p ressu re t he combust ible m ixtu re if comp ressed t o
any extent mig ht ext ing uish t he ame by sudden in ru s h when
communicat ion w as est abl ished Se ve r al met hods t o obviate t his
we re invent ed not ably by Ot t o and by Cle rk The l atte r di ffe r s
f rom t he fo r me r in t hat it wil l O pe r ate at hi g he r en g ine s peeds ;
Otto s sc heme failin g at com pa r at ivel y low s peeds
A ve ry s imple
s olut ion o f t he p r oblem is shown in Ko e rt ing s i g nite r Fi
g 13
T he plu g b see left -hand section is p r actically a dive rg ent nozzl e
T he p r essu re o f t he combustibl e mixtu r e du rin g com p res sion raises
the plu g and s o m e o f t h e mixtu re escapin g t h rou g h t he ne openin g
c and expandin g th r ou g h b is i g nited by the open ame d
At t he
ins tant the piston reve rses the pl u g is fo r ced down by t he pl un g e r
Sc hOt t l
Di G sm c hi ne
,

oe r

e r,

as

IN TERNA L

3 94

COIlI B US TI ON

ENGINES

closin g bot h t he t o p and t he bott om openin g s Bu t t he mix

t ure cont ained in t he nozzle b keeps o n bu r nin g u ntil at t he
ins t ant t he side O penin g s e a r e f reed t he ame st r ikes i nt o t he
cyl inde r and i g nites t he cha rg e
T he r i g ht -hand sect ion Fig

1 3 2 shows t he i g nit ion posit ion

I g n it ion by Ho t T u ba T he simplest fo r m o f t he hot
2
t ube i g nit ion appa r at us h as al r ead y bee n shown in Fig 1 15
I t consists me rely o f a s mall t u be 3 o r 4 inches lon g
Chapte r X I
O f steel po r celain o r plat inum T he O pen end O f t hi s t ube is in
com municat ion wit h t he combust ion c hambe r t he ot he r end is
closed T he tube is kept re d hot fo r a ce rt ain pa rt o f it s len gt h
g ene r ally by means o f a B unsen
bu r ne r A c himney su rr ounds
bot h bu r ne r and t ube to p rev e nt
l oss of heat by r adiat ion a s fa r
as possible
T he act ion o f t he hot tu be
m ay be expl ained a s follows : At
t h e end O f t he exhaust st r oke
t he t ube is lled wit h bu r ned
g ases and t hese a re not repl aced
by t he f resh m ixtu re even at
t he end o f t he ne x t suct ion
st r oke bec ause t he t ime avail
able
is
t
oo
sho
rt fo r diffusion
T b
FIG 1 33 Ad ju t b l
D u r in g t he com p ression st r o k
e
t he bu r ned g ases a re bein g comp ressed into t he closed end o f t he
tu be and a re followed u p by t he f resh mixt u re B u t no explosion
follows even if t his m ixtu re r eac hes t he red hot pa rt o f t he t ube
as lon g as t he velocit y o f ame p r opag at ion o u t o f t he tu be is less
t han t he velocity o f t he f resh cha rg e int o t he tube W hen t he
fo r me r be comes g reate r t han t he l atte r whic h happens at o r just
befo re t he piston reac hes t he dead cente r t he ame s hoot s out and
ignite s t he c ha rg e I t is pl ain howeve r t hat in t he device shown in
F ig 1 1 5 t he posit ion O f t he hot zone alon g t he tube must be about
r i g ht o r p re i g nit ion may result W ant O f adjust ment in t his
a rr an g ement has led t o t he im p r oved hot t ube shown in F ig 1 33
I n t his c ase t he posit ion O f t he hot zone alon g t he t u be may be
va r ied as shown t hus g ivin g some cont r ol o ve r t he t ime O f i g nit ion
a,

s a

'

395

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

GAS

In

o r de r t o completely c ont r ol t he time O f i g n ition t he o r

s
o
o
f
a
called
din ary h o t tube has bee n pe r fected by t he addit ion
t i m ing valve
I n Fig 1 34 G is t he t ube kept h o t i n t he o r dina r y way
T imin g val ve E is no r m ally kept closed by t he coil sp r in g C At
t he p rope r t ime in t he cycle t he i g nit ion
c am ( no t shown ) t h r oug h t he l ink B

D comp resses
A
and t he bell c r ank
t he sp r in g C and opens t he val ve
I g nit ion t hen ensues
T he val ve is
kept o p en du r in g t he expansion and
exhaust st r okes T he t ime o f i g nit ion
may be c han ged by c han g in g t he posi
t ion o f t he cam
T imin g val ves are O pen t o t he o b
to
that
t
hey
a
r
e
ve
r
y
dif

cult
n
c
t
i
o
e
j
kee p i n shape u n d er the hi g h tem pe r a
H t Tu be w i t h
FI G 1 3 4
tu res occu rr in g T o avoid t he u se of
T i m i ng V l v
t he sm all val ve in the cylinde r Ko e rt
5
F
i
1
has
used
t
he
scheme
shown
in
3
ing
; a is an open
g
hot t ube made of po rcelain I n it t he re is
placed t he small pl at inum tube 0 D u r
in g comp ression some o f t he mixtu re e s
c apes t h r ou g h c and the val ve It W hen
i g nit ion is desi red It shuts t he exit and t he
ame in a st r ikes back into the cylinde r
Ho t tubes may be f rom t wo to fou r
inches lon g and f rom o ne -qua rte r t o o ne
half inches inte r nal diamete r T hey may
be made of steel pl at inum o r Po r cel ain
Po r cel ain is best because cheap and nea rly
indest r uct ible by heat
T he hot tube nds applicat ion in small
and
medium
sized
st
at
iona
ry machines
FIG 1 3 5 K t in g H t
y
onl
I t is fully as cheap t o o pe r ate as
Tu b I gn i t r
elect r ic i g ni t ion and j ust as ce rt ain
I n la rg e machines this method o f i g nit ion is no t as s a t is fa c
to ry be cau s e t he igni t io n itsel f is ha rdly sha r p enou g h fo r t he
la rge volume o f gas and becaus e i n many cases t he dis t anc e
.

oe r

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

396

t he ame h as t o st r ike is t oo gre at Ca re should be t aken t o

pl ace t he t u be at t he p r ope r point i e where a g ood mixtu r e at
t he o penin g o f t he t u be is insu red and whe r e t he O penin g cannot
be clo gg ed by Oil o r w ate r
I gn iti n g t h e Ch a rge by Hea t of Co m p r e ss io n
Th i s
3
met hod o f i g nit in g t he c ha rg e is p r act ically l imited t o liquid
fuels and is c a rr ied o u t in se ve r al ways
( a ) Onl y ai r is comp ressed t o a ve ry high de gree so t hat its
tempe r atu r e is hi g h enou g h t o i g nit e t he fuel as i t is injected at
t he be g innin g O f t he wo r k in g st r oke Thi s is D iesel s met hod
( b) T he c ha rg e may be i g nited by means o f a h o t bul b o r
c hambe r connected t o t he combust ion c hambe r p r o pe r by a
na rr ow neck o r O penin g There a r e t wo modi c at ions o f t his
met hod I n t he o ne t he fuel is injected i nt o t he combust ion
c hambe r o n t he suct io n st r oke D uring t he next st r oke t he
mixtu r e is comp ressed into t he h ot bul b and i g nites T he com
bu s t io n howe ve r is con ned t o t he bul b u nt il nea r t he end o f t he
comp ress ion st r oke t he velocit y o f ame p r opag at ion exceeds
t he veloc ity o f g ases ente r in g t he na rr ow neck o f t he bulb when
t he ame st r ikes o ut and g ene r al i g nit ion ensues T he act ion
O f t he bulb is t he refo re ve r y simil a r t o t hat o f t he o pe n h o t tube
T he m ain di ffe rence is t hat afte r t he bul b h as bee n exte r nally
heated at t he st a rt t he heat O f com p ression soon k e e ps t he walls
o f t he bulb at a suf c iently hi g h tem pe r at u r e s o t hat t he exte r nal
ame c an be ext in g uished
I n t he second modi cat ion t he h o t bulb o r cham be r is u sed
at t he same t ime as a vapo r i ze r T hus in t he Ho r nsby -Akro yd
eng ine t he fuel is injected int o t he c hambe r by a pum p at t he
be g innin g of t he suct ion st r oke T he pist on d r aws not hin g but
ai r o n t his st r oke which ai r is pa rt ly fo r ced int o t he bul b o n t he
r etu r n st r oke He re it m ixes wit h t he O il vapo r which fo r med
due t o cont act wit h t he h ot walls and while co mbust ion may
e n s ue it c annot be g ene r al because ha r dly enough oxy g en is
p resent in t he bul b o r vapo r ize r N ea r t he end o f t he c o m
p r ession st r oke howeve r t he ame st r ikes o u t and t he c o m bu s
t ion becomes explosi ve As i n t he fo r me r c ase t he vapo r ize r is
heated by a l am p at t he st a rt but afte r a few minutes o f o pe r a
t ion t he walls O f t he vapo r ize r if well p r otected remain at a dull
re d heat due to t he heat o f com p r ession an d explosion
.

GAS

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

397

Capit aine

employs a met hod which di ffe rs f r om t hat used

i n t he Ho r nsby eng ine in that at the moment t he fuel is injected
int o t he vapo r ize r a l ittle auxil ia ry ai r is also admitted which
swee ps t he O il vapo r fo r m ed int o t he combust ion chambe r p rope r
whe r e it meets t he main body O f ai r and is comp ressed w it h it
I g nit ion ensues f r om t he hot walls O f t he vapo r ize r as in t he
ot he r c ases
Elect r ic I g ni
I gn it i on by M ean s of t h e E l e c t ric S p a rk
4
t ion is t o -day used mo re t han a ny ot he r I n fact i n some b r anc hes
automobile wo rk fo r inst ance it is used exclu
o f t he indust ry
T he r easons fo r t h is a r e not fa r to seek As compa red
s ive ly
wit h t he h o t tu be t he re
is no ame and no fuel
r equi red to feed it T he
system is pe r fectly e x
ible and suscept ible o f
pe rfect t imin g
T he re a re a numbe r
i g nit ion sys
o f elect r ic
tems in use di ffe r in g
in t hei r met hods o f
W irin g t hei r S ou r ces o f
FIG 1 36 M k -a nd -B rea k C i rc ui t
cu rrent etc but c o n
s id e ring fo r t he moment
noth in g but bas ic p r inciples all t he
systems may be g rou ped unde r t wo heads Thes e a re :
1
Make and -B reak I gnit ion and
2 J um p-spa rk I g nit ion
I n what follows only t he element a r y p r inciples Of e le c t ric
i g ni t ion will be discussed Fo r a com p rehensive ex position of

t he subject cons ult Elect r ic I g nit ion fo r Moto r V ehicles by

,

W Hibbe rt i
1
MA K E
A N n-B R E A K I G N I T I O N T he simplest kind o f make
and -b r eak ci r cuit is shown in diagr am i n Fig 1 36 I I n t his
g u re B is a sou rce o f cu rrent and c a s o -c alled spa rk coil I n
t his c ase suc h a coil consists me r ely o f a nu mbe r o f tu r ns o f
com pa r at i vely heavy wi re wound about a bundle o f w r ou g ht
.

i t hr ift d
1 W hi tt k r
I R b rt Th
Ze

sc

'

V d
.

Co

1 90 7 ,

64 -6 6

n in

Ga s E g

F i ft h

Ha

9 19

Ave N e w Yo
d bo o k

rk C i ty

C O M B U STI ON

I N TE R N AL

398

E N GI N E S

i r on wire s
T his coil is in se r ies w it h t he c i r cuit and acts as
an inducti ve resist ance W hen t he ci r cu it is b r oken it se r ves
t o intens ify t he p r essu re c au sin g a hot spa r k at t he point o f
b reak F o r t his r eason t he w r ite r p r efe r s t o c all t his k ind o f
coil an intensifyin g coil r at he r t han a spa r k coil whic h as used
in j u m p -spa r k i g nit ion is a ve r y di ffe r ent t hin g
Th e m ake and b r eak mech anism consists in t hi s c ase o f a
st at iona r y elect r ode e in s ul ate d f r om t he r est o f t he en g ine and
a mo vable elect r ode p T he l atte r is connected t o a at sp r ing
S whic h in tu r n is in cont act
wit h t he cam C T he cu rr ent
ows f r om B t h r ou g h t he int e n
s ify in g coil
6
t o t he elec t r ode
p and f r om he re t h r ou g h t he
elect r ode 6 back t o B t hus
m
complet in g t he c i r cuit The
ope r at ion is a s foll ows : Ca m C
r ot at in g in t he di rect ion o f t he
a rr ow rst p resses elect r ode p
ag ainst elect r ode e mak in g t he
c i r cuit At t he p r ope r moment
sp r in g S slips Off t he c am sud
d e n ly fo r min g a g ap bet ween p
and e ac r oss whic h t he spa r k
jum
ps
FI G 1 3
7 M k e n d B re k I gn i t i n
T his type of make and b reak
App r t u
mec hanism is k nown as t he
h am me r b reak An exam ple f r om p r act ice is shown i n Fig
13
The sou r ce o f cu rr ent in t his c ase is a B osch m ag neto
T he cu rr ent ows f r om d t o e t he st at iona r y elect r ode and re
tu r n s t h r ou g h f t he mo vable elect r ode and t he fo r ked ro d h
Actuated by a l at chin g a rr an g ement o n t he hal f-t ime shaft t he
a r matu re leve r is pulled t o t he left about 20 de grees as shown in
t he lowe r g u re T his puts t he t wo powe r ful hel ic al sp r in g s
shown i n tension s o t hat when t he l at ch r eleases t he a r matu re
slee ve inst ant aneously retu r ns t o its no r mal posit ion g ene r at in g
t he r equ i red cu rrent by c utt ing t he l ines O f fo r ce wit h great
r apidity At t he same inst ant t he fo r k h s t rike s t he bell c r ank g
V rbr nn un g m t r n p 3 6 5
G ii ld
.

it e r

ng

-a

a a

ne r,

o o e

GAS

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

399

t hus sepa r at in g i f rom 6 and c ausin g t he spa rk T his met hod

is suscept ible o f adjust ment by re g ul at in g t he t ime O f r elease O f
t he latc h
I t should be noted t hat in t his pa rt icula r inst ance t he t wo
elect r odes a r e in contact unt il t he spa r k is desi red T his is a d
mis sible because wit h t he sou r ce o f cu rrent used elect r ic ene rg y
If a con
is g ene r ated only fo r an inst ant just befo re t he b r eak
t in u o us sou r ce O f cu rr ent s uc h as a batte r y fo r inst ance is u s ed
it becomes necessa r y t o modify t he mec hanis m s o t hat t he elec
t r odes a re in cont act only fo r a sho rt t ime befo r e t h e b reak ;
othe rwise t he system would be ve r y wasteful o f cu rrent
The hamme r -b reak mechanism is o p en t o t wo O bject ions
r apid wea r in g away of t he points and foul in g
T he fo r me r
is aggr avated if t o o st r on g a cu rr ent is used I t is usual
t he refo re to make t he po ints of cont act O f s o me met al t hat will
no t easil y co rr ode o r wea r away unde r heat
Plat inu m o r plat i
num -i r idiu m is extensively u sed fo r t his pu r pose The r e a re how
eve r some S pecial alloys on t he ma r ket such as B ake r
Co s

S p ec ial
whic h a re somewhat less costly but do t he wo r k fully
as well o r bette r Plat inu m is p r act ic ally indest ruct ible by heat
but it is ha r dly ha r d enou g h to st and t he wea r T he only remedy
fo r foul in g is pe r iodic cleanin g alt hou g h t he cl aim is m ade fo r
some o f t he spec ial al loys t hat t hey remain b r i g ht inde nitely
To ove r come t he O bject ion O f foulin g a modi cat ion o f t he
make -and -b reak s ystem known as t he wi pe spa r k is somet imes
employed I n t h is one elect r ode is made t o r evol ve and a p r o

je c t io n o n it wipes ac r oss t he o t he r elect r ode at t he p r o pe r

time c ausin g a spa r k o n t he b reak The spa r k p r oduced in t his
way is pe r haps hotte r t han t hat fo r med by t he hamme r b reak
and foul in g o f t he spa rk in g su r faces is e ffect ual ly p revented On
t he ot he r hand t he wea r is muc h greate r
Make -and -b reak i g nit ion h a s t he advanta g e t hat only a low
volt ag e is requ i red t o o pe r ate it The p ressu re o r dina r ily used
is f ro m s ix t o ei g ht volts while in many cases f r om t wo to fou r
volts is quite su f cient T he re is t hus much less d ange r f r om
leak ag e o f cu rrent and sho rt -ci rcuitin g in t his system t han t he re
is in t he j um p spa r k met hod
T he disad vant ag es o f the system re g a r din g wea r and foulin g
have bee n al ready pointed o ut Anot he r as co mpa red wit h t he
.

IN T ERNA L COMB USTION ENGINES

4 00

jum p spa r k consists in t he fact t hat some mec hanic ally ope r ated

gea r in g is requ i red t o t r ip t he i g nite r Bo t h t hi s fact and t he

r apid wea r of t he cont act points have led des i g ne rs t o adopt t he
ju m p-spa r k system fo r hig h speed wo r k L ately howeve r t here
,

Wa te r S uc tion

FIG

1 3
8

P l an

Bo w e n En g ne

Fa y

seems t o be a tendency t o adapt t he make -and -b reak system also

t o hi g h speeds c a u sed no d ou bt by t he ve r y ob vious disad vantag es
T he re a re ways O f ef ciently O pe r at in g a
o f t he j ump spa rk
B owen
hi g h -speed t r ip gea r One Of t hese used by t he F ay
E n g ine Co fo r mediu m
hi g h s peeds is shown
in F i g s 1 3 8 and 1 39
Fig 1 3 8 shows a pl an
view of t he ve rt ical
en g ine
T he i g nite r
shaft A passes ve r
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
d
o
w
n
w
a rd

I
1
9
I gn i t r B l k F y
B w n
F G
3
t
h
r ou g h t he w at e r
E n gi n
j acket space and is
d r iven f r om t he c r ank shaft by a pai r of bevel g ea rs I t
runs i n b r onze bea r in g s and w here i t pas ses t h r ou g h t he
j acket it is enc ased in a wate r-t i g ht t ube At t he t op t his
shaft c a rr ies a smal l g ea r whic h me s he s wit h a somewhat l a rg e r
g ea r B u nde r t he i g nite r c am C All t he g ea rs a re cut g ea rs
and ru n p r act ically wit hout noise T he d r ivin g is po sit ive and
,

oc

GAS E N GI N E A UXI L I AR IES

40 1

t he re c an be n o sl ip As the c am C r evol ves it e ng ag es t he

plun g e r D and fo r ces it back ag ai nst t he sp r in g G When t he
plunge r sl ips o ff t he c am t he hamme r E st r ikes t he movable
elect r ode F sepa r at in g it f r om t he st at iona r y elect r o d e J c aus
in g the spa rk This act ion is ca rr ied o u t wi t h t he same r apidity
For
n o matte r h o w fast the y -wheel is r evol ved at t he st a rt
t he greate r pa rt o f its revolut ion c am C is not i n cont act wit h the
plun g e r D and hence t he elect r odes a re sepa r ated t hus main
t ainin g an open ci r cuit fo r t he greate r pa rt o f t he t ime and p re
ventin g t he waste of cu rrent J ust as soon as C commences t o
pus h back t he plun g e r D t he sp r in g H pulls back t he movable
elect r ode F and cont act is made fo r a su f cient len g t h o f t ime
t o ins u re a g ood o w of cu rrent
T he i g nite r plu g shown in greate r det ail in Fig 1 39 is e n
t ire ly inde pendent o f t he d r i vin g g ea r and is held i n pl ace by
fou r bolts whic h c an be r emoved at a moment s not ice The
seat o f t he plu g is a gr ound joint T he spa r k points c an t he re
fo re be examined and the plu g repl aced in a ve ry sho rt t ime o r
a new plu g may be subst ituted fo r t he old one The chances fo r
wea r in the whole a rr an g ement h o weve r a re ve r y small an d
t he re seems t o be no reason w hy t his igni t e r g ea r should no t be
u s e d fo r s peeds much hi g he r t han t hose fo r which t he desi g ne rs
Adjust ment O f t he spa r k i n t his g ea r is made i n a
n o w use it
ve ry sim ple way by pivot in g t he g ea r B about t he cente r o f t he
shaft A t hus chan g in g t he position o f t he cam C wit h rel ation
t o t he plun g e r T he adjust ment is cont r olled by t he hand leve r
shown S hould t he leve r by any accident be left in t he a dvanced
s pa r k posit ion s o t hat t he en g ine may g et an explosion tu r nin g
it t he w r ong way t he next t ime it is st a rted a smal l clutch located
u nde r t he i g nite r cam C immediately f rees t he c am so t hat no
s econd back ex plosion can t ake pl ace
* s hows dia gr am

P
AR
I
G
N
I
T
I
O
N
F
i
g
u
r
e
1
1
0
2
M
P
K
3
S
JU
There a r e
m at ic a lly t he simplest type o f jump -s pa r k system
i n all c ases a p r ima r y o r low -tension and a seconda r y o r hi g h
tension ci rcu it T he p r ima r y ci r cu it is shown in heavy l ine and
cont ains the sou r ce O f cu rr ent B T he cu rr ent ows f r om B
t h r ou g h an a rr an gement T called t he inte rr u pte r com mut ato r
o r t ime r whic h se r ves t o make and b reak t he p r ima r y cu rrent at
T H Whi te Pe t ro l Mo t o r a nd Mot o r Ca rs
,

I N T ERNA L

402

C OMB US TION EN GINES

t he p r ope r t ime I t t hen passes t hrough t he p r ima r y windin g P

o f t he spa r k coil and r etu r n s t o t he sou r ce com plet in g t he p r ima ry
c i r cuit T he seconda r y c i r cu it shown by a l i g ht l ine cons ists
o f t he seconda r y windin g S
of t he spa r k coil and a spa r k plu g i n
t he cyl inde r of t he en g ine i ndic ate d i n t he g u r e by Z I t shoul d
be noted in connect ion w it h t he seconda r y ci r cuit t h at t his ci r
cuit is never actually closed since a spa r k g ap al ways exists in
t he spa r k plu g
Hence cu rr ent c annot be s aid t o ow in t his
c i r cuit unt il t he tension o r volt ag e becomes high enou g h t o b r id g e
t his g ap by a spa r k
T o u nde rst and t he O pe r at ion o f t he j ump -spa r k system it is
necessa r y rst t o study t he act ion o f t he spa r k coil T he re a r e
t wo kinds of t hese coils t he
non -t remble r and t he t re m
ble r coil
T he fo r me r is t he type
indic ated i n F ig 1 3 1 0 I t s
actu al const r uct ion is about
as follows : I is t he co re o f
t he coil consist in g o f a bun
dle o f ne i r on wi res This
is cove red wit h a l aye r O f
some i n s ul a t ing m ate r ial
and
a
r
ound
18 w oun d
FIG 1 31 0 S i m p l Jum p - pa r k S y t m
t he p r i ma ry W i nd i n g T h is
consists g ene r ally o f seve r al l aye rs o f ins ul ated coppe r wi re
about N o 20 o r 22 A l i g ht l aye r o f insulat ion next sepa
r ates t his f r om t he seconda r y windin g whic h consists g ene r ally
O f some 1 0 t o 1 5 000 t u r ns of ve ry ne insul ated wi re E ac h
l aye r of t his wi re is sepa r ated f r om t he next by a l aye r o f insul a
t ion t o p re vent sho rt -c i r cuit in g unde r t he ve ry hi g h p ressu res
occu rr in g
T o unde rst and easily what follows it is neces sa r y me rely t o
r emembe r t hat if any conduct o r Of elect r icity is moved ac r o ss a
mag net ic el d o r if a m ag net ic eld is moved ac r oss a conduct o r
an elect r ic cu rr ent will i mmediately be set up in t his conducto r
F u r t he r t hat if a cu rr ent be passed t h r ou g h a conduct o r a m ag
netic eld will i mmediately be set u p a r ound t he conducto r
N o w i n t he spa r k co il desc r ibed a c u rrent is sent t h r ou g h t he
.

'

s e

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

GAS

4 03

p r ima ry windin g as soon as t he cont act is closed at T T his

conve rts the i r on co re O f t he coil int o an elect r o -mag net sett in g
up a st r on g m ag netic el d T he m ag net ic lines move out wa r d
ac r oss t he windin g s o f t he se conda r y c i r cuit and induce a hi g h
tens ion in this c i r cuit B u t owin g to self-induct ion t he build
ing up Of t he mag net ic el d is muc h s lo we r t han t he collaps e o f
t he eld when t he p r ima r y cu rr ent is suddenly inte rru pted at T
T he mag net ic lines t hen move inwa r d ac r oss t he seconda r y wind
ing wit h muc h greate r r apidity hence t he p ressu re induced is
muc h hi g he r t han t hat exis t in g du r in g t he bu ildin g u p O f t he eld
and if t he spa r k plug is r i g ht fo r t he coil a spa r k will b r id g e
ac ross t he g ap in t he cylinde r i g nitin g t he c ha rg e T he fact t hat
.

FIG

1 31 1

J um p s pa

rk S y t

s em

i t h Tr

b l r C il
e

t he volt ag e induced o n t he makin g of t he cu rr ent is not hi g h

enou g h t o b r id g e t he g ap p r events t he occu rrence o f a double
spa r k in t he cyl inde r whic h mi g ht lead t o p r e -i g nit ion o f t he
c har g e
S ince wit h t he non -t r emble r coil t he cu rrent in t he p r ima r y
is establ ished only once when i g nit ion is desi red only a sin g le
spa rk will occu r in the cyl inde r I t is possible t hat t his sin g le
spa rk may fail t o re and a se r ies o f spa r ks at t he t ime o f i g nition
is hence an advant ag e
T his has led t o t he adopt ion of t he
t remble r coil F ig 1 3
T he ci r cuit s h o w n in t hi s g u re is
t he same as t hat o f Fig 1 3 1 0 except t hat a t remble r o r bu zze r
T and a t i me r o r commut ato r W have been subst ituted fo r t he
,

H Whi te Pe t ro l Mo t o r a nd M o t o r Ca rs
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE S

4 04

simple m ake -and -b reak mechanis m T o f Fig

T he
action o f t he t r emble r is simple As soon as W ma k es cont act
t he p r im a r y cu rr ent conve rts t he co re I int o an elect r o -mag net
whic h att r acts t he a r matu re A o f t he t remble r blade T his
act ion howeve r b r eaks t he p r ima r y cu rr ent by pullin g t he
S p r in g bl ade T away f r om t he const ant sc rew at E
A spa r k
t hen ju mps o ve r i n t he cyl inde r as befo re expl ained T he b r eak
in g O f t he p r ima r y cu rrent howeve r rele as es t he a r matu re A
whic h r etu r ns t o it s no r mal posit ion ag ain est abl is h in g t he p r i
ma r y c i r cuit at E T he O pe r at ion is t he n repeated T his act ion
est ablishes a pulsat in g p ressu re in t he seconda r y windin g c ausin g
a se r ies of spa r ks as lon g as cont act is maint ained at W
Th e advant ag e o f t he t re mble r coil has al r eady bee n pointed
T he disad vant ag es exist in t he fact t hat a second movin g
ou t
pa rt is int r oduced into t he p r ima r y c i r cuit whic h must be kept
c a refully adj usted if t he system is t o wo r k sat isfacto r ily
I n bot h F i g s 1 3 1 0 and 1 3 1 1 it will be not iced t hat t he re
is an a rr an g ement C c alled a condens e r connected ac r oss t he
make and -b reak mec hanis m in t he non t r emble r coil ac r oss t he
inte rrupte r in t he t remble r coil ac r oss t he vib r ato r o r buzze r
T he condense r consis t s o f a l a rg e num be r o f sheets o f t infoil t he
nu mbe r dependin g u pon t he capacit y desi red E ac h s heet is
sepa r at ed f r om t he next by a l aye r of insul at ion and t he alte r nate
sheets a r e connected t o g et he r Thi s m anne r o f const r uct ion is
clea r ly shown in t he diagr am The object o f t he condense r is t o
p revent se r ious spa r kin g at t he make -and -b reak cont acts in t he
p r ima r y c i r cuit T he reasons why suc h a spa r k occu rs at all in
suc h a ci r cuit is t hat t he coll apse o f t he mag net ic eld no t only
induces a high p r essu re in t he seconda r y windin g but also c auses
a moment a r y inc rease in t he p ressu re i n t he p r ima r y t hu s brid g
in g any small g ap by a spa r k and causin g rapid wea r o f t he c o n

F
E
i
1
W hen t he p r ima r y
t act points O f t he t r emble r at
3 11
g
ci r cuit is now b r oken at E t he cu rrent induced in s te ad O f ju m p
in g ac r oss is ex pended i n cha rg in g t he condense r T he a ct ion
is ve r y simila r t o t hat o f an ai r chambe r o n a hyd r aul ic pi pe l ine
abso rbin g shock by comp ressin g ai r T he next t ime t he p r ima r y
c i r cuit is cl osed at E t he condense r discha rg es and hel p s t o send
a cu rr ent t h r ou g h t he p r ima r y
T he
As actu a lly const r uct ed spa r k coils a r e ve r y compact
,

GAS

ENGINE

4 05

A UXILIA RIES

condense r is g ene r ally pl aced u nde r t he coils and t he wh ole is

enclosed in a t i g ht wooden box E xte r nally not hin g shows but
In
t he te r minals and t he t r emble r if t he coil is of t hat type
,

FIG

1 31 2

hr

e e -Te

rm in l S p rk C i l
a

some coils o ne end o f t he seconda r y coil is connected to o ne end

as in
o f t he p r ima r y windin g so t hat only t h r ee te r minals S how
Fig 1 3 12
Fig 1 3 1 3 shows a fou r -te r minal coil t he seconda ry
te r minals bein g on
t op T he t remble rs
of
a re
va r ious con
st ruc t ions nea r ly each
make r h a vmg his own
desi g n T hey m u s t
g ive a qu ick b reak
T hey should be e asy
of
ne adjust ment
but t he adjust ment
once made should
st ay I n many c as es
38 f
a u t o m o bl lc and

FIG
1
m
1
3
3
F
u rT
r
i
n
l
C
i
l

ma r i ne pu r poses t he
enti re spa r k coil is enclosed in a second box w ith t i g ht cove r s o
as t o p revent foulin g by mud o r wate r An example o f t his is
shown in Fig 1 3 1 4
Time rs
A ve r y impo rt ant pa r t o f a ju mp-spa r k system is
t he de vice makin g and b reakin g t he p r ima r y c i r cu it fo r eve ry
t hin g depe nds u pon t he m e n -failin g re g ula r ity Of its per fo r mance
,

'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

406

T he re is a l a rg e numbe r o f suc h t i mers o r com mut ato rs o n t he

ma r ket all mo r e o r less g ood F i g s 1 3 1 5 t o 1 31 8 show a few
o f t he
desi g ns T he fundament al
idea i n all o f t he s e is t he same
.

half -t ime shaft actuates a c am

w i pe r inside o f a case which
or
c am at t he proper t ime m akes and
b reaks cont act wit h i nsul ated te r
m in als hel d by t he s u rr ou ndi ng c a se
T he nu mbe r o f such te r minals de
pends u pon t he nu mbe r o f c ylin
de rs A great deal o f i n g enuity is
shown in t he p revent ion o f f r ict ion
bet ween t he c am and t he te r minal
T he act ion o f t he S int z t ime r Fig
He re we have
is obvious
r olle r cont act t he ends o f t he te r
m in als a r e h a r dened s teel and t he
case
is
dust
p
r
oof
Of
somewhat
FIG 1 31 4
Da s h -bo a rd C il
s imila r desi g n is t he L acoste t ime r
T he c r oss sect ion shows clea r ly t he manne r o f c o n
Fig ~
1 3 1 6
st ruction S omewhat mo r e com pl icated but O f excellent desi g n
is t he Pit t s e ld t ime r F ig 1 3 1 7 I n
t he Gr ouse -Hinds double ball t i mer
F ig 1 3 1 8 t he c am o n t he hal f-t ime
shaft passes bet ween t wo steel balls
hel d as shown T his makes t he con
t act posit ive kee ps t he su r faces
clean and t he wea r is ve r y small
W it h any of t he above devices
t he t ime of spa r k in g m ay be va r ied
by shiftin g t he te r minals w it h r ef
e rence t o t he c am o r wipe r o n t he
half t ime S haft S ome t ime rs inco r
p o r at e g ove r no rs t o aut omat ic ally
FIG 1 31 5
S i t Ti m r
t i me t he spa r k
S p a r k P lu gs
A spa r k plu g consists o f t wo elect r odes o r
spa r kin g points w h ic h a re hel d a ce rt ain dist ance apa rt in t he
cyl inde r T he cent r al elect r ode is insul ated while t he met all ic
The

n z

GAS

E N GI N E

A UXILIA RI ES

4 07

j acket enclosin g the insul at ion g ene r ally ca rr ies the ot he r spa r k
point T his poi nt t he refo r e c an be put in t he c i r cu it by fast ening
a w ire anywhe re t o t he en g ine The essent ial requi rements O f
.

FIG

La c os t e T m e r

13 1 7

Pit t s e ld T m e

t he cons t ruction a re that the insul a t ion o f t he cent r al elect r ode

be suf cient and no t liable to b reaking d wn and that the elec
t rode points be s o const ructed that the plu g is no t eas ily subject
t o foul in g
o

I N TERNAL

4 08

COMB US TION

E N GI NE S

T he most impo rt ant pa r t of the ent i re plu g is pe r haps the

insul at ion of t he cent r al elect r ode Amon g the mate r ials u s ed
fo r t his pu r pose
po r cel ain and mic a
.

t ake t he lead Por

c e l a in
while excel
l ent is ve r y liable
t o b r eak unde r a ny
.

u ne ve n e xp a n s io n by

heat and t he i ns u
l at ion must t he refo re
be ca refully d e si g ned
wit h t his point in
view Mic a is not
O pe n t o t hat Obje c
t ion and its e le c t ri
cal resist ance is ve r y
hi g h but owin g t o
it s l aminated s t r u c
tu re Oil o r soot
may afte r a t ime be
fo r ced bet ween t he
l aminat ions u n d e r
,

'

FIG

1 3 1 8

o u se -

i nd D b l
ou

B a ll T m e

t he hi g h p r es s u re s exist in g
t hus sho rt -ci r cuit in g t he plu g
Ho w va r ious m anufactu r e rs
have t r ied t o t ake into account
t he requi r ements mentioned is
shown in F ig 1 3
T he
rst six plu g s t he r e shown have
po r cel ain and t he l ast t wo mic a
insul at ion
I t shoul d be r emembe red i n
connect ion wit h spa r k plu g s t hat
since t he elect r ical resist ance
ac r oss t he spa r k g ap is greate r
when in actu al o pe r at ion in t he
en g ine t han when in o r dina ry FIG 1 31 9 Va ri us D s i gns of S p rk
ai r a plug may g ive a fai r spa r k
P lugs
F r m H m ns Aut m bil s p 284
,

GAS

ENGINE

4 09

A UXI L I ARI E S

when tested in ai r and may st il l fail in ope r ation I t should also

be remembe red t hat heat will lowe r t he elect rical resist ance Of
po rcelain s o t hat when t he plu g is ve r y hot sho rt ci r cuit in g
th r ou g h t he ins ulat ion may r esult I t has been shown by ex
pe rime nt t hat while t he r esist ance o f po r celain cold was about
e g ohms t his fell t o 2 me g oh ms when the plu g was at a
1 00 m
dull r ed heat and unde r this condition spa r k in g ceased
T he
spa rk howeve r was i m m ed i ately r esto r ed by a n exte r nal spa r k
g ap and cont in ued even when the r esistance had fallen to
ohms W it hout t he exte r n al g ap if the pl u g was allowed to
c ool down spa r kin g reco m menced when t he r esis tance of t he
po r celain had a g ain r isen to 5 me g ohms
A uxi lia ry S p a rk Ga p As t he name implies t his is a
s econd spa r k g ap placed in t he seconda r y ci r cuit outside of t he
.

Fm

1 3
20

i i ry S p rk -g

Au x l

ap

cyl inde r T his g a p acts l ike a n elec t r ic al condense r above

ex p l ained T he p ressu re builds u p o n one of t he te r minals of t his
g a p Unt il it is hi g h enou g h t o b r eak t h r ou g h t he inte r venin g ai r
causing an im pulse o f ve ry hi g h p ressu re t h r ou g h t he ci r cuit t hus
g iving a g ood s pa r k ac r oss the main g ap i n t he cylinde r Fig
13
shows o ne fo r m of auxilia ry spa r k g ap T he advant ag es
cl aimed fo r t he device a re :
( a ) G re ate r ce rt ain t y of spa rk in g in the cylinde r since t he
h ig he r p ressu re g ene r ated will cause a spa r k even ac r oss a pa r
t ia ll
y foul ed plu g
( b) G reate r life o f batte r y since cu rrent cannot leap ac r oss
a fouled plu g as lon g as the auxilia r y g ap is no t b r id g ed
( c ) T he spa rkin g can be wat ched since a spa rk ac r oss t he g ap
a l ways mea ns a s pa r k in t he cylinde r
.

H o m a ns Au t o m o
,

bi l

es

29 0

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 10

In

spite O f t he s e facts t he auxil ia r y spa r k g ap h as

extended appl ic at ion

n ot

fou nd

R E LAT I V E A D V A N TA G E S A N D D I S A D V A N TAG E S OF
A N D J U M P -S PAR K S Y S T E M S
M a ke

A K E -A N D -B R E A K

tension t h r ou g hout t he ci r
cuit r equ i r in g less t ho r ou g h insul at ion and c ausin g less t r ouble
f r om sho rt c ir cu it in g T he system is elect r ic ally mo re simple
while mechanically it is somewhat mo re complex t han t he j ump
spa r k system Thi s l atte r fact makes it somewhat dif cult t o
apply t o hi g h -speed en g ines
E lect r ic ally mo r e complex t han t he
J u m p -sp a r k I gn ition
ot he r but h as n o movi ng pa rt s i ns ide of t he cyl inde r
Ca n be O pe r ated unde r ve ry hi g h -speeds wit h ent i r e success
and has t he greatest exibility wit h r e g a r d t o spa r k adj ust ment

All sou r ces o f elect r ical cu rrent u s ed

u
r
e
u
r
e
f
n
So c s o C r
t
fo r elect r ic i g nit ion may be cl assed unde r t wo heads :
1 Chemic al G ene r ato rs u nde r whic h come
( a ) P r ima r y sou r ces as wet and d r y cells and
( b) Seconda r y sou r ces as t he sto r ag e batte r y o r ac cu mul at o r
2 Mec hanical G ene r at o rs
va r io usly c alled dyn amos and
m ag netos
B r ea k I gnition

a nd

Lo w

Chemica l S ou r c es

( ) W ET

Cu rr en t

DR Y CE L LS All

c hemical cells cons ist O f

t h ree essential pa rts a posit i ve and a ne g at ive elect r ode and an
excit in g l iquid c alled t he elect r olyte As t he name i m plie s in
t he wet cell t his elect r olyte is used in its l iquid fo r m whil e in t he
d r y cell it is mixed w it h some abso r bin g mate r ial and t he pas te
is u s ed t o ll t he space bet ween t he elect r odes T ake t he d r y
cell as an example T he ne g at ive element is usually a ca r bon
r od pl aced at t he cente r o f t he ci r cul a r c as e which fo r ms t he
envelope of t he cell Thi s r od is su rr ounded g ene r ally rst by
a l aye r o f m an g anese dioxide t he pu r pose O f w hic h will appea r
l ate r and t he r est o f t he s p ac e bet ween t his and t he posit ive
element usu ally zinc in t he shape o f a cyl inde r is t hen lled
wit h t he elect r olyte paste t he o r i g inal l iqu id bein g u sually sal
am moniac and wate r T he t op o f t he cell is t hen cove red wit h
pit c h o r ot he r subst ance t hat p revent s t he evapo r at ion o f t he
liquid in t he pas te except t hat a small vent hole is left t o allo w
a

AND

GAS

O f t he escape

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

411

any g as t hat may fo r m within t he cell due t o t he

c hemic al act ion g oin g o n I n such a cell t h e cu rr ent g ene r ated
by t he act ion o f t he elect r olyte passes fr om t he zinc t o t he ca r bon
elect r ode s o t hat as fa r as t he te r minals o f t he cell a r e conce r ned
t he c a r bon is t he posit ive te r minal The chemical act ion dest r oys
t he zinc afte r a t ime and p r oduces hyd r o g en g as o n t he ca r bon
element T he greate r t he a m ount o f t his g as deposited o n th is
element t he slowe r t he g ene r at ion of cu rrent s o t hat it may
nally ce ase alto g et he r T he cell is t hen s aid t o be p ola r iz ed
I n d r y cells t he gas is t aken ca re o f in t wo ways ; t he vent hole
in t he t op allows some o f it t o escape while t he l aye r o f man
g anese dioxide above ment ioned abso r bs anot he r pa rt B u t it
is a fact t hat by t hese m eans n o t al l o f t he g as is r ende red ha r m
less and hence t he cells will pol a r ize wit h mo re o r less r apidity
T h is me rely means t hat if cu rrent is d r awn f r om t hem cont inu
o u s ly fo r any conside r able len g t h o f time t hei r st r en g t h will fail
makin g t he cell appea r dead T he same reasonin g appl ies to
wet cells whe re t he hyd r o g en is allowed t o escape t h r ou g h t he
liquid N o w assu min g that t he zinc is n ot yet dest r oyed if a
cell so pol a r ized is allowed t o recu pe r ate it will ag ain att ain
nea rly its no r mal s t reng t h and may be used as befo re T he cells

a r e said t o be adapted t o open c i r cuit wo r k

F r om all of t his
it is quite e vident t hat in pl aces whe r e t he requi rement fo r cu rrent
is not ve ry great and above all not cont inuous t he p r ima r y cell
B u t whe re t he d r aft o f cu rr ent is
wil l g ive sat isfacto r y se r vice
nea r ly cont inuous as in hi g h -s peed fou r-cyl inde r mac hines fo r
ins t ance t he cell will r apidly pol a r ize and soon fail t o g ive s u f
c ient volt ag e t o o pe r ate t he spa r k coil T he ave r ag e size o f a
d ry cell is about
x
I t will g ive when f resh f r om
to
volts and f rom 12 t o 1 5 ampe res
I t should be unde rstood that t he r e a re othe r combinat io ns o f
elect r odes and elect r olyt es whic h may be used t o g ene r ate cu r
rent
T hus t he so-called soda-cell is made u p O f a zinc plate and a
coppe r-o xide plate wit h a c au s t ic soda solut ion as t he elect rolyte
A sto r a g e cell
( b) S T O RA G E B ATT E R I E S OR AC C U M U L AT O R S
l ike a p ri ma ry cell co n sists O f t wo elect r ode s dipped in an elec
t ro lyt e but cont r a r y t o t he p r ima r y cell it cannot g ive o ff elec
t r ic a l ene rg y in it s o r i g inal state when t he c i r cuit is closed
I t is
necess a ry to c ha rg e a sto r ag e cell befo re it can retu r n elect r ical
of

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 12

ene rg y o n t he dis cha rg e T he c ha rg in g act ion c aus es chemic al

c han g es i n t he m ate r ial of t he elect r odes and i n t he elect r olyt e
T he ene rg y so r ende red l atent is nea r ly all resto red when afte r
t he c ha rg in g cu rrent is disconnected t he outside c i r cuit is closed
Chemical c han g es p r oduc in g a cu rr ent in t he reve rse di r ect ion
t hen t ake pl ace i n t he cell whic h ret u r n bot h t he elect r ode s and
t he elect r olyte t o t heir o r i g inal condit ion S ome exhausted
p r ima ry cells may be pa rt ially r esto red by passin g a cu rrent
t h r ou g h t hem in t he r eve rse way but in most c ases t he t r ouble
T he possibility o f a nea r ly complete re
is not wo rt h while
g ene r at ion o f a st o r a g e cell is t he c hief di ffe rence bet ween it and
a p r ima r y cell
T he re are a nu mbe r o f mat e r ials w hich c an be used as elec
t r odes and elect r olytes but t he usual type o f sto r a g e cell t o day
is t hat usin g some lead compound fo r t he fo r me r and sulfu r ic acid
and wate r fo r t he l atte r Hence only t his lead sto r ag e cell will
be he re conside red
I n it s mode r n fo r m bot h t he positi ve and ne g at ive pl ates o f
a cell consist o f cast gr ids of lead t o whic h ant i m ony is somet imes
added t o st i ffen t hem T he pe r fo r at ions in t he posit ive pl ate a re
rst lled wit h some c om pou nd o f lead as Ph O which is afte r
wa r d conve rted t o pe r o xide of le ad PbO S imil a r ly t he ne g at ive
pl ate is lled wit h P bO whic h is afte r wa r ds conve rt ed into s pon g y
met all ic lead A nu mbe r of pl ates s o p r epa red a r e t hen placed
side by side in a g l as s j a r o r if t he batte r y is t o be used fo r auto
mobile wo r k in a vessel of ha r d r ubbe r o r of wood l ined w it h
r ubbe r o r lead Posit ive and ne g at ive pl ates alte r nate and all
t he pl ates O f l ike kind a re connected to g et he r T he re should
al ways be o ne mo re ne g at i ve t han posit i ve plates so t h at eac h
side O f eac h posit ive pl ate shall face a ne g at ive plate T he
a rr an g ement o f pl ates p resents a l a rg e pl ate su r face in a compact
space S uit able insul at ion sepa r ates t he plates f r om eac h ot her
and keeps t hem f r om t ouchin g t he bottom i n order t o p re vent
any sho rt -ci r cuit in g by cont act o r by dippin g int o any sediment
t hat m ay fo r m I n aut omobile batte r ies t he t o p is enclosed t o
p r e vent t he spillin g O f t he elect r olyt e and not hin g shows but t he
t wo te r minals and an O penin g fo r l lin g
T his is usually kept
closed by a ru bbe r co r k wit h a small vent hole t o allow o f t he
escape O f any g ases t hat may fo r m
.

'

, ,

G AS

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

413

T he chemical react ions t hat occu r du r in g cha rg ing and d is

cha rg in g a re n o t yet fully unde rstood but it is agreed t hat t he
main ac t i o n is the fo r mat ion o f lead pe roxide o n t he posit ive and
met allic lead o n t he ne g at ive plate du rin g cha rg in g and t he fo r
mat ion o f lead sul phate o n bot h plates du r in g dis cha rg e The
*
act ion is be st explained by t he followin g dia gr am
,

D i h r g i ng
sc

h gd
P l a t e E l c t r o lyt
C

P bO e

ar

D i sc harged

Co n d iti on
e

2 HeS O i

P l a te
Pb

P la t

P b8 0

Pl a t e
P hso

2H20

diti

Co n

on

l t ri n rgy

e ec

c e

C h a rgi ng
S uch

a lead cell when fully cha rg ed shoul d show a volt ag e o f

f ro m
o n O pen ci r cuit
and f r om
to
when t he
to
en g ine is runnin g T he volt ag e soon d r ops to
and t hen slowly
to
T h ree -qua rte rs o f t he tot al discha rg e t akes pl ace bet ween
t he latte r fig u res I t is usual to discont inue discha rg in g a cell
when the voltag e has reached
Beyond t hi s point t he
fo r mat ion of t he insoluble lead sulfate becomes t r oublesome and
dis cha rg in g much bel ow t his gu re t he cell may be dest r oyed or
a t le ast se r iously impai red
Ra tin g o f S to ra ge B a tte r ie s
T he am pe r a g e o f sto r a g e
cells de p ends o n t he w eigh t of m ate r ial in t he cell conve rt ed by
t he chemical reac t ions w hile t he r ate at whic h elect r ical ene r gy
can be taken O ff depen d s upon t he su r face of t he active mate r ials
ex p osed t o c hemical ac t ion Cells a re r ated by t hei r am pe re
hou r ca pacity and nea rly eve r y make r states t he no r mal r ate of
dis ha rge recommended Fo r o rdina r y const r uctions t he no r
mal discha rge r ate is about 04 am p e re pe r squa re inc h of tot al
p osit ive plate su rface and t he discha rg e capacity about 4 am pe re
hou rs pe r pound of plate includin g ne g at ive and posit ive I n
o rde r t o be able t o com pa re di ffe rent cel ls t he c apacity r at in g is
bas ed u p on a cu rrent that will cause t he volta g e of t he cell t o fall
to
volts in ei ght hou rs T hus if t o p roduce t his result a
cu rrent of s a y 25 am pe res must be d r awn t he capacity o f t he
cell is said t o be 8 x 25 200 am p e r e -hou rs I f t he r a t e o f dis
cha rg e is fa st e r t han t his it is b t ained at t he ex pense o f capac ity
T hus if a cu rren t o f 4 0 am p e res we re d r awn t he c apacity mi g ht
I n te rn t i n l L ibr ry f T h n l gy
,

ec

o o

I N TE RNAL COMB U S TIO N

4 14

ENGINES

be o nl y 1 6 0 am pere -hou rs Co nversel y if t he rat e o f disc harge

m ay not
is s lower t h an t he st andard t he l imit ing volt age of
be reac hed for s ay t wel ve hou rs instead o f eight These vari a
t ions de pe nd l argel y u pon t he make o f cell
Cha rgin g a Cell
I n c h arging a cel l it is absol utel y ne c e s
s ary t o determine t he pol arity o f t he terminals o f t he sou rce of
c u rrent T he posit i ve t erminal must be c onnected t o t he pos i
t i ve terminal of t he cel l The c harging rat e o f lead cells shoul d
be about t he s ame as t he normal eight hour disc harge rat e I t
is howe ver poss ible t o u se s m aller current s for a l onger t ime
T he volt age o f t he c h arging c u rrent must be s o mewh at greater
fro m 5 t o 1 0 per cent t han t he disc h arge volt age o n ac cou nt o f
t he i ntern al resist ance t h at must be o verco me I n o n e c h arging
t est t he c h arging volt age rose fro m
to
at t he en d
at t he e nd of s ix hours and t o
volts i n
o f t wo hou rs t o
eight hou rs and fort y - ve minutes The rate o f c harging was
t hus about normal
I f c h arging is c ont i nued beyond t his point
t he elect rol yt e will h ave t he appe arance o f boili ng o wing t o t he
S l ight o verc harging wil l not inj ure a
ga s t h at is being e vol ved
cell but a l arge amou nt of it leads t o sul fat i ng and permanent
i nj ury
Te s tin g of S tora ge B a tter ie s
Two test s m ay be m ade
t he ot her for sparking F or t he former a l o w
o n e for volt age
reading volt meter 0 t o 3 volts is c o nnected across t he t erminals
while t he engine is i n o perat ion The reading
o f t he battery
s houl d be above
volt s A ny cell m ay give
t o 2 volts on
o p en c ir c u it
e ven if c o m pletel y ru n down a short t ime before
The sparking t est is m ade t o determine i n a w ay t he st ate o f t he
c h arge by not ing t he k in d o f s park T his t est shoul d be c are
fu lly done and n o t re pe ate d t o o ofte n I t is a de ad s hort c ircu it
met ho d and t herefore not goo d for t he cell
The use o f an
am meter is for t h at reason not rec o m me nded as it woul d t ake t o o
long t o get a reading T he S parking test is m ade by pl ac ing one
ski nne d end of a piece o f insul ated c o pper wire i n c o nt act wit h
and t he n drawing t he ot her
o n e e nd binding post o f t he battery
e nd rapidly ac ross t he ot her post T he S park s houl d be lou d
and snappy
A ny st orage b att ery s houl d l ast fro m t hree t o four years i f
pro perly t reated I t is wel l t o adopt a regul ar c h arging period
.

GAS

A UX I L I ARI E S

ENGINE

415

say once i n t hree weeks for t he ordinary aut omobile battery

whet her t he b attery is ru n down o r not
2
M ec ha n ica l F o rm s of Gen era tor s : D yna m o s a nd M a gn etos
- Mec hanic al forms of cu rrent producers h ave t he ad v ant age
o ver pri mary and sec ondary batteries in t hat t he energy required
by t hem is deri ved direct ly from t he engine t hey o perate Hence
cur re nt wil l be produ ced as long as and only when desired The
ot her forms of gene r ato rs de pe nd u pon sources o f energy ent irel y
ext raneous t o t he engine pl ant and t he su ppl y of current is t here
fore not i n any sense aut o mat ic whic h woul d be t he ideal condi
t ion The terms dy namo and magnet o h ave bee n variously

used S o me w r iters des ignate by dynamo any generat or h a v

ing elect ro -magnet s servi ng t o est abl is h t he magnet ic el d and

by magnet o any mac hine em pl oying permanent m agnets for

t his service Ot hers dene t he di fference as exist ing i n t he kind
of cu rrent produced a dynamo furnishing direct i e c ontinuous
cu rrent while a m agnet o produces alternat ing i e pulsat ing
cu rrent
Whatever denitio n is adhered t o it shoul d be remem
be re d t h at i n eit her mac hine t he cu rrent is produced by a n
elect ri c al conduct or cutt ing t he m agnet ic eld The current is pro
d u c e d in exact l y t he same way and for exactly t he same reason
as t hat est abl ished i n t he secondary winding of a s park c oil
as
expl ained abo ve I n t his case t he condu ctor o f elect ric it y is
wou nd u po n a piece of met al c alled an armatu re whic h is rapidly
rot ated in a m agnet ic el d I t makes no di fference whet her t h is
el d is produced by permanent magnets or by electro -magnets
I f t here are a nu mber o f suc h c onduct ors u pon t he armature and
t he c urrent induced i n eac h is pro perly col lected by a s o -c alled
co m mut at or u pon t he armature sh aft so as t o be p r act ic ally con
t in u o u s in its flo w t hrough t he external c ircu it we h ave wh at is
generally c alled a dynamo On t he ot her h and i f t he cu rrent
i n t he external c ircuit rises t o a maximu m value and t hen dies
out t o gi v e a maxi mu m value next i n t he o pposite direct ion t he
mac hine is generall y k no w n as a magnet o While i n al l dynamos
and most magnet os t he armatu re c onst ant ly rot ates i n one d ire c
t ion it shou ld be st ated t hat in all magnetos t his is not at al l
necessary T hus i n t he S im ms B osc h magnet o t he armatu re is
st at ionary and onl y a slee ve surrou nding t he armat u re is rapidly
oscill ated i n t he magnetic el d I t would be beyond t he sco pe
,

I N TE RNAL COM B US TI ON

4 16
of

ENGINES

t his book however to discuss all t he possible m odic at ions

and t he reader is hence refer r ed t o t he works u po n t his subj ect *
I n general t he s mal l dynamo used for ignition pu rpo ses is
dri ven by means o f a friction wheel f r o m t h e fly -wheel o f t he
e ngine T here is t he n n o current avail able f r o m t he dyna mo whe n
t he engine is st arted and it bec o mes necessary t o use a battery
of so me kind for t he rst minut e or t w o s wit c hing i n t he dynamo
w hen it is u p t o s peed
This sc he me has t he disad vant age t hat
t he b attery is so met i m e s left i n t he c i r cuit and t he dynamos h ave
been k nown t o bu r n out u nder excessive engi ne s peeds A device

1
c alled t he A ut o S parker F ig 3 2 1 o verc o mes t hese di ffic ult ies
T his l itt le dynamo is tted wit h a cent rifugal go vernor whic h
c ont rols t he posit io n o f
t he frict io n wheel o n t he
fly -wheel ri m s o t hat
e ve n at st art ing t he ar
m at u r e rot at es rapidly
enough t o fu r nish st art
i ng cur r ent T his does
a w ay w it h an au xiliary
batt ery A s t he engine
s peeds u p t he go v ernor
0 f t he
dynamo a d s t o
FI G 1 3 21 Au t o S p a r k e r
kee p t he armatu re s pee d
c ons t ant i nde pe ndent of t he di ameter o f t he y-wheel o r t he
e ngi ne s peed B y adj usti ng t he governor tension s p r ing it is
possible t o co nt rol t he s peed of t he dyn amo t o get any cu rre nt
bet wee n 1 an d 3 am peres and any v olt age bet w ee n 3 and 1 0 volts
R egardi ng m agnet os t he fol lo w ing desc r i pt io n o f t he act io n
t oget her wit h t he expl an at io n o f t he met h od of
o f a m agnet o
c o nnecti ng it u p is t ake n fro m a c at al ogue of t he Holley B r os
Fo r c learness and si m plic ity t his d e s c rip
Co m pany of D et roit
t io n c an h a r dly be i m pro v ed u p on

A m agnet o so far as it s essent ial part s are c oncerned is a

very s im ple t hing I t c onsists of a U -sh a pe d piece o f s pec ial
steel whic h is pe rmanent ly m ag net i zed ; in ot her words a c o m
mo n horseshoe magnet and a ro t a t ing armat u re The arm at u re
c ons ists o f a soft i r o n c ore of a pproxi mate H c ross
sect io n as
,

W H ibbe r t
.

E le c t r i c I

g nit i n
o

fo r Mo t o r

Ve h i c le s

GAS

ENGINE

A UX I L I ARI E S

417

viewed al ong t he shaft u po n whic h it is su ppo rted and o n whic h

h e magne t t o t he free ends o f whic h
it is des igned t o rot ate T~
are afxed soft iron arc -sha pe d po le pieces and t he armature co re
wit h t he s ides o f t h e H c orrespo nd ingly arc sh aped is shown in

1
vert ic al sect ion i n F ig 3 22 I n t he slot formed in t he armature
.

FI G

22
1 3

c ore by t he s ide s o f t he H wire is wound in tu rns len gt h wise of

t he armatu re shaft S o mu c h for t he c onstruc t ion o f t he ele
ment ary magnet o I n order t o u nde rstand ho w it generates in
it s arm atu re when tu rned an electric cu r re nt it is necess ary t o
re mem be r one l aw o f physics n amely : Whenever a wire is wou nd
a bout a m agnet i zed so ft i ro n c o re and t he magnet is m of t he core
s uddenl y dies o u t t here will be a t endency for a cu rrent t o be
,

IN TERN AL

418

COM B US TI O N

ENGINES

produce d i n t he wire
A famili ar exam ple o f t he work ing o f
t his l aw is fou nd i n t he o perat io n of t he c o m mo n j u m p-s park c oil
Here we have a c ore made o f s oft iro n wires and arou nd it is
wou nd a great m any t urns o f ne wire t he ends of whic h are con
n e c t e d t o a s park plug
The c ore is also wou nd wit h a c oil o f
wire whic h is su ppl ie d wit h c urrent fro m a b attery and when t his
c u rrent is o wing t he core is m agnet i zed
Whe n t he current
fro m t he battery is interru pted t he m agnet is m i n t he c ore s u d
d e nly dies o u t and i n ac cordance wit h t he l aw above st ated a
t endency is created for a current t o o w i n t he ne wire c oil whic h
is c onnect ed t o t he s park plug and t his i ndu ced c urre nt j u mps
at t he plug

I n order t o expl ain how t he i ro n c ore o f t he magnet o arm a

t ure wit h it s windi ng is magnet i zed and how t he magnet is m o f
t he c ore is c aused suddenly t o die o u t it is necessary t o refer t o
four diagrams o f Fig 1 3 22 s howing t he armat ure i n different
posit ions o f rot at io n wit h res pect t o t he pol e pieces
I n diagram
( 1) t he arm at ure is represent e d wit h t he t wo heads of its c ore i n
cl ose proxi mit y t o t he faces o f t he pole pieces The space be
t ween t he pole pieces is t hus al most c o m pletel y lled o r bridged
wit h iron and m agnet is m passes fro m o ne pole piec e t o t he ot her
t hrough t he armat ure c ore t horoughl y m agnet i zing it N ext
c onsider diagram ( I I ) Here t he armat ure is shown rot ated int o
suc h a posit io n t hat o ne edge o f e ac h pol e o f t he arm ature c ore is
j ust leaving t he vic init y o f one o f t he pole pieces A s soo n as t his
posit ion is passed t he space fro m pole piece t o pole piece is no
l onger lled wit h iron but wit h air whic h is not a c onduct or
Thus very l ittle m agnet is m passes fro m o ne
o f el ect r ic it y
pole piece t o t he ot her and t he c ore is no l onger t raversed
by t he m agnet ic i nuence and su ddenl y ceases t o be m ag
net ic This is exact ly t he condit ion prescribe d by t he above
quoted l aw for t he product ion of a c u r r ent and i n fact when t he
armat ure in its rot at io n leaves positio n ( I I ) t here is a su dden
i m pulse o f cu rrent produ ced i n t he wire o f t he armatu re whic h
dies away after t he arm atu re rot ates a l itt le beyond t his posit ion
I n pos it ion ( II I ) t he c onditions o f arm at u re m agnet i zat io n exist
ing i n posit io n ( I ) are re produced exce pt t h at t he arm at ure h as
c hanged ends i n res pect t o t he pole pieces and t he m agnet ic in
u e n c e pas ses t hro u gh it i n t he o ppos ite se nse c h arging it oppo
.

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

4 19

s it e ly , s o

t hat when t he magnetism is d isc h arged i n posit ion ( I V)

t he cu r rent w il l be i n t he o pposite direct ion t hrough t he wire of
t he armat u re winding As t he armatu re is turned u po n it s shaft
t he re are t hus produced i n eac h com ple t e rot at io n t wo rat her
sho rt im pulses of current o f o p pos ite direction nea r ly co rres po nd
ing wit h t he inst ants at whic h t he armatu re heads s o t o s peak
part c o m pany wit h t he pole pieces and are h al f a re volutio n
apart
D uring t he re mainder of t he rot at ion t here is no c u rrent
owing I t may be re adil y seen t hat by c onnect ing o ne end of
t he armature wire to t he armatu re core and by c onnect ing
t he ot her t o an insulated met allic c ont act segment c arried
by t he armatu re s haft u po n whic h bears a st at ionary insu
lated brush t he cu rrent i mpulses may be t aken fro m t he magnet o
for use

N o w as t o t he pract ic al use o f suc h a m agnet o fo r ignit io n

pur p oses S ince it is onl y during a s mal l part of t he armature
rot at ion t h at c urrent is being generated it is necess ary t o rot ate
t he armature sh aft at suc h a s peed t h at t hese elect ric al i m pulses
shall be s o t imed as t o cor respond wit h t he periods whe n ignit ion
is requ ired by so me o ne cylinder of t he engine I f t his were not
attended t o t he ignitio n pe riods o f t he engine might occ ur
during t he parts of t he armatu re re volut ion whe n no cu rrent
was be ing produced
I n order t o bring about t his res ult t he
m agnet o and t he engine must at all t imes ru n at a pro perly
p ro po rt ioned rat io of s p eeds and t he posit ions of t he engine c rank
sh aft and armatu re must be adj usted right i n t he rst place I f
t he m agnet o sh aft is geared t o t he engine at t he right rat io and
t he teet h of t he t wo gea rs are correct ly meshed t he des ired re
sult will be brought about For ins t ance if t he engine be of t he
fou r-cyl inder fou r-cyc le ty pe four sparks will be require d fo r
eac h t wo crank -shaft rot at ions Fou r s parks W ill be produced
fo r eac h t wo re volutions of t he m agnet o as well and t hus i f t he
magneto and t he engine r un at t he same s peed t he S parks wil l be
nu me ric all y c o rrect
I f ge are d to t he c rank sh aft t he c rank
s haft gear and t he m agnet o gear wou l d have t he same nu mber
of teet h and i f drive n from a t wo t o one s h aft t he nu mbe r
of teet h i n t he t wo t o one shaft gear would be t wice as gre at
as t he t eet h of t he magnet o ge ar
By c hangi ng t he part ie n
l ar teet h o f o ne gear whic h are i n mesh wit h ce rt ain teet h
.

4 20

I N T ERNA L COM B US TI ON ENGINE S

of

t he ot her t he cu rre nt i m pulses m ay be m ade t o oc cur at t he

mo ments whe n t he pis t ons are e xact ly i n t he r ing posit ions

I n vari able
s pee d engi nes as aut o mobile m a
c hi nes for i nst ance t he service re qu ir ed of t he
ignit io n out t bec o mes more e xact ing as t he s pee d
i nc re ases o wing t o gre ater c o mpressio n and less
avail abl e t ime
This i n t he c ase of mec hanic al
c urre nt generat ors is met by a nat ural i nc re as e i n
volt age wit h i nc re as e i n s peed whic h co nstitutes
anot her advant age o f t his t y pe of generat or as
c o m pared wit h pri mary and sec ondary cells Thus
less h and m ani pul at ion o f t he s park is required
C
but
all
m
agnet
o
syste
ms
shoul
d
be
provided
wit
h
g
n
means o f alteri ng t he arm atu re posit io n rel at ive
nk
t
o
t
he
c
ra
s h aft posit io n i n order t o alter t he
n
n
o
t i me o f s park
C
M
E
T
H
O
D
S
U
P
P
R
I
MA R Y A N D
O F CO N N E C T I N G
0
S E C O N D A R Y B A TT E R I E S A N D S Y S T E M S o r W I R I N G
d
o
h
U S E D Pri mary and sec o ndary cel ls may be
M c o nnect ed i n series i n parallel ( or mult i ple ) and
i n mult i ple -series The me ani ng o f t hese terms
3

1
F o r seri
c onnec
is ex pl ained i n Fig
3 23
2
3
t ions Fig 1 3 23a eac h posit i ve
ment 0 %
G
cell is c onnect ed t o t he negat i ve elem e nt o f t he
F
next leavi ng free t he negat i ve element s a y of
t he rst cel l and t he pos it i ve ele ment of t he
l ast for c o nnect ion t o t he outside circu it
In
t he sec ond o r mult i pl e met hod o f c onnect ion
Fig 1 3 23 b al l t he l ike ele ment s o f t he cel l are
c onnected t oget her Fig 1 3 23c nally s hows six
cells i n mult i ple series i e t hree e ac h are c on
and t hese t wo set s i n mu lt iple
ne c t e d i n series
To co m pute t he volt age and a m
o r parallel
p e rage t h at eac h one o f t hese c o mbinat ions wil l furnis h t o t he
outside c ircu it let
,

N
V

nu mbe r o f cel ls i n t he c o mb inat io n

volt age of o ne cell and
am pe rage o f o ne cell
,

4 21

ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

GAS

Then t he followi ng formul ae will gi v e t he desire d i nformat io n :

K

i d
n

of

C m bi i
o

S i

na t o n

u i pl

M lt

e r es

V o lta ge o f s e t
Am p e ra ge o f se t

NV
A

M ul

ti pl

se r e s
e-

NV
2A

V
NA

T he ordinary dry cell as st ated furnishes about

volts
and 1 2 t o 1 5 am pe res A ma ke-a nd -br ea lc circuit s houl d o pe rate
pro perly on about 8 t o 1 0 volt s hence fro m 5 t o 7 dry cel ls i n
series a re requ ired for t his service As far as ju m p -s p ar k s ystems
are concerned t he following t able gi ves pressures and c u rre nts
requ ired t o o p erate so me of t he wel l -k no wn s park co ils t oget her
wit h ot her interest ing information * F ro m t his t able it is clear
t hat fro m 4 t o 6 dry cells i n series are sufc ient t o operate most
j u mp S park co ils :
,

V lt
o

Amps

Vi b i
r se c

of

Re s
hm s

Se c
Res
h ms
.

m
M

H1

mm
w

1%
1%
1
1w
1
N 7
2w

3 62

%8
3%

$ 0

g
g
g
g

re m ble r

umo
wa

Pit t s e ld
I n d u c ti o n Co i l Co

Pri m

ra t o n

82
57

17 1
300

37 1 5
23 3 7
233 7
2779
25 90
5 3 94

274
6 13
210
232
232
3 20

1 302

3 12
3 12

6 1 80
6 1 80

Tu r ning next t o t he s ys tem s of wir in g u s ed all make -and -bre ak

syst e ms are lo w-te ns io n syste ms i e t he volt age does not gen

o
exceed
10
volts
F
ig
1
24 1 s hows s uc h a syste m i n
t
l
8
3
r
l
e a y
di agram wit h a magnet o as t he sou rce o f curre nt The c ircuit
One S ide o f t he elect ric al c onductor on t he
is eas y t o t race
armat u re is grou nded t hat is c onnected t o t he engine fra me
,

in t he A utom obile J ul y 1 8 1 90 7
1 Th e fo ll o w in g t h re e gu re s a re f ro m a n a rti c l e by C
A uto m obile Ap ri l 4 1 90 7
.

G Cha ta in

'

H yw rd i n
a

t he

IN TERNA L

4 22

COM B US TI O N

ENGINES

t hrough t he armat ure s haft and t he frame o f t he m agnet o itsel f

as shown at G1
The ot her e nd sends its c urrent t o o ne elect rode

FI G

1 3 24

S i m p li c ity

of

W i r in g

t he

of

Lo w -t e n s i o n S y s t e m s

t he m ake -and -break mec h anis m at A Whe n t he c o m mut at or

m akes c o nt act c urre nt o ws t he c ircuit be ing c o m
o r t i mer B
p le t e d by grou nding B as sho wn at G2
J u m p spark syste ms are c alled high -tens io n syste ms but a
dist i nct ion S houl d be m ade depe nding u po n whet her high or low
of

FI G 1 325
.

W i r in g D i gr
a

am ,

Hi gh t

- e

nsion

ith

Co il S ys t e m

are used
Wit h a l ow
tens ion m agnet o it be
c o mes necess ary t o use t he ordinary spark c o il and he nce t his
met hod is so met i mes c al led t he h igh-ten s ion with c oil syste m
Fig 1 3 2 5 shows t he wiring for suc h a syste m A being t he c o n

t en s ion m a gn etos

4 23

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

dens er and B t he pri ma r y and sec ondary wi ndings of t he S park

co il I t is c om parati vely easy t o t race out t he c omplet e pri mary
and sec ondary circuits if o ne t akes i nt o acc ou nt t he pro per
grou nd ret urns
The t rue high -te nsion j u m p-spark system di ffers fro m t he
abo ve in t he fact t h at t he high -tens io n m agnet o e mbodies t he
secondary wi nding and t he c ondenser of t he s park coil
Hence
t he use of a separate spark coil is avoided I n F ig 1 3 26 t he t wo
windings are indic ated o n t he a r mat ure but t he c ondenser is
shown at o ne side for t he sake o f clearness This di agram shows
t he w iring for four plugs
.

FI G

1 3 26

W i r in g D i a g ra m

of

T ru e

H i gh -t n i n S y t
e

s em

s o

HIG HT EN S I O N D I S T R I B UT O R
Wit h t he ordinary system of
j u m p-s park ignit ion as many coils as t here are cyl inders are
required I t is possible ho wever by pl ac ing a dist ribut or i n t he
high -te ns ion S ide t o serve a nu mber o f cyl inders fro m o ne s park
c o il The ad vant age of suc h a syste m is obvious alt houg h it is
bought at t he cost of pl aci ng a make -and -break mec h anis m u nder
very hig h volt age T he dic u lt ie s i nherent i n t his however
have bee n fairl y su c cessfully o vercome T he diff erence i n t he
wiri ng is m ade c lear by F ig 1 3 27 and Fig 1 3
bot h applying
to four-c ylinder engines The former s ho ws t he fou r -part t i mer
c o nnected t o t he four spa r k c oils serving t he plugs S P I t o S P ,
I n Fig 1 328 a high -tensio n dist ribut or D co nnects t he h igh
te nsio n S ide o f t he S ingle c oil rst wit h one plug t he n wit h
a not her as may h e requi red
I n pract ice t he high
tensio n d is t rib
.

3 Bo t h

fro m H i bbe rt

E l e c t ri c I

gniti n
o

fo r Mo t o r

V e h i c le s

I N T ERNA L COM B US TION ENGINE S

4 24

ut or D and t he pri m ary c om mut ator or t i mer C M are c o m

i
n
i
n
o
n
device
Fig
1
b ed
e
3 29 shows t he Grouse -Hin ds D o uble
t he Le a vitt dis tribut or
Bal l Cont act dist ribut or and Fig

1 3 27

F ro m b a t e ry 1

FI G

1 328

T he essent i al t hing i n high -tensio n dist ribut ors is t h at serious

s parking i n t he high
tensio n side must be avoided For t h at
reason i n most of t he devices t he pri mary c o m mut at or does not
est ablish t he cu rrent u nt il t he high -tensio n distribut or is i n c on
.

4 25

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

t act wit h its pro p er plug segment and t he pri mary c urrent is
broken be fore t he c ont act i n t he high -tension side is over To
quote fro m t he descri pt ion of t he Crouse -Hinds de vice

The princ iple is exact ly t he same as t hat of t he c o mmut at or

al re ady described F ig 1 3 1 8 The dist ributor has t wo c ams and
t wo sets o f ball cont acts o ne set fo r t he t imer and t he ot her
for t he dist ribut or t he only di ff erence being t h at i n t he l atter
t he balls in eac h c ont act are about t hree
eight hs o f an i nc h
apart and t he c am i ns ulated fro m t he shaft The c onnect io n is
.

FI G

13 29

H in d D i t r i but r

G ro u s e -

m ade and t he c ircuit is c losed fo r e ac h cyl inder as t he c am

p a sses be t ween t he balls

The following is a desc ri p t ion o f t he Le avit t dist ributor as
gi v en in a c at alogue of t he U nc as S p ec ialty Co mpany :

T his de vice t wo vie ws of whic h are sho wn above c onsists

of a cyl indric al c asing A o f hard r ubber int o whic h is let a me ta l
pla t e 8 at one end and whic h is co vered by a h ard rubber c ap C
at t he ot her end U pon a ball be aring in t he end pl ate B is
mou nte d a driving sleeve D designed t o be secu red u po n an
extension of t he c am shaft and c arrying fast u pon it cont act
bloc ks E E E E whic h make c ont act s uccess i vely wit h t he
pri mary bal l contact t erminal F Thus far t he de vice is ident ic al
wit h t he ordinary t i mer The c o mmut ator po rt ion is l oc at ed
.

IN TERNA L

4 26

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

at t he O pposite en d o f t he cyl indric al c asing T he l atter is e n

l arge d at t hat end and int o t he radial wall bet wee n t he t wo
cyl indric al port ions are c l am pe d four at -head st u ds G G whic h
serve as binding posts for t he s park plug c onnect ions I nt o t he
end o f t he met allic slee ve D is fastened a hard rubbe r st u d H
whic h at it s outer en d c arries a radial arm I whic h is o f met al
wit h a rel at i vel y wide c ont act
shoe at its end whic h whe n t he
sl ee ve D re vol ves pas ses over
t he four c ont act stu ds G t hus
co nduct ing t he c u rrent su c ces
s ive ly t o t he fou r pl ugs
The
c urre nt is c onducted t o t he r o
t at ing arm by a cent ral b al l c on
t act J secu red i nt o t he c ap C
When t he h ard ru bber c asing is
mo ved arou nd its ax is by means
o f t he arm
K t o vary t he t i me
of spark bot h pri mary and
sec ondary c ont acts are equ ally

displ aced
M a t e rs A mu ffler is an
essent ial part of a gas
e ngine
i nst all at io n if quiet operat io n is
desired T he su dde n rele as e o f
a body o f gas at a pressu re nor
m al ly of 4 0 pou nds per s qu are
i nc h abo ve t he at mosphere
c auses a sh arp noise very annoy
i
ng
i
n
t
he
long
A
mu
fer
ru n

FI G 1 3 30
Le a v itt D i s t r ib u t o r
is merely an enl arge ment i n t he
exh aust pi pe t o al low o f gradu al expans io n o f t he esc aping
gases M any di ff erent sc he mes are used Thus i n so me c ase s
t he mu ffler is merely a c ast iro n p o t o r vessel o f suit able v ol
u me in ot her c ases t he mu ffler is o f more el aborate c o n s t ru c
t io n c onsist ing o f a vessel lled wit h baffles o r part it ions i n
various ways and i ntended t o expand t he gas gradu ally and t o
break u p t he so und waves
Besides e fc iency as a dam pe ner of
noise t here are t wo ot her poi nts t hat s hou l d be kept i n mind
.

4 27

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

wit h regard t o mufflers absence of any serious bac k p ressure

and durabil ity
The inc re ase i n back pressu re c aused by a mu ffler de pe nds
u po n t he volu me of t he mu ffler and u pon t he amou nt of c hoking
c aused by t he baffl es The minimu m volu me of t he mu ffler
s hou ld be at le ast ve t i mes t he cylinder volu me but for c o m
t
o o muc h
silencing
t
wice
t
h
is
vol
ume
is
none
Outside o f
l
t
e
e
p
t he pl ain c ast -iro n mu ffler pot it is pro bably safe t o say t h at
nearly all baffled mu fflers increas e t he bac k pressure somewh at
T h is fact is conceded by most manu fact urers in t h at t hey furnis h
a cut -o u t whic h is c alled int o service when t he engine is t o be
c alled u pon for a hard pull A t le ast one manu fact urer however
cl ai ms t he product ion of a slight vac uu m bet ween mu ffler and
e ngine due t o t he eject or act ion o f t he mu ffler
The r e is litt le dou bt t h at c ast iron is t he best material t o use
for mufflers as it is least att acked bot h by heat and t he act ion
o f gases
This is espec ially t rue if a spray is used i n the exhaust
pi pe for t he purpose of c ooling and c ondensing t he exh aust gas
Many mu ffl ers ho w e v er for t he sake of light ness and e ase of
manu fact ure are made of gal vani zed s heet steel and give quite
sat is factory service
The nois e of t he air rushing int o t he i nlet pi pes of an en gine
is also so meti mes very annoying and i n some c ases may c ause
u ndesirable vib r at ions of doors and windows and eve n wal ls
of t he building I n suc h a c ase it is usu al t o mu ffle also t he inlet
pi pes and o ne of t he best ways t o do t his i n small and mediu m
si zed engines is t o t ake t he air fro m t he hollow s u b
b ase
I n so me very l arge engines t he pro per silenc ing o f t he i nt ake
and t he exhaust bec omes quite a serious problem as t he ordi
nary muffl er would beco me very l arge The expedient somet imes
used is t o draw t he air t hrough a n u ndergrou nd m a sonry duct
of am ple si ze leadi ng in from t he outside of t he bu ilding and t o
dis c harge t hrough a simil ar duct int o a c hamber from whic h t he
gases nally esc a pe A s pray o f water into t he exh aust pi p e of
suc h engines close t o t he exhaust val ve hel ps mat erial ly
Figu res 1 3 3 1 and 1 3 3 2
S how t wo t y pes o f muffler some
t imes used
I n t he rst t he s t ream o i gas is merely di vided, in
t he second eac h di visio n is fu rnished with an enl argement de
Ma t ho t E n g in e e r in g Ma ga z in e J uly 1 90 7
,

IN TERNA L

4 28

COM B U S TI ON

ENGINES

signed t o dec re ase t he gas veloc it y st ill fu rt her Fig 1 33 3

s hows t he P o wel l mu ffl er The part ial sect io n s h ows ho w t he
gas is broken u p i nt o m any ne st reams by
passing it t hrough pe rforated pl ates
I n t he
s o -c alled
eject or mu ffl er Figs 1 33 4 and
1 3 3 5 m ade by t he Mot or
Mfg Works
o f G eneva
N Y a part o f t he gas passes
st raight o u t t hrough a cent ral pi pe The rest
is made t o pass a series o f perforated cones
as s hown
I t is c l ai me d t hat t he ce nt ral
pi pe act s as an eject or serving t o draw t he
gas t hrough t he c ones t hus eli minat ing b ac k
pressu re and e ven c reat ing a vacuu m ahead
o f t he mu ffler
S ta rt in g A p par a tu s T he best way o f
st
art
ing
s
mal
l
engines
u p t o s ay 1 0 t o 1 2
FI G 1 33 1
horse power is t o t u rn t he fly -wheel o ver
by h and eit her i n t he di rect ion o f normal rot at ion u nt il t he
e ngine pic ks u p or aft e r a c harge has bee n drawn i n by t urn
i ng it i n t he o p posit e d irect io n
agains t t he c om press ion and t he n
sn apping t he s park by h and I n
st a rting an engine in t his way
it is essent ial t o m ake su re rst
t h at t he t i me o f s park ing is
rat her l ate ot herw ise t he engine

m ay bu ck
w hic h m ay pos
s ibly lead t o a n ac c ident t o t he
pe rson st art ing it
As t he si ze o f t h e engine
inc reases ho wever t he m anu al
l abor in vol ved in t he abo ve
sc he me soon bec omes t oo great
and ot her me a n s h ad t o be devel
o pe d T hese m ay be grou pe d
FI G 1 332
u nder several heads I t shoul d
be not ed t hat no ne of t hese are qu ite able t o st art a n e ngine
u nder load
(a ) S t art in g c rank
.

4 29

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

( b) St arti ng by sm aller engine or ot her source o f power

( 0 ) S t art ing by mixtu re
( d ) S t art ing by c om pressed air
( e) E lectric al st arters
Of t he met hods above ment ioned ( a ) is nearly univers ally
used fo r engines u p t o 15 to 20 hors e -po wer ; beyond t his st art ing
by co m pressed air method ( d ) is generally em pl oyed
.

FIG

FI G

FI G

1 3
33

1 3 34

1 3 3 5

Po we ll

Mu ffl e r

Eje c t o r Mu ffl e r

E je c t o r Mu f e r

( a ) Most st art ing c ranks are so arranged t hat when turned

,

in t he d irect ion of rot at ion of t he engine t hey gri p t he sh aft As

soon as t he rst ex plosions accelerate t he s haft s o t h at it turns
faster t han t he c rank is be ing t u rned t he l atter is releas ed This

sc he me d oes not pre v ent t he c rank from kic k ing back into t he
st a rter s h and if t he s park shoul d h ap p e n t o be early and many
acc ident s h a ve resulted t herefrom A c rank whic h avoids t his
drawback is shown in F ig 1 33 6 The foll owing des c ri pt ion o f
t his de vice is from t he Ho rs e le s s Age Marc h 7 1 9 06 :
.

IN T ERNA L

4 30

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

A bushing A h aving a t hread o f exc eedingly high pit c h cut

on its i nterior surface c ont ains a t hre aded S lee ve B whic h serves
as beari ng fo r t he sh aft o f t he st art ing c rank C R igidly secured
t o t he shaft o f t he crank C are a rat c het wheel D and a rat c het
c am E t he l att er adapted t o engage wit h t he rat c het E o n t he
mot or S haft
I n an extensio n of t he sleeve B are a s e t o f s pring
press pawls F whic h are
adapt ed t o eng age wit h
t he rat c het wheel D

The device is mou nt ed

at suc h a dist ance fro m
t he end of t he c rank s haft
t h at t he rat c het c ams E
and E c annot engage u n
less t he sleeve B is sc rewed
t o t he l i mit o f it s mot io n
i nt o t he b u s hing A by
means of t he h and wheel
G
I n st art ing t he mot or
t he device being i n t he
posit io n show n i n t he as
s e m bly view t he act ion is
t he same as t hat o f an
ordinary st art ing c rank
When t he mot or ru n s u p
t o s peed owing t o t he
pressu re be t wee n t he c am
EBS GE
surfaces o f rat c het c ams
E an d E
t he st art ing
FI G l 33 6 S t a rtin g Cra nk
S pindle is forced b ack int o
t he sleeve B and t he rat c het c a m s E and E are t hereby d is
engaged However if t he mot or shoul d kic k b ac k t he pawls
F woul d engage i nt o t he not c hes i n t he rat c het whee l D and t he

s leeve B woul d be rot ated and draw t he rat c het c ams E an d E

ou t o f mes h
The pit c h o f t he t hread o n t he sleeve B is s o
steep t h at a very slight rot at ion o f t he sleeve i n t he bushing
wil l c arry it b ac k far enough t o pull t he st art ing spi ndle o u t
of engagement wit h t he c rank shaft T he pawl and rat c het
mec han is m is c o m pletely enc losed by a l ateral extensio n on
,

EL

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

4 31

t he bushing A and an end pl ate bolted t o t he extens io n o f t he

slee ve B
( b) I f t he pl ant h as ot her engines i n operat ion or if t here is a
shaft in o perat ion it is quite easy t o t rans mit t he mot io n t o t he
engine t o be st arted S ome l arge engine ins t all at ions were
equipped wit h s maller engines t he sh aft of whic h c arried a pinio n
whic h meshed wit h a ring of teet h on t he y -wheel of t he l arge
mac hine When t he l arge engine picked u p its cycle t he s mal l
e ngi ne w as aut om atic ally put o u t of mesh wit h t he wheel T he
cost of tt ing a l arge engine for st art ing i n t his m atter however
Hence t his met hod h as been l argely re pl aced
is c ons iderable
by t he us e of co m pressed air
(c ) S t art ing by means of t h e fuel mixture is done i n various
ways The sc heme appears t o be reliable i n t he c ase o f engines
using illu minat ing gas ; for ot her gases it never was in any ex
tended use and in fact is t o -day nearly obsolete B esides t he fact
t hat if t he rst c h arge shoul d fail t here was ge nerally not enough
left for a second t rial t he storing o f an explosi ve mixture is
ob viously attended wit h some danger
I n nearly al l c ases of st art ing by t he fuel mixture t he engi ne
c rank is put a few degrees above cent er i e well i n t he beginning
of t he expansio n st roke One met hod is to c harge t he c om
press i on s pace wit h air at at mosphere pressure and t hen t o o pe n
t he gas c ock
The mixt ure formed is allowed t o esc ape t hrough
a s pec ial c hec k val ve and is ignited by a B unsen burner j ust at
t he orice When t he issuing ame burns reddish showing t hat
t he mixt ure is ric h t he gas val ve leading i nto t he cyl inder is
sudden ly closed o ff The ame at t he orice of t he c heck val ve
st rikes back int o t he c o mbust ion c hamber and explodes t he
mixt u re rem ai ning
Th e pressure generated closes t he c hec k
val ve and dri v es t he piston forward This is t he original met hod
o f Clerk and of G reen
The pressu r e generated behind t he pisto n i n t he above m anner
is not v ery high and t he veloc it y att ained t herefore c orrespond
The next ste p in t he develo pment was t hen t o co m
ing ly low
press t he c harge before ignit ion The Clerk pressure st arter and
t he Clerk -Lanc hester high -pressure st a rt er are of this ty pe Fig
1 3 3 7 * shows t he l atter gear
The met hod of o perat ion is as
C l e r k Th e G as a nd O il E n g i n e
.

IN T ERNA L

432

COM B U S TI ON

ENGINES

follo ws : A s t he engine is slo wing down for a st o p wit h t he main

g as val ve c losed o ff val ve W is o pe ned T his draws fresh air
int o t he c h amber D an d t he pi pe D t hrough t he v al ve Y When
next t he engine is t o be st arted t he g as c ook F is O pe ned G as
ows int o D and D an d forms a c o mbust ibl e m ixture T hrough
a c oc k o n t he cyli nder or a S lightl y o pe n exh aust val ve a part
o f t he mixt ure is al lo w ed t o ll t he c o mbust io n c hamber t hroug h
t he val ve W while anot her part esc apes t hrough a c hec k val ve Y
and is ignited by t he B u nse n burner X
A s soo n as t he mixt ure
is right F is c lose d o ff t he o w st ops and t he ame st rikes i n
t hrough Y int o D T he pressure ge nerated c loses Y T he ame
.

FI G

Cl e r k -La n c h es t e r S t a r t e r

and pressure wave t ravels arou nd i nt o D c o mpressi ng t he st ill

u nburned c h arge ahe ad o f it and n ally ignites t he c harge so
c o mpressed in t he c o mbust io n c h amber A The st art i ng pressure
so obt aine d is a bo ut t w ice t hat obt a ined by t he met ho d rst
desc ribed
B eside s t hese ame st art ers o f whic h t here are a nu mbe r o f
modic at ions ot her met hods are i n use Thus i n so me engines
a mixt ure is pu m pe d u nder more o r less pressu re by h and i nt o t he
c o mbust io n c h amber and ignited eit her by sn apping t he s park
by su ddenl y l ight ing an
o r as it is done by o n e m anu facturer
ordinary parlor m at c h t he head o f w hic h is allo wed t o slightly
project int o t he mixtu re T he de vice for doing t his is quite
s imple but t he met hod is not muc h used
A not h er sc he me is t o c harge a pressu re t ank w it h t he c o m bus

GA S ENGINE A UXILI ARIES

433

t ible mixtu re This is generally done by means of a s pe ci al val ve

whic h when t he engine is i n operation o pe ns so mewhere alo ng
t he c om p ressio n st roke of t he engine and allows it t o c o mpress
some o f its c h arge int o t he t ank The st art ing is t hen done eit her
by merely lli ng t he c ombustio n c h amber under lo w pressure
fro m t he t ank and ignit ing t he mixture by su itable means or by
o pe ning t he t ank val ve wide ut il izing t he pressu re o f t he com
p resse d mixture t o st art t he engine igniting t he c h arge on t he
next c om pression st roke in the regul ar way T his sc he me h as
t he ad vant age t hat if t he rst t rial fails t here is generally enoug h
in t he t ank for several more atte mpts but t he st oring of any c on
s id e ra ble qu ant ity of mixt ure u nder pressu re is n o t t o be re c o m
mended o u acc ount of danger of expl os ions in t he t ank
Finally at leas t o ne l arge G erman engine has been st arted by
means of t he mixture by rst pl ac ing t he c rank in t he proper
posit ion and t he n bloc king t he y -wheel by a plug of su it able
m aterial A small gas engine is then st art ed by hand and allowed
t o ll t he c o mbus t ion c hamber of t he l arger engine u nder pressure
in t he same way as t he t ank w as c h arged i n t he previous met hod
When t he des ired pressure is reac hed t he mixt ure is red by hand
manipul at ion of t he s pa r k t he im pulse of t he explosio n breaks
t he plug holding t he wheel and t he engine picks u p t he cycle i n
t he regul ar way
-day t he st art ing of i nternal c ombust io n engines o f any
To
d
( )
si ze is generally done by co m pressed air The l atter may be
obt ained i n various w ays I n some of t he smaller engines when
t he engine is t o be shut do wn t he fuel val v e is closed and t he
engine as it slo ws down is allo wed to c om press t he air drawn in
int o t he t ank S ome ot her inst all at ions ha ve a h and -o perated
air com pressor for c ha rging t he t ank or t he c om pressor may be
belt -dri ven fro m t he engine for a fe w minutes I t is h ardly ne c es
sary to say t h at all t ank and pi pe connect io n s must be absolutely
air t ight bec ause t he failure of t he air pressu re i n a pl ant of some
si ze would c ause serious del ay F or engines o f t he l argest os
p a c it y it is usu al t o e mploy a ir c om pressors c om pletely in d e p e n
dent o i t he e ngine t hus ob viating any failu r e due t o t ank le ak age
The met hod of st art ing by c om pressed air is t o set t he engine
beyond t he center and t hen t o gi ve an im pulse t hrough t he st art
ing v al ve
I n s ome engine s t his val ve is h and o perated i n
.

'

IN TERNA L

4 34

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

ot hers it is o perated by t he val ve gear A gain in some es pec ial ly

single
c yl inder engines t he val ve -act u at ing ge ar is not c h anged
at all except perhaps t o rel ie ve t he c om pressio n somewh at while
i n so me mult i -cylinder engines t he ge ar on o n e c yl i nder is c h anged
t o m ake t his cyl inder act o n t he t wo -cycle princ iple i e s o t h at
it c an t ake an air i m pulse e very turn u nt il t he ot her cyl inders
h a ve st arte d regul ar o perat io n I n any c ase it is best t o ret ard
t he s park so mewhat for st arting
T he st art ing press ures e mpl oyed vary from 1 00 t o 1 50 po u nds
.

FI G

1 3 38

A ir-s t a rtin

g Ap p a ra t u

depending u pon ho w t he air is c om pressed I n general o ne or

at t he most t wo i m pulses are su fc ient t o st art a m ac h ine
The following desc ript io n of F ig 1 33 8 give n by F E J unge
i n P ower A pril 1 90 6 shows t he met hod of st art ing a l arge engine
by c om pressed air :

I n t his diagram A is t he val ve c ont rol ling t he ow of air

fro m a se parately drive n air c om pressor t o t he t ank and B a
simil ar val ve i n t he pi pe c onnect ing t he t ank t o t he engine B ot h
val ves are mou nted o n o ne pill ar whic h also h a s sc re wed o n t o p
o f it a gage indic ating c ont inuously t he pressu re i n t he t ank
R egul at ion o f t he su pply o f c om pre ssed air t o t he engine cyl inder
is e ffected by means o f an aut o m at ic s pri n g -lo aded inlet po ppet
.

GA S ENGINE A UXILIA RIES

4 35

val ve t he ste m and disc of wh ic h may be rele ased or held fas t

by sc re wi ng down or u nscrewing t he h and wheel C at t he engine
end o f t he air pi pe A plug val ve D 18 i nserted in t he air pipe
i mmediately ahead o f t he inlet val ve Be fore s t art ing t he engine
t he y-wheel is t u rned i nt o suc h a pos it ion t hat t he c rank is about
The st art ing gear is
3 0 degrees abo ve t he inner dead center
adj us ted s o as t o o pe n bot h t he inlet and t he exhaust val ves at
t he pro pe r moments t he act ion being suc h as t o allo w part of t he
c o mpressed air t o esc ape during a fract ion of t he ret u rn t ravel of
t he piston and t hereby redu ce t he c ompression t o about 28 pou nds
per squ are i nc h fo r ric h gases and about 50 pounds per squ are
i nc h for poor gases I n t he meanti me t he electric ignit io n device
h as bee n aut om at ic ally adj usted s o as t o ret ard ignitio n for t he
rs t few strokes The main fuel or gas val ves must of c ou rse
also be set s o as t o produ ce t he most favorable mi xture for st art ing
c onditions
To st art t he engine t he air st o p val ve B is o pe ned t he aut o
m at ic inlet val ve released by screwing down t he hand wheel C
t o t he full extent and c om pressed air is t hen ad mitted by turning
t he handle D 90 degrees The pist on will t hen begin t o travel
slo wly o n it s out ward st roke and j ust before it reac hes t he outer
dead center t he handle D must be returned t o its original posit ion
shutting o ff t he air su ppl y The first i m pulse gi ven t o t he y
wheel by c o mpressed air will usu ally be su fc ient t o produce
se veral re volut ions at a S peed o f about one -ft h o f t he normal
when no load is o n
D uring t he follo wing ( suct ion ) stroke a
mixture of gas and air i n t he correct pro po rt ions is t aken in and
on t he next stroke c o m pressed and ignited I f t he right mixture
d o es not happe n to be obt ained and ignit ion fails t o oc cu r anot her
c om pressed air i mpulse is gi ven whic h wil l al ways produce t he
desir ed result A fter t he rst po wer st roke h as been obt ained
t he air su ppl y val ve B is closed and t he auto mat ic inlet val ve held
fast by u nscrewing t he h and wheel C u nt il it s hu b bears against a
c oll ar o n t he val ve stem whereby t he val ve disc is rml y pressed
o n it s seat
Then t he st art ing gear is pushed bac k i nt o t he ru n
ni ng posit io n s o as t o al low t he mech anis m t o o pe n t he val ves
at t he regul ar intervals only The point o f ignit ion is t hereby
auto mat ic ally ad vanced and may now be adj usted by h and o r
by t he go vernor of t he engine so as to suit t he c hanged c ondit ions
,

IN TERNA L

43 6

CO M B US TI ON

ENGINE S

When t he m ai n g as adm issio n val ve is set i n t he c orrect ru n ni ng

posit ion al l o perat ions fo r st art i ng h a ve bee n duly executed
I t m ay be added t h at it t akes less t i me t o perform t he c o mplete

c ycle o f o perat ions t h an it t akes t o desc ribe it

( e) I n cent ral st at ions o r i n ot her l oc at ions where elect ric
c u rre nt is av ail able st art ing by elect ric it y is t he sim plest and most
sat isfact ory met hod There
are agai n several ways in
w hic h t his m ay be done
I f t he e ngine dri ves a
dynamo it is po ssible t o
dri ve t h is dynamo as a
mot or fro m anot her source
of cu rrent u nt il t he y
wheel h as att aine d sufh
c ient veloc it y T he l ayout
for doing t his is not at al l
sim ple howe ver and must
be c arefully handled
A
st orage battery c harged
du ring t he pre vious oper
at io n m ay be used as a
sou rce o f c u rrent if n o in
dependent source o f cu r
rent is avail able
A s i m pler way is t o gear
FI G 1 3 39
Mo t o r S t a r t e r
an elect ric mot or t o a rac k
o n t he y -wheel as shown i n Fig 1 3
When t he engi ne picks
u p t he mot or is aut o m at ic ally t hro wn out o f gear This sc heme
h as t he merit o f great simpl ic it y absolutely no c h ange i n t he
v al ve o perat io n of t he engine being requ ired for st art ing
On e met hod o f aut om at ic ally disengaging t he mot or is de
sc ribed in t he Z eitsc hri ft d V d
J anu ary 5 1 900 A ge neral
V ie w o f t he F elten an d G uillea u m e elect ric st art er fo r l arge e n
gines is sho wn i n Fig 1 3 4 0 while Fig 1 3 4 1 s hows t he diagram
of c onnect ions and t he met ho d of o perat ion for s maller s izes
T he motor e by me ans of a c h ai n drive o perates t he pull ey 3 2
R igidly f astene d t o t h is pul ley is t he ge ar z,
T his ge ar i n t urn
,

F E
.

J u n ge P ow e r
,

Ap r il , 1 906

GA S ENGINE A UXI LI ARI ES

FI G

13 -4 0

Fe l t e n

6;

4 37

G u ille a u m e E l e c t r i c S t a rt e r

dri ves a gear 2 3 whic h is pi voted on a swinging lever hl as shown

The are 2 re present s t he pit c h c irc le o f t he annul ar gear ins ide o f
t he y-wheel A rrows indic ate t he
direct ion o f o perat ion for eac h gear
One end of t he lever k1 is connected
by means o f a st rong helic al spring f
t o t he t oot hed seg ment m Mes hed
wit h t his segment is t he gear z l
whic h is tu rned i n one direct ion or
t he ot her by t he lever hz whic h is
t he o perat ing h andle of t he mot or
st arting box a I n t he di agram
lever 122 h as been pulled t o t he right
as far as it will go This act ion h as
st arted t he mot or e and by sho ving
the segment m t o t he left h as put
t he spring u nder c onsiderable tension
This pulls t he lower end of h, t o t he
right and c auses 2, t o mesh wit h
t he y-wheel z T he gear
being
posit i vely dri ven fro m 2 2 st art s
t he fl y -wheel revol ving The ent ire
mec hanis m is hel d in t he posit io n
FI G 1 3 4 1
.

IN T ERNA L

4 38

CO MB U S TI O N

ENGINES

s ho wn by a l atc h k at t he e nd o f t he seg ment m I f no w t he

engine pic ks u p its cycle and t he wheel 2 att ai ns a great er
veloc ity t han it c an recei ve fro m 23 t he le ver hl by t he act io n
of t he y -wheel will be pushed t o ward t he left putt i ng t he
s pring f u nder higher t ens ion This mot io n proceeds u nt il t he
u pper e nd o f h l c o mes i n c ont act wit h and u nl at c hes k when
u nder t he inuence of t he s pring t he segment m is pul led t o
t he right very s u dd e nl v and t he mot or is shut o ff A t t he same
t i me t he act io n o f t he y-wheel u po n 23 t hrows t his out o f mes h
wit h z The e nt ire l abor c onnect e d wit h t h is st art er t herefore
c onsists o f t he at tendant s t u rning t he h andle h2 o f t he st art ing
box t o t he right t o st art t he mot or Beyond t his no fu rt her
atte nt io n is required t he act io n bei ng e nt irel y aut o mat ic
'

CH A PT E R X I V

R E G U LA T I O N

OF

G AS

E NG I N ES

in stea m engines t here are t wo kin ds of s peed v a ri

at ion The rst of t hese is directly due t o t he i mpulse of t he
ex plosion and it manifests itsel f in a vari at ion o f t he vel oc ity of
t he c rank pin du rin g one engine cycle To con ne t his s pee d
variat ion t o wit hin t he al low able l i mits s e t by t he part icul ar
ser vice t o w hic h t he engine is t o be put is t he funct ion o f t he
fly -w heel
F ly -w heel c o mput at ions are beyond t he sco pe o f t his
work but it will be of interest t o point out briey t he rel at ion
be tw e en t he various ty pes and c ombin at ions of engines as regards
t he fly -wheel weight required for any gi ven ser vice This weight
de pends not onl y u po n t he cl oseness of regul at ion desired but
l argely also u pon t he vari at ion o f t he c rank e ff ort during one cycle
or re vol ution and t his in turn de pends u pon t he cycl e em ployed
an d t he cylinder co mbin at ion
The most co mplete ex posit ion of t h is su bject rel at ing t o g as
engines is given by G iild ne r * and fro m t he d at a gi ven by hi m t he
foll ow ing t able ( see page 4 4 0) is ad apt ed
I n deri ving t hese gures it is assu med t hat t he s ame c o e ffi
c ient of y -wheel reg ul at ion d esign at ed by 3w is m aint ained in
Th is c oe ffic ient
al l c ases
I N g as

as

8w

V m a x V m in
V

whe re V is t he mean vel oc it y of t he c rank pin

The sec ond kind o f s peed variat ion above ment ioned is t he
c h ange in t he nu m ber of revolu t ions o f an engine in any given
t i me d ue t o a ch ange of l oad Th is vari ation is t aken c are
of by t h e go vern or
J ust as a l i mit is s e t t o t he s peed
va ri ation d u ring one cycle so an all owable l imit is set t o t he vari
Ent we rfe n u nd Be rec h n e n d e r V e r b re nn u n gs m o t o re n 2d ed
.

IN T ERNA L

4 40
TA B L E

OF

COM B US TI O N

W I G HTS FO R

R E L A T I V E FL Y -W HE E L

R E G U L AT I O N ;

F OR

V A R I O U S TY P E S

OF

Cra n k T ra v e l
B e tw e e n E x

in d e r Co m bi

ti n

D gr

yc le

4 -C

S in

g le A
-

IS

yc le

S I NG L E -A CT I N G ,

TA K E N

W h l W e i gh t

S t r o ke

yc le

fo r

ee

Eq u a l Ma xI m u m

Ho rse

R e vo l u t i o n

4 -C

OF

CY LI N D E R COM B I

R e la ti ve Fly -

a nd

2-C

AN D

OF A

am e t e r,

ees

S A M E C O E FF I C I E N T

T HE

E NG I N ES

N ATI O N S
W E I G HT OF T HE F L Y -W HEE L
-CY C L E E NG I N E

D
I
N
L
E
L
I
N
E
R
4
C
Y
G
S
,

na

ENGINES

yc le

2-C

yc le

4 -C

p QW e r

y c le

2-C

S in

c t in g ,

ylin d e r
I I D o u bl e-Ac tin g S in
g le Cy lin d e r
I I I 2-Cylin d e r Ta n d e
1
S in g l e -A c t in g
C ra nk
I V 2-Cylin d e r O p p o se
S in g l e -Ac tin g
C ra nk
V 2 Cylin d e r s in Pa r
Ac t in g
a lle l S in g le 2 C ra nk s t o ge t he r
V I 2 Cylin d e rs in Pa r
Ac t
a ll e l
S in g l e
in g 2 Cra n k s
a p a rt
V I I 3 Cylin d e rs in
a ll e l
S in g l e -Ac t
in g 3 C ra n k s 120
a p a rt
V III 4 Cylin d e rs in Pa r
a ll e l
S in g l e -A c t
in g 4 C ra n k s N o s
1
3 t o ge t h e r
g le C

7 20

360

540
1 80

1 80

3 60

36 0

54 0
1 80

1 80

36 0

3 60

54 0
1 80

1 80

24 0

120

4 24

6 15

398

64 5

3 96

4 01

40]

7 96

l 290
.

335

7 92

3 35

645

23 7

226

6 78

0395

N o s 2 4 t oge t h

e r , a n d 1 80
f ro m
N os 1
3
.

08 4

3 35

1 80

at ion t h at m ay oc cu r in t he nu mber of re vol ut ions fro m ful l l o ad

t o n o l o a d and t he go vern o r must be d esigned and s e t ac cord
ingly
The all ow ab le vari at ion t he s o -c alled c oefficient of go v
,

e rn o r

regu l at i on m ay be expressed by
,

is t h e m ean n umb er

of

re volut i ons

nm

"
,

wh ere

W h at

REG ULA T ION

44 1

ENGINES

GAS

OF

t he val ues of
or 3 may be de pends alt oget her u pon t he kind
of service and t he value of
at leas t is or s hould be clearly
st at ed in all engine s pecic ations The val u e o f 3w t h at is t he
vari at ion in t he an gul ar ve l oc ity of t he engine c an be m ade any
t hin g depend ing u pon t he weig ht o f t he w heel put in I t us u
ally var ies fro m 8w = zlm for or d in ary c o m m e r ic al s e r vic e t o
x
say for t he most ex act i n g service required for t he o perat ion o f
al tern at ing -c u rrent generat ors in parallel The v al ue o f t he c o
efficient of go vernor regul at ion 3 usu all y varies bet ween 316 and
i e t he s peed vari at ion is f r o m 2 t o 4 pe r cent
The t heory of cent rifug al go vernor d es ign as appl ied t o gas
engines go verning by t hrot tl ing or cut -o ff c annot be t aken u p
here exce pt merely t o st ate t h at it is best es pec i all y in t he c ase
of t he po w er gas es t o h ave t he go vern o r act u pon t he mec h an is m
t hat posit i vely o perates t he ad mis sion gear rat her t han u pon t he
ad m ission gear d irect
I n t his w ay t he go vernor d oes n ot i n gen
eral have to be so powe r ful and abo ve all it is un a ff ected by any
clogging of t he ad mission gear or v al ves due t o t ar and ot her in
c rust at ions I t should furt her be n oted t hat any governor of
t his ty p e t hat is t oo sensiti ve m ay react wit h t he s p eed v ari at ion
wit hi n one revol ut ion and w ill t hus be hu n t ing const antly D as h
pots only forcibl y overc ome t hese c ond it ions and it is better t o
d es ign t hes e go vernors wit h plenty o f ad j ust ment regarding t heir
se nsit i veness
The des ign of hit -and -miss go vernors (see bel ow ) is in general
v ery si m ple I n c ont r ad ist inct ion t o t he ty pe o f go vernors above
mentioned t hey c an hardly be m ad e t o o sensit i ve or ast at ic
for t he quicker t hey act t he bette r
I n t he fol low ing we t ake u p rst S yste ms of G overning and
sec ond Mec h anic al D et ails o f G o verno rs
I
A t t he outset an essent i al
S ys te m s of G ov e rn in g
d iff e rence bet ween steam and gas engines in t he m atter of go v
e rn ing should be noted The wo r k ing uid in t he steam engine is
a c om parat i vel y st able med iu m and as l ong as t he pressure
rem ains co nst ant one position o f t he governor mec hanis m
al w ays c orres p onds t o t he s ame l oad cycl e a ft er cycle rec urring
wit h t he same de velo pment of power This is absolut ely essen
t i al fo r cl ose governing and in t his res p ect t he steam engine
h as so me ad vant age o ver t he gas engine
Th e cond it ions in
,

IN TERNA L

4 42

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

t he l att er a re very d ifferent

The working u id is prep ared
by t he engine itsel f air and fuel being mixed at t he engine t o
prod uce t he med iu m V arious exped ients t o t his end more o r
less suc cessful are in u se but outsid e o f t his due t o ac cidents of
design or ot her reas ons st rat ic at io n of t he c h arge more or less
co mplet e and v ari at ion in ignit ion m ay resu lt in unequ al ve lo c
it y o f pressure propag at ion t hrough t he m ass o f t he c h arge gi ving a
bundle o f d i fferent di agrams for t he s ame he at value of t he c h arge
T hus it m ay result t h at t he s ame posit ion o f t he go vern ing mec h
and often d oes not indic at e t he s ame power
a n is m m ay n ot
d e velo ped and s peed uct u at ions are t he inevit able result
F or
tu n at el y t he mixing and ignit io n app arat us o f o u r modern e n
gines c an be m ad e perfect enough in t heir act io n t o c onne t hese
u c t u t at io n s t o wit hin all ow able l i mits
A l l gas engine go vernors c o me und er t he foll o w ing syste ms
Mec h an
as far as t heir e ffect u pon t he d i agra m is c oncerned
ic ally t hey m ay be o f various designs as inert i a y-ball et c
as s hown l ater :
I T he Hit -and -Miss S yste m
I I V ari at ion o f t he R at io o f Fuel t o Ai r wit h Ch ange i n
Lo ad ; Qualit y G overning
I I I V ari at ion o f t he Qu ant it y o f t he Ch a r ge t o suit t he Lo ad
R at io Fuel t o A ir rem aining c onst ant ; Qu ant it y G o verning
I V Co mbin at ion S yst ems
V G o verning by V arying Ti me of I gn ition
.

Th e

Hit
a n d -M is s

S ys tem

This syste m effects s peed regul atio n by c utt i ng o u t ex pl osions

alt oget her d epe nd i ng o n t he l o ad
Thus fo r i ns t ance if t he
e ngi ne is ru n ni ng at ful l l o ad t he ex plosio ns o r cycl es will follow
e ac h ot her i n regul ar order u nt il t he s peed h as i ncre as ed e nough
above t he me an t o c ause t he governor t o act pre vent i ng t he d raw

i ng i n of t he next c h arge t hus c ausi ng a miss

This i n t urn
c auses t he s peed t o fall s u ic ie nt ly bel ow t he mean t o m ake t he
go vernor act t he o pposite w ay c ausi ng t he expl osio ns t o recur
A t any ot her l o ad less t h an t he fu l l l o ad t he go vernor act io n is
t he s ame exce pt t h at as we go d ow n i n t he sc ale t he pro port i on

of
misses t o hits c o nst antl y i ncre ases This system may
be o perated i n any o f t he followi ng ways :
.

REG ULA TION

OF

ENGINES

G AS

44 3

(a ) B y keeping t he fuel val ve closed s o t h at t he engi ne d raws

only air for t he miss cycle
( b) By k ee ping t he inlet val ve cl osed t hus pre venting t he
ad m issio n of bot h fuel and air
I n t his c as e t he
( c ) B y keepi ng t he exh aust val ve O pe n
ad mis sio n v al ve is usu all y aut o mat ic and its o pe ni ng is prevented
by t he fact t h at on t he next st roke no vacuu m is formed t he
exhaust gas es being suc ked back i nt o t he cyli nder
Theoretic ally t his syst em o f regul at io n is t he si m plest and
fro m t he st and point o f fuel co nsu mpt ion t he most ec ono mic al ;
pract ic ally ho w e ver it is beset wit h cert ai n d i fcult ies I n
t heory t he cycl es a r e a ll gone t hrough u nder exactly t he same
conditio ns and hence rat io o f fuel t o air pressure of c o mpres
sio n and poi nt Of ig nit io n c an all be ad justed o nce for al l t o su it
t he require ments o f best t hermal efficiency The t hermal effi
c ie nc y of t he cyl inder s hould t herefore be t he same at all lo ads
I n pract ice t here is so me devi at io n fro m t his ideal c ond it ion
eve n assu mi ng p er fec t gover n or a c tion but t he vari at ion de pe nds
somew hat u po n t he m anner o f go verni ng Thus i n engi nes i n
w hic h o nly t he fuel val ve is kept cl osed t o prod uce t he m iss cycles
it w ill gene r ally be fou nd t hat t he c ard d irectly following a miss
period is l a rge r th an t hose following it at l east for l oads approac h
i ng full load
This is d ue t o t he fact t hat d uri ng t he m iss pe riod
t he cyli nd er h as bee n t horoughly sc avenged by air c ausi ng t he
next c harge t o be purer and so mew hat l arger i n qu antity t han
t he average
U nder very l ow l oad s t he eff ect is apt t o be t he
o p p osite t hat is owi ng t o a p r ol o nged period of m iss st rokes t he
cyli nder h as c ool ed so far as t o m ake t he rst cycles foll owing
so mewh at sl ow bu rning u nt il t he cyl inder heats u p ag ai n
I t is e vident t hat t hese vari at io ns must h ave t heir eff ect u po n
c yli nder efc ienc y but t he e ffect is perh aps greater wit h l iquid
fuel e ngines t h an wit h g as engi nes pro per bec ause a cool cyli nder is
like ly t o c ondens e some of t he fuel vapor t hus c ausi ng a d irect l oss
I n engines t hat go vern by keepi ng t he exhaust val ve o pe n
d rawing t he exh aust gas e sbac k int o t he cyli nder t he eff ects abo ve
outl ined may be less marked but t he met hod c annot o n t h at
ac cou nt h e rec o mmend ed as better t han t he ot her bec ause t he
inevit able mixi ng o f t he exh aust g ases wit h t he i nco ming c harge
h as its ow n harmful eff ects
,

IN TERNAL

4 44

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

I n spit e of t hese fact s howe ver t he hit -and -miss syste m

,

of

governi ng no m atter how c arried out usu all y s hows a so mew h at

greater eco no my o f fuel i n pract ice t h an t he ot her syste ms
We next t urn t o t he e ffic iency of t his syste m as a speed regu
l at or I t is e vident t h at t he cl ose ness o f regul at io n i n c ase ce n
t rifug al go vernors are e m pl oyed d e pe nds alt oget her u po n t he
sens it i ve ness of t he governor t hat is u po n t he facil ity wit h w hic h
it c h anges fro m o n e posit io n t o t he ot her ; alt hough it is possible
here also t o h ave a go vernor t oo se nsit i ve resul t i ng i n needless
hu nt i ng B u t w h ate ver t he t y pe of hit -and -miss governor t he
regul at i on w ill be cl osest if at t he hig her load s a c ons t ant series
o f expl osions is fol l ow e d by a si ngle m iss cycle or if at t he lower
l o ad s a single expl osio n is foll owed by a c o nst ant series of misses

l
o
s
hou
ld
be
represent
ed
by
t
h
e
series
1
1
1
1 1 1 e t c and
Thus 2 ad
1
lo ad by 1
et c
A ny d is t urb ance of t he go ver
no r
ac c ident al o r ot herwise as t hroug h w ant o f c are i nc reas ed
frict io n we ar et c will alt er t his ide al c o ndit io n s o t h at a l o ad
for inst anc e m a y be re presented by t he series 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
et c
B ut suc h vari at io n at o nce u nfavorabl y a ffects t he regul a
t io n * These ac c id ent al c o nd it io ns are not u nder t he c o nt rol o f
t he d esigner and n ot al w ays u nder t he c o nt rol o f t he o pe rat or
and t he ne t result is t h at hit -and -mis s regul at io n t hough e c o n o m
ic al is so mew h at u nr el i abl e and cert ai nly not as cl ose as t h at o h
t a ined by so me o f t he ot her met h od s u nl ess a very heavy
y -wheel is e mpl oyed
Hit -and -miss governing is t herefore litt le e m pl oyed w here
cl ose regul at io n is esse nt i al as fo r elect ric cu rrent ge nerat ion
Fo r ord i nary co m merc i al po wer o perat ion w here t he regul at io n
need not be cl oser t h an s ay 3 t o 5 pe r ce nt t he syste m is quite
s at isfact ory alt hough it is being slowly repl ac ed eve n i n t his eld
I t s hould be re me mbered i n t his c o nnect io n t h at if t he engi ne is
belt -c onnect ed t o t he power c ons u mer t he exible c onnect io n w il l
tend t o e q u al i ze t he s peed vari at io ns t o a cert ai n exte nt
,

II

Gover n ing by V a r ying th e Ra tio of F u el to Air :

Gover n in g

Qua lit y

I n t h is syste m t he go vernor is usu all y m ad e t o act u po n t he

fuel ad m issio n val ve
S ee Mo lli e r ,

so

t h at

Ze it s ch r ift

as

t he l o ad o n t he e ngi ne d ecre ases

.

d In
.

g ni u r
e

e,

1 903 , p

1 704

R EG UL A T ION

OF

445

GA S ENGINES

t he engi ne recei ves l ess and less fuel i n t he s ame tot al c h arge
volu me This of cou rse d ec reas es t he are a o f t he i nd ic at or c ard
develo ped t o suit t he l o ad
I nstead of act ing u pon t he fuel val ve
t his met hod o f go verning h as also been c arried out by suc king
back a Cert ain amou nt of t he exhaust gas es t hus also dec re as i ng
t he heat content of t he c h arge A not her w ay is t o regul ate t he
air ad mis sion val ve maki ng t he fuel val ve auto mat ic A ll t hi ngs
co nsidered however t he rst ment ioned met hod is t he best
Consid ered from a t hermal st and point t his syste m h as t he
ad vant age t h at since t he t ot al c harge volu me remains pract ic ally
t he same for all l o ads t he co m pression p r essure re mai ns c onst ant
t h ro ughout The c a rds obt ained will t herefore be so me w h at as
.

FI G

1 4
1

show n I n Fig
i n w hic h t he full l i ne represents t he full l oad
di agram I t t herefore should foll ow on t heoret ic al grou nds t h at
t he t hermal effic iency of t he cyl inder s houl d be about t he s ame
for all l o ads I n pract ice ho we ver it h as bee n clearly s hown
t hat t h is system is inferio r at lo w l oads to t he next one t o be d e
sc ri bed
I n fact t he fuel consu m pt ion per ho rse -power usually
inc reas e s ver y rapid ly as t he l o ad d ro ps The re as on is t hat as
t he fuel -rat io is d ec reas ed t he mixtu re rapid ly bec o mes d iffi cult
t o ignite and abo ve all slow burni ng This necessarily i ncreases
t he heat l oss t o t he j ackets and t he ignitio n d i fcult y may go a s
far as t o pre v ent ignit ion altoget he r c ausing a d i rec t loss of fuel
I n most c as es a ft er-burning is clearl y recogni zable by t he slow
d ro ppi ng of t he ex pa ns ion l ine D esig ners h ave t ri ed t o o ver
.

'

IN TERNA L

44 6

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

c ome t his d i fculty by pl aci ng t h e t i me of igni t io n also u nd er

c o nt rol m aki ng it earl ier as t he l o ad dec re ases T he sc he me
h owever d oes not appe ar t o have bee n very suc cessfu l
As a met hod of go verni ng t his syste m is c apabl e of gi vi ng
cl ose regul at io n wit h t he pro per weight of y -w heel The very
fact howe ver t h at t he c o m pressio n pressu re d oes no t d ro p i n
pro po rt io n t o t he m axi mu m pressu re i nt rod uces a d isturbing
fact or i nt o t he c rank e ff ort d i agram w hic h would t end t o m ake
t he regul at io n u nd er t his syst em less cl ose at l ow l o ad s t han u nder
S yste m I I I
.

III

Gover ning by V a r yim]

Co mp os itio n to

s u it

Qua n tity bf Cha rge of Cons ta nt

L oa d : Q u a n tity Gover n ing

th e
th e

by c h angi ng t he qu an t it y o f c h arge t o su it t he lo ad
m ay be c arried out i n t hree w ays :
( a ) The e ngi ne d ra w s a c h arge full st rok e e ac h t i me but a
part o f t he c h arge d e pe nd ing u po n t he l o ad is forced back i nt o
t he su ct ion p assages th e inl et val ve be ing u nder go ve r n or c o n
trol
( b) The i nc o mi ng c h arge is c om plet ely out o ff by t he gover
no r at t he pro p er t i me t he c h arge expa ndi ng behi nd t he pist on
for t he rest o f t he st roke This is k now n as t he c ut -o ff met h od
(c ) T he c h arge is t h rott led d ow n t hroughout t he ent ire su c
t io n st roke t he go vernor det ermi ni ng t he posit io n o f t he i nlet
val ves This is c alled t he t hrottl i ng met hod
G o verning

1
2
m
4
F
.

Figs 1 42 and 1 4 - 3 s how t he d i ff ere nces i n t he d i agrams

t a ined u nder c ond it io ns ( b) and ( c ) out li ned abo ve
.

ob

REGULA TION

GAS

OF

44 7

ENGINES

Qu a ntit y go verni ng i n general is o n t herm al grounds o pe n to

t he obj ectio n t h at t he c o mpressio n pressure dec re ases wit h t he
lo ad and hence t he cyl inder e fficiency c o nst ant ly decreas es On
t he ot her h and t he mixtu res rem ai n read il y ignit able d o w n t o t he
frictio n l o ad wit h t he result t hat qu antit y governi ng is o n t he
w hole more ec ono mic al t han qu al ity governing The fact t oo
t hat t he c om pressio n p r essu re dec re as es wit h t he maxi mu m pres
sure h as a favorable inuence u pon t he c ra nk
e ff ort d i agram ad
mitti ng o f cl ose regul at ion
AS bet wee n met hods (b) and ( c ) t he former is sl ightl y bett er
bec ause less w ork is l ost i n t he lower loo p E veryt hing c o ns id
ered w here cl ose regul at io n is essent i al t he cut -o ff met hod of
qu ant ity go verni ng is t he best
,

FI G

1 4
3

t he eco no my of t he cut -o ff met hod as c o mpared

wit h t he hit -and -miss met hod of go ver n i ng E Meyer * nds t hat
d o w n t o about I load t he t wo syst ems are about o n a par Bel o w
t h is l oad t he effic iency of t he cut -o ff as c om pared wit h t he hit
and -miss met hod rapid ly falls o ff
R egard ing

IV

It

Com bin a tion S ys tems

h as

be en attempted t o perfect qu an ti ty regu lat ion by c h ang

i ng t he co m press io n s pace so as t o keep t he c om pressio n pres su re
t he s ame at al l lo ad s T herm al ly t his is a step i n t he right d ire c
t ion but no su ccessful m ac hi ne o perat i ng u po n t his syste m h as
yet ap p e ared
A no t he r c ombi na t ion syste m is t hat o f Le t o mbe w hic h is i n
success ful us e Le t o m be regulates by lengt hening t he t i me of
Ze it sc h rift d V d I n ge ni e u re Ap ri l 25 1 9 03
.

IN TERNAL

44 8

COM B US TI ON

ENGINES

t he i nlet v al ve but decre asi ng t he lif t o f t he gas val ve

As far as t he fuel is c o ncerned t h is is
as t he l oad dec re ases
qu ant it y regul at io n but t he l onger t i me of o pe ni ng o f t he i nlet
val ve i ncre ases t he t ot al c h arge vol u me w hic h means t h at t he
leaner mixtures w il l be more highl y c o mpressed t han t hose for
higher lo ads This is t herm al ly c orrect A not her poi nt is t h at
t he ric her mixt u res at t he higher l o ads alt hough less highl y c o m
Hence
p r essed are less i n t ot al vol u me t han t he lean er m ixt ures
a s t he lo ad i nc re ases t he rat io of expans io n i ncre ases as c o mpared
o p e m ng o f

FI G

1 44

t o t he ratio o f c o m pressio n w hic h te nds t o d raw d ow n t he

mi nal pressure at t he e nd o f ex pansio n and decre as e s t he exh aust
l oss The resu lt i ng d i agrams are s how n i n Fig 1 4 - 4 given by
G iild n e r
The c o mpressio n line a ~b bel o ngs t o t he full load c ard
l ine c d t o t he mi ni mu m l o ad c ard The l atter c ard shows s u c
t io n ful l st roke and a co mpressio n pressure of about 1 90 pounds
th e former s hows a su ct io n volu me equ iv alent t o about 5 5 per
cent stroke and a c o mpress i o n pressu re o f about 1 1 5 po unds
I n S pit e of t he t herm ally exce lle nt feat ures w hic h gi ves good
,

R EG ULA TIO N

GA S ENGINES

OF

44 9

regu l at io n t he ec onomy regard ing fuel is no gre ater t h an t h at

obt ai ned by a purel y cut -o ff system
Other co mbinat io n syst e ms t hat have bee n employed are
qu ant ity regul at io n at hig h l oad s c ombined wit h q u al it y regul a
t io n at l ow l o ads or vice ve rs a This is d one i n some G erm an
engines To c o mpe ns ate for t he sl ow bur ni ng o f t he l eaner mix
L as tly engines t hat go v
tures t he s park is ad vanced
ern eit her
by qu ant it y or qu al ity regul at io n at t he higher l o ads have been
governed by t he hit -and -m is s met hod at very low lo ads This is
d one i n t he A meric an -Crossley engines and also by Let o mbe i n
t he syste m above described
,

Gover n ing by Va r ying th e Tim e

S trictl y

f I gnition

s pe ak ing t he t i me of ignit io n s hould be ad j ust ed t o

suit t he kind o f c harge That means for ins t ance t hat in qu al
ity regu lat io n t he s park s hould be ad vanced wit h a decrease o f
l oad
I t h as a lre ady been ment ioned t hat t his h as bee n t ried
bot h by governor c ont rol or by h and regul at ion The former is
rat her d ifficu lt bec ause proper ignit io n is subj ect t o s o m any
ac cident al vari at io ns but hand cont ro l is quite pract ic able and
al l st at io nary engines should t herefore be furnis hed wit h ad jus
t abl e s park gear
A ut o m obil e engines are general ly go verned by h and regul a
t i o n of t he t hrottle i n c ombin at io n wit h t he s park
,

G over nin g

Cyc le E ngin es
Two

i
S m al l two -cycle engi nes are usu ally go verned by t hrottl ing
eit her t he fuel or t he c h arge I n t he rst c ase t his results i n w hat
is pract ic ally qu alit y regul at io n i n t he second i n qu antity regu
l at io n Liquid fuel engi nes o f t h is ty pe nearly al w ays go vern
by ad j u st i ng t he st roke of t he pu m p t o suit t he l o ad result ing i n
qu al ity regul atio n I n t he l a rger mac hines w hic h are nearly a l
w ays served by separate pu m p s it is absol utely essent i al t h at
t he cyl inder be t ho r oughly sc avenged
Hence it is usu al t o rst
ad mit air alone d i rectly fro m t he pu mp or an intermed iate
rec eiver and a litt le l ater t he fuel or t he mixture as t he c as e
may be t he point of ad missio n of t he l att er bei ng u nder go v
e r no r c ontrol
The go vernor may act eit her on t he i nlet v al ve
or dire ctly on t he pu mp I t s hould be noted t h at if res ervoirs
o

I N TER NAL COM B US TI ON

4 50

ENGI NES

are used between pu mp and e ngine t here is l ikel y t o be a l ag of

several st rokes betwee n t he act io n o f t he governor and its e ff ect
o n t he e ngi ne
For more det ailed i nform at io n o n t he go verning
o f l arge t wo -cycl e engi nes se e t he d esc ri pt io ns at t h e end o f t his
c h apt er
2
M e c h a n ic a l De ta il s of G o ve rn or s
For hit -and -miss
governi ng ; i nert i a go vernors o f t he s o -c alled pe nd ul u m t y pe are
extensi vely used
Besides t his ce nt rifugal go vernors of t he y

bal l type also nd appl ic at ion

For t he precisio n syste ms
o f regul atio n
ie
qu ant ity and q u al it y regul at io n c ent rifugal
governors of t he y-bal l type are most ly used ; s h aft go vernors
eit her o f t he centrifug al o r i nert i a t y pe are however l atel y nd i ng
appl ic at io n
(a ) P E N DU L U M O R I N E R T I A GO V E R N O R S
F OR
HI T-A N D -M I S S R E G U L AT I O N
The
si mplest form of t his governor is show n i n

Fig 1 4 5 The rod a b c arries t he b al l w eight

c
and recei ves a n u p and -d ow n mot io n
01
usu all y frOm t he l ay sh aft as s how n by
t he arrow s As t he rod moves d ow n t he
weight st rikes t he proj ect io n d and t he
pe nd ulu m is t hrow n t o t he right as show n
by t he d otted posit io n I f t he s peed is right
t he pe ndul u m will h ave gone b ac k t o its
norm al positi o n by t he t i me t he poi nt b
reac hes t he end of t he v al ve ste m e and
t he g as or i nlet v al ve will be o pe ned
If
t he s peed is above t he norm al a b will not
be bac k i n its norm al posit io n and b will
miss t he v al ve ste m e c ausi ng a m iss
FI G 1 4 5
st roke
A modi c at ion o f t his t he bell -crank pe ndul u m is S how n i n
Fig 1 4 6 T he act io n of t his go vernor is clear fro m t he previous
descri pt ion
The dis ad vant age o f t hese t wo forms m ay be s aid t o be t hat
t hey are t hrow n a c o ns iderable d ist ance o u t of t heir norm al posi
t ion This is o verc o me i n w h at m ay be c all ed spri ng -l o aded
pe ndul u m go vernors t he fu nd ament al ty pe of w hic h is s how n i n
Fig
As t he be ll c r ank a b c moves d ow nw a rd t he i nert i a
,

'

R EG ULA T ION

OF

4 51

GA S ENGINES

of t he weight c t hrows t he go vernor i nt o t he d otted posit ion

I f by t he t i me t he ste m of t he val ve e is reac hed t he spri ng h as
failed t o pull t he go vernor b ack int o it s n orm al positio n t he v al ve
will not be o pe ned c ausi ng a mis s -s t roke
,

FI G

1 46

FI G

1 4-7

-a

FI G

14
8

1 4 8

shows t he simplest ki nd of i nert i a go vernor for a

hori zont al val ve stem This m ay be used wit h o r wit hout t he
spring I ts actio n is su fc ie ntly pl ai n
*
There are many m od ic ations o f t hese fu nd ament al t y pes
.

S ee G iild n e r , E nt we rfe n

Be re c h ne n d e r

V e r b re nn u n gsm o t o re n

p 35 4
.

IN TERNA L

4 52

COM B US TI ON

EN G INE S

These w il l re ad il y suggest t he msel ves t o suit any part icul ar c as e

The fol l owi ng a r e so me exam pl es fro m act u al pract ice
Fig
s ho ws a mod ic at ion of t he vert ic al pick bl ad e go v
*
n
h
e r or t h at
as been used o n Crossley engi nes
T he le ver a is
.

FI G

14
9

act u ated by t he c am and as l o ng as t he s peed is norm al t he s piral

s pri ng o n o ne arm o f t he bell c rank is strong enough t o m ake t he
,

FI G

14 10

weight b att ai n it s norm al posit io n i n t he t i me avail able The

bl ad e 0 t he n o pe ns t he gas v al ve
I f t he s peed ris es abo ve nor
mal t he i nert i a of t he weight b t hrows it d ow n so far t h at it c an
not re ac h its norm al posit io n i n t i me and c misses t he v al ve st e m
,

G iild ne r, E n t we r fe n

Be re c hne n d e r

Ve r b re nn ungsm oto re n

REG ULA TION

OF

453

GA S ENGINES

The governor o n t he S p ringeld engine F ig 1 4 1 0 is quite

*
i
m
i
s
l ar t o t he abo v e exce pt t hat t he bl ad e acts ho r i zo nt ally
I n t his c ase t he bel l cra nk is c arried by t he sl ide A w hic h is ac
t u at e d fro m S
Fo r no r mal s peed t he bl ade P is ho r i zont al and
i n t his posi t io n hi t s t he ste m o f t he g as v al ve For excessi ve
.

FI G

1 4 1 1

s p eed t he s pi r al s pring f ails t o b r i ng t he weight W b ack i nt o

normal p osit io n i n t ime and P misses t he gas val ve
A n E ngl is h desig n of hit -and -miss go vernor no t quite so si m p l e
is s how n i n F ig 1 4 1 1 4
Here t he i nl et val ve ste m 1 c a r ries t he
,

FI G

1 4
12

To t his is pi vot ed a bl ade 4

b r ac ke t
For normal s p eed
of t he eng ine t he s p r ing 5 gent ly p r esses t he incl ined surface 6
agai ns t t he st at ionar y roller 7 I n t his posit io n t he bl ade 4
will hit t he lever 8 t h us o pe ni ng t he g as val ve 9 S hould t he
Po w e r Q ua rte r ly Oc t 1 5 1 900
1 Cle rk G a s a n d O il E n g in e s
,

'

IN T ERNAL

4 54

CO M B US TI ON

ENGINES

s peed howe ver rise abo ve norm al t he u p w ard t hrow gi ve n t o

t he bl ade d ue t o t he i ncl i ned surface 6 S lidi ng ag ai ns t t he roller
7 bec o mes excessi ve and bl ade 4 fails t o assu me its norm al posi
t io n by t he t i me t he l ever 8 is re ac hed The gas val ve t he n fail s
t o o pe n
A n i ngeni ous mod ic at io n of t he abo ve t ypes o f hit -and -miss

*
governors used by D el amare is s how n i n Fig 1 4 1 2 T he st e m
inl et sl id e v al ve
o f t he
c arries a s m all cyl i nder
i nt o w hic h is tt ed a
a
st at ionary pist on b air
The need le v al ve
t ight
serves t o ad j ust t he
0
vel ocit y o f ai r esc ape
fro m behi nd t he p ist o n
b Wit h t he cyl i nder a
i n t he ext re me right -h and
positio n air is ad mitt ed
behi nd b t hroug h t he
groo ve d As a travels
t o t he left at t he pro per
s peed t he air is co m
pressed but it esc apes
t hroug h t he need l e val ve
j ust fast enough t o
c
prevent its pus hi ng o u t
w ard t he pl u nger f i n
t he branc h cyl inder 6
t he s pring
In
ag ai ns t
FI G 1 4 - 13
t his posit io n t he bl ad e 9
hits t he g as v al ve st e m h F o r an excess i n engine s peed cyl
i nder a t ravels to t he left s o fas t t h at t he air c annot esc ape at
t he proper rat e t he pressu re ge nerated forces t he pl u nger f o u t
w ard and g misses t he v al ve st e m as s how n i n t he d ott ed positi on
N
M rs s R E G U L A
b
T
A
D
E
N
T
R
I
U
G
A
L
E
R
N
R
S
F
H
I
F
OR
O
G OV
( ) C
T I O N A hit -and -miss go vernor of t his t y pe is u sed i n t he
Frenc h e ngine s how n i n Fig 1 4 1 3 4 The cent rifugal go vernor
,

S c h Ot t le r , D ie G a sm a s c h in e

TP o we r Qu a r te r ly

Oc t 1 5 , 1 9 00
.

R EG UL A TION

GAS

OF

4 55

ENGINES

in t he y-wheel w hen t he s peed bec o mes t oo high actu at es t he

l at c hi ng arrangement iIc and t hrows t he oil pu mp serving t o
c harge t he vapo ri zer te mporaril y o u t o f act ion
,

14
14

FI G

1 4 1 5

The R obey governor * Fig 1 4 1 4 is o f t he y-ball ty pe ; normally

t he roller 0 u nder t he cont rol of t he governor t r avels o n t he c am
b t hus o pe ni ng t he gas val ve a t t he pro per t i me U nder exc essi ve
S c h b t t le r D ie G as m a s c h in e
,

IN T ERNA L C OMB US T ION ENGINES

4 56

s peed however t he roller is s ho ved t o t he left o n it s s pi ndle by

t he go vernor l i nk age and misses t he c am
The Campbel l o il engine h as a y-b all go vernor w hic h o perates
t o keep t he exh aust val ve o pe n when t he s peed exceeds t he no r
m al Figs
and 1 4
The rising of t h e go vernor weights
Fig 1 4 1 6 d epresses t he end 0 o f t he l ever N t hus i nt erposi ng
t he pl at e P F ig 1 4 1 5 betwee n t he end of t he exh aust lever M
and t he st at io nary bracket Q This pre vents t he exh aust val ve
fro m cl osing u nt il t he d roppi ng o f t he s peed c auses t he go vernor
,

FI G

1 41 6

t o wit hdraw t he pl at e P w hen t he exh aust v a l ve is ag a i n regu

l arly o pe ned b v t he sl idi ng piece K
A s haft go vernor act i ng t o hold t he exh aust v al ve o pe n is
u sed o n t he Perki n s engi ne F ig 1 4 1 7 ]
The exh a ust val ve is
o perat ed by t h e lever R w hic h i n t urn is act u at ed bv t he b loc k
A st riki ng t he end bl oc k B o f t he rod C
A s t he s peed ex
c e ed s t he no r m al t he go vernor weights mo ve t ow ard t he circu m
ferenc e o f t he w heel and t hro u gh su it abl e l i nk age t hrow t he
l atc h P i nt o a recess i n t he sid e of t he block B T his prevents
t he rod C fro m retu rni ng and k eeps t he exh aust val ve o pen
,

Cl e r k , t h e O il

and

P ow e r Qu a rt e rly

Ga s E n
Oc t

g in

1 5 , 1 9 00

REG ULA TION

Q U A L I TY R E G U LA T I ON

GAS

OF

4 57

ENGINES

The qu al ity met hod of regul at ion ,

( )
as c arried out fo r g as fuel is best exe mpl ied i n t he N iir n be rg e n
gi ne This engi ne h as separate gas and i nlet v al ves A t all
c

FI G

1 4- 1 7

lo ads t he inlet val ve o pe ns and cl oses at t he s ame t i me t hus a d

mitting a c ons t ant c har ge o f vol u me B u t t he g as val ve u nder
go vernor c ontrol o pe ns l ater as t he l o ad d rops and closes about
t he same t ime as t he m ai n i nlet val ve Thus t he co mpositio n or
,

FI G

1 8
.

14

qu al ity o f t he mixtu re c hanges wit h every l oad

A cert ai n d is
ad v ant age o f t his met hod of pro po rt ioning t he c harge is t hat t he
mixtu re is not onl y a ffected by t he rel at i ve ti me of o pe ning of
.

IN T ER NAL

458

t he gas a nd inle t

COM B US TION

ENGINES

v al ve s but als o by t he re l at ive veloc it ie s of t he

T h u s at lo w l o ads w he n t he g a v al ve o pe ns
g as and air c u rre n t s
w hil e t he air c o l um n
t he gas c o l u m n ha s t o st art fro m re st
alre a d y ha s its m axim um ve lo c it v
The t ime ne e d e d fo r t he ac ce l
c ra t i o n o f t he g a s co l u m n is p rac t ic all v c o n st a n t he nc e t his fac t o r
aff ec ts t he
mixt ure d iffe re nt l y fo r e ve ry l o ad
A not he r p o int
is t ha t un lem t he g a s v al v e c l oses q ui c kl y t he re is a p t t o be so
mu c h t hro t t lin g o f g a s a s t o make t he mixt ure dra w n in at t he
e nd fo r lo w l o ads inc o m bus t ible
This is es pec ia ll y bad s ince
t his mixt ure is a pt t o be l oc a t e d ar ou nd t he ig n i t er
The go v e rno r used o n t he Kr nbe rg eng ine is o f t he o rd i na r y
y -b al l t vp e
The tri p gea r fo r t he g a v al ve is sho wn in Fi
l 4~
18 *
g o vernor det e rm ines t he po s i t io n o f t he
.

1 4 1 9

FI G

l e v er e
g

t hr oug h t hi s t h e p os i t io n o f t he w i p er c am le ve r d
The ec c e nt ri c rod b t hro ug h t he l a t c h b1 lift s t he g as v al ve by
de pre ss in g t he v a l ve l e ve r a
The po si t io n o f d d e t e rmina t he
t ime o f o pe nin
The v al ve is c l ose d prac t i c all y inst an t ane o usly
bv t he c o il s pr in g s ho w n in t he t o p o f t he ho u ing as s oo n as t he
s mall ro ll er c h as re l ea s e d t he l a t c h
The d a h p o t I se r v e s
t o d am p en t he dro p o f t he v al ve ma king it c l ose w it ho ut s hoc k
M an y o il engines are go v er ne d by w h at i prac t i c ally q u alit y
Thu s t he Ho rns bvAkro yd o il engi ne Fig 1 4 1 9 4
re g ul a t io n
t ake s a full c h arg e o f air e ve r v st roke bu t t he qua nt it y o f o il is
.

a nd

Po we r

Fe b

I 9G B
.

1 Giild ne r V erbre nn un gs n ot o re n

1 19

REG UL A T1 0 N

GAS

0F

EN GIN E S

459

'

ha ng ed t o s uit t he l o ad
The q u alit y o f t he m ixt ure t here fo re
The pro port i o nin g o f t he o il
c ha nge s fo r e ver y differe n t l o ad
The oil pum p
t he l o ad is a cc o m plis he d as fo ll o w s
s u p ply t o
s u ppl ies a co nst an t qu an t it y o f o il every s t r oke t o t he v a po ri ze r
T hi s v al ve ho w e ver is a t w o -w a y v al ve o ne exit o pen
va l ve
ing t hro ugh an a t o mi z in g no z z l e in t o t he va po ri z ing c ha mbe r
w hil e t he o t he r al l o w s so me o f t he o il t o o w b ac k into t he o il
t an k The ybal l go v erno r t hro ugh t he lin kage s how n co n t ro ls
and t hu s de t e rm ines t he
t he s i z e of t his o ve r o w O pe ning
of o il w hic h e nt ers t he va p o rize r c ha mber
c

The

go vernin me c h anis m o f a s m all Die se l o il engine is s ho wn

in Fig 1 4
The p u m p p l u ng e r 0 is ac t u at e d by t he lay s haft
h
Th e s u ct i o n v al ve is s ho w n at c a nd t he au t o m at ic disc harge
v al ve a t b The o il u nd er p m
o w s t h ro u g h b t o t he at o miz
ing no zz l e
The am o u n t o f o il re q uire d fo r t he l o ad o n t he engin e
at a n y gi ven t ime is me as ure d bv c o n t ro l ling t he t i me o f c l osing
o f t he s u ct io n v a l ve c fo rc i n
m o re o r lw s o f t he o il b ac k into t he
g

Guld n u

V erb re n n un gm

ot o re n ,

p 379
.

I N TE RN AL

4 60

C M B US TI ON

ENGINES

uppl y t ank The mot io n o f val ve 0 is c o nt r olled t hrough

l i nk age not s hown by t he go verno r le ver c At 9 t hi s l ever re
c e ives an u p -and d o w n mot io n f r o m t he l ay s h aft but t he m anner
i n w hic h t hi s mot io n is t rans mitted t o t he s uct io n v al ve d e pe n d s
w hic h is d et e r mi ned by t he
u po n t he po s it io n o f t he ful c ru m
governor t hu s v a r yi ng t he t i me o f cl o s ing o f t he val ve

I
T
K
U
A
NT
Y
E
G
UL
A
d
R
TI O N
oe rt ing B r o s go vern t hei r four
Q
)
(
cycle engi ne as foll ow s Fig 1 4 2 1 * 2 Air enters t h r ough t he pi pe
D and g as t hrough B The t wo a r e mi x e d i n t he proport io n
s uited t o t h e part ic ul ar g as by t he mixi ng val ve A
Thi s val v e
o il s

'

FI G

1 4 21

w hen o nce ad j u s ted t he r ef o r e fu r ni s hes a mi x tu r e o f co ns t ant qu al

ity To s u it t he qu ant i t y of t hi s m i x tu r e t o t he l o ad t he g o ve r
n o r c o ntrol s t he po s i t io n o f t h e t h ro t t le val ve 6 i n t he pas s age
leadi ng fro m t he mi x i ng val ve t o t he i nlet v al ve Thi s va l ve t h us
t hrottles t he c h a rge du r i ng t he e nt i r e s uct i o n s t r oke
A very s i mil a r a rr an ge ment is u s ed in t he We s t in gho us e ve rt ic al
engin e F ig 1 4 22 T A is t he t h r o ttl e val ve c o n t r o l ling t he ent r ance
I t s po s it io n de pend s u pon t he
o f t he m i x tu r e t o t he cyl in d e r
.

r D ie G a m a ch ine
Mar k I n t r ucti n Pa pe r

S c h e ttle

lL

' '

s,

on

Ga s

a nd

O il

En

g ine s

REG ULA TION O F GA S EN G INES

461

act io n of t he y-ball go vern o r B G as e nte rs t he inte r ior o f t his

val ve t h r ough po r t s G a nd ai r t h r o ugh port s D The r el at i ve

H
o t h at t he
r
opo
r
t
i
n
of
t
he
e
po
r
t
a
r
e

x
e
d
by
s
l
i
d
e
s
H
s
o
s
s
s
p
p r o pe r r el at io n of ai r t o g as fo r t he fuel u s e d c an be es t abl i s hed and
m ai nt ained
.

FI G

F ig 1 4 23

1 422

how s t he a rr ange ment s fo r operat i ng and c ont rol

l i ng t he mixing v al ve in t he E h r h a r dt and Sc h mer engine w hic h
*
is a mo d ic a t io n o f t he D eut z engi ne
I t w ill be readily s een by
a s t udy o f t he gu r e t h at t he governor t h r ough it s l i nk age c o n
t rol s t he po s i t io n o f t he ful c r u m ab o ut w hic h t he val ve lever
tu rns Th e fa r t her t hi s ful c r u m mo ve s t o t he r ight t he g r eate r w il l
be t he o pening of t he inl et -val ve a n d t h e g r e ate r c o ns equen t ly
al s o t he amou nt o f mi x tu r e p r o p o rt i o ned i n p as s i ng t he val ve
ad mitted t o t he cyl in d e r
I t w ill be no t ed t hat a ll o f t he abo ve example s o f qu ant it y
go ve r ni ng t h r o t t le t he mixtu r e t h r o ugh o ut t he s uct ion s t r oke I t
w as poi nted o u t i n t he d i s cu s s i o n o n va r iou s s y s t e m s o f g o ve r n
i ng t h at t he s y st em em pl o yi ng q u ant it y regul at io n w it h cut -o ff
w as s u pe r io r t o t hat w hic h t h r o t t le s t he c ha r ge t h r o ughout t he
s t r o ke
a nd it s eem s s u r p r i s ing
t he r efo r e t h a t t his s y st e m is n o t
i n mo r e ext en d e d u s e The r e is t o t he w r i t e r s k no w l ed ge o nl y
K R e i n hard t Ri-m o nth l y Bu lletin o f t h e Am I n s t o f M in i n g E n g inee rs
N o ve m be r 1 906 p 1 09 2
s

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 62

o ne engi ne i n t h is cou nt r y e mpl oying t he cut -o ff s y s te m t he S ar

gent c o m plet e expans io n engine Thi s engi ne employ s a R ites
i nert i a governor w hic h act s u po n t he l ay s h aft dri vi ng gear w hic h
As t he l oad i ncreas es o r d ec r eas e s
is l oo s e o n t he c r ank s h aft
t he gove r nor r et a rd s o r ad vance s t hi s gea r rel a t i ve t o t he c r ank
t hu s a ff ec t i ng al l o f t he val ve event s d epen d ing u po n t he
s h aft
l ay s h aft at t he s ame t i me S i nce n ea r t he e nd o f t he s t roke
however t he pis t on vel ocit y is c o m parat i vely s m all a rel at i vely
,

1 4 23

l arge ad vance o r ret a rd at i o n o f t he gea r will not a ffect t he

exh au s t even t s o r t he begi nni ng o f t he s uct io n s t roke ve r y
B u t t he c ut
muc h
occu rs al ong t he s uct io n l ine s ome
o ff
w he r e nea r t he t ime w he n t he pi s t on h as it s m a x i mu m vel o city
and henc e a rel ati vely s m a ll ad vance o r r et a rd at i o n o f t he gea r
is s u fficient t o c h ange t he c ut
m at e r ially and henc e t o
o ff
c o nt r ol t he s peed
e) CO M B I N A TI O N
I T Y R E G UL A T I O N
U
A
Y
U
A
L
N
D
N
I
T
A
T
Q
Q
(
Th e purpo s e o f t he s e combin a t i o n s y s tems h as al r eady been
.

REG ULA TION O F

E N GINES

GAS

4 63

Fig 1 4 24 s how s t he met hod as c arried o ut by

po i nted out
*
The governor t hrough t he rod 0 c o nt rol s t he
R eic henb ac h
po s itio n o f t he bell crank leve r d
Thi s lever h as t wo
arms a a nd b Th e fo r me r by rod and l ever reg
s lott ed
u la t e s
t he po s it io n o f t he mi xi ng val ve w hile t he l atter
by a s i mil ar a rr angeme nt co nt rol s t he po s it io n of t he t hrott le
val ve S u ppo s e n o w t h at t he s l i d i ng bloc k s a and b are i n
t he po s it io n s how n i n t he gure
U nder t he s e c irc u m
t he mo vement o f t he t hrottle val ve
i ns ignic ant
s t ance s
.

FI G

1 4 24

bec au s e b is s o clo s e t o t he ce nt e r Hence i n t hi s po s itio n t he

engine is p r act ic ally go ve r ned by qu al ity regul at io n I f t he po s i
t ions of a and b w e r e r e vers ed t hat is b at t he outer e nd o f it s s l o t
and a at t he i nne r e nd t he r e w ould be p r act ic ally qu ant it y regu
l ation I n actu al o perat io n t he po s it ions o f a and b i n t heir re
s p e c t ive s lot s are de t e r mi ned by t r ial and de pend u po n t he g as
u s ed The nal ad ju st ment is s uc h t h at for t he u pper ranges of
l oad t he qu ality of t he mi x tu r e is c h anged w hile for t he l ower
l o ad s t he t hrottle v al ve c o me s i nt o act io n w hile t he mi xture is
Pow e r J ul y 1 906
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 64

hel d at practic ally c o ns t ant c o mpos it io n I n add it io n t o t hi s

R eic henb ac h al s o put s t he poi nt o f ignit ion u nder go ve r nor c o n
trol ad vanc i ng it as t he l o ad drop s
R ei nh ardt s met hod o f go ve r ni ng d oe s not c o me s t rictl y u nder
any o f t he head s so far d i s cu ss e d Th e inlet val ve is s how n i n
F ig 1 4
The val ve o pe n s and cl o s e s w it h t he begi nni ng and
Abo ve t he v al ve t he r e are ar r anged
e nd of t he s u ctio n s t r oke
a s eries of po rt s I for g as and I I and I I I fo r ai r Th e ow of gas
.

FI G

1 425

or air f r o m t hes e port s i nt o t he val ve c h amber p r o per is c o nt r o lled

by a s lide guid ed by t he v al ve s pi ndle At t he begi nni ng o f t he
s uct io n st roke t he s li d e only f r ee s t he po r t s f r o m c h amber I II
At s o me poi nt i n t he s t roke h o w
and hence o nly ai r is ad mitte d
eve r as d etermi ne d by t he go ve r no r t he s li d e is s u d de nl y rel eas ed
and forc ed d o w n by s p r i ng s Thi s cl o s es port s I I I and o pe ns gas
port s I and air po rt s I I Mixt u r e of t he pro pe r p r o po rt io n t hen
.

m o nt h ly
R e i n ha d t , B i

Bu lletin

Am

In t
s

Mi n i n g E n gs

N ov

1 9 06

REG ULA T ION O F

GAS

4 65

ENGINES

enters t he cyl in d e r u nt il t he e n d of t he s uc t i o n s t r o ke As fa r as
t he ad mi ss io n o f a va r ying qu an t ity o f co ns t ant mi xtu r e is c o n
ce r ne d t his s y s t e m is pu r e qu an t i t y r egul ation ; but s inc e t he
amou nt o f ai r d r a w n f r o m I I I i nc r eas es as t he l o ad d ec r e as es t he
mi x t u r e i n t he cyl i nde r as a w hole g r o w s l eane r as t he l o ad d ro ps
I t is cl ai med h o w e ve r t h at co mbu s t i o n is go o d e ve n u nde r fric
t i o n l o ad bec au s e alt h o ugh t he a mou n t o f c o ns t ant mixt u r e d ra w n
i n is s mall mo r e o r less s t r a t i c atio n o f t he c h a rge en s u r es t he
p r es ence o f a fai r l y r ic h mi x tu r e a r ou nd t he igni t e r Th e s y s te m
h as t he ad vant age o ve r pu r e qu ant i t y r egul a t io n i n t hat t he c o m
p r es s io n p r e ss u r e r e main s p r ac t ic all y u nc h anged
I n gene r al p r inc iple t he ab o ve met h o d o f R einh a rd t s ee ms t o
be a mod i c at i o n o f t he met h o d o f Mees pate nted i n 1 90 1
.

FI G

1 4 - 26

r ec ogni zi ng t he s e r iou s e ffect o n t herm al e fc iency

o f t he d ec r e a s e i n c o m p r e s s io n w hic h ac c o mpanie s pu re qu ant i t y
regul at io n g o es o ne s t ep fu r t her and s o a rr ange s t he val ves t h a t
t he lean mixtu r es u nder lo w l o ad s a r e mo r e s t r o ngl y c o m p r e ss ed
t han t he r ic h mixtu r e s at t he highe r l o ad s This is t he r m al ly an
i mport ant s tep i n t he right d i r ect ion I n Fig 1 4
a is t he
mai n inl et v al ve o pe r a t e d a t a c o ns t ant l ift by t he c am d t hrough
t he l ever e Ahead o f t hi s i nlet val ve are t he ai r v al ve b a nd t he
V al ve b is o perated t h r o ugh t he le ve r g by t he
g as val ve c
Le t o m be ,

c am
G as val ve 6 o pe ns o nl y w hen pu s hed u p by b
Ca m f
is s ho w n i n greater d et ail at t he left
I t h as a nu mbe r of elev a
tions eac h o f w hic h c o ns i s t s o f t w o s t eps of d i ffe r ent lengt hs as
s h o w n at 1 2 a nd 3
At full l o ad t he r o l le r o n t he le ve r g m o u nt s
,

S c hot t le r,

D i e Ga mas ch ine
s

I N T ERNA L

466

COM B US TION ENGINES

t he higher s tep o f elevation 1 o peni ng bot h b and 0 wide and t he

~
mixtu r e o f c o ns t ant p r o po r t ion ente rs t he cyl i nder t h r ough a
w hic h h as been opened at t he s ame t i me Afte r aw hil e t he roller
d r ops t o t he l ower s tep o f elevat io n 1 air val ve b cl o s e s part ly
cl o s ing g as v al ve 0 c o mpletel y O nl y ai r is t hen d r aw n i nt o t he
cyl i nd er u ntil t he r oller 9 d r ops o ff t he c am alt oget her N ow
Th e gove r nor t hen pull s o ver t he
s u ppo s e t h at t he l o ad d r op s
roller 9 u ntil it c o me s i n l ine wit h elevat io n 2 o r 3 as t he c a s e
,

lc umo n

I on Rm
as

Ec cs mmc

Sn mme

FI G

1 427

m ay be The t i me o f openi ng o f t he g as val ve 6 is t hen s ho r t ;

ened bec au s e t he highe r s tep o f t he elevat io n is s h o rt e r ; but t he
t i me o f ad mi ss io n o f ai r al one t o t he cyl inde r is lengt hened be
c au s e t he l owe r s tep o f t he c am is l o nge r t han it w as befo r e
Hence alt hough t he mi xtu r e is l eane r t he tot al c ha rge vol u me is
g r eater th an at full l o ad and t he l eane r mi x tu r es t he r efo r e receive
a higher c o m p r ess i o n The o r etic all y t hi s s h o uld gi ve i nc r e as ed
t herm al efcienc ie s at l o w l o ad s as c o m pa r ed w it h o t he r s y s t em s
,

REGULA TION

ENGINES

GAS

OF

467

of regulat ion I n p r act ice h o wever for r ea s o n s n ot expl a i ned

t he r e d oe s no t s eem t o be m uc h di ffe rence
G O VER N I N G O F Two -Gr e w E N G I N E S
Fig 1 4 - 27 s how s a
*
l
t ype o f t wo cyc e engine t he L o zie r m uc h u s ed for s mall motor
boat work As in al l mac hi ne s o f t hi s kin d t he m i xt u r e is fo r med
a nd com pre ss ed in t he c r ank ca s e a nd ow s fro m he r e t h r o ugh a
c o m m unicat ing pa ss age i nt o t he cyli n d e r a s s how n by t he arrow s
S peed is cont r ol led s im ply by t he t h r ott le val ve i n t he pa ss age
t hu s c ontrolling t he am o unt of m ixt u re ente r ing t he cyli n d er
Thi s is a ve r y s im ple ca s e becau s e t he load o n t he engine is prae
t ically c o n s tant
I n t he ne w B uckeye t w o-cyc le engi ne w hic h a s far a s s i ze is
conce r ned is i nte r me d iate bet wee n t he s mal l t wo -c yc le ga s oline
engine a nd t he very large t wo -cyc le bla st f u r nace gas engi ne s o f t he
K oe rt ing o r Oe c h e lh ause r t ype t he fo r ward e nd o f t he c ylinde r is
u s ed a s a m i x t u r e pum p R egulat io n is e ffected by mea n s o f t he
balance d t h r ott le va l ve 6 0 Fig 1 23 1 , p 28 9 w hi c h u nder t he
cont rol of t he fly-b a l l gove r no r regulate s bot h t he s uct io n t o
t he pum p and t he delive r y f r o m t he pum p t o t he com bu s t io n
c ham ber Thu s t hi s engi ne gove r n s by va r yi ng t he qua nt it y o f
t he m ixt ure ; but s ince t he cylin d e r is a l way s t horoughly s ca v
enge d by fre s h ai r t he m i x t u re wi ll nat u r ally g r o w leaner a s t he
l o a d d ro p s w hile t he com p re ss ion pre s s u re remai n s pract ica ll y
t he s ame
Th e go verning d e t a ils o f t he Oe c h e lh au s e r t wo -cyc le ma c hine
vary s om e what depen d ing upo n t he r m build ing t hem Fig
1 4 28 Ts ho w s t he s c heme a d opted by B o rs ig
I t may be re m e m
bered t hat i n t hi s mac hine air a nd m i x t u r e ente r t he c yli nder
t h ro ugh separate ri ngs of port s i n t he s ide o f t he cylinder a s s oo n
a s t he pi s to n unco ver s t hem
Th e a ir port s a r e uncovered rs t
t o admit t he s ca venging ai r t he m ixt ure port s a li t t le later E ac h
ring o f port s is s ur r ou n d ed by a r ecei ve r i nt o w hi c h t he a ir a nd
I t is
ga s pum p s del iver t hei r c ha r ge s u nde r s ome com p r e ss i o n
e vi d ent t hat s ince t he t ime t ake n by t he pi s ton t o u nc o ver a nd
cover t he ga s a nd air port s is pra ct i cal ly con s tant t he amount of
mi xt u r e t hat ca n e nter t he cyli nde r d u r ing a given t ime m u s t de
pe nd upo n t he pre ss u r e ia t he s e recei vers a nd upon t he port area
.

'

'

'

'

Po we r Q uar terl y O ct 1 5 1 900

-Gas m as chi nen p
ss
R
ie
le
r
G
r
o
d
T
,

67

I N TE RNA L COMB US T IO N

468

ENG INES

go verno r t herefore is made t o act upo n t he ga s and air p um ps

t o cont rol t he p r e s s ure i n t he receive r s F u rt he r a s t he load de
c rea s e s a nd a pproa che s t he f r ict ion loa d t he amount o f m ixtu r e
ente r i ng become s so s ma ll a s com pa re d w it h t he am ount o f air i n
t he cyli nde r t hat ignit io n is likely t o be come difc ult Fo r t hi s
rea s o n t he m i x t ure po rt s a r e s u rr oun d e d by a s l ide un d er governor
cont rol a s s ho w n at A F ig 1 4- 28 w hic h is ope r ated i n s uc h a
wa y t hat a s t he load decrea se s t he port s O ppo s ite t he igniter are
Th e

FI G

1 4
28

grad uall y c lo s ed rs t t h u s i n s uri ng a com parat i vel y ric h m i xt ure

a r oun d t he ignite r at al l t ime s
The met ho d o f go ve r ning t he K o e rt in g t w o cyc le engine a l s o
d i ffe rs s ome w hat d epen d ing u po n t he manufac t u r ing r m I n
al l de s ign s t he r e a r e a ga s a n d a n ai r pum p O f w hic h t he ai r pum p
delivers it s c ha r ge in t o t he cyli nde r f r o m t he c o m mencement o f
Th e
it s d i s c ha r ging s t r oke i n o r der t o s ca venge o u t t he cyli n d e r
ga s pum p r un s idle fo r a par t o f it s di s c ha r ge s t r o ke generally
fo r cing t he ga s ba ck int o t he s uct ion mai n unt il at a p o int de
t e rm in e d by t he g o ve r n o r t h e o ve r fl o w val ve c lo s e s a nd t he gas
pum p delivers t he re s t o f it s c ha r ge i nt o t he cylinde r t h r ough a
s h o w s t he pum p c o n s t r uct ion used by
val ve o n t o p
F ig 1 4 29
,

F E
.

J un ge i n Po we r

N o ve m be

1 906

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 70

t he G ut e h o ffu ngs h iit t e B ot h t he ga s a nd air pum p s are c on

t r olled by pi s t o n va l ve s ope r ated by r ocke r a r m s a nd ec cent r ic s
S it uated below t he pi s t o n va l ve o f t he ga s pum p t here a re t wo
.

FI G

1 430

a uxilia r y pi s t on va l ve s h a nd i w hic h
under t he c ontro l O f
t he go ve r no r D e pen d i ng o n t he load o n t he engine t he g o ve r
nor t h r o ugh linkage s how n in F ig 1 4 30 a nd of w hic h le ve r 10
Fig 1 429 is a pa rt rotate s t he s e a uxilia r y val ve s a bout t heir
a xi s t h u s c ont r o lling t he t ime w hen t he gas pum p c om mence s to
deliver it s c harge t o t he power cyli n d er
,

CH APTE R X V

E S TI MA TI O N

THE

P O W ER

OF

E N GI N ES

G AS

OF

I T is

i ntended i n t hi s c h apter t o point ou t t he variou s met hods

i n u s e by w hic h t he po we r t h at a given engine may be ex pected
t o develo p c an be c o m puted o r wh at amou nt s t o t he s ame
t hing t o det ermine t he cylinder di me ns io ns for any given power
I n st eam engine p r act ice t hi s is a c o mparat i vely s im ple m att e r
I t is nece s s a r y m erely t o l ay down an ide al i n d ic at or c a r d along
wel l -d e ne d l ine s and t hen by t he u s e o f c a r d fact ors cl o s el y
xe d by long p r act ic al e x pe r ience t o determine t he p r ob able
mean e ffect ive pre s s ure in t he cyl inder o r cylinders
Alt hough t hi s met ho d is by s ome w r ite r s ad voc ated al s o for
t he gas engi ne t he determina t ion o f t he c ard fact or fo r g as e ngi ne s
is ba s ed u p o n s o m any c om ponent fact o r s whic h in t u r n de pe nd
al t o get her u po n t he j u d g men t O f t he d e s igne r t h at t he r e s ult is
an yt hing bu t ce r t ain Th e di fcult ie s a t t ac hing t o t hi s m et hod
are p o inte d out in greater d et ail belo w
Befo r e de s cribing t he va r iou s met hod s o f co m put ing cylinder
d imen s ion s it is well t o examine b r ie fly int o t he all o w able pi s t o n
Th e t heo r etical l imit of pi s ton s peed O f c our s e depen d s
s peed
direct ly u pon t he t ime o f e x pl o s i o n and t hi s i n t u r n de pen d s
u p o n t he k ind o f mi xt u r e an d t o a ce rt ain e xtent u p o n t h e
As fa r as mo d ern p r actice goes t he u pper
met h o d o f ign i t ion
l imit t o -d ay s e e m s t o be at ab o ut 8 00 feet p e r m in ute A cert ai n
fo r mu la e m pi r ic al a s fa r as t he w riter is a ware m ak e s t he pi s ton
s peed depend u pon t he hor s e -po wer o f t he en gi ne s tat ing th at
,

pi s t on s pee d

( 6 60

6 x/ B

P m)

ft per min
.

(1)

i n whic h B H P is t he norm al b rake hors e -power

A s imil ar e m piric al fo r m u la/ fo r t he revolut ion s pe r minute
.

"

1 200
IS

65
4 71

(2)

472

I N TE RNAL COM B US TION EN GINES

t at ionary and e s pec i ally l ow -c om pre s s ion engine s t he values

o f equ at ion s ( 1 ) and ( 2) s houl d not be exceeded
F or aut omobile
and ot her high -s peed w o r k t he revol u t ion s m ay be inc rea sed up
to
t i me s t he value c o mpute d f r o m e qu at io n
I Th e F ir s t M et h o d of H or s e -p o wer Co m p u t ati o n is more o r
le s s e mpi r ic al i n t hat it de pe n d s eit he r u po n t he out r ight ass u m p
t io n o f t he mean effect i ve p r e ss u r e o r u po n t he c o mput at ion O f
t his fact or f r o m em piric al o r s em i -e m piric al formul ae
Thu s
G ro ver ba s e s t he d eterminat io n of t he M E P u pon t he c o m
pre ss ion pre ss ure m ak ing
F or

=
M E P
2C
Ol C
.

(3)

t he p r e ss ure of c om p r e ss io n i n pound s above at mo s

h
r
e
e
Thi s formul a is de r i ved f r o m an ex aminat io n of a l arge
p
nu mbe r of i n d ic at o r diagram s but le ave s o u t o f c o ns iderat ion
t he k ind o f fuel o r t he qu al i t y of t he m ixture F u rt her t he
fo r mul a give s t he m a x imu m r e s ult when t he c o m p r e ss ion pre s s ure
is 1 00 pou n d s by gage
B ey o n d t hi s t he M E P d rops
The
re s ult s are t herefo r e at be s t approxi m ate an d in so me ca s es ab s urd

S A M o s s in an art icl e e nt itle d

R a t ional Met ho d s o f G as

i n P o we r J uly 1 906 goe s fu rt her t h an

E ngine Po we r ing
t ak es i nt o a o
G r o ve r and i n x i n g u pon t he p r ob able M E
c ou nt t he s ize o f engine as wel l as t he k ind of fuel Th e c ool ing
lo s s is r el at i vely le s s i n l a r ge t h an i n s m al l e n gine s hence t he
M E P m ay be ex pected t o i ncrea s e s omewh at wit h t he s ize o f
Th e k ind o f
t he engine eve r ything el s e remaini ng t h e s a m e
fuel h a s an i nfluence u pon t he po we r de velo ped i n any gi ven
c yl i nde r due t o t he fac t t h at t he be s t air-fuel rat io s t e mix
tu r e s of t he d ifi e re nt fuel s h ave a di ffe r e nt heat c o ntent per
c ubic foot S o me of t he mi x tu r e s a r e poo r er s o me r ic he r t h an
t he average as c o m puted i n Ch apter X Pr e s u ppo s ing equ al
c o m pletene ss o f c o mbu s t ion t he r ic he r mi x t u r e s yiel d t he higher
Th e foll owing
mean p r e s s ure s a nd hence t he g r eat e r po we r
Onl y
t able s how s t he p r ob able M E P as c om pu t ed by Mo s s
fou r-cycle engine s a r e c o n s i d ered and t he fuel is ass u med t o be
average n atu ral g as o r ill u minat ing g as ( average he at c ontent
8 7 B T U p e r c u ft o f mi x t u r e)
'

where C
.

P O WER
ABL

OF

ES

ME A N E F F E C TI V E

P RE S S U RE

M A E

U RES

g
gg
C35
g
i

F FEC

TIVE

PR

ES S

LB S

G AS

FO R

SQ

PE R

EN GI N E S

I NC H

:
i

A LU

if;
3

4 73

ENGINES

OF GAS

a,

App

AC
D

k H
e

o r se -

o we r o f

E gi
n

ne

3>

40
35
30
28
26
24
22
20

50
6O
70
8O
90
1 00
1 10
120

ra

t B

ro xim a e

5 0'
le ss

10

25

50

60
65
70
70

65
70
75
75

70
75
80
85
90
95
95

75
8O
85
90
95
95
95

I f s o me ot her kind O f fuel t h an t he

1 00

200

500

85
90
95
1 00
1 00
1 00

90
95
1 00
1 00
1 00
1 00

95
100
1 05
1l0
1 10
l 10

abo ve s pec ied is

u s ed t he M E P of Table 1 s hou l d be mult iplied by t he proper
fact or fro m Table I I following :
.

A BL I I
R A OS O H A
o V A LU
MI X T U R
I LLU M I N A T G G A

TI

as

CO MB U S TI O N P E R CU B I C F OO T O F P E R FE CT
A V E R G E N T U R L G A S O R M N U F CT U R E D

T OF

FO R

IN

W ate r G

t wo

( unca r bu reted )

Co ke O ven G a s
Air G a s ( S i e m en s P o d uce G a s )
a te G a s
Ca bu rete d
A nt h a cite P o d uce G a s
Bitu m i n o u s P od uce G a s
Bl ast F u na ce Ga s
A cet ylene G a s
G as o line ( l i qui d v a p o , o r v a p o ized a n d m ixed w it h a i )
K e ro sene ( va p o ized a l o ne o r m ixe d w it h a i ) , a n d ente in

a t a bo ut 1 50 F

r
W r
r
r
r
r

r
r g cylind e r

93
79

80
87
67

90
90

t he maximu m c o m p r e s s io n pre s s u r e allowable di ffers

for e very fuel h as al r e ady been p o int e d out in Chapter I V w here
a t able gi vi ng t he c o mpre s s io n p r e s s ures ordinarily employed
w ill be fou nd
H a ving t hu s determined t he p r o b able M E P t he indic ated
hors e -po we r de vel o ped at norm al l o a d by any gi ve n engine m ay
t he n be co m puted from t he formu l a
That

Ia
n
.

3 3000

(4 )

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 74

t r oke i n ft
p is t o n a r ea i n s qu are inc h

w here

0.

and

no

o f e xp l OS l OIl S

per m i nute

about

r9 m
.

In

fou r-cyc le m ac hine at fu ll load

I t w ill generally be fou nd t hat at full load t he nu mbe r O f
.

is

expl os ions i n a hit -and -mi s s engine

not quite equ al

to

p m

t h at in a m ac hine gove r ned by any o f t he p r ec i s io n me t ho ds

t he c ar d give n at full load is not quite t he ma x i mu m c ard obt ai n
able Thi s is do ne i n bo t h c a s e s t o give t he engine s ome o ver
load c apacity s a y f r o m 1 0 t o 20 pe r cent As s u ming a n ave r age
o verlo ad c apac ity of s ay 1 5 pe r cent we t he n have t he
or

(5)

where

H
H

normal or ful l load I H P and

maxi mu m I H P obt ainable
.

72

at full lo ad t he mec h anic al efc ie nc y of an average engine

m ay be ass u med t o be 8 0 per cent s o t hat t he n or m al bra ke
hors e -po wer w ill be

N ow

or

H
.

8
.

(6 )

6 95

( 7)

I n t he c as e of an engine t o be con s t r ucted B H P

H P c an be fou n d f r o m eq u a t ion
s pecied hence I
,

"

u s u ally

is

Sub

s t it u t ing

t his i n e qu at ion ( 4 ) leave s a s t he u nk no w n fact ors i n

t his equ at io n t he fact ors l a and n Th e l a t t e r d epe nd s u po n
t he re volut ions w hic h may al s o be s pec ie d o r d etermined f r o m
equ at io n
Th i s leave s o nly l a n d a t o be determine d
I t is next nece s s a r y t o n d s o me rel at ion bet ween cylinder
di ameter and s t r oke An examinat ion o f e x i s t ing engine s s ho ws
t hat pract ice in t hi s rega r d is prett y wel l s ett led High -s peed
s t r oke
to
I n med i u m s peed
engines S how a rat io o f
d iame t er
engi ne s t he r at io va r ie s f r o m about
to
and l a rge
mac hine s va r y bet wee n
and
,

P O WER

OF GAS

ENGINES

To

determine t he c yli nder di men s ion s let

of t he cyli nder i n feet a n d let
,

4 75

be t he di ameter

l = xd

Then

e qu at ion ( 4 ) may be r e writt en

(M E

(8)
fo r ma xim u m

p o wer

( 9)

g o

F ro m

t hi s t he cylinder diameter

3 00 I

d
E X A M PL E S

is
.

HP

ft

10

ho w t he me t h o d O f u s ing t he s e equ a
d e s i r ed t o d ete r mi ne t he r equ ire d cyl in d er
cyc le t h r o t t ling engine u s ing
B H P fo u r

TO

t i o n s s u pp o s e it is
dimen s i o n s fo r a 1 00
ant h r ac i t e p r oduce r gas
t he nu mber of r e volut ion s S houl d be abo ut
F ro m e quat io n
,

rpm
.

1 200

65

1 85

t he t able o f Chapter I V a co m pre s s ion p re s s u r e o f 1 20

pou nd s by gage is ab o ut no r mal fo r t he fuel u s ed F r o m Table s
I and I I we s hou l d e x pec t a me an e ffect ive p r e s s u r e fo r t hi s c as e o f

F ro m

M E
.

F ro m

The

I H

e qu at i o n

e ngine being

Of

1 00

X
B

t he t h r ottli ng t ype
n

a nd

80

80
P

pou nd s

X 1 00

144

m ay be a ss u med equ al t o
S ub s titut ing t he s e value s i n e qu at ion
a:

Cy1

3 00

dla d =
'

we

nally h ave

1 44

App r 1 8 3

S troke
a nd

rpm
.

X
18 5

app

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

'

476

fou r-c ycle g as ol ine engine h as a cyl inde r di ameter o f

a s t roke of
and t he nu mbe r O f revol ut ions is 250 per
minute I t is g o ve r ned by hit and miss What is it s pr o bable
brake hors e -po wer at n o rmal load ?
Th e M E P at normal I H P f r o m Table s I and I I is about
2

x 75

84

po un d s

as s u ming t hat t he co m pre ss io n p r e ss u r e is about 70 po u nds by

ga e Fo r t he m axi mu m ind ic ated hors e -po we r t he nu mber o f
g

e xplo s ion s

71.

m ay be a ss u med t o b e equal to

S ub s titut ing

2 0

1 25

i n equ at io n ( 4 )
84 X
144

Fro m

wh ic h

3 3 000

ap pr

det ermining mean e ffect i ve p re s

s u r e foll o ws s team engine pract ice
and is develo pe d i n de t ail by
L u ck e i n his G as E ngine D e s ign Th e met ho d con s i s t s o f dra w
ing rs t a s t an d ard ai r refe r ence di agram F ro m t hi s t he mean
e ffect i ve p r e ss u r e is determined by mult i plying t he me an e ffect i ve
pre ss u r e of t he s t andard di agram by a c ard or diagram fact or
de pe ndi ng u po n t he k ind o f fuel u s ed and t he c o m p r e s s io n c ar r ied
Thu s fu ndament ally t hi s met ho d doe s not di ff er gre at ly fro m
t hat o f Mo s s out li ned abo ve
Th e s t anda r d air reference di agram is O bt ained by w o r ki ng
a pou nd o f ai r whic h is as s u med t o rec ei ve as mu c h heat as a
pou nd of t he pro per fuel -ai r mixt u r e t o be u s e d in t he real engine
woul d c ont ain t hrough t he c ycle
Th e foll o w ing t able s ho ws t he c ard fact ors as dete r mine d by
L uc ke fro m a l arge nu mber o f c ons t ructe d engi ne s :
II

Th e Se c o n d M e t h o d

of

PO WER
Ki

of

F l
ue

an d

M th
e

EN GINES

OF GAS

of

4 77

g
by G g

Use

K e ro sene when p revi o u s l y va o riz e d

K e ro s ene injecte d o n h o t bul m ay be a s lo w a s
G aso line u s ed in ca r bu rete r requi r in g a v a cuu m
en d in g up o n t h e extent o f t h e v a cuu m
G a soiin e w it h but little initi a l v a cuu m
P ro d uce r ga s
Co a l gas
Bla s t fu rna ce ga s
N a tu ra l ga s
,

fo u r-cycle

r fa ct rs

Ca d

m a c h ines

fo r t wo -cycle

en g ine s

304 0
2O

1 30
80
1 001 60
Av 80
1 301 80
9014 0

50
30
56
40
Av 4 5
4 8
30
5 24 0

de

ac o r

4 5 75

N OT E

dF

Ra n e O f
Ca r
Co m p re ss io n

m ay

be t a ken

as

t hat

fo r

mean e ffect i ve p re s s ure o f t he s t andard air reference

diagram of c ou rs e inc rea s e s c o nti nu ou s ly wit h t he com pre ss ion
The abo ve t able ho we ver s ho ws t hat t he c ard factor d ec r eas es as
t he co mpre s s io n i nc r ea s e s for al l fuel s except kero s ene
Thi s
accou nt s fo r t he fact t hat i n Mo ss s Table I t he M E P doe s not
i nc reas e beyo nd cert ai n co m p r es s ion s Th e t herm al and mec h an
ic al reas ons u nde r lying t hi s fact h ave been e x pl ained i n Chap I V
The t able o f c a r d fact ors s ho ws a l a r ge range o f vari at io n i n
t he di fferent fact o rs an d e m ph as ize s t he point made by L u cke
t hat i n dete r mini ng cyl inde r s i ze s a g r e at deal mu s t be left t o t he
pers o nal ex pe r ie nce a n d j udgment of t he de s igne r
I II Th ir d M e th o d of D e te rm in in g Cyl in d er D i m e n s i o n s
It
mu s t be O b viou s fro m w h at h a s been s aid t hat it is not at all
e as y t o p r edic t w it h fair acc u r acy t he mean effect i ve pre ss u r e
an engine may be expected t o real i ze Fo r t h at reas on a met hod
o f determining t he cyl i nder di men s ion s o f a p r op o s ed e n gin e or
t he po wer o f an exis t ing engine wit hout rs t determining t he
M E P s houl d be w el c o me
The met hod develo ped by G iild ne r * is b as ed u pon t wo well
k no w n fact s :
1 Th e po wer devel o pe d by any gas engine depend s direct ly
u po n t he vol u me o f t he mixt ure it c an h andle in u nit ti me
2 The po we r al s o de pend s u po n t he t herm al e fc ienc y w it h
whic h t he engine c an h andle t hi s volu me of mi x tu re
R eg arding t he rs t point t he c h a rge v o lu me i n u nit t i me
The

'

G iild n e r , E nt w e

rfen

Be rec hn en

der

V e rb rennun gs m o t o ren

I N TE RN AL COM B US TIO N

4 78

EN G INES

invol ve s cyl i nder diameter s t roke and nu mbe r O f revolut ions

Two o f t he s e fac t or c an u s u al ly be x ed u po n w hic h d e t e r mine s
t he t hi r d The c o mput at ion o f t he c h a r ge vol u me fo r a given
t i me i nvol ves t he as s u m pt io n o f a v alue fo r t he volu met ric e f
c ie n c y o f t he s uct ion s t r o k e
The r e is n o w s o muc h ex pe r i ment al
d a t a rega r di ng t h is p o in t t h at no grea t error c an be made
A
t able o f volu met r ic e fc ienc ies E for va r iou s t y pe s o f engine s is
gi ven on p age 86
The s ame is t rue of t he t herm al efc iency and fu el c h a r ac t e ris
t ic s A l a rge nu mbe r o f te s t s o n va r iou s t y pe s Of m ac hine s and
d i ff e r ent fu el s enable s u s to d ay t o f o r ec a s t wit h a fai r deg r ee
o f ac cu r ac y w hat t he r mal e f c ie n c v m ay be e x pected f r om a
gi ve n engine w hen it s app r oxi ma t e po we r and t he ki nd of fuel
u s ed are k nown
The follo w ing deri vat ion o f equ at ion s fo r value s o f di ameter
*
as is al s o
s t r oke a n d r ev o lu t i o n s pe r minut e is due t o G iild n e r
t he a ppe n d e d t able All met r ic me as u r emen t s and val ue s ha ve
bee n t r an s fo r med t o E ngl is h u ni t s :
,

Let

or

nominal b r ake hors e -po wer

N,

R P M
.

pi s t on diamete r in feet
s t r oke in fee t
z
pi s to n d is pl ace ment pe r s t roke
7 85 d l
i n cu ft
act u al volu me O f mi x t ure in c u ft
E Vh
per s u c t io n s t r oke ba r o meter
tem pe r at u r e 59 d egree s F ah renheit

V]

II

vol umet r ic efc ie ncy of s u ct ion st rok e

Vh

t he volu me o f air i n c u ft requ i r ed fo r

1 cu ft o f gas fuel o r 1 pou n d of l iqu id
fuel u nder mo s t favorable pract ic al c o n
Thi s is not t he t heo r e t ic al qu an
d it io n s
t it y but s o me e xce s s qu an t ity as s eem s
be s t for t he pa rt icu l ar fuel
.

a r ticle m a y be fo un d eit he r in t h e Z eit s c hr ift d e s V e reine s d eut

s ch e r I n genieu re A p r il 26
1 90 2 o r in h is boo k E nt w e rfen u n d Be rec h nen
d e r Ve r b rennun gs m o t o ren pp 2 1 3
21 5
Th e

PO WER

OF GAS

4 79

ENGINES

t he re s ult ing actu al qu ant it y o f air i n

c u ft fo r o ne e xplo s io n for nomin al
hors e -po wer
t he qu ant it y o f fuel u s e d p e r hou r for
gas e s i n c u ft fo r liqu ids i n pou nd s at
nominal hors e -power
t he s ame per hors e -power hour
t he s ame per e x plo s ion
t he lowe r heat ing value of t he fuel for
gas e s pe r c u ft for l iqu i d s pe r pou nd
in B T U

Lh

C,,

33 000

25 4 5 N u

60

778 CS H

F ro m

I bra ke
for

t he above we c an derive
33 000

"

7 78

C
L"

He

60 n

60 a

four-c yc le engine s

( 1 1)

"

25 4 5 N ,, L

30 n He

efciency at t he
ec on o mi c efc iency

He

2 X 25 4 5

30

25 4 5 N 1,

60

2 C,

C, L

t hermal

CS E

N X

( 12)

He

N nL
n

( 13)

He

engine s equ at io ns ( 12) a n d ( 1 3 ) s hould be

bec au s e t he r e is a c harging s t roke for e very re vo lu

t wo -cyc le

di vide d by
t io n

2,

E N G I N E S F OR

GAS

FUEL

act ual c harge t ake n i n by t he engine during

s troke mu s t be
The

Thi s

volu me requ ire s a pi s t on di s pl ace ment

V ,,

78 5 d l

S ol ving

( 1 4 ) for

d, l

HeE
and

C},

Ev

uct i o n

of

"

o ne s

HeE

( 14)
v

i n t u rn we have
,

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

4 80

( 15)

feet
1 08

Ev

L)

N (1
,

( 1 7)

es

E N GI N ES

( 16)

feet

ea

1 08

L)

N (1

E,

F OR

LI Q UI D

FUEL

I n t hi s c a s e t he fuel is int roduced eit her i n l iqu id form or in

t he S hape of vapor I n eit her c as e t he vol u me rat io s O f fuel t o
.

air are very muc h s maller t han t hey are i n t he c ase o f gas eou s
fuel s Take for i ns t ance t he c as e of al cohol a fuel o f lo w heat ing
val ue He r e we nd t hat t he vapor doe s not form t heoret ic a lly
more t h an 4 per cent of t he vol u me O f t he c harge I n realit y it
is e ven le ss t han t hi s on acc ou nt of t he exce ss air u s ed
I n V iew
o f t hi s fact we m ay put for t he s e engine s
'

V ,,

S ol ving

7 85 d l

t hi s again

L}

N ,, L

Ev

fo r d , l

and

HeE

( 18)

c ubic feet

we obt ain for e ngine s u s i ng

l iqu id fuel :
1 08 N "

en

1 08 N n L

and

HlE
z

ea

Ev

ft

( 1 9)

ft

(20)

1 08 N " L

Hd E

(21 )

el

I n t he s e e qu at ion s t he qu ant it ie s t o

w hic h

cert ain val ue s

As s t ate d before t here is now
mu s t be ass igned are L e and
s o muc h pract ic al d at a at hand t h at t he pro per determinat ion O f
t hes e s houl d c au s e n o d i fculty F or value s o f E s ee Table
p 86 Th e t able o n t he o ppo s ite page gi ve s values o f L C and
e a s fou n d for va r iou s fuel s
S ince t he nominal b r ake ho rs e -powe r N is 1 8 t o 20 per cent
belo w t he m axi mu m c apacit y o f e n gin e s i n or d inary c a s e s it is
w ell t o a s s u me an exce s s o f ai r of about 3 0 pe r cent at t he out s et
i n t he c a s e of mac hi ne s u s ing gas I n t he c ase of l i qu id fuel
,

PO WER

ENGINES

OF GAS
h

m m m m
.

m w

481

m
m m m
e

~9

v
w

m
m
.

m
o

< e tr

o
n

m
m m
.

Z
A

g
e

n
n

5
Q

m o
w w
m a

:
H

wm

G
d

s
.

5
5

2
0
s

h
.

a
o

s
a

o
g

a
:

w0

30

m
e

o
o

c
a

w
9

E
m

A O

wa

s
s
e
s
s

>

a
c

3
3
m

m0

C
E

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 82

engine s a g r eat e r e x ce s s 5 0 t o 60 p e r cent s hould be u s ed bec au s e

t he s e fuel s are u s u ally hig h i n heat ing val ue a n d i f any econo mi
c al deg ree O f c o mp r e s s ion is t o be em pl o yed t he fuel mixt ure
Be s ide s i t is n o t ea s y t o p r oduce a u ni fo r m
s houl d be r at he r lean
fuel mixt u r e i n t he c as e Of l iqu id fuel s and an e x ce ss O f ai r w oul d
hel p t o o verc o me t his di fcul t y The s e exce ss ai r allo w ance s
h ave bee n m a d e i n t he t able The value s o f C and e are for t he
va r i o u s fuel s and fo r va r i o u s s i ze s o f engi ne s as determi ned f r o m
e x i s t ing d at a The fuel c o n s u me d by hea t ing a ppa r atu s and
igni t i o n ame s is not incl uded i n C I n t he c a s e o f engine s u s ing
gene r a t o r gas i t is s u ppo s e d t hat s u ct i o n genera to rs are e m pl o yed
r equ i r ing no fuel fo r a s e pa r a t e boiler
TO s e e h o w t he r e s ul t s O b t ai ned by G iild ne r s met h o d ag r ee
wi t h t h o s e obt ain ed by Mo s s t he s ame exam ple s w il l be t aken
E ngine t o be 1 00 B H P t h r ot t li ng g o ve r nor
E X A M PL E 1
fuel t o be ant h r aci t e p r oduce r ga s D ete r mine t he cyl inder
di men s i o ns a s s u ming as be fo r e t hat t he nu mbe r o f r e v o l ut i o ns
is 1 8 5 pe r minute
F o r t hi s c a s e any o ne o f t he fo r mula 1 5 t o 1 7 m ay be u s e d
Tak ing t he s t we have
,

I. )

HIE
in whic h

N
L

"

fB e t

H P
ai r u s e d pe r cu ft o f t he fuel g as
s ay
an t h r ac i t e g as f r o m t he t a ble
t he r mal e f c ie ncy t ha t may be e x pec t e d
f r o m t he t able
100 B

fo r

24

1 85

14 1 B
heat i ng val ue O f fuel
U f r o m t he
t able
as s u med as
d i n p r eviou s
:1: d
S t r oke
c as e
volu met r ic e fc iency
s a y 9 0 fro m t able p 86

E
Th en

1 08 X 1 00 X

2
.

24 X 1 8 5 X 1 4 1 X

d X 90
.

1 08 X 1 00 X

01

24 X 18 5 X 1 4 1 X

X 90
.

P O WE R OF GAs

fro m whic h d

ft

appr

1 6d

4 83

and

X 17

ENGINES

met hod t herefore appa r ent ly c all s for a s maller e ngine

E X A M PL E 2
s t r oke
G as ol ine engine cyl diam
r p m 25 0 Hit -and -mi s s go vernor D ete r mine prob able B H P
F o r t hi s equ at ion 21 may be re w ritte n
Thi s

Hd

n el

N"

in whic h

Ev

1 08

rpm
t hermal e fc ienc y
1 9 fro m t able
s t r oke
7 1 ft
1 9800 f r o m t able
hea t i ng value O f fuel
25 0

n
e

Ev

fro m p 86 s i nce t h is engine is l ikely t o h ave

an aut o m at ic i nlet val ve
25 0 fo r a go o d ric h mixture
.

5 ft

75 ,

2
.

25

Then
250 x 1 9 x

N,

x 25 x 7 5

1 98 00

1 08

250

HP
.

p r evi o u s e x am ple gave

B H P s o t h at t he ag r eement
in t his c as e is s ati s fac t o r y
IV F o r d et e r m in in g t h e p o wer rati n g of a u to m o bi le e n gin e s ,
s e veral m o re o r le ss em pi r ic al fo r mul a
e a r e i n u s e t w o o f whic h
will be c ited
Th e As s oci at ion o f Auto mobile M anu fact urers h as xe d u po n
t he fo llo wing ex p r e s s io n for four -cycle e ngine s :
Th e

where

H
.

( PN
.

di ameter o f cyl inde r i n i nc hes and

nu mbe r o f cyl inders
,

ba sed on a s peed o f 1 000 r p m

I n t hi s fo r mu la
howeve r t he fa cto r
re su lt s fro m t he contractio n o f s everal
othe r factor s mo r e or le s s arbitrari ly a s s u med an d hen ce as fa r
as de s i gn is concerned t he formu l a is o f litt le o r n o u se
Thi s is

IN T E R NA L COM B U STION ENGINES

484

B
d

where

HP
.

d lN

a
.

48

1 0 Cl

cyl diam i n inc hes

s t roke in inc he s
no O f cylinders
and
clearance ex p re ss ed i n t erm s of pi s t on d is pl ace me nt
.

72

Cl

follo wing e x am ple s ho ws t he appl ic at io n o f t he met hods

dis c u s s ed t o t he dete r minat ion of t he po wer o f an aut omobi le
m ac hine
E X A M P L E Cyl inder diameter
r p m 1 000
s t roke
n o of cyl in d ers 4
D etermine t he prob ab le B H P
I B y d etermin at i o n of M E P
As s u me c o m pre ss io n c arried is 8 0 pou nd s whic h
about 28 per cent c learance F ro m Mo s s s Table s
The

M E P
.

F ro m

84

pou nds

equ at ion (4 ) t herefore

4

T
2

84 X

S i nce

75

X 7 8 5 X 4 X 5 00
.

t he mec h an ic al e fc ie ncy

is

in t he neighborhood
8 X 6 = 4 8
.

and for fou r cyl inders

B

Tota l

II

B y G iild ne r

n el

An
?

Hd E

1 08
1 000

III

4 8
.

19 2

Met hod :

L
X

20

X
1 08

and t ot al

1 98 00

25 0

B y As s oc iat io n F ormul a :

c x4
.

64 _

as

X 75
.

of

80 ,

PO WER
IV

B y R ice

HP
.

OF GAS

ENGINES

4 85

F ormul a :
1

1 4 000

10

O f t he abo ve re s ult s t ho s e obt ained by met hod s I I I and

,

IV

ag r ee very well Met hod I I I gi ve s a re s ult c ons iderably higher

but i n V iew of t he fact t hat t he c hoice o f t he fact or
is s o me
what arbit rary t hi s d is c re pancy doe s not me an mu c h I f t he
fact or h ad bee n t ake n e qu al t o t hree for i ns t ance as is s o met i me s
do ne t he re s ult woul d be brought do w n t o
hors e -po wer
whic h is not so far di fferent fro m t he re s t
.

XV I

CH APTE R

ME T H O D S

OF

E S TI N G

E N G I N ES

G AS

act u al te st ing o f g as e ngine s t hat is t he determinat ion of

i ndic ated and brake hors e -p o we r s p e e d fu e l c o ns u m p t io n et c d oe s
not di ffer ma t erially f r o m t he me t hod s l o ng bec o me s t andard i n
B ut t he c alc ul at ions invol ved i n t he p r o pe r
s te am engine pract ice
w orking u p of t he d ata obt ained a r e e nough di ffere nt t o h ave c au s e d
engineering s oc iet ie s at ho me and abroad t o s e t u p ru le s and r egu
lat io ns s o -c alle d c ode s fo r te s t ing in t ern al c ombu s t io n engine s
Thu s in 1 8 98 t he Americ an S oc iet y O f Mec hanic al E nginee rs
appointed a c om mittee for t his pu rpo s e w hic h rende red a nal
repo rt in an Appe ndi x t o t he S team E ngine Code in 1 90 1 The
B rit i s h I n s t it ut io n o f Civil E ngineers follo wed s u it t he p r e
l iminary and nal report s being rende r ed in Ma r c h a n d D ecem be r
F inally t he V erein D eut s c her I ngenieu re
1 905 re s pect ively
adopted a code for t he te s t ing O f gas engine s and gas pro d ucers
whic h was publ is hed in t he Z eitsc hr ift for N ovember 24 1 906
The latter c ode w as t ran s l ated nea r ly ent irely by Mr F E J unge
1 90 7
a n d will be fou nd i n P o w e r for F ebrua r y
O f t he s e c ode s t he Americ an and G erman give S pec ic rule s
for te s t ing t he l at te r paying pa r t icul a r attent ion t o accept ance
t e s t s o f bot h engine s and gas pro d u ce rs The B r it i s h r e po rt
c o ncern s it s el f mainly w it h e s t abl i s hing efciency s t a ndard s
I n de s c ribing t he met hod s foll o wed in t he te sti ng o f gas
engine s it w as t hought be s t t o give t he Americ an c o d e in it s
e n t iret y s u pplement ing it by mo s t of t he refe r ence s t o t he s tea m
e ngine code c ont ained in it s o r iginal p r inted fo r m Th is is fo l
lo wed by a t ran s l at io n of nea r ly t he ent ire German code modi
e d w here nece s s ary t o s u it t he Americ an condit ion s
Thi s
code is al s o gi ve n bec au s e it not o nly s u pplement s t he Ame r ican
c ode in s ome i m po rt ant det ail s but on accou nt of t he rule s gi ven
for t he te s t ing o f gas producers
THE

,
.

'

4 86

ME TH O DS

T ESTING

OF

R UL E S F OR C O N D U CTI N G T E S TS O F

GAS

487

ENGINES

G A S A N D OI L

E N G I N ES

OD E OF

1 90 1

O bj e c ts of th e

At t he out s et t he

pec ic obj ect

whet her it be t o determine t he
o f t he te s t s houl d be a s ce r t ained
ful l men t O f a c o nt r act gu a r an t ee t o a s ce rt ain t he highe s t econ
o m y obt ainable t o nd t he w ork ing ec ono my and t he defect s a s
t hey exi s t t o a s cert ai n t he performance u nder s pec ial c ondit io ns
or t o determine t he e ffect o f c hange s i n t he c ondit ion s ; and t he
te s t s houl d be arranged acc o r d ingly
Muc h de pend s u po n t he l oc al condit io n s as t o wh at prepara
t ions s houl d be made for a te s t and t hi s mu s t be d etermined
l argely by t he good s en s e t act j u dgment and ingenu it y o f t he
w
hic
h
ng in mind t he m ai n i ss ue
i
i
expe r t u n d ert a kip g it k
e
s
p
g
I n deci d ing que s tion s of
t o O bt ai n accurate and rel iable dat a
cont ract a clear u nders t anding i n regard t o t he met ho d s of te s t
u nle ss t he s e
s houl d be agreed u pon befo r ehand wit h all pa r t ie s
are di s t inctly p r ovided fo r i n t he cont ract
E xamine t he e ngine
II Genera l Co n d iti o n of t h e E n gine
and make note s of it s general c ondi t ion and any point s o f de s ign
con s t ru ct ion o r O pe r at ion w hic h bear o n t he O bject s i n V ie w
Make a s peci al examinatio n of all t he val ve s by i n s pe c t ing t he
s eat s and bea r i ng s urface s and note t hei r c ondit ion and s ee if t he
p is t on ring s are gas t ight
I f t he t rial is made t o determi ne t he highes t e fc iency and
t h e examinat io n s ho ws evidence o f leak age t he val ve s a n d pi s t on
ri ngs et c s houl d be m ade t ight and al l part s o f t he engine put
in t he be s t po ss ible wo r king c ondit ion before s t art i ng on t he t es t
III D i m en s i on s , e t c
Take t he di men s ion s of t he cyl inder
whet her al ready k nown or no t ; t hi s s houl d be done
o r cyl inders
w hen t hey are hot a n d i n w ork ing order
I f t hey are s l ightly
Meas ure
worn t he average d iameter s hou l d be determined
al s o t he co mp r e ss io n s pace or c learance volu me wh ic h S houl d be
done if pract ic able by ll ing t he s pace s wit h w a t er previou s ly
meas u r ed t he p r o pe r co rr ect ion being m ade fo r t he t em peratu re
D ec ide u pon t he g as or O il t o be u s e d a n d if t he
I V F ue l
t r ial is t o be m ade fo r m aximu m e fciency t he fuel s houl d be t he
be s t o f it s cl a ss t h a t c an readily be o bt ai ned o r o ne t h at s hows
t he highe s t c aloric power
.

Te st s

I N T E R NA L

4 88

COMB US TI ON ENGINES

of I n stru m e n t s u se d in t h e Te st s
All
i ns t ru ment s and appa r atu s S houl d be c al ibrated an d t heir re
liability and accu racy veried by co m pari s on wit h recogni zed
Apparatu s l iable t o c hange or t o become broken
s t andard s
during t he te s t s s uc h as gage s i ndic at or s prings and t her
m o m e t e rs s houl d be c al ibrated bot h before an d after t he e xp e ri
ment s The ac curacy o f al l s c ale s s houl d be veried by s t andard
weight s I n t he c as e O f gas o r water meters s pe c ial attent io n
bot h before and after t he
s houl d be give n t o t heir c al ibrat io n
t rial and at t he s ame ra t e of flow and pre ss ure as exi s t s du ring
t he t rial

S
FOI pre ss ure s above t he at mo s phere o ne o f
A
G
E
a
G
( )
t he mo s t c onvenient and at t he s ame t i me reli able s t anda r d s is
t he dead -weight te s t ing apparat u s whic h is manu fact u r ed by
I t c on s i s t s o f a vert ic al
m any of t he pro minent gage m akers
plunger nicely tte d int o a cyl inder c ont aining o il or glycerine
t hrough t he mediu m of w hic h t he p re ss ure is t ran s mitted t o t he
g age
The plu nger is s urmou nted by a circul ar s t and o n whic h
weight s may be pl aced and by mean s of w hic h any de s ired pres
s ure c an be s ecu red
Th e t ot al weight in pou nd s o n t he plu nger
at any t i me di vided by t he area o f t he plunger and o f t he bu s h
ing whic h receive s it in s qu are inc he s gi ve s t he pre s s ure i n pou nd s
per s qu are inc h
Anot her s t andard o f com pari s on for pre ss u re s is t he mercu ry
c olu mn I f t hi s in s t ru me nt is u s ed as s urance mu s t be h ad t ha t
it is pro pe r ly gradu ated wit h reference t o t he e ve r va r ying zero
point ; t hat t he me r cu ry is pure and t h at t he pro per c orrect ion
is made for any difference o f t em perat u r e t hat exis t s c om pared
wit h t he tem perat ure at whic h t he i ns t r ument w as gradu ated
F or p r e s s u re bel o w t he at mo s phere an air pu mp o r s ome
ot her mean s o f produc ing a vacuu m is requ ired and reference
mu s t be m ade t o a mercury gage
S u c h a gage may be a
U
t u be h aving a lengt h o f 3 0 i nc he s o r s o w it h bot h arm s pro perly
lled w it h pure mercury
S t andard t hermometers are t ho s e
( b) TH ER MO ME T ER S
whic h indic at e 2 1 2 degrees F ahrenheit i n s team e s c aping fro m
boiling w at er at t he normal baromet ric al pre ss u re O f
i nc he s
t he whole s te m u p t o t he 2 1 2-degree point being s urrou nded by
t h e s team ; and whic h indic at e 3 2 degree s F ahrenheit in melt ing
V

Ca l ibra t io n

ME TH ODS

OF

T ES TING

GAS

4 89

ENGINES

ice t he s tern being likewi s e co mpletely i m mers ed t o t he 3 2

de
gree poi nt ; and whic h are c alibrated for point s bet ween and
beyond t he s e t wo reference s point s We re co mme nd for te m
F
4
bet
ee
n
1
degree
and
degree
ahre nheit t hat
w
2
2
s
00
s
t
u
r
s
r
a
e
e
p
t he co mparis o n o f t he t hermo meter be made wit h t he te m pera
ture given i n R egnault s S team Table s t he met hod required
being t o pl ace it in a mercury well s urrou nde d by s at ura t e d s team
u nder s u fc ient pre s s u r e t o give t he right te m pe rat ure The
p r e ss ure s houl d be accurately det ermined a s pointed o u t i n t he
ab ove s ect io n ( a ) and t he t hermo meter S houl d be i m mers ed t o
t he s ame extent as it is u nder it s work ing c ondit io n
Thermo meters i n p r act ice are s el do m u s ed wit h t he s te m s
fully i mmers ed ; con s equent l y w he n t hey are co mpared w it h t he
s t andard t he c o mpari s o n s houl d be m ade u nder l ike c o ndit ion s
w hat ever t ho s e happe n t o be
I f pyro meters of any kind are u s ed t hey s houl d be c om pa r ed
wit h a mercu r y t hermo meter wit hi n it s range and if e xt re me
ac cu rac y is require d wit h an air t hermo meter o r a s t anda r d
bas ed t hereo n at higher poin t s c are bei ng t ake n t hat t he mediu m
be it ai r o r liquid is o f t he s ame
s urrounding t he py r o mete r
u niform te m perat u r e as t hat s u rr ou nding t he s t andard

I
T
I
N
S
I
D
A
OR
P
R
G
0
N
C
S
The i ndic at or S pring s s houl d be
( )
c alibrated wit h t he indic at or in as nea r ly as po s s ible t he s ame
co ndit ion a s t o te m pe ratu re as e xi s t s during t he t rial Thi s
t e m pe r at ure c an u s u al ly be e s t i m ated in any part icul a r c as e A
s im ple w a y o f heat ing t he i n d ic at or is t o s ubject it t o a s team
pre ss ure j u s t before c alibrat ion Co mp r e ss ed air o r c om pre ss ed
c arbonic ac id gas a r e s uit able for t he act u al w ork of c al ibrat io n
The s e gas e s s houl d be u s ed i n prefere nce t o s te am s o as t o bring
t he c o ndi t ion s as near as po ss ible t o t ho s e w hic h obt ai n w hen
t he i ndic at ors a re in act u al use
Whe n co mpre s s ed c arbonic
ac i d gas is u s ed and t rou ble aris e s fro m t he c logging of t he e s c ape
val ve s w it h ice t he pi pe bet wee n t he val ve and t he gas t ank
Wit h bot h air and c arbo nic ac id gas t he
s houl d be he ated
pi pe s leading t o t he i ndic at or s hould al s o be heated if it is fou nd
t hat t hey are belo w t he requ ired t em perat u re The s pring s may
be c alibrated for t his c l ass of engine s u nder a c on s t ant pre ss u re
i f de s ired and t he mo s t s ati s fact ory met hod is t o c o ver t he w hole
range o f pre ss u re t hroug h whic h t he indic at or act s ; rs t by grad
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

4 90

al ly i nc re as ing it fro m t he l o we s t t o t he highe s t point and t hen

gradu ally reduc ing it fro m t he highe s t t o t he l o we s t po i nt i n t he
manner whic h h as heret ofore be en w idely fol lo wed by i ndic at or
makers ; a mean of t he re s ult s s houl d be t aken Th e c alibration
s hould be m ade fo r at lea s t ve point s t wo o f t he s e bei n g for t he
pre s s u re s c orre s ponding t o t he m axi mu m and mini mu m p re ss ure s
and t hree for intermediat e point s equ al ly di s t ant
Th e s t andard o f c o mpari s on r ec o m mended is t he dead weight
te s t ing apparatu s a merc ury c olu mn o r a s team gage w hic h
h as bee n proved c orrect by reference t o eit her of t he s e s t andard s
Whe n t he s c ale o f t he s pring determined by c alibrat ion is
fou nd t o va r y from t he no minal s c ale wit h s ub s t ant ial u niformit y
it is u s u ally s u fc iently accurate t o t ake t he a r it hmet ic al mean
of t he s c ales fou nd a t t he di ffe r ent p re s s ure s t rie d When ho w
e ver t he s c ale V a r ie s c o ns ide r ably at t he differen t point s and
abs olute acc u r ac y is de s ired t he met hod t o be pu rs ued is as
follo ws : S elect a s am ple diagram and divide it i nt o a nu mber of
part s by mean s o f l ine s parallel t o t he at mo s phe r ic l ine t he
nu mber o f l ine s being equ al t o a n d c orre s ponding wit h t he nu m
ber o f point s at whic h t he c alibrat ion o f t he s pring is made
Take t he mean s c ale o f t he s p r ing fo r eac h di vi s ion and mult iply
it by t he a re a o f t he diag r am inclo s ed bet wee n t wo c ontiguou s
l ine s Ad d all t he product s t oget her and divide by t he area o f
t he whole diag r am ; t he re s ult w ill be t he average s c ale O f t he
I f t he s am ple diag r am s elected is a fair re p re
s p r ing t o be u s ed
se n t at ive of t he ent ire se t o f diagram s t aken du ring t he te s t t his
average s c ale c an be appl ied t o t he w hole I f n o t a s u fcient
nu mber o f s ample s o f diag r am s rep r e s ent ing t he va r iou s condit io ns
c an be s elected and t he average s c ale det ermine d by a s i mil a r
met hod for e ac h and t hereby t he average fo r t he w hole ru n

A
A meter u s ed fo r meas u r ing gas for a
E
ER
S
M
T
S
( d) G
gas engine s houl d be c alib r ated by refer r ing it s r eading s t o t he
d is pl acement of a gas ometer O f k no w n volu me by c ompa r ing it
wit h a s t andard gas meter O f k nown error or by p as s ing air
t hrough t he meter fro m a t ank i n whic h air u nder press ure is
I f t he l atter met hod is ado pted it is nece ss ary t o O b s erve
s to r ed
t he p r e s sure o f t he air in t he t ank and it s tem perat ure bot h at
t he t ank and at t he meter and t hi s s hould be do ne at u niform
i nterval s during t he progre s s o f t he c al ibrat i on The amou nt of
n

ME TH ODS

TES TING

OF

4 91

ENGINES

GAS

air pass ing t hrough t he me t er is co m puted f r o m t he vo lu me o f

t he t ank and t he O b s e r ved tem pe r at ure s and p re ssu re s
The v o lu me o f t he gas t hu s a s cert ained s h o ul d be r e d uced t o
t he equ ivalent at a gi ven te m perat ure and at m os pheric p re s s u r e
corrected fo r t he e ff ect o f m o i s t u r e i n t he g a s w hic h is o r dina r il y
at t he s at u r at ion point o r nea r l y so
We rec o m mend t hat a
engine w o r k t he s ame as t hat u s ed
s t andard be a d o pte d for ga s i n phot omet r y namel y t he equi valent volu me of t he gas w hen
s at urated w it h moi s ture at t he normal at mo s phe r ic p r e s s u r e at a
te m peratu re of 60 degree s F ahrenheit
I n o r de r t o r educe t he
reading o f t he volu me cont aining moi s t gas at any ot her te m pera
t ure t o t hi s s t andard mult iply by t he factor
.

60
t

in whic h b is t he height o f t he baro meter in inc he s at 3 2 deg ree s

F ahre nheit t t he tem peratu re o f t he gas at t he mete r i n d eg r ee s
F ahren heit and s t he vacuu m i n inc he s o f me r cu ry corre s ponding
t o t he tem perat u r e o f t O bt ained fro m s team t able s
A goo d met hod of c al ib r at ing a water
( 6 ) W A T ER M E T ER S
meter is t he following refe re nce being made t o F ig 1 6 1
Two t ee s A and B are pl aced i n t he feed pi pe and bet wee n
t he m t wo val ve s C and D The meter is connected bet wee n t he
out let s o f t he tee s A
CALl BRATlON OF A WATER METER
and B The V al ve s
S KETCHS HOWING METER CON N ECTION S ETC
E a nd F are pl aced
o ne o n eac h s ide o f
t he me t e r Whe n t he
meter is ru nning
t he val ve s E and F
are o pe ned and t he
val ves C and D are
c lo s e d
S houl d an
accident happe n t o
t he meter during t he
t e s t t he val ve s E
F I G 1 61
and F m ay be c lo s ed
and t he val ve s C and D o pe ned s o a s t o al lo w t he feed w ater
t o o w directly t o t he poi nt o f u s e
A s mal l bleeder G is
,

COM BUS TI O N

I N TERN AL

4 92

EN GINES

o pened whe n t he val ve s C and D are clo s ed i n orde r t o m ake

A gage is att ac hed at H
When
s ure t h at t here is no leak age
t he meter is te s ted t he val ve s C D and F are clo s ed and t he
Th e water flow s f r o m t he val ve
val ves E and I are o pe ned
I t o a t ank pl aced o n weigh in g s c ale s I n tes t ing t he meter t he
rate o f o w s h o ul d be t he s ame as t hat o n te s t and t he water
leaving t he me t er is t h r ottled at t he val ve I u ntil t he pre ss u re
s ho w n by t he g age H is t he s ame as t hat i ndic ated when t he
mete r is r u nning u nder t he normal condit ion s Th e pi ping lead
ing f r o m t he val ve I t o t he t ank is ar r anged wit h a s winging j oi nt
c o ns is t ing merely o f a loo s ely tt ing elbo w s o t h at it c an be s w u ng
readil y i nto t he t ank o r away f r o m it After t he de s i red p re ss u r e
and rate o f o w h ave bee n s ecu r ed t he e nd o f t he pi pe is s w ung
i nt o t he t ank t he in s t ant t hat t he pointer o f t he meter is o ppo s ite
and t he water cont i nue s t o
s ome gradu at io n mark o n t he dial
e mpt y int o t he t ank The t e s t s s houl d be m ade by s t art ing and
s toppi ng at t he s ame g r adu at ion ma r k o n t he meter d ial
and
c ont i nued u nt il at leas t 1 0 o r 20 c ubic feet are di s c h a rged fo r o n e
tes t The wate r c ollected i n t he t ank is t hen weighed
The water pas s ing t he meter s houl d al w ay s be u nder p r e s s u r e
i n order t hat any air i n t he mete r m ay be di s c ha rged t h r ough t he
vent s p r ovided for t his pu rpo s e Ca r e s houl d be t ake n t hat t here
is no air cont ained i n t he water
Th e meter s houl d be te s ted
bot h be fo r e and after t he engine t r ial and s e ve r al te st s be m ade
of t he meter i n eac h c ase i n orde r t o O bt ai n c o n r m at ive re s ult s
I t is wel l t o m ake p r eli minary te s t s t o dete r mi ne w het her t he
meter w o r k s s at i s fact o r ily before co nnect ing it u p for an engine
t r i al The re s ult s s houl d agree wit h eac h ot her for t wo widely
d i ff e r ent rat e s of o w
D u ra ti o n of Te s t
VI
The du r at io n o f a te s t s houl d
de pe n d u po n it s c h a r acter and t he O bj ect s i n V ie w an d i n any
c as e t he te s t s houl d be co nt i nue d u nt il t he c o n s ecu t i ve reading s
o f t he rate s at whic h O il o r gas is con s u med t aken at s a y h al f
hourly i nterval s bec o me u niform a nd t hu s ve r ify e ac h ot her I f
t he object is t o dete r mine t he work ing ec o no my and t he pe r iod
o f t i me du r ing whic h t he engine is u s u al ly i n mot ion is s o me part
O f t went y -four hou rs t he durat ion o f t he t e s t s houl d be xed fo r
t his nu mber of hours I f t he engi ne is o ne u s ing c oal fo r ge n e rat
i ng gas t he te s t s houl d c o ver a long enough pe r io d t o determine
,

ME TH ODS

OF

TES TING

GAS

4 93

ENGINES

wit h accu racy t he c oal u s ed i n t he gas producer ; s u c h a te s t s houl d

be o f at leas t t wenty -fou r hou rs durat ion and i n mo s t c as es it
s houl d extend o ver s eve r al days

I n a te s t for deter
t
r
to
i
n
t
n
d
S
a
T
e
s
VI I
S a t in g a
pp g
minin g t he m a x imu m econo my o f an engine it s hould rs t be
ru n a s u fc ient t ime t o bring all t he c onditio ns t o a normal and
c o n s t ant s t at e Then t he regular O b s ervat ion s o f t he tes t s hould
begin and c o nt inue for t he allotted t i me
I f a te s t is m ade t o dete r mine t he performance u nder w o r king
c on d it ion s t he te s t s hou ld begin a s s oon as t he regul ar prepa r a
t ions have been made for s t art ing t he engine i n pract ic al wo r k
and t he mea s u r e ment s S hou ld t hen c om mence and be c ont inued
u nt il t he clo s e o f t he period co vered by t he day s work
I f t he fuel u s ed is co al fur
M e a su re m e n t of Fu e l
V III
n is h e d t o a gas producer t he s a me met hod s appl y for determining
t he c on s u m p t io n as a r e u s e d in s team boiler t es t s
I f t he fuel u s ed be gas t he only pract ic al met ho d o f meas ure
ment is t he u se o f a mete r t h r ough whic h t he gas is pass ed G as
bag s s hould be pl aced bet ween t he met er and t he engine t o dimi n
is h t he variat ion o f pre ss ure and t he s e s houl d be of a s i ze propor
When a meter is empl oyed t o
t io n ate t o t he quan t it y u s ed
meas ure t he air u s ed by an engine a receiver wit h a exibl e
diaphragm s hould be pl aced bet ween t he engine and t he met er
The t em peratu re and pre ss u r e of t he gas s hou ld be mea s ured as
al s o t he barome t ric pre ss u re and tem peratu re o f t he at mo s phere
and t he qu ant ity of gas S hould be determined by reference t o t he
c alibrat io n o f t he meter t aking int o ac cou nt t he tem peratu re
and pre ss u r e O f t he gas
( See Sect ion V
I f t he fuel is O il t hi s c an be dra w n fro m a t ank whic h is lled
t o t he original level at t he end o f t he te s t t he amou nt o f oil re
quired for so doing being weighed ; or for a s mall engi ne t he o il
may be drawn from a c alibrate d ve ss el s uc h as a vert ic al pi pe
I n an engine u s ing an ignit ing ame t he gas or O il requ ired for
i t s houl d be i ncluded i n t hat of t he main s u pply but t he amou nt
s o u s ed s houl d be s t ated s eparately i f po s s ible
I X M ea s u r e m e n t of H ea t -U n it s Co n su m e d by t h e E n gin e
Th e nu mber of heat u nit s u s ed is fou n d by mult i plying t he nu m
be r of pou n d s o f coal o r o il o r t he cubic feet o f gas con s u med by
t he t o t al heat of c o mbu s t ion o f t he fuel as determined by a c al

I N T ERNA L

4 94

COMB US TION ENGINES

tes t
I n determini ng t he t ot al heat o f combu s t ion no
dedu ct io n is made fo r t he l atent heat of t he water v apo r i n t he
There is a di ff erence o f O pinio n o n
product s o f c o mbu s tion
t he pro p r iety o f u s ing t hi s higher hea t ing value an d for purpo s e s
o f c om pa r i s on ca r e mu s t be t ake n t o note wh et her t hi s o r t he
l ower val ue h as been u s ed The c alorimeter recom mended fo r
dete r mining t he heat o f combu s t io n is t he Mahler for s ol id fuel s
o r o il o r t he J unke r fo r ga s e s o r s o me form of c al orimeter k nown

t o be equ ally r el iable

( Se e Chap t er V I or Poole o n The Ca loric

Po wer of F uel s )
I t is s ome t i me s de s irable al s o t o h ave a co m plet e c hemic al
analy s i s of t he o il o r ga s The t o t al heat o f c o mbu s tio n may be
co mputed if de s ired from t he r e s u lt s o f t he analy s i s and s hould
agree well wit h t he c alori meter val ue s
I n u s ing t he gas c al o r imete r whic h i nvol ve s t he determi na
t io n of t he volu me i n s t ead O f t he weight O f t he gas it is im port ant
t hat t hi s s houl d be reduced t o t he s ame tempe r atu re a s t hat
c orre s ponding t o t he c ondit ion s o f t he engine t rial Th e formu l a
t o be u s ed for making t he r edu c t ion is t hat already gi ven in
S ect ion V (d )
F or t he purpo s e o f making t he c al ori meter te s t if t he fuel
u s ed is co al for generat ing gas i n a p r odu cer or O il s am ple s s houl d
be t aken at t he ti me of t he engine t r ial a n d c arefu lly pre s e r ved
fo r s u b s equent de t e r mi na t ion I f gas is u s ed it is better t o have
a gas c alori me t er o n t he s pot s ample s t aken and t he c alo r imeter
te s t m a d e while t he t rial is going on
X Mea su re men t of J a c ke t W a te r to Cyl in d e r or Cyli n de r s
Th e j acket w ater m ay be mea s u red by pa s s ing it t h r ough a water
meter o r allo wi ng it t o flo w f r o m a me a s u ri ng t ank before ent er
ing t he j acket o r by c ol lecting it i n t ank s on it s di s c ha rge
Th e d ire c t io ns gi ven for deter
XI I n d i c a te d H or se
P ower
mining t he i n d ic ated hors e -p o wer for s te am engine s apply i n all
re s pec t s t o i nternal c ombu s tion engine s
The indic a t ed hors e -powe r s houl d be determined fro m t he
ave r age mean e ff ect i ve pre ss ure of diagram s t aken at i nterval s of
t went y mi nute s and at more frequen t i nterval s i f t he natu re of
t he te s t make s t hi s nece ss ary Wi t h variable load s s uc h as t ho s e
of engine s d r iving gene r a t o rs fo r elect ric railroad wo r k a n d of
rubber
grinding and rol ling mil l engine s t he diagrams c annot be
o rim e t e r

ME TH ODS

TES TING

OF

GAS

4 95

ENGINES

t ake n t o o o ften I n c as e s like t he l atter o ne met hod of O bt ai n

ing s uit able ave r age s is t o t ake a s e r ie s o f diag r am s on t he s ame
bl ank c ard w it h o ut u nh o oking t he d r i ving c o r d a n d apply t he
pe nc il at s ucces s i ve inte r val s of te n s ec on d s un t il t wo minute s
t i me o r more h as elaps ed t he reby O bt aining a d o zen o r mo r e
indic at ion s in t he t i me c o ve r ed Thi s ten d s t o in s u re t he dete r
minat ion of a fai r ave r age fo r t hat pe r iod I n t aking diagram s
for variable l o a d s a s in d ee d fo r any load t he penc il s houl d be
appl ied long e nough t o c o ve r s e ve r al s uc ce s s ive r e volut i o ns so
t hat t he va riat i o n s p r oduced by t he act io n O f t he g o ve r nor may
be pro pe r ly reco r d ed TO dete r mine w he t he r t he go ve r no r is

rac ing o r hu nt ing

a va r iat io n
s ubj ect t o w hat is c alle d

diagram s houl d be O bt aine d ; t hat is o n e in w hic h t he pe nc il is

applied a s u fc ient t i me t o c o ver a c om plet e cycle o f va r iat ion s
When t he go ve r no r is fou nd t o be w o r k ing i n t hi s m anner t he
defect s houl d be r e me d ied befo r e p r oceeding w it h t he te s t
,

g
r

N O TE
hen t h e en ine is o ve ned by t h e h it -a n d -m i ss
p inciple t h e d i a am s t a ken o n o n e c a d sho ul d in a n y c a s e c o ve t h e s e ie s
am sho ul d be u s ed a s t h e bas is
o f c o n s ecutive expl os i o n s , a n d t h e m e a n d i a
o f c a lcul a ti o n s

AU T H O R

gr

gr

mo s t s a t i s fact o ry d r i ving r ig fo r indic at ing s eem s t o be

pant agraph w it h d ri ving c o r d o r ne
s o me form o f well -m ade
annealed wi r e leading t o t he in d ic at dr The r educ ing mot i o n
w hate ver it may be and t he c o nnect ion s t o t he indic a t o r s houl d
be s o perfect a s t o pr o d uce d iagram s O f equ al lengt h s and p ro
d uce a p r o p o rt i o nat e r educt ion O f t he m o t ion o f t he pi s t o n at
eve r y poi n t o f t he s t r oke as p r ove d by te s t
TO te s t t he ac cu r ac y o f t he reduc ing mot ion w it h o ut making
s pec ial prepara t ion s fo r a t horoug h e x aminat ion
i t is s u fc ient
t o make a c om pari s o n bet wee n t he actu al pro por t io n o f t he s t r oke
c overed and t he appa r ent p r o po r tio n meas u re d o n t he i ndic at or
and s ee ho w t hey agree Thi s may be done o n a l arge engine by
making t he c om pari s on w herever it h appen s t o s to p a n d r e pe at
ing t he c o m pari s on whe n it h as s t opped w it h t he pi st o n at s o me
ot her point o f t he s t r oke Wit h an e ngine whic h c an be t u rned
o ver by h and or w he r e au xil ia r y po we r is p r ovide d fo r m o vm g
it t he co mpa r i s o n may be m ade at a nu mber o f equ idi s t an t
s i n t he s t r o ke
o
h
oint
T
m
ake
a
diag
r
am
t
e te s t p r o pe r ly
p
s hould be t aken j u s t bef o re s t o pping
an d t hi s will s erve as a
Th e

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

4 96

refere nce for t he meas u re ment s t ake n after s t o pping The actu al
pro po rt ion o f s t roke c o vered is determined by me as u ring t he
dis t ance w hic h t he pi s t o n h as mo ved and co m pa r ing it wit h t he
whole lengt h o f t he s troke mak ing s ure t hat t he S l ac k h as all
be e n t ake n u p To obt ai n t he apparent i ndic at io n fro m t he dia
gra m t he indic at or pe nc il is mo ved u p an d do w n wit h t he nger
and t he di s t ance
s o a s t o m ake a ve rt ic al mark o n t he diagram
o f t his mark fro m t he be ginning of t he diagram co m pared t o t he
whole lengt h of t he diagram is t he pro po rt ion de s ired
I t is nece ss ary o f c ou rs e t o go t hrough t he s e o perat ion s w it h
out c hanging i n any way t he adj u s t ment of t he d r iving c o r d Of
t he i ndic at or or any part of t he mec h anis m t hat woul d alter t he
mo veme nt s o f t he i ndic at or
I n t he m a ni pul at io n o f t he i ndic at or it is i m po rt ant t o kee p
t he ins t ru ment i n c lean c o ndit io n and pre s erve it in mec hanic all y
good orde r O rdinary cyl inder o il is t he be s t mate r ial t o us e fo r
l ubric at ing t he i ndic at or pi s t on for p re s s ure s abo ve t he at mo s
I
t
b
tter
t
o
have
t
he
pi
s t o n t t he cyl i nder rat her
e
h
i
s
ere
p
l oo s ely s o as t o get ab s olut e freedo m of mot io n t han t o
have a mec h anic ally ac cu r ate t
I n t he l atter c as e e xt reme
c are and f r equent c leaning s are r equi r ed t o obt ain good d iag r am s
N O diagram s s houl d be ac cepted i n whic h t he r e is any appe a r ance
o f w ant O f freedo m i n t he mo vement o f t he mec hani s m A ragged
o r s errated line i n t he r egion o f t he expan s ion or c o mp r e s s ion
l i ne s is a s u r e indic at io n t hat t he pi s t o n or s ome part o f t he
mec hani s m s t ick s ; and when t hi s s t ate o f t hing s is re ve aled t he
i ndic at or s houl d not be t r u sted but t he c au s e s houl d be as c e r
An i ndic at or whic h is
t a ine d and a s uit able re medy applied
f ree when s ubjected t o a s teady p re ss u r e a s it is u nder a te s t
o f t he s pri ng s for c alibrat ion s houl d be able t o produ ce t h e s ame
hori zont al l ine or s u b s t ant ially t he s ame after pu s hing t he
pe ncil down wit h t he nger as t hat t raced after pu s hing t he
pe nc il u p and s ub s equent ly t apping it l ight ly Whe n t he pe ncil
is moved by t he nger rs t u p and t he n do w n t he pis t on being
s ubjecte d t o t he pre ss u re t he move ment s houl d appear s m o o t h
t o t he s ens e o f feel ing
The pi pe co nnect ion s for i ndic at ing gas and O il engine s s hou l d
be r emo ved as fa r as po s s ible fro m t he p o rt s and igni t io n de vice s
a nd made preferably i n t he cyl inde r head The pi pe s s houl d be
.

ME T H ODS

OF

T ESTING

GAS

4 97

ENGINES

hort and direct as poss ible Avoid t he use o f long pi pe s

ot her wi s e explo s ions o f t he gas i n t he s e c onnect io ns may oc c ur
O rdinary i ndic at ors s uit able for indic at ing s team engine s are
muc h t oo l ight ly c ons t ru cted for gas and oil engine s The pe nc il
mec h ani s m e s pec i ally t he pe ncil arm needs t o be ve r y s t r ong t o
prevent inj ury by t he s u dden im pact at t he ins t ant of t he ex
pl o s ion ; a s pec i al gas -engine i ndic at or is re qui red for s ati s fact ory
work wit h a s mall pi s t o n and a s mall s pring
Se e Chapte r I fo r t he de s cri pt io n o f variou s i ndic at ors
The determinat io n o f t he b r ake
XI I B r a ke Hor se -P o we r
hors e -power whic h is very de s irable is t he s ame for i nternal
c o mbu s t ion as for s team engine s
Thi s te r m applie s t o t he power deli vered f r om t he y -w heel
I t is t he powe r abs o r bed by a f r ict i o n b r ake
s haft t o t he engine
appl ied t o t he r i m o f t he wheel o r t o t he S haft A fo r m of b r ake
is pre fe rr e d t hat is s el f -adj u s t ing t o a ce rt ai n exte nt s o t h at it
will o f it s el f te nd t o m ai nt ain a con s t ant re s i s t ance at t he ri m
o f t he wheel
O ne o f
t he s imple s t b r ake s
fo r
c o m para t i vely
s mall engi ne s whic h
m ay he m ade t o em
body t hi s p r inc i ple
c ons i s t s Of a c ott o n
o r hem p r o pe
or a
nu mber o f ro pe s e n
c i r cl ing t he wheel
arranged w it h weigh
ing s c ale s o r o t he r
mean s fo r s howi ng
FI G 1 6 4
t he s t rain An ordi
n ary b and b r ake m ay al s o be c on s t ru cted so as t o embody t he
p r inc i ple Th e wheel s houl d be pro vided wit h interior ange s
fo r holding wate r u s ed fer keeping t he ri m c ool
A s el f -adj u s t ing rope brake is illu s t rated i n Fig 1 62 where
it will be s ee n t hat i f t he frict io n at t he ri m of t he wheel i ncre as es
it wil l lif t t he weight A whic h act ion wil l dim ins h t he tens io n in
t he end B o f t he ro pe and t hu s pre vent a fu rt he r i ncre as e i n t he
frict ion The s ame de vice c an be u s ed fo r a h a nd brake o f t he
as

IN TERNA L COMB US T ION ENGINE S

4 98

ordina r y c on s t r uct ion

Whe r e s pace belo w t he wheel is l i mited
a c ro s s b ar C s u pport ed by a c hain t ackle exact ly at it s center

i
point m ay be u s ed as s ho w n i n F g 1 6 2 t he r eby c au s ing t he
act ion O f t he weight o n t he brake t o be u p w a r d A s afety s t op
t o p r e vent t he weight s be ing
s houl d be u s ed wit h eit her fo r m
ac c i d ent ally r ai s ed more t h an a ce rt ain am o u nt
Th e wate r -f r ict io n b r ake is s pec i ally adapte d fo r hig h s peed s
an d h as t he a d vant age O f being s el f-c ool ing Th e Al de n b r ake is
al s o s el f-c o o l ing and is c apable O f ne a d j u s t ment
A w ater -f r ic t i o n brake is s h o wn in F ig 1 63
I t c on s i s t s o f
t wo c ircul a r d i s c s A and B a t t ac hed t o t he s haft C and re vol v
i ng i n a c a s e E be
t w een xe d pl ane s
The s pace bet wee n
t he di s c s and t he
pl ane s is s u pplied
wit h r u nni ng w ate r
whic h enters at D
and e s ca pe s at t he
cock s F G and H
Th e f r ict io n o f t he
wate r again s t t he
s urface s c o n s t itute s
F I G 1 6 3
a r e s i s t ance wh ic h
ab s o r b s t he de s i r ed p o we r and t he he at gene r ated wit hi n is
c arried a w ay by t he water it s elf Th e water is t h r o wn o ut wa r d
by ce nt rifugal act i o n and ll s t he o uter p o rt i o n of t he c a s e
Th e g re ate r t he dept h o f t he ring o f wa t er t he g r e ate r amou n t
B y s u it ably a d j u s t ing t he a m o u n t O f wa t er
o f power ab s o rbe d
e nte r ing and leaving any de s i red p o wer c an be O bt ai n ed
Water
f r ict i o n b r ake s h ave been u s ed s u cce s s fully at S peed s o f o ver
re volut ion s per minute
F o r met hod s o f com put ing b r ake hors e -power s ee Ch apter I

X III Spee d
The r e a r e s e ve r al r eliable met hod s o f as c e r
t aining t he s peed o r t he nu mbe r O f re volut ion s of t he engine
c r ank s haft pe r minute The s i mple s t is t he famil iar met hod of
c o untin g a nu mbe r o f t u r n s fo r a pe r io d of o n e minute wit h t he
eye Xe d o n t he s ec o n d hand o f a t i me piece An o t her is t he u se
of a c ou nter hel d for a minute o r a nu mber of minute s agai ns t
.

METHODS

T ES TING

OF

GAS ENG INES

4 99

t he end of t he mai n s haft Anot her is t he u s e o f a r eliable t ac h

o m e t e r hel d l ikewi s e again s t t he e nd o f t he s haft
The mo s t
rel iable met h o d and t he o ne we reco mmend is t he u se of a
cont inuou s rec o r ding engine regi s ter o r c ou nter t aking t he t ot al
reading e ac h t ime t hat t he gene r al tes t dat a are r ec orded and
computing t he revolut ion s per minute co rre s ponding t o t he
di ffe r ence i n t he r eadings of t he in s tru me nt
When t he s peed is
abo ve 250 re volut ions per minu t e it is al m o s t i m pos s ible t o m ake
a s at i s fact o r y cou nt ing o f t he re volution s wit h o ut t he u s e o f
s ome k ind o f mec hanic al cou nter
The determinat io n of va r iat i o n o f s peed during a s ingle revo
lut io n or t he e ff ect O f t he uct u at ion due t o s u dden c h ange s o f
t he load is al s o d e s i r able es
p e c ially in engine s driving elect ric
generat o rs u s ed for light ing pur
pos es There is at p r e s ent no
recogni zed s t andard met hod o f
maki ng s uc h dete r minat ion s an d
i f s uc h are de s i r ed t he met hod
e mployed may be devi s ed by t he
pe rs o n m ak ing t he te s t and de
s c ribed ih det ail i n t he repo r t
O ne met hod s ugge s ted fo r
determining t he in s t ant aneou s
variat ion of s peed whic h aec o m
pan ic s a c hange of l oad is a s
fol lo ws : A s cree n c o nt aini ng a
na r ro w s lot is pl aced o n t he end
o f a bar and vibrated by mean s
o f elect ricit y
A corre s ponding
s l ot
i n a s t at iona r y s c r ee n is
pl ac ed pa r allel an d nea r ly t ouc h
i ng t he vibrat ing s c reen and t he
FI G
t wo s c reen s are pl ace d a s hort
d is t ance f r o m t he fl y-wheel o f t he engine i n s uc h a po s it ion t hat
t he obs erve r c an lo o k t hrough t he t wo s lot s i n t he di r ectio n of t he
s poke s of t he wheel
Th e vib r at ion s are a d j u s te d S O a s t o c on
fo rm t o t he frequenc y wit h w hic h t he s pokes o f t he wheel pass
t he s lot s
.

IN TERNA L C OM B US TION ENGINES

5 00

When t hi s is done t he O b s e r ver V iewing t he wheel t hrough t he

Whe n a
s l ot s s ee s what ap pe ar s t o be a s t at iona r y y -w heel
c hange i n t he veloc it y o f t he y-w heel oc c u rs t he w heel appears
t o revol ve eit he r bac k w a r d o r for wa r d ac c o r ding t o t he direct io n
B y c a r eful ob s ervat ion s of t he amou nt of t h is
o f t he c h ange
mot ion t he c hange of angul a r veloc ity du ri ng any given ti me is
revealed
E x pe r iment s t hat h ave been m ade wit h a de vice of t hi s k i nd
u po n s u ddenly
S ho w t hat t he i n s t ant aneou s gai n o f veloc it y
removing all t he load f r o m an engine amou n t e d t o fro m o ne
s i x t h t o one -qu arte r of a re volut io n o f t he w heel
I n an engine w hic h is gove r ne d by va r ying t he nu m be r o f e x
plo s ion s o r w o r k ing cycle s a rec o r d s hou ld be ke pt o f t he nu mbe r
of expl o s i o n s pe r m inu t e ; o r if t he engine is ru nni ng at nea r ly
m axi mu m l oad by c ou n t ing t he nu mbe r o f t ime s t he g o vern o r
c au s e s a mi s s i n t he expl o s ion s
O ne way of mec h anic al ly rec ording t he e x pl os ions is t o att ac h
t o t he exhau s t pi pe a c yl in d e r and pi s t o n a rr ange d s o t h at t he
p r e ss u r e c au s ed by t he exhau s t gas e s o pe r ate agai ns t a l ight
s p r ing an d mo ve s a regi s te r whic h is provi d ed fo r aut o mat ic al ly
c ou nt ing t he nu mber
.

N O T E An in s t u m ent fo r t h i s pu p os e h a s be en d e vis e d by

M od e n G a s
Th e fo ll o w in d e s c ipti o n is f o m h is b o o k o n
R Ma t h o t
E n ine s a n d P ro d uce G a s P la nt s :
Th e in s t u m ent , Fig 1 6 4 , is so m e w ha t s i m il a in fo m t o t h e o rd in a y
i n d i cat o
I t s ec o rd , h o w eve , is m ad e o n a p a pe t a pe w h ic h is c o ntinu o u s l y
un wo un d Th e cylin d e 0 is p o vi d e d w it h a pi s t o n p , a bo ut t h e s te m o f
A cl o ck t a in c o nt a ine d in t h e c ha m be b un w in d s
w h ic h a s p in 3 is c o ile d

t h e s t ip o f p a pe f o m t h e o ll 13 a n d d raw s it o ve t h e d u m p , w h e e t h e
pencil t lea ve s t h e m a k Th e t a pe is t hen e w o un d o n t h e s pin d le
A
a s it p a ss e s
s m a ll s t y lu s o r pencil f t a ce s t h e a t m o s p h e i c line o n t h e p a pe

I n o d e t o o bvi a te t h e bin d in o f t h e pi s t o n p w h en
o ve
the d um p
c is p ro vi d e d
s ubjecte d t o t h e h i h te m pe a tu e o f t h e expl o s i o n s , t h e cy lin d e
w it h a c as in e in w h ic h wa te is ci cul a te d by m e a n s o f a s m a ll u bbe tu be

Th i s ec o d e a n a l y ze s w it h a bs o lute p reci s i o n
w h ic h t s o ve t h e nipple c
I t ive s a c o ntinu o u s
t h e w o k o f a ll en ine s , w ha teve m a y be t h ei s pee d
a ph ic e c o d f o m w h i c h t h e nu m be o f expl o s i o n s , t o et h e w it h t h e initi a l
p ess u re o f ea c h , c a n be d ete m ined , a n d t h e o d e o f t hei s uccess i o n Co n
e ul a it y o r i e ul a it y o f t h e v a i ati o n s c a n be O bse r ved
s equentl y t h e
a n d t a c e d t o t h e s ec o n d a y in uence s p o d ucin
t h e m , s u ch a s t h e a cti o n
I t en d e rs
o f t h e inl et a n d o utlet v a lve s a n d t h e s en s itivene ss o f t h e g v e rn o r
it p o ss i ble t o e s ti m ate t h e e s i s t a nce t o s ucti o n a n d t h e t a ck p ess u e d u e t o
expellin t h e bu nt as e s , t h e ch ief c a u s es o f l o ss in efficiency in h i h -s pee d
en ine s F u t he m o re , t h e i n uence o f c o m p e s s i o n is m a ked l y s ho w n
f ro m t h e d i a a m o bt a ined
Th e e c o d e is m o unte d o n t h e en ine ; it s pi s t o n is d iven ba ck by ea c h
o f t h e ex l o sio ns t o a h ei h t c o
es p o n d i n wi t h t he i fo c e ; a n d t h e s ty lu s
p

A U TH O R

r g

gr
r

r r

r
r

r
r

r r
g
r r
r
r
r
r
r
r r r
r
r
g
r
g r
r
r r
r
rr g r
r
r
r
g
r
p r r
r
g
r
r
g
r
g
rr
g
r r
.

rg

r r

r g
r r
gr
r r

ME TH ODS

T ES TING

OF

50 1

ENGINES

GAS

pen c il c o nt ro lled by t h e leve r t re co rd s t he m s i d e by s i d e o n t h e m o v in g

Th e s peed w it h w h ic h t h i s s t r ip is un w o un d c o nfo rm s w it h t h e
s t r ip o f p a pe r
nu m be r O f rev o luti o n s o f t h e en g ine t o be te s ted s o t ha t t h e re c o rd s o f t h e
expl os i o n s a re pla ced s i d e by s i d e clea rly a n d le gi bl y
Th ei r s ucce s s i o n in d i c a tes n o t o nl y t h e nu m be r O f expl os i o n s a n d o f
rev o luti o ns wh ich o ccu r in a g iven ti m e but als o t h ei r re gularit y t h e nu m
be r o f m is re s Th e p re ss u re o f t h e expl os i o n s is m eas u re d by a s ca le c o n
B y e m pl o y in g a ve ry w e a k s p r in g w h ic h
n e c t e d w it h t h e rec o rd e r-s p r in g
exe s a t t h e b o tt o m s i m pl y by t h e e ff ect o f t h e c o m p re ss i o n in t h e en g ine
cylin d e r it is p o s s ible t o as ce rt a in t h e a m o unt o f t h e res i st a n c e t o s ucti o n
I t is S i m pl y s uf cient t o c o m p a re t h e expl o s i o n rec o rd
a n d t o t h e ex ha u s t
By m ea n s o f t h i s a ppa
w it h t h e a t m o s p h e ric line t ra ce d by t h e s t y lu s
ra tu s a n d o f t h e rec o rd s wh ich it fu rni shes it is po ss i ble a na lyt ically t o re gul ate
t h e w o rk o f a n en g ine t o a s ce r t a in t h e p ro p o rt i o n O f a i r ga s o r hyd ro
c a r bo n w h ic h p ro d uce s t h e m os t p o we rful expl o s i o n t o re gu l a te t h e c o m
p ress i o n t h e s pee d t h e ti m e O f i gniti o n t h e te m pe ra tu re a n d t h e like

The t i me o f t aking weight s

XI V R e c or d in g t h e D a ta
and e very ob s e r vat io n s houl d be recorded and not e made o f
e very event ho wever u ni m port ant it m ay s ee m t o be The
press ure s temperat u re s meter reading s s peed s and ot her
meas ure ment s s houl d be O b s erved every 20 or 3 0 minute s when
t he condit ions are pract ic ally u niform and at more frequent
interval s if t hey a r e variable O b s e r vat ion s O f t he gas o r o il
m ea s u re ment s s houl d be t ake n w it h s pec ial c are at t he expira
t io n of e ac h hou r s o as t o di vide t he te s t int o hourly period s and
reveal t he u niformit y o r ot her wi s e o f t he c o ndit ion s and res ult s
a s t he te s t goe s for w ard
All d at a and ob s ervat ion s s houl d be kept o n s u it able prepare d
bl ank s heet s or in notebook s

n
XV U n iform ity of Con d iti o s
Whe n t he O bject of t he
t e s t is t o d etermine t he maxi mu m economy al l t he c ondit ion s
rel at ing t o t he o perat io n o f t he engine s hou l d be m aint ained as
co ns t ant as po s s ible during t he t rial
I n d i c ator D i a gra m s a n d th ei r An a ly s i s
XVI
S A M PL E
D I A G RA M S : S am ple diagram s neares t t o t he mean s houl d be
s elected fro m t h o s e t aken during t he t rial and appe n d ed t o t he
t able s of t he r e s ul t s I f t he r e are s e parat e co m p r e s s io n o r feed
cyli nders t he indic at or diag r ams fro m t he s e s houl d be t ake n
and t he po wer d edu c t e d fro m t hat O f t he mai n cyl inder
XV II S ta n d ar d s of E c on o m y a n d E f c ie n c y The hou r ly
c on s u m p t io n O f heat dete r mined as poi nte d o ut i n Art icle IX
d i vided by t he indic ated o r t he b r ake hors e -po we r is t he s t anda r d
ex pres s io n o f engine econo my reco m mended
I n making co mpariso ns bet wee n t he s t andard fo r i nternal
or

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 02

c ombu s t io n engine s and t hat for s team it mu s t be borne i n mind

t h at t he former rel ate s t o energy c o ncerned i n t he generat ion O f
t he force e mployed whereas i n t he s te am engine it does not
relat e t o t he e nt i re e nergy ex pe nded du r ing t he proce ss o f c o m
bus t io n i n t he s t eam boile r
The s team engine s t andard doe s
not c over t he l o s s e s due t o c o m bu s t io n w hile t he internal c o m
bu s t io n engine s t andar d i n c as e s whe r e a c ru de fuel s uc h as O il
is burne d i n t he cylinde r doe s c over t he s e l o s s e s
To m ake a
direct c o mparis on bet ween t he t wo c l ass es o f engine s con s idere d
l
ant
t
he
lo
as co m plete
s for t he produ ct ion O f po wer
ss e s i n
p
generat i ng t he wo r k ing agent mu s t be t ake n int o ac count i n bot h
c as e s and t he c o m pa r i s o n mu s t be o n t he b as i s o f t he fuel u s ed ;
and n o t o nly t hi s but o n t he ba s i s o f t he s ame o r e qu i valent fuel
u s ed i n eac h c a s e
I n s u c h a c ompa r i s on where producer gas
is u s ed and t he p r o d ucer is included i n t he pl ant t he fuel c on
s u mpt ion whic h will be t he weight o f co al i n bot h c a s e s may be
directly c ompa r ed
The t hermal efciency rat io per indic ate d hors e -po wer or per
brake hors e -power for inte r nal co mbu s t io n engine s is obt aine d
i n t he s ame manner as for s team engines and is expre s s ed by t he
fract ion
,

25 4 5

B TU
.

XV III

per H P pe r hou r
.

F o r purpo s e s of s c ient ic re s earc h

H ea t B a l an c e
a he at bal ance S houl d be d r awn whic h s ho ws t he manner i n w hic h
t he t ot al heat of c o mbu s t io n is ex pended i n t he variou s p r oce ss es
c oncerned i n t he w orking o f t he engine I t m ay be divided i nt o
t h ree part s : rs t t he heat whic h is c o n verted int o t he indic ated
o r brake w ork ; s eco nd t he heat rej ected i n t he cool ing water of
t he j acket s ; and t hi r d t he heat rejecte d i n t he e x h au s t gas es
t oget her wit h t hat los t t hrough inc om plete co mbu s t io n and
radiat ion
To determine t he rs t ite m t he nu mber o f foot -pou nd s O f work
pe rfo r med by s a y o n e pou nd o r o n e c ubic foot of t he fuel is
de t ermi ned ; and t hi s qu ant it y d i vide d by 77 8 w hic h is t he me
c h a n ic al equ i vale n t of one B r iti s h t he r mal unit give s t he nu mber
o f heat u nit s de s i r ed
Th e s ec o nd ite m is determined by me as
u r ing t he amou nt O f c ooling water pas s ed t hrough t he j acket s
e qu i valent t o o ne pou nd o r o ne c ubic foot o f fuel c on s u me d and
.

M E THO DS OF TES TI NG GAS ENGI N ES

503

c alcul at ing t he amou nt O f heat rejected by multi plying t hi s

qu ant it y by t he di fference i n t he s en s ible heat o f t he water leav
m g t he j acket and t h at e nte r ing
Th e t hi r d ite m is O bt ained by
t he met hod o f differences ; t h at is by s ubt ract ing t he s u m of t he
rs t t wo ite m s fro m t he t ot al heat s u ppl ied Th e t hird ite m c an
be s ub divided by c o m put ing t he heat r ej ected in t he exh au s t
gas e s as a s epa r at e qu ant ity The data for t h i s co m put at io n
are fou nd by analyzing t he fuel and t he exh au s t g ase s or by
me as uring t he qu an t i t y o f air admitted t o t he cyl inde r i n addi
t io n t o t hat of t he gas o r O il
Fo r met hod s o f making fuel and exh au s t gas c o mput at ion s
se e Chapter V I
XIX R e p ort of Te st
Th e dat a and re s u lt s O f a te s t s houl d
be report ed i n t he m anner out lined i n o ne O f t he following t able s
t he rs t o f w hic h gi ve s a co mplet e s u m m ary when all t he dat a a r e
determined and t he s eco nd is a S hort er form of repo rt i n whic h
s ome o f t he m inor ite m s are o mitted
XX Te m p e ra tu re s Co m p u te d at V a ri o u s P oin t s of th e I n
dic a t or D i a gr a m The c om put at ion O f te m pe ratu re s c o rre s pond
i ng t o variou s point s i n t he indic at o r is at be s t app r o x i m at e
I t is po ss ible only w here t he te m perat ure o f one poin t is k nown
or a ss u med
o r where t he amou nt o f air entering t he cyl inder
along wit h t he c h arge s o f gas o r O il and t he tem perat ure of t he
exhau s t gas es is determined
I f t he amou nt O f ai r is det ermi ned fo r a gas engi ne t oget her
wit h t he nece ss ary te m peratu re s s o t hat t he volu me and t he
tem perat ure o f t he air entering t he cylinder per s t roke and t h at
of t he gas are k n o wn we m ay by co mbining t hi s wit h t he ot her
dat a co mpute t he te mperat ure for a point i n t he c o mpre s s io n
curve I n t hi s c o mput at ion we mu s t al lo w for t he volu me of
t he exh au s t ga ses rem aining i n t he cylinder at t he end of t he
s t roke
Th e te m pe rat u r e at t he point i n t he co mpre ss ion c urve
where it meet s o r c ro ss e s t he at mo s pheric li ne will be give n by
t he formul a :
,

,,

where V is t he t ot al volu me corre s ponding t o t he point where

t he c o mp re s s io n c urve meet s o r c ro s s e s t he at mo s pheric l ine ; V

IN T ERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

5 04

t he volu me o f t he air at at mo s pheric pre s s u re ente r ing t he c ylin

der during eac h work ing cyc le reduced t o t he equi valent volu me

at 3 2 degrees F ahrenheit ; V t he volu me O f t he gas c on s u med

per cycle redu ced t o t he equi valent at at mos phe r ic p r e ss u r e and

3 2 d e gree s F ahrenhei t ;
and V
t he volu me o f t he exh au s t
gas e s r et ained i n t he cyl i nder reduced t o t he s ame bas i s To
reduce t he actu al vol u me s t o t ho s e at 3 2 deg r ee s F ah r enheit

mult i pl y by t he r at ios O f
where T is t he
(T
ob s e r ved t em pe r at u r e o f t he ai r and o f t he gas u s ed as fuel F o r
t he e x h au s t gas e s ret ained i n t he cyli nde r at th e e nd o f t he s t r oke
T may be t ake n as t he t e m perat ure o f t he e x h au st gas e s leaving

t he engine p r o vided t he engine is not o f t he s c ave nging t y pe

Having determined t he t em pe rat ure o f a point i n t he c o m
pre ss ion cu rve t he t em perat ure o f any po i nt i n t he diagram m ay
be fou nd by t he e qu at ion
,

T,

PI V.

(T

PV

Here TI is t he de s ired te m peratu re of any poi nt i n t he di agram

whe r e t he ab s ol ute pre ss u r e is P I and t he t ot al vol u me V , an d
P and V are t he c or r e s po nding qu ant i t ie s for t he point i n t he
c om p r e ss io n line h aving t he te m perat ure T c o m puted fro m t he
fo rmul a ( A )
F ormul a ( B ) hold s only where t he weight of t he g as e s c ont ained
i n t he c yl in d e r is c on s t ant
I t is al s o a ss u med i n t hi s fo r mul a
t h at t he de n s it y of t he gas c om p ar ed t o air at t he s ame te m pera
t ure and pre ss ure is t he s ame before and af t er t he ex plo s ion
A s econd met ho d m ay be e m ployed p r o vi d ed t he ai r w hic h
e nters t he cylinde r is meas u red Thi s will allo w fo r any dif
fe r ence i n t he den s it y O f t he g as before and af t e r e x pl o s ion and
mo r e exact value s for t em pe r at u re s o n t he expan s io n c urve m ay
be O bt ained t h an by t he r s t met hod
I n t his met hod t he den s i t y of t he e x h au s t gas e s co m pa r ed t o
air at t he s ame t em pe r at ure and pre ss u r e is c om put e d a s s u ming
perfect c ombu s t ion and including t he e ff ect o f t he w ater vapo r
pre s ent ; and f r o m t his den s it y t he volu me o f t he ga s e s exh au s ted
pe r cycle is d etermined I f t hi s volu me e x h au s ted per cycle
added t o t he volu me Of t he gas ret ained i n t he clea r ance s pace
at t he e nd of t he s troke be c alle d V i n equat ion B and T be t he
,

ME T H ODS

OF

T ES TING

5 05

ENGINES

GAS

obs erved tem peratu re of t he e xhau s t g as e s t hi s equ at io n m ay

be u s e d fo r determining t he t empe r at ure of any point i n t he dia
gram i n t he w ay alre ady de s c ribed This met hod is more c o m
plic ated t han t he rs t as it i nvol ve s t he d eterminat io n O f t he
t heoret ic al dens it y af t er explo s ion bu t it po s s es s e s t he adva nt age
t h at it m ay be appl ied t o an Oil as well as t o a gas engine
A t hird met hod O f co m put i ng t he t em perat u re of t he v ariou s
poi nt s i n t he diag r am m ay be em ployed whe r e analys es o f t he
exh au s t gas es as well as O f t he fuel h ave t o be m ade Thi s met hod
is mo re c o mplic ated t h an t he rs t but i n c o m mo n wit h t he
s eco nd
it po ss e s s e s t he advant age t hat it m ay be applied t o an
oil as wel l as t o a gas e ngine
I n applying t he t hird met ho d t he volu me o f t he exh au s t gas e s
disc harged per wo r k ing cyc le woul d be gi ve n by t he formul a :
,

whe re D is t he dens it y O f t he exh au s t gas e s at t heir ob s e r ved

tem pe r at ure c o m puted f r o m t he analy s i s ass u ming t he vapor
of water produced t hrough burning t he hydroge n i n t he fuel t o
be i n a gas eou s s t at e ; R t he weig ht o f t he air whic h enters t he
cyl i nder per pou nd of fuel c on s u med per worki ng c ycle ; t he value
providing t he re a re no u nc on s u med hydroc arbo ns m ay be
of R
co mputed by em ploying t he formul a :
,

where N CO2 and CO repre s ent t he p r opo rt io ns by vol u me o f

t he s everal c o ns t it ue nt s of t he exhau s t gas e s and C t he weig ht
o f c arbo n c on s u med and c o nve r ted t o CO
o r CO pe r pou nd of
2
fuel bu r ne d c om puted f r o m t he analys i s of t he fuel and O f t he
exh au s t gas e s
Having determined t he volu me V2 o f t he exhau s t gas e s
formul a ( B ) may be u s ed i n c o m put ing t he tem perat ure in whic h
c as e T w il l re pre s ent t he t em perat ure o f t he e x h au s t gas e s as i n t he
s econd met hod P t he p r e ss ure of t he exh au s t and V t he volu me
o f t he exh au s t gas e s V2 dis c harge d per s t roke added t o t he vol u me
o f t he ga s e s ret ained i n t he cyl inder at t he end of t he s troke
The value o f R gi ve n i n e qu at io n ( D ) is approx i mat e o n
,

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

506

ac cou nt o f t he fact t hat t he pe r cent age of N s houl d be t h at due

t o t he ai r alo ne and not t hat due t o t he ai r i n ad d it io n t o t h at
c o nt ained i n t he fuel gas
Where ext re me ac c u r acy is de s ire d
t he value fou nd fo r R m ay be u s ed t o dete r mine t he pe r ce nt age
o f N w hic h i n t he analy s is of t he e x h au s t gas e s is due t o t he N
i n t he fu l gas and t hi s val ue m ay be s ubt r ac t ed fro m t he tot al
N s ho w n by t he analy s i s o f t he fuel gas e s i n o rder t o obt ai n t he
c o r rect value O f N t o be u s ed i n equ at io n ( C)
,

TA B

DA TA
Arra n ge d a
1

on

to

TE S T

OF

G AS

OR

OI L E N G I N E

t o t h e Co m

n gine l o ca ted a t
d ete rm i ne

t ri a l
Ty pe o f en g ine

e
s

Date

OF

NO 1

plete Fo rm ad vi s ed by t h e E n gine Tes t Co m

Am e r ic a n S o ciet y O f Mec ha nica l E n g inee rs
Co d e o f 1 9 02

c c o rd in g

m it t e e ,
Mad e by

R E S ULTS

AN D

LE

of

wh
0

et h e r O i l

or

ga s

s
a

rev luti n
Met h d f i gniti n
N am e f buil d e r
il u e d
G s
( ) S peci c g a vit y
( b) Bu nin g p int
( c ) F l a h in g p int
D im en i ns o f en gine :

N u m be

of

fo r

one

cy cle

a nd

class

of

c y cle

or o

d e g Fa h r

s o

cylin d e r ( wo r kin g o r fo r c o m p re ss in g
t h e c ha rg e )
( b) V e rtica l o r ho r iz o nt a l
( 0 ) S in g le o r d o uble a ctin g
( d ) Cy lin d e r d i m en s i o n s
m
B o re
ft
S t ro ke
D i am ete r pi s t o n ro d
in
D i a m ete r t ail ro d
in
( e ) Co m p re s s i o n s pa ce O r clea ra nce in pe r cent o f
v o lu m e d i s pl a ce d by pi s t o n pe r s t ro ke
H e ad e n d
Cra nk e n d
Ave ra ge
( f) S u r fa ce in sq u a re feet ( a ve ra ge )
Ba rrel o f c y lin d e rs
Cy lin d e r h ead s
Clea ra nce a n d po rt s
E n d s o f pi s t o n
Pi s t o n rod

( a ) Cl a s s

of

l s t Cy l

ME TH ODS

TES TING

OF

GAS

507

ENGINES

Ja cket s u rfa ces o r inte rn a l s u rfac e s o f c ylin d e r

h eated by j ac ket s in s qu a re feet
Ba rrel o f c ylin d e r
C lin d e r he ad s
C e a ra n c e a n d p o r t s
-p o w e r c o n s t a nt fo r o n e lb M E P
h
H
o
r
s
e
a nd
( )
o n e r ev o luti o n pe r m inute
G ive d e s c ripti o n o f m a in fe a tu re s o f en gi ne a n d pla nt a n d i llu s t ra te w it h
d raw in gs o f s am e g iven o n a n a ppen d e d s h eet
D e s c ribe m et hod o f
go ve rnin g S tate whet he r t h e c o n d iti o n s w e re c o n st ant t h ro u gho ut
t h e tes t
(g)

10

Tota l
11
12
13
14
15

Qua nt itie s

D u ra ti n o f te t
o

ho u rs
c u ft o r lbs
c ubi c feet

G a s o r O il c o n s u m e d
Air supplied in cu bic feet
Co o lin wa te s upplie d t o j a cket s
Ca lo r ic va lue o f gas o r o il by c a l o
by
ca l o i m ete

r i m ete r te st d ete rm ine d

,

T U

Ho urly Qua ntitie s

16
17

c o ns u m e d pe r ho u r
Co o l i n g wa te r s upplie d pe r h o u r
o r o il

Gas

P res s u
18
19

cu

Temp e

e s a nd

or

lbs

ft

lbs

a t u es

P re ss u re a t m ete r ( fo r ga s en g ine ) in in c hes o f wa te r

Ba ro m et r ic p re ss u re o f a t m os p he re :
( a ) R ead in g o f h ei gh t o f ba ro m ete r
( b) R ead in g O f te m pe ra tu re o f ba ro m ete r
( 0 ) R ead in g o f ba ro mete r c o rrecte d t o 3 2 Fa h r
Te m pe ra tu re o f c oo lin g w a te r :
( a ) I nl et
( b) O utlet
Te m pe ra tu re o f ga s a t m ete r ( fo r ga s en gi ne )
Te m pe ra tu re o f a t m o s p h e re :
-bulb t h e rm o m ete r
a
D
r
( )
y
-bulb t h e rm o m ete r
W
et
b
( )
( 0 ) D e gree o f h u m i d it y
Te m pe ra tu re o f ex ha u s t ga s e
Ho w d ete rm ine d

d e g Fah

d e g Fah

20

21
22

23

25

or

as

oo

26

e r cent
e g Fah r

H ea t unit c n u m e d pe r h u r ( lb f il cu ft f g p e
h u r m ultiplie d by t h t t a l h ea t o f c m bu ti o n )
B T U
H ea t rejecte d in c lin g wa te r
( ) T t a l pe r h u r
il
( b) I n pe r c ent f h e a t f c m bu ti n f t h g
c n u m ed
pe r c ent
S en i ble h ea t reje c te d in exha u t ga e a b ve te m pe ra tu re
o f inlet a i r
B T U
( ) To t a l pe r h u r
O il n
( b) I n pe r c ent f h e a t f c m bu ti n O f t h g
u m ed
pe r ent
H eat l t t h r u gh inc m plete c m bu ti n a n d rad ia ti n
x r h ur
B T U
( ) To t ib h u r
o il
( b) I n pe r cent f h ea t f c m bu t i n f t h g
s

Hea t M ea s u re me nt

Da ta R ela ting to
24

as or o

s s

as o r

os

er

u m ed

co

27

as o r

con

er c

en t

I N TE RN A L

5 08

CO M B US TI O N
S p e ed , E tc

28
29

30
31

33

34

rev

R ev o lut i o n s pe m inute
A ve a e n u m be o f expl os i o n s pe m inute
Ho w d ete m ined
Va i a ti o n o f s pee d bet ween n o l oad a n d full l oad
F luctu a ti o n o f s pee d o n c ha n in f o m n o l o ad t o full l o ad
m eas u e d by t h e in c e as e in t h e ev o lut i o n s d ue t o t h e

rg

cha n ge

32

ENGINES

g g r

Ind ic

a to

r Dia gra m

P re ss u re in lbs pe r sq i n a b o ve a t m os p he re :
( a ) Ma xi m u m p re ss u re
( b) P re s s u re j u s t befo re i gniti o n
( 0 ) P re s s u re a t e nd o f expa n s i o n
( d ) E xh a u s t p re s s u re
Te m pe ra tu res in d e g Fah r c o m pute d f ro m d i a gra m s :
( a ) Ma xi m u m te m pe ra tu re ( n o t ne c e ssa r i ly a t
m a x i m u m p re s s u re )
( b) J u s t befo re i g niti o n
( c ) At e n d o f exp a n s i o n
( d ) D u r in g ex ha u s t
Me a n e ff e c tive p r ess u re in lbs pe r sq i n
.

re v

l s t Cy l

2d Cy l

P owe
35

Powe r a s ra te d by bu il d e rs :
-p o w e r
d
d
o
s
a
I
n
ic
a
te
h
r
e
( )

H P
.

36

I n d icate d h r e p w e r a ctu a lly d evel pe d

F i r t cy lin d e r
S ec n d c y lin d e r
T ta l
B ra ke H P elect r ic H P o pu m p H P ac d in g t t h
f en g ine
c la
l ad n
F r icti n in d ic ate d H P f r m d i a gram w it h n
en g ine n d c m pute d f a ve a ge pee d
P e rc ent a ge o f i n d i c ate d H P l os t i n f r i c ti n
pe r c ent
S t n d a rd E fficie nc y R
lt
H ea t un i t s c n u m e d by t h en gi ne pe r h u r :
B T U
( ) P e r in d ica te d h rse p w e r
we r
( b) Pe r b ra ke h r e
H eat unit c n u m e d y t h en g ine pe r m inute
( ) P e r in d i a te d h r e p w e r
-p w e r
b
P
e
r
b
r
a
ke
h
r
e
( )
Th e rm a l ef ciency ra ti
pe r cent
( ) P e r in d ic a te d h r e p we r
( b) P e r b ra ke h o rs e p w e r
o s - o

37

co r

ss o

38

39

or
.

40

o s

- o

o s

- o

M is cella n eo u s E fcie nc y Re s u lts

feet o f ga s o r lbs o f o il c o n s u m e d pe r H P pe r ho u r :
-p o w e r
a
d
a
d
rs
P
e
r
i
n
ic
te
h
e
o
( )
-p o w e r
b
P
e
r
b
r
a
ke
h
o
r
e
( )
Hea t B a la n ce
Q u antitie s g iven i n pe r c ent s o f t h e t o t a l h e a t o f c o m bu s ti o n
o f t h e fuel :

Cubi c

44

- o

o :

43

o s

42

- o

o s

41

es u

ME T H ODS O F T ES TING GA S ENGINES

( )
( b)
(0 )
a

5 09

H eat e q uiva lent f in d icate d ho r e-powe r

H eat rejecte d in c lin g wate r
H eat rejecte d i n ex ha u t ga e d l t t h r u gh rad i a
o

pe r

ce

nt

oo

s s an

ti o n

in c o m plete

bu s ti o n

c om

Sum

1 00

I tem
H eat jecte d in exha u s t gases
L t th r u gh inc m plete c m bu ti n
L t t h r u gh rad i at i n d un a cc unte d f
I te m ( c)
S um

S u bd ivi s i o n s

(c 1 )
( 0 2)
( 0 3)

a nd

os

of

re

os

os

an

or

Addit iona l Da ta

add iti o n a l d a t a bear in g o n t h e p ar ti cul a r o bject s o f t h e te s t o r

rel atin g t o t h e s peci a l class o f se r vice fo r wh ic h t h e en gine is t o be us e d Als o
g ive co pie s o f in d icat o r d i agram s neares t t h e m ea n a n d t h e c o rre s po n d in g
W he re analys e s are m ad e o f t h e ga s o r o il u se d a s fuel o r o f t h e
s c a le s
ex ha u s t gas e s t h e re s ult s m a y be g iven i n a s epa ra te t a ble
Add

a ny

TAB E N O

DATA A N D R E S ULTS O S A N D A R D H E A T TE S T OF G A S O R OI L E N G I N E
Arra n ge d a c c o rd i n g t t h S h r t F rm a dv i e d by t h E n g ine Te s t C m m i ttee
Am e r i ca n S o c iet y f Me c ha nic a l E n g i nee
C d e f 1 902
F

T
o

Mad e by
on

to

2
3
4

rs

of

K in d

of

t ria l
Ty pe a n d cl ass

of

en gi ne

fuel u s e d
( a ) S peci c gra vit y
( b) Bu rn i n g p o i nt
( c ) F l as h in g p o int
D i m en s i o n s o f en gi ne :

d e g Fah
.

ylin d e r ( wo r k i n g o r fo r c o m p re ss in g
t h e c ha rg e )
S in g le o r d o uble a c tin g
Cy lin d e r d i m en s i o n s :
B o re
in
S t ro ke
ft
D i am ete r pi s t o n ro d
in
A ve ra g e c o m p re ss i o n s p a ce o r c lea ra nce in pe r
c ent
H o rs e-p ow e r co n s t ant fo r o ne
E P a nd
o n e r ev o luti o n pe r m inute

( a ) Cl ass
( b)
( c)

en gi ne lo c a t
d ete rm i ne

Date

l s t Cyl

2d Cy l

of c

(d)

(e )

Tota l
6
7
8
9

Qua ntities

D u rat io n o f te s t
il c n u m e d
G
C lin g w a te r upplie d t j a cket
Ca l o r ifi c v a lue f fuel by ca l r i m ete r te t
c a l o ri m ete r
as o r o

oo

ho u rs
c u ft o r lbs
.

d ete m ine d

by

T U
.

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 10

P
10
11

Tem p er a tu

es s u es a nd

es

P re ssu re a t m ete r ( fo r ga s en gi ne ) in in c hes o f wa te r

Ba ro m et ri c p re ssu re o f a t m os p he re :
( a ) R e ad in g o f ba ro m ete r
( b) R e adin g c o rrecte d t o 32 d e gs Fa h r
Te m pe ra tu re o f c oo lin g wa te r :
( a ) I nl et
( b) O utlet
( 0 ) De gree o f h u m i d it y
Te m pe ra tu re o f ga s a t m ete r ( fo r ga s en g ine )
Te m pe ra tu re o f a t m o s p h e re :
( a ) Dry b ul b t he rm o m ete r
( b) W et bulb t h e rm o m ete r
Te m pe ra tu re o f exha u s t gase s
.

12

13
14

15

Data Rela ting to

16

s o

r c

ubi c fee t

o f c o m bus

17

20

T U

oo

S p eed , E tc
18
19

Hea t M ea s uremen t

H ea t unit s co n u m ed pe r h u r ( po un d f il o
o f ga
pe r ho u r m ultiplie d by t h t ta l heat
ti n )
H ea t reje c te d in c lin g wate r pe r ho u r
s

d e g Fah

r
r

R ev o lut i o n s pe m inute
A ve a e n u m be o f expl os i o n s

rg

P re ss u re

in lbs

pe r

sq

re v

pe r m inute

in a bo ve a t m os p he re :

l st Cy l

( a ) Ma xi m u m p re ss u re
( b) P ress u re j u s t befo re i gniti o n
( c) P re ss u re a t e nd o f expa n s i o n
( d ) E x ha u s t p re ss u re
( 6 ) Mea n eff ective p re ss u re

2d Cyl

P ower

21

I n d icate d h o r e -p owe r :
F i rs t cylin d e r
S e c n d cy lin d e r
T tal
B ra ke h rse -p w e r
F ricti o n h o r e p w e r by f r icti n d i a gra m s
Pe rcent a ge o f in d ica ted h r e p we r l t i n f r icti n
S t n d rd E fc i n c y nd O th r R ult
H eat u n it s c o n s u m e d by t h en g ine pe r h u r
-p w e r
P
e
r
in
ic
a
te
h
r
e
d
d
( )
-p w e r
b
P
e
r
b
r
a
ke
h
r
e
( )
P un d f il
f g
c n u m e d pe r h u r :
c ubic feet
( ) P e r in d i a te d h r e p we r
-po w e r
b
P
e
r
b
r
a
ke
h
r
s
e
( )
s

H P
.

22
23
24

- o

o s

- o

os

o s

o s

26

s o

pe r c ent

es

T U
.

or

o s

as

- o

lbs

o r cu

ft

A ddition a l Da ta

an y ad d iti o n al d at a bea r in g o n t h e p a rti c ul ar o bje c t s o f t h e tes t o r

re la tin g t o t h e s peci a l cl ass o f se rvice fo r wh ich t h e en g ine is t o be u sed
Also g ive c o pie s o f in d ic a t o r d i a gra m s nea res t t h e m e a n a n d t h e c o rres po n d
in g s ca les
Ad d

ME TH ODS O F TES TING

R UL E S F O R

E S TI N G

OF

All m etric

T HE

G AS

GAS

P RO D U C ER S

ER MA N

O CI E T Y

EN GIN ES
E N G I N EER S

AN D G AS
OF

ha ve been tr a n s p os ed to E nglis h

u n its

511

ENGINES
C

OD E

u n its

The

preparat io n o f t he following rule s fo r m aking gas engine

and producer t e s t s w as u ndert aken by a c o m mittee appoint e d
fro m t he V erei n deut s c her I ngenieure i n c oll aborat io n wit h t he
G erman S oc iety o f E ngine B uilders w it h t he vie w o f e s t abl i s hi ng
denite general regul at ion s go verning s uc h te s t s I t is de s irable
by s pec i fying t he i m port ant p r o po r t io ns o f t he e x amine d pl ant s
and t he co ndit ion s u nder w hic h t he re s ul t s we r e att ained t o in
s ure t h at t he s e re s ult s are not only applic able t o a s ingle c as e
but t hat t hey have general value To att ain t hi s e nd it is ne c e s
s ary t h at all dat a s hou ld be gi ve n u ni formly ac cording t o a c ode
of regul at ion s s uc h as t hat here pre s ent ed
The execut io n o f s uc h te s t s s houl d be i nt ru s te d o nly t o per
s on s
po sse ss ing t he requ i r ed ex pert k no wledge an d pract ic al
ex perience The se pe rs o ns mu s t m ake a t ri al pl an o r s c hedule
appropriat e to t he i ndi vidual c as e l n h and whic h i n m any in
s t ance s wil l not require t hat al l of t he i n ve s t igat io n s s t ip ul at ed
i n t he general c ode are act u al ly c ar r ied o u t They mu s t fu rt her
e xami ne t he ins t ru me nt s fo r mea s u r i ng or recording purpo s e s as
t o t heir t ne ss and mu st c om pile t he re s ult s The follo wing
rule s t he a d o p t io n o r s elect io n o f w hic h mu s t be l eft t o t he
s ou ndne ss o f j udgment o f t he i nve st igat or are i nte nde d t o s erve
as a bas i s o n whic h t o proceed
,

E N ER A L R E G UL A TI O N S

O bject of I n vestiga tion

object o f a te s t m ade o n a producer-gas p lan t m ay be
t o determine :
( a ) Th e qu ant it y c o mpo s it ion and c aloric value o f t he fuel
con s u med
( b) The qu ant it y co mpo s it io n and heat value of t he gas
p r oduced
- as pl ant
6
h
T
o
e
degree
f
e
fc
ienc
y
o
f
t
he
producer
( )
g
( d) The s eparate heat lo ss e s i n t he pl ant
Ma i nl y f ro m F E J un ge s t ra ns la ti o n in Po w e r Fe b 1907
1

The

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 12

( e) The qu ant it y o f i m purit ie s c o nt ained i n o ne c u bic meter

or o ne cu bic foot o f gas ( du s t t ar s ul phu r
( i) Th e moi s t ure co nten t s o f t he gas

h
f
water
c
on
u
m
pt
io
n
o
t
he
producer
T
e
s
(g)
gas pl ant eit her
t ot al o r i n t he s eparate part s
( h) The mec hanic al work required for o pera t i ng t he pl ant
i nc lu di ng apparatu s
( i) Th e du r at io n o f t i me r equi re d fo r s t art ing
-b
t
o
h
s
t
an
d
T
e
( )
y lo ss e s d uring m t e r vals o f s hutt ing do wn
day o r night
2 The obj ect o f a te s t m a d e o n an internal c o mbu s t ion (gas )
e ngi ne may be t o determine :
(a ) The i ndic a t ed c apacity and t he e ffect ive out put
( b) The mec hanic al e fc ie nc y
( 0 ) Th e fuel c on s u mpt io n and t he heat c o ns u m pt io n pe r
hors e -po wer hou r
(d ) The c o ns u m pt io n o f l ub r ic ant s s e parately fo r cylinder
and e ngine
( 6 ) The c on s u mpt ion of w ate r and t he heat c o nducted t o t he
c ooli ng w ater
( i) The uct u at ion s i n nu mbe r o f re v o lu t ion s
(g) The co m po s it io n o f exhau s t ga s es
,

U M B ER

D U RA TI O N

AN D

OF

E S TS

Admis sible F lu ctua tion s

3

The

nu mber and durat io n o f t rial s are determined by t he

purpo s e of t he te s t as wel l as by a c on s i d era t ion o f t he c o ndit ion s
o f in s t all at io n and o perat ion and mu s t be s ett led and previou s ly
arrange d ac co r d i ng t o paragraph s fou r t o eight F o r t ri al s o f
s pec ial i m po rt ance t he re s ult s of w hic h are dec i s ive fo r accep t ance
te s t s fo r pe nalt ie s o r for p r emiu m s t hi s i t e m de s erve s s peci al
c ons iderat ion
4 Ac cept anc e te s t s s houl d be m a d e if po s s ible i m mediately
after a p la n t h as bee n put i nt o act u al o pera t io n ; t he m anu fact urers
ho wever mu s t be granted a r e as on able t i me for m ak ing p r el imina r y
t rial s of t h eir o wn a nd fo r c a rr yi ng o u t al t erat ion s o r i m p r o ve ment s
t hen nece ss ary The lengt h o f t h is t ime and ot her c o ndi t io ns are
be s t agreed u po n whe n drawing u p t he del ivery c o ntract
.

M E THODS OF

TES TING GA S ENGINES

I n o r de r t o be able t o get ac qu ainted

513

t he o pe rat ion of
t he pl ant t h at is t o be te s ted t o nd t ime fo r ex ami ning t he
te st i ng de vice s e mployed and t o break i n ob s e r vers and ass i s t ant s
it is de s i r able t hat p reli mi nary t r i al s be allowed
6 I f t he fuel co n s u m pt io n i n gas p r oducers is t o be dete r
mined t he t r ial ru n mu s t be extended o ver at leas t eig ht hou rs
u nder co ns t ant c o ndit ion s and wit hout i nte r ru pt ion s
7 F o r dete r mining t he co ns u m pt io n o f l iqu id o r g as eou s
fuel and pro vided t he c o ndit ion s a re con s t ant it is s u fc ient fo r
t he highe r load s t o extend mea s u re ment s o ve r an hou r while fo r
nding t he c on s u m pt io n at t he lo we r lo ad s meas u rement s o f
e ve n s ho rte r du r at ion are s u fc ient To as cert ain t he c ons t anc y
of t he c ondit ions t he t em pe r atu r e o f t he o ut o wing cool ing wate r
mu st be read f r o m t i me t o t i me The s e rule s as t o t he du r at io n
o f t he te s t s a r e made wit h t he p r o vi s io n t hat no i nte rr u pt io n o r
di s tu r bance of t he t r i al t ake s pl ace and t h at i nte r mediate read
i ng s S ho w only s light ly va r ying values fo r t he c on s u mption
8 I f o nly t he mec hanic al e fcienc y o f an engine is t o be
determined t r i al s o f s ho rt du r at io n u nde r co n s t ant co ndit io ns
a re s u fc ie nt ; but at le as t te n s et s o f i ndic a t o r c a r d s s h o u l d be
t ake n
9 F o r i nve s tigat ion s of s pec ial i m po r t ance at le a s t t wo te s t s
one afte r t he ot he r They s h o ul d be ac ce pted
s houl d be ma d e
o nly i f no i n t e rr u p t ion s oc cu rred and if t he re s ul t s S how no great er
devia t i o n s t han t h o s e due t o u navoid able er r ors o f ob s e r vat io n
The me an o f t he t wo re s u lt s is t o be t ake n as t he nal re s ult
1 0 The extent t o whic h t he c apac ity and con s u m pt io n o f
gas m ay diffe r f r o m t he gu a r antee o r c ont r act gu re s wit hout
j u s t ifying a c l ai m o f b reac h o f c ont r act is t o be clearly s t ated
befo re t he te s t s ( eit he r i n t he o r igin al c ont ract o r i n t he s c hedule
of t e s t s )
When no ot her agree ment h as bee n p re viou s ly arri ved
at t he c a pac ity gu arantee is regarded as fullled if t he gu re
obt ai ned i n t he te s t is not more t han 5 per ce nt bel o w t he
value o n whic h t he gu arantee was ba s ed Thi s m a rgin ho w
e ver is al lo wable only for t he m axi mu m out put whic h was
p ro mi s ed beyond t he gu aranteed cont i nuou s out put The l atter
mu s t be ren d ere d by t he engine u nder al l c i r cu m s t ance s
The c ons u m pt io n o f fuel and w ate r as dete r mined o n tes t
s houl d not exceed t he gu aranteed gu r e s by mo re t h an 5 per ce nt
5

w it h

I NTE RNAL CO M B US T IO N ENGI NES

eve n i f duri ng t he t ri al t he e ngi ne l o ad uct u ated s o mewh at

fro m t he l oad u pon whic h t he gu arantee was b as ed pro vided
t h at fluctu at io n do n o t exceed an average of i 5 pe r ce nt o f s u c h
load o r a m aximu m of : l: 1 5 pe r ce nt
S ince it is ofte n i m po ss ible when m aking te s t s t o h ave t he
i nte r nal c o mbu s t io n engi ne wo r k at exactly t he e ffect i ve ( hors e
po wer ) c apac it y o n whic h t he gu arantee ag reed u po n i n t he c on
t ract is b as ed it is reco m mended t hat t he ag reeme nt s h all s pec ify
t he expected fuel c o ns u m pt io n fo r higher and l ower out put s
The s ame provis io n is p e rfe rably m ade al s o wit h gas produ ce rs
,

U N I TS

OF

M EA S U RE ME N T

AND

D E S I G N A TI O N S

When giving press u re d at a it mu s t be

t ated whet her

ab s olute pre ss u re s o r gage p re ss u re s above o r belo w t he at
m o s p h e ric are me ant
Abs olute p r e s s ure equ al s at mo s pheric
pres s u re plu s gage p re ss u re
12 All te mpe rat u re and heat me as u re ment s re fer t o t he
F ahrenheit s c ale
1 3 The mec h anic al e qu ivalent o f heat is t aken at 7 78 foot
po u nds
1 4 The c alo r ic value of a fuel is t o be t aken as it s l ower
heating value ; t h at is t he heat whic h is l ibe r ated by t he c o m
p le t e combu s t ion o f t he fuel whe n t he bu r nt p r oduct s a re c ooled
do wn t o t he original ( r oo m ) tem pe r atu re at co ns t ant p re ss u re it
be ing as s u med how ever t hat t he w ate r o f c ombu st io n and t he
mois tu re c ont ained i n t he fuel re m ai n va po r i zed The c alo r ic
value mu st be bas ed on t he u nit qu ant it y o r weight o f o r iginal
fuel wit hout dedu cti ng as h moi s tu re et c and is t o be ex
pre ss ed in heat u nit s Fo r bot h s ol id and liq u id fu e ls t he u nit
of weight is t he pou nd
Th e heat value o f ga s eou s fuel s is ba s ed on one cu bic foot at
3 2 degree s F ahrenheit an d 7 6 0 milli meters b aro meter pre ss ure

or mu s t be expre s s ed i n t he r mal u nit s a s

e ffect ive heat value
t h at is reduced t o o n e c ubic foot of actu al gas u s ed I f not
s pec i ally s t ated
it is al way s u nders tood t hat t he heat v alue
reco r ded is t h at of gas at 3 2 degree s F ah renheit and 7 60 mill i
mete rs b a r o mete r pre ss u re
I n t his cou nt ry t he gene r al s t andard so far reco m me nded

s ee ms t o i ndic ate fo r
a te m pe r at u re of 60 degrees
s t anda r d g as
11

ME T H ODS O F T ES TING GA S ENGINES

5 15

F ah re nheit ,

and a pre ss ure o f

pou nd s per s qu are i nc h c o r
re s pondi ng t o t he u s u al at mo s phe r ic p ress ure
1 5 The efc ie ncy of a g as -p r oduce r pl ant is t he r at io o f t he
l at e nt heat c o nt ained i n t he gas as p r odu ced t o t he heat o f c o m
bu s t io n o f t he t ot al weight o f fuel c o ns u med i n t he pl ant bot h
ite m s being c o mputed f ro m t he l o we r he at i ng value I n p ro
d u c e r-gas pl ant s h avi ng a s eparately red s te am boile r it is
ad vis able al s o t o dete r mine t he r a t io o f t he heat whic h is c hemi
c ally bou nd i n t he produce r gas t o t he heat equ ivale nt o f t hat
po rt io n of t he fuel whic h is c o ns u med i n t he p roducer p ro pe r fo r
maki ng s uc h gas
1 6 Th e
u nit o f meas ure ment u s ed for t he po wer o r
wo r k out put of an i nt e r nal c o mbu s t io n e ngine is t he ho rs e
po we r equal t o 33 000 foot -pou n d s pe r minute I t mu s t be
clearly s t ated W het he r t he i ndic ated powe r o r t he u s eful
is meant
I f not ot her wi s e de s ignat ed it
o r avail able po we r
is u nders t ood t hat t he gu re s refe r t o t he u s eful o r avail able
out put
1 7 Th e indic ated po we r o f t he engine o r t he i ndic ate d wo rk
is t he di fference bet w ee n t he t o t al po we r develo pe d o r work done
and t he indic ated p o we r o r w o r k w hic h is c o n s u med wit hin t he
engine ; i n s ho r t t he di ffe r ence be t ween t he po s it i ve and t he
negat i ve i ndic ated po we r o r wo r k
,

A U TH O R S N OT E Thi s is t h e p o vi s i o n whi c h c a u s e d c o n s i d e a ble d is

-en ine ex e t s s o m e ti m e a o
a
I t m e an s a s it s t a n d s , t ha t
c uss io n a m o n
s
g
g
p
in a 4
c y cle ma c h ine , t h e in d i c a te d ho s e -p o w e is t ha t d ete m ined f o m t h e
w o k d i a a m m inu s t h e w o k s ho w n by t h e l o w e l o o p d i a am ; a n d in a
2-cy cle en ine t h e t o ta l in d ic a te d ho s e -p o w e a s d ete m ine d f o m t h e d ia
m inu s t h e pu m p w o k is c o n s i d e e d a s t h e in d i
a m of t h e powe
c y lin d e
Th i s vie w is un d o ubte d l y c o ect w hen t h e m ec ha n i c a l
ca t e d h o s e -p o w e
ef cien cy o f t h e en i ne i t s elf a s a ma c h ine is t o be d ete m ined

gr
g
r

gr

r
r

r
r
r

r
r

rr

r
gr
r
r

po we r requi red at no load is t he po we r i ndic ated whe n

no u s efu l wo r k is re nde red by t he engi ne
1 8 Mec h anic al efc ie ncy is t he r at io o f t he u s efu l po wer t o
t he indic ated po we r of t he engine
1 9 All con s u m pt io n gu re s s h o ul d be reduced t o t he hou r
bas is and if t hey a re t o be c o m pa red wit h t he out put o f t he
engine t hey mu s t be ba s e d o n o ne ho rs e -powe r hou r I f not
o t he r w i s e ag r ee d u po n t he se dat a re fe r t o t he u s eful o r avail able
out put at full load
The

I N TE RN AL CO M B US TI O N ENGI NES

516

E X E C U TI O N

20

I f t he qu ant ity o f

OF

E S TS

made i n a producer o r t he weight

o f fuel c o ns u me d i n an engi ne is t o be meas u re d t he n all pi pes o r
duct s whic h a re not u se d i n t he te s t mu s t be cut o ff f r o m t he pi p
i ng whic h le ads t o t he p r oducer and engine t hat a re t o be tes ted
Th is is be s t do ne by means o f blind ange s
The act i ve duct s
pi pe s gas hol ders et c mu s t be e x amined wit h regard t o leak age
and made t ig ht if nece ss ary U navoidable lo s s e s due t o leak age
mus t be determine d Thi s hol d s e s pec i ally fo r m as o nry gas m ains
.

g as

F U E L C O N S U M PTI O N

OF

P R O D U C ER PL A NT

GAS -

k ind nu mbe r and du r at io n o f te s t s mu s t be ag ree d

u po n ac co rding t o t he ge neral rule s l aid do w n i n paragraph s 1
t o 10
22 Th e c o ns t ruct i ve feature s and t he o pe rat i ve c onditions
o f g as -produ cer pl ant s mu s t be de s c r ibed and illu s t rate d i n t he
re po r t by dra wi ng s s o far as t his is nece ss ary t o a rr i ve at a c lear
u nders t anding o f t he manner o f wo r ki ng and o f t he res ult s o h
21

Th e

t a ine d

Be fore

m ak ing t he te s t t he pl ant s hou l d be ex amined as

t o whet her or not it is i n goo d w ork ing order
24 The qu ant it y o f fuel c o ns u med i n t he gas producer is
determined by t ak ing t he weig ht o f t he fuel whic h is c harged
i nto t he prod uc e r du r i ng th e t r i al s i n ord er t h at t h e p r odu c er m ay
c o nt ain at t he e n d o f t he te s t exact ly t he s a me amou nt o f heat
eit her l ibe r ated o r c he mic al ly bou nd i n t he fuel t hat it c o n
To mee t t hi s r equ ire me n t it is
t a ine d when s t a r t ing t he te s t
n o t s u fc ient t hat t he de pt h o f t he fuel be d be t he s ame at t he
end a s it was at t he beginning ; it mu s t al s o be t ake n int o c o n
s ide r at ion w hat i nuence t he as h and t he s l ag left i n t he p ro
d u c e r t he loc at io n o f t he i nc ande s cent zone t he form at io n o f
ss u r e s and c avit ie s t h e clo s ene ss o r den s it y o f t he producer
c harge an d t he c hemic al c om po s it io n o f t he bu rning fuel pa r
t ic le s exe r c is e o n t he he at co n t e nt s o f t he produ cer
I n orde r t o c o m ply wit h t his requi re ment t he fo llo w ing rule s
s houl d be foll owe d :
Whe n s t a rt i ng t he t e s t t he pl ant S houl d be i n t he
25
co ndit ion o f s t abilit y o r normal worki ng c o ndit ion if po s s ible
23

'

ME TH ODS O F TES TING GA S ENGINES

5 17

Th is

me ans t hat after a period o f S hut -down for cleaning o r

repai rs it s houl d be in act ive o perat ion for o ne or more day s
ru nning o n fuel o f t he s ame c haracteris t ic s and S i ze wit h t he
s ame dept h o f fuel bed t he s ame s kil l o f attendance a s regard s
t he c harging or feeding o f fre s h fuel and t he re mo ving o f s l ag
and u nder t he s ame load c o ndit ions t hat will obt ain during t he
te s t
26 D uring t he t rial t he producer S houl d be c harged and poked
as nearly i n ac cordance wit h t he require ment s for att end ance as
po s s ible The level of fuel c harged mu s t be t he s ame at t he be
gi nning and at t he e nd o f t he te s t s and s houl d be kept c o ns t ant
duri ng t he t rial About hal f an hou r before s t arti ng and be fore
t he s lag and as he s s houl d be re mo ved
s topping a te s t
I f it is impo ss ible t o rake out t he as hes during t he o pe rat io n o f
t he producer t he pl ant mu s t be s hut down i m mediately after
t he as hes mu s t be t aken out at o nce and t he
s to pping t he te s t
producer relled u p t o t he s ame level t hat exis ted whe n s t art ing
t he tes t Th e weight o f fuel u s ed for t h is purpos e mu s t be added
t o t he c ons u mption
27 The fuel con s u med during t he t ri al mu s t be weig hed
al s o t he fuel whic h h as not bee n burnt and re mai ns u s eful ; t hat
is t hat po rt io n whic h drops down fro m abo ve t he grat e while
raki ng o ut t he as he s and t hat whic h is c ul led o u t fro m t he as he s
a s u nburnt
The weight of t he former m ay be deducted fro m
t he c on s u mption but not t he amou nt whic h is t ake n o ut fro m
t he as he s n o r t he c oal du s t w hic h ac cu mul ate s i n t he s c ru bbers
and in t he ue s bet ween t he producer and t he engine
28 To be able t o determine t he qu ant it y o f as h and s l ag
produced during t he trial t he as h bo x mu s t be e m pt ied before
t he te s t
I f t his is not po ss ible as whe n an i ncl ined grate is
u s ed t he refu s e i n t he a s h bo x mu st be equ ali zed before and after
t he ru n
29 The s t and -by lo ss e s du ring i nterval s of s hutt i ng do wn
at d ay and night mu st be determined
30 I n orde r t o get a repre s ent at ive s ample o f t he s ol i d fuel
t he fol lo wing c ou rs e m ay be pu rs ued : O f every c arl oad b as ket
or ot her meas u re o f fuel put a s ho vel ful i nto a c o vered recept acle
I m medi a t ely after t he te s t is o ver t he c ontent s o f t he rece pt ac le
s houl d be broken
mixed s pread and qu art ered by dra w ing t he
,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINE S

5 18

di ago nal s o f a s qu are The t wo o ppo s ite qu art e rs are re

je c t e d t he t wo ot hers broke n u p ner mixed and qu artered
a nd t he t wo o ppo s ite qu art e rs reject e d This is co nt i nued u nt il
a s am ple o f s o me 1 0 t o 20 pou nd s re mai ns w hic h is pres erved
i n well -c lo se d rece pt ac les for analys is
I n addit io n t o t his a
nu mbe r o f ot her s ample s mu s t be put a w ay i n air -t ight rece pt acle s
fo r us e i n determini ng t he c ont e nt s o f moi s t u re i n t he fuel
3 1 The c o mpo s it io n o f t he fuel s hall be det ermined by
I t s c o nte nt s i n c arbo n ( C) hydrogen ( H )
c he mic al analys is
s ul phu r ( S )
as h ( A)
o xyge n
and w at e r ( W ) mu st be gi ven
i n percent age of weight re fe rred t o t he original fuel The c on
t e nt s in t he fuel o f nit rogen ( N ) c an be di s regarded The be
h avior o f t he fuel whe n being heate d s houl d be d etermi ned by
a c ok ing t e st
3 2 The c aloric val ue o f t he fuel mu s t be determined by
c alori met ric analys is An approxi mate determi nat io n o f t he
heat i ng value c an be made o n t he bas is o f t he c he mic al a n al ys is
by e mployi ng D e Lo ng s formu l a :
t wo

14 5 C

He at i ng v alue

40 S

i n whic h C O H S and W are ex pre ss ed i n weight per ce nt

,

E S TI N G

AN

I NT

ER N A L -C O M B U S TI O N E N G I N E

K i nd , nu mber and d ri rat io n

of

t ri al s t o be ag reed u po n
acc ording t o t he general regul at ion s N os 1 t o 8
3 4 The cons t ruct i ve feat u re s and o perat i ve c ondit io ns o f
t he engine mu s t be s o illu s t rated i n t he report as t o enable one
t o form a c o rre ct idea of t he manner of w orking and o f t he re
of o pe rat io n Es pe c ially i m po rt an t are t he t ype and
s u lt s
c apac it y o f engine di ameter o f cyl inder and pi s t o n -ro d pis t on
c o nte nt s o f clea r ance s pace and o t her e ss ent i al d ime n
s t roke
s io ns ; t he normal rat e o f re volut ion and t he ad mi ss ible u c t u a
t ions ; k ind and he at value o f fuel for whic h t he engi ne is i nte nded
Th e diameter o f t he cyl inder a nd t he s t roke s houl d be actu ally
me as u re d i f t h is is po ss ible
Th e c o ntent s o f t he co m pre ss i o n s pace are preferably deter
mined by lling w i t h wat er I f i t is i mpo ss ible t o s t at e t he
cubic al c ontent s of t he c o mp re s s io n S p ac e p t h e n t he c o mpre s s io n
33

ME TH ODS O F TES TING GA S ENGINES

5 19

pre ss u re at full l o ad s h o ul d at lea s t be given Thi s is do ne by

t aking an i ndic at o r c ard while t he ig nit i o n is i nterru pted
35 B e fo r e making t he t e s t t he engine mu s t be exami ned
i nternal ly and externally a s t o whet her or not it is i n good work
i ng order
3 6 The nu mber o f re volut ion s o f t he engine s houl d be deter
mi ned by a c ont inuou s s peed c o u nter t he rec ord s of whic h mu s t
be note d a t cert ain i nterval s and mu s t be c hecked o r c orrected
fro m t i me t o t ime by di rect reading s I f t he s peed c o ndit io ns o f
t he engine are t o be i nve s t igated i t is e ss ent ial t o determi ne t he
fo llo wi ng ite m s :
(a ) The nu mbe r o f re vol ut ion s u nder co ns t ant co ndit ion s at
m axi mu m load a n d a t no lo ad
( b) The uct u at ion s i n s peed at c o ns t ant l oad
(0 ) Th e te m pora r y c h ange i n t he nu mber o f t u rns when t he
load is s u ddenly d ec rea se d o r inc reas ed f r o m a gi ve n c on s t ant
load by a p re s c r ibed a mou nt The s e det e r minat io ns c an be
executed w it h apparat u s o f t he c ha r acte r o f t he Horn t ac ho
graph Th e uct u a t io n s of s peed du r i ng t he perform ance o f o n e
engine c ycle abo ve and bel ow t he mean val ue exp r e ss ed i n part s
o f t he l atter
s houl d be determi ne d by c alcu l at ion u nle ss ot her
wis e pro vided
The c o e fc ie nt o f y-wheel regu l at ion is
.

N m ax

N m in

N m ax

N min

where N

nu mber of re volut ion s

3 7 Th e u s eful o ut put c an be determ i ned eit her by brake te s t
or by elect ri c al mea s urement
The di me n s io ns and weight o f t he brake S hou l d be determined
be fore t he t rial
Th e elect ric al mea s urement s c an be m ade on a generat or
directl y c ou pled t o t he gas engine The u s eful work is c o m
The e fc ienc y o f t he gen
p ut e d fro m t he out put o f t he dynamo
c rat or s houl d be d e t e rmined by one of t he met hod s as l aid do wn

i n t he R ule s for J udging and Te s ting E lect r ic al Mac hinery and

Tran s fo rmers
pu bl i s he d by t he a ss oc ia t io n o f G e r man elect ric al
e ngineers I f t he e fc iency is fou nd approxi mately by meas u ring
.

520

I N TERNAL

COMB US TION

E NGI NES

t he determin able l o s s e s t he n an adequ ate amou nt ( s ay 2 pe r

ce nt o f t he full load out put ) mu s t be allo wed for lo ss es not
ac c ou nted for
The apparatu s wi t h w hic h t he elect ric al meas ureme nt s a re
executed mu s t be c al ibrate d before and if po ss ible al s o after t he
te s t
Whet her anyt hi ng be s ide s t he 2 per ce nt abo ve allo wed s houl d
be c redited t o t he gas engi ne fo r i nc re as ed bea r ing f r ict io n and
wi ndage o f t he gene r at or mu s t be s ettled i n e ac h indiv idual
c as e
Whet her i n c as e t he u s eful out put c an neit her be dete r mined
by b r ake t e s t o r by elec t ric al meas u re me n t s t he c ode p rovis io n
for tes t i ng s te am engine s c an be admitted as correct fo r gas
engine s namely t o de s ignate t he u s eful out put as t he di ffe rence
bet ween t he i ndic ated work at any l oad and t he indic ate d
w ork at no l oad c annot be s ett led at t he p re s ent s t a t e o f
de velo pment s ince re s ult s of ac c urate i nve st igat ion s a re no t yet
avail able
38 I ndic at ors mu s t be co nnected im mediately t o t he c o m
bu s t io n c h ambe r wit hout em pl oyi ng long piping w it h s h arp
be nd s and o ne indic ator mu st be pro vided for e very co mbus t ion
c hamber Fo r t hi s purpo s e eac h co mp re ss io n c hamber mu s t
h ave an o p e ning for t h r ee -qu art er or o ne inc h Whit wo rt h t hre ad
The s ame hol d s t rue for pu m p cyl inders
Th e indic at ors and t heir s pring s mu s t be c alibrat ed before and
after t he te s t ac cording t o t he ac cep t ed st and ard s
39 D u r ing t he te s t c ard s s houl d be t aken qu ite frequently
fro m every c ombu s t io n c hamber and fro m t he pu m p c yl inders
The c ard s s houl d be de s ignated by nu mbers and t he t i me whe n
eac h c ard was t aken t he s c ale o f s p r ings u s ed and t he nu mber
o f s ingle c ar d s ob t ained mu s t be recorded o n t he c ard s At le as t
ve diagram s s houl d be t aken o n one c ard s u ccess i vely F ro m
t i me t o t i me diagram s indic ated w it h a weak s pring s houl d be
t aken fro m t he c o mbu s t ion c hambers
Th e indic ated work at no l oad s houl d be determi ned i mme
d iat e ly afte r s t o ppi ng t he main t e s t and while t he e ngine is s t ill
wa r med u p ready fo r o pe r at ion Ca r e mu s t be t aken t h at t he
n o -l o ad c a r d s a r e not t aken during an ac celerat io n or du ring a
ret ardat ion perio d o f t he y-wh eel
,

ME TH ODS O F T ES TING GA S ENGINES

521

A N A L Y S I S O F THE G A S G E N ERA T E D I N A P R O D U C ER -G A S PL A N T OR
C O N S U ME D I N A N I N T ER N A L C O M B U S TI O N E N G I N E O R O F T HE
LI Q U I D F U E L U S E D
,

ample s fo r t he c hemic al analys is o f t he gas mu s t be

t ake n during t he t rial at regul ar i nterval s and as frequent ly as
po ss ible
They mu s t be eit her analy zed o n t he s pot or pre s erve d i n
gl ass t ube s c lo s ed by melt ing t he e nds The analy s is is t o det er
mine in per ce nt o f vol u me t he c o ntent s of t he gas i n c arbo n
mo noxide ( CO) c arbo n dio x ide
hydroge n ( H2) mars h
H
he
avy
hyd
r
oc
arbo
n
s
and
o
xyge
n
G
as
)
(
2
g
I n addit io n it is reco mme nded t o dete r mine t he co ntent s o f
The gas s ample s s hould be t ake n fro m t he gas mai n
s ulfu r
bet wee n t he cle aning apparat u s and t he e ngine
4 1 The heat value of t he gas s houl d be determined as
often as po ss ible by c alori met r ic analys i s and t he burn er o f t he
c alori meter s houl d be fed fro m t he gas m ain wit hout i nter
I n s uc t io n pro du cer pl ant s t hi s c an be done by
r u pt io n
means o f a gas pu mp d r awing fro m t he main I f co ndit io ns
m ake it necess ary t hat a s ample be t aken fro m t he
s houl d
pi pe while t he c alorimeter is s hut o ff s u c h s ample t o be
l a t er t rans ferred t o and burned i n t he c alori meter t hen t he
qu ant it y of gas s o t ake n s houl d not be le ss t h an 300 l iters
cubic feet ) in order t h at t he c alo r i meter m ay at rs t
be brought i nt o t he co ndit io n o f s t abilit y as rega r ds t he wat er
o f c o mbu s t ion
and i n order t h at at leas t 1 00 l iters
c ubic feet ) remai n avail able for t wo s uc ce ss i ve an aly s e s Th e
s uct io n pu mp
t he g as hol der and t he piping mu s t be m ade
t ight w it h s pec ial c are whe n making a c alori meter analys is o f
s uct ion g as
4 2 The gas meter of t he c al ori meter i n whic h t he heat value
of t he gas is dete r mined mu s t be c al ibrated Fo r determi ni ng
t he te m peratu re s o f t he c alo r imeter w ater o nly t he r mo meters
wit h c al ibrat io n cert ic ate s o r ot hers c o m pared wi t h s uc h s houl d
be u s ed Th e s c ale s mu s t be divided at leas t i nt o te nt hs o f a
degree
O n t he b as is o f t he c hemic al an alys i s t he he at i ng value per
S t an d a rd c ub ic foot o f ga s e s wh ic h do n o t co nt ain heav
hydro
y
40

The

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 22

c arbons c an be c om puted fro m t he follo wing formul a i f a

c alori metric analys is c annot be m ade
,

Heat ing V alue

W here

H2

C0

OH4

H2 and OH are expre ssed i n volu me per ce nt

CO,

qu ant it y o f gas p r oduced o r c o ns u med s houl d be

me as ured by means o f a gas hol de r or a gas meter The c r o ss
s ect ional are a of t he hol der s houl d be dete r mined by mea s ure
me nt of it s c ircu mference at s e ve r al pl ace s Con s u mptio n t es t s
wit h t he gas hol der s hal l not be made while t he l atter is expo s ed
t o t he su n
4 4 The gas meter mu s t be c alibrated and s e t le vel ; it mu s t be
s o lled t h at t he w ate r level corre s pond s t o t he no r mal lling
B et w een t he gas mete r and t he
exis t ing du r ing c al ibrat ion
engine a pres s ure regul a t o r mu s t be in st al le d o r a l arge s uct io n
s pace provided s o t h at t he w ater le vel s ho w s o nly s mal l pul s at io ns
during t he pre s s ure uctu at ion s
4 5 At i nterval s c orre s p o nding t o t he durat io n o f te s t t he
follo wi ng reading s s hou l d be t aken : Po s it io n o f t he bell o f t he
gas hol der at t hree pl ace s or t he rec ord s s ho wn by t he g as meter ;
t he pre ss ure i n t he bel l o r i n t he gas meter ; t he t e m pe r atu re o f
t he gas whe n entering and when leaving t he gas h o l der o r t he
gas meter and befo r e reac hing t he engine ; t he baro met ric pre ss u re
4 6 I f t he te m perat ure o f t he gas is diffe r ent w hen mea s uring
t he con s u mpt io n t h an w hen meas u r ing t he heat value t he c om
put at io n mu s t al s o t ake i nt o ac cou nt t he i ncreas e o f volu me
whic h is due t o t he mois t ure co ntent s o f t he gas at highe r te m
43

The

p e rat u re s
4 7 The
.

co ns u mpt io n of l iquid fuel mu s t b e determined eit her

by weight or by meas u ring it s volu me F o r dete r mining heat
value co m po s it io n and s pec i c weight o f t he fuel o ne r epre s ent a
t i ve average s am ple is su fc ient
48 Whe n me as u ring t he fuel c on s u m pt io n o f i nte r nal c o m
bu s t io n engine s t he con s u m pt io n o f lub r ic ating oil for t he cyl inder
s houl d be determined at t he s ame t ime
4 9 I f t he c o ns u m pt ion at lo w load s o f a double -act ing t an
de m o r t wi n e ngine is t o be determined i t is n o t allo w able t o s hut
o ff t he g as f r o m o ne o r more end s of t he cyl inders p r o vi d ed t ha t
no ot her arrange ment s have bee n p re viou s ly agreed u po n and
.

ME TH ODS O F T ES TING GA S ENGINES

a re ment io ned i n t he repo r t
c ally i n t he way de s cribed

or

523
a u t o m at i

t hat t he governor act s

E X PL A N A TI O N S

TO

VA R I O U S AR TI C L E S

O F T HE

ODE

m ain co d e is fo l lo we d by a nu mber o f expl anat io ns f ro m

whic h t he follo wi ng e x t ract s a r e t ake n The gure s refer t o t he
paragraph s of t he abo ve c ode
The

I n mo st c as e s o nly

t wo o f t he obj ect s o f te s t ment io ne d

are t ake n i n t o ac cou nt i n any gi ve n t r i al
I f i n any e x ce pt ional
c as e t he object o f t he te s t s houl d not be any o f t h o s e ment ioned
it S houl d be a s imple m at t e r t o a d ap t t he r ules given
I t is e s sent i al
U nder 2 ( c ) t he term hors e -po wer hour is u s e d
t h at in any gi ve n t ri al t hi s term be more c l o s ely dene d as ho rs e
po we r m ay mean i ndic a t e d brake or e ve n hors e -po we r de velo pe d
by pumps
o ne o r

It

ext re mely de s i r able t hat t he co nt ract s t ate t he t i me

al lo wed t he manu fact u re r fo r adj u s t ment and t rial ru ns bec au s e
his o w n i nte r e s t s may make hi m c al l s o met i me s fo r a long
I n t he c as e o f a s mal l e ngi ne
s o met i me s fo r a s ho r t pe rio d
mo r e o r le ss a co m me r c ial s tock mac hine he may w is h t o have
t he pe r iod a s s hort as po ss ible and t hi s t he buye r m ay ag ree t o
wit hout d anger o f lo ss t o him s el f I f ho we ve r t he mac hine is
o f a s pec ial t ype o r o ne p r o vided w i t h s pec ial a t t ac h me nt s it is
but a matte r of j u st ice t o allo w t he m anu factu re r a rea s onable
ti me i n w hic h t o b reak i n t he eng ine and t o gi ve hi m an o p p o r
I t is t o
t u nit y t o c o rrect any im perfect io n s t hat m ay appear
t he int ere s t o f t he buye r t o g r ant s uc h a pe r iod i n o rder t o
beco me familia r wit h t he m ac hi ne befo re t ak ing o ve r t he entire
re s pons ibil ity o f o perat ing it
I t is al s o t rue t h at m any fault s
appear only afte r s o me week s of o perat ion
O n t he ot he r hand t oo long a pe r iod o f adj u s t ment is i n many
c as e s no t ac cept able t o t he buyer bec au s e any extended w o r k o f
i m p ro vement u s u ally s eriou s ly h am pers o perat ion ; and bec au s e
i n many c as e s he de s ire s an o pe r at i ve mac hine whic h no lo nger
requ ire s t he c are o f t he m anu factu rer as s oo n as p o ss ible
I t frequent ly happen s t hat no ac ce pt ance te s t is agreed u po n
is

IN TERNA L COMB U STION ENGINES

5 24

I n s uc h c as es it s o met i me s h appe ns t h at t he buye r co mes b ack

po n t he m anu fact urer fo r fault s whic h did not de velo p u ntil
t he m ac hine h ad bee n i n o pe r at io n s o me t ime
I f t he m anu fact u re r t hen agrees t o an i n ves t igat io n o r a t es t
a s u f c ient period s houl d be given hi m t o m ake any i nvest igat ion
he s ee s t o r t o c o r rect any i m pe r fect ions t h at m ay h ave appe ared
be fo re t he dec is i ve t ri al o r i nve s tig at io n is m ade This s omet imes
lead s t o a s i mple s e t tlement o f t he m att e r i n t hat t he m a nu fa c
t urer dis c overs t h at ignorance or c areless ne ss o n t he part of t he
o perat or h ave c au se d t he i m pe r fect io ns c o m pl aine d o f Th e
granti ng o f s u c h a period al s o gu ards t he buyer again s t any l ater
c l ai m o f t he manu fact urer t h at duri ng t he t rial t he m ac hine was
n o t i n t he c o ndit io n i n whic h he del ive red it
U

t es t s a re al w ays de s irable but not a bs olutely

nece ss ary Th e c o s t o f any k ind o f i nve s t ig at io n is u s u ally quite
high and o f c ou rs e t he c o s t i nc re as es direct ly wit h t he t i me
The ex pe rt c alled will t here fore m ake s uc h te s t s when t hey s ee m
t o hi m es s e nt ial
B ut t he m anu fact u re r s hou l d h ave t he right
t o c all for t he t i me nec ess ary for s u c h t r ial s if he is t o pre se nt
t he m ac hine in it s be s t c o ndit io n
P rel imi nary

I t c annot

denied t hat eight hours is a rat her s hort t i me

bec au s e it is ext re mely difc ult t o dete r mine w het he r t he pro
d u c e r is i n t he s ame co ndit ion at t he end a s at t he beginning o f
t he te s t and be c au s e t h is u nce rt aint y m ay lead t o l a rge e rro rs
O n t he ot her h and it is u nque s t io nable t h at i n m any c as es a lo nger
t i me wou l d c all fort h so many difc ult ie s i n o pe rat io n t h at eight
hou rs woul d s ee m t he necess a r y li mit
The ru le is m ainl y f r ame d t o p re vent t r ial s o f s o s ho r t du ra
t io n t h at s eriou s erro rs c an h a rdly be a voided but it leaves it
t o t he j udgme nt o f t he e x pe r i ment er w het her t o m ake t he tes t s
lo nger t h an eigh t hou rs where it s ee ms de s irable and is pos s ible
t o do so
be

I ntermediat e re adings are rec o m mended wit hout qu al ic at io n

since t hey fo rm t h e be st c r iterio n o f t he c o ns t anc y o f co ndit ions

ME TH OD S O F TES TIN G GA S ENGINE S

525

Wit h l iqu id o r gas fuel s o f cons t ant com po s it ion i ndividu al

reading s e very ve minute s apart s omet i mes S h o w no v ari a t io n
I n s uc h a c as e it is u sele s s t o exte nd t he
fo r hou rs at a t i me
t i me o f t he t r ial
,

I n dete rmining t he mec hanic al e fcienc y o f an engine it s houl d

not be fo rgotte n t hat alt hough t he ave r age load m ay be c on
t ant t he re m ay be s pe ed variat ion s due t o t he ine vit able in
equality o f t he indic at o r diag r am s s o t hat du r ing s o me c ycles wo r k
is do ne i n ac celerat ing t he y-w heel w hile du r ing ot he rs t he y
wheel by ret a r datio n give s u p s o me of it s k inet ic ene rgy
To mini mi ze any e rro r t ha t t hi s may i nt r o duce i nt o t he
determinat io n o f t he mec hanic al e fc iency at leas t te n diag r am s
s houl d be t aken
I f t he c ondit ion s a re ot herwi s e c on s t ant however it is not
nece ss a ry t o s p re ad t he s e diagram s o ver any c on s ide r able pe r io d
o f t ime
I t is s el f-e vident t h at du r ing t he ti me of t ak ing t he diag r am s
t he s u pply o f lubric at ing oil mu s t not be i nc reas ed
Change s in t he mec h anic al efc iency o f t he engine a s for
i ns t ance t ho s e due t o fouling c annot be detected wit h ce rt aint y
e ve n by a l ong te s t pe r io d ; t hey bec o me not ic eable u s u ally o nly
af t er a pe r io d of o pe r at io n exte ndi ng o ve r t wo week s The de
terminat io n o f t he mec h anic al efc iency of an engine afte r c o n
s t ant co ndit ion s o f o pe rat io n are att ained t herefore o nly applie s
t o t he engi ne i n it s t hen exis t ing s t ate o r c ondit ion
The nu mbe r o f diag r am s t o be t aken o n o ne c ard c annot be
denitely s t ated O n ac cou nt o f va ri at io n i n t he di ag r am s
whic h is le ss at high t h an at l o w load s c a re s hou l d be h a d not t o
t ake t oo fe w O n t he ot her h and it is u s ele ss t o t ake mo re t h an
c an be clea r ly di s t ingui s hed Th e r u nni ng t oget he r o f a l a rge r
nu mbe r o f di ag r am s only m ake s t heir e valu at io n more u ncert ain
s

'

10

I n con s iderat io n

u navoid able e r rors o f ob s e r vat ion po s s ible

e rr o rs o f t he in s t ru ment s u s ed et c it is meet and u s u al t o allo w
a cert ai n ma rgi n bet ween t he gu re s fo u nd o n t rial and t h o s e
gu aranteed I n t he s team engine code 5 pe r ce n t is allo wed fo r
t his and it s ee ms re as onable t o ass u me t he s ame gure in t his
of

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

5 26

c a s e O nly i n o ne po in t i n t he gu arantee d n o r m a l c apac ity

d o e s t he gas engine c all fo r an excep t i o n
A gi ve n s tea m engine give s it s mo s t eco nomic al re s ult s at a
cert ain cut -o ff bu t a highe r c apac i t y c an al way s be o bt ained at
t he e x pen s e o f a l i t t le econo my t h a t is a buye r is ce r t ain t h at
e ven a mac hine S l igh t ly t o o s m al l w ill give hi m s u fcient c a
A g as engine on t he co n t r a r y wo r k s wit h t he g reate s t
p a c it y
ec ono my a t it s ma x i mu m load It is t o t he in t e res t o f t he buye r
t he refo re t o get an e ngine exac t ly s u ite d t o his need s and n o t t o
c h o o s e i t t oo l a rge I t is p o ss ible fo r t he s ame r e as o n t hat any
engi n e i f l ack ing s ligh t ly i n gu a r anteed c apacity m ay become
ab s olu t ely u s ele s s t o t he buye r F o r t he s e reas on s i t w as t ho ught
ad vi s able no t t o g r ant t he m anu factu rer any lee way wh atever
a s r egard s gu a r an t eed c apac ity
I t is clear t he refo re t h a t t he m anu fac t u re r mu s t t ake u po n
hi m s el f any po s s ible inacc urac ie s i n t he meas urement s u nle ss he
c an s ho w t hem u p and dem and a new t ri al F o r t h at reas o n i t is
w ell for hi m t o m ake h is gu arantee a l itt le o n t he s afe S ide o f w h at
he k n o ws h is engine is c apable of d e velo ping
O n t he o t he r h and
t he r e is no h arm done t o t he i nte r e s t o f t he buyer i f t he m anu
factu rer u nder r ate s t he no r m al c apac i t y o f h is m ac hi ne be c au s e
t he former w ill al w ay s c al l for an engine o f a cert ai n normal
c apac ity t o s uit h is need s I f he fail s t o d o t hi s but pl ace s h is
de pe nde nce i n t he gu a r antee d m aximu m c apac it y he is o pe n t o
t he c ha rge o f c a rele ss ne ss
S ince du r ing ac cept anc e te s t s it is oft en n o t po ss ible t o keep
t he l oad qu ite c o ns t ant i t bec ame nece s s a r y foll o w i ng t he s team
engine co de t o all o w a ce rt ain amou n t o f va r i at ion w it hin w hic h
no j u st c au s e c ou ld be fou n d fo r object io n t o t he t rial There
a re c a se s w he re t he va r ia t ion s oc cu rr ing a re muc h g reate r as
when a g as engine is u s e d fo r d r i ving a r ol l t r ai n B ut no o ne

set o f
R ule s
c an p o ss ibl y t ake int o ac c ou n t all s uc h e x t re me
c as es and i n s uc h in s t ance s t he co nt r act s houl d c ont ain t he
nece s s a r y ag reeme n t s t o m ake any t e s t clear and f r ee f r o m s u b
s equent obj ec t ion s
The w is h h as been ex p re ss ed f r om s e veral qu a r te rs t h at t he

N o r m al Ca
R ule s
s houl d c on t ai n a deni t io n o f t he te r m

O n acc ou n t o f t he pec uli a r it y o f t he gas engine above

p a c it y

dis cu ss ed t hi s is not qu ite feas ible B u t t he term Maxi mu m

.

ME T H ODS O F TES TING GA S ENGINES

Co nt inuous Capac ity

tended i n mo s t ca s e s

5 27

pe r haps de nes mo s t ne arly wh at

is

14

It

o met i me s t he c as e t hat t he he at ing val ue o f t he s t and

ard c ubic foot t hat is reduced t o 3 2 deg ree s F ah renheit and
7 60 m m ba ro mete r is s o g reat ly di ff e rent f r o m t he actu al value
o f t he gas a s u s ed
t hat any co nt r act w hic h c ont ain s o nly t he
heat ing value o f t he gas s t a t ed o n t hat b as i s doe s not c o nvey
muc h meani ng t o t he no n -tec hnic al buyer I f fo r ins t ance a
gi ve n gas h as a heat i ng val ue o f 1 35 B T U pe r s t anda r d c ubic
fo o t it s e ffect i ve heat ing value at a high alt it ude and i n a w a r m
c limate s a y at 6 8 deg ree s and 6 20 m m ba ro mete r will o nly be
about 1 00 B T U pe r c ubic foot To ob viate any m is u n d e r

it s houl d be clearly s t ate d t h at w he n t he

e ffect ive
s t anding
heat ing value o f t he g as is not d enitely s pec ied t he heat ing
value at 3 2 deg ree s F ahre nheit and 7 60 m m baro meter is meant
is

19

By

g r aph

10

full

load is meant t he normal c apac ity

as

per para

.
O

23

accept ance te st s and all ot he r te s t s w hic h a re i ntende d

t o dec ide any d is ag ree ment s be t wee n m anu fac t u r er and buye r
s uc h examina t io n s houl d be c ar r ie d out in t he p r e s ence a n d w it h
t he aid of t he fo r me r as al ready ment ione d u nde r pa r ag r aph 4
Fo r

24 26

I n all

p roduce r te s t s it is ha r dly po ss ible wit h ce rt ai nty t o

have all c o ndit ion s exact ly t he s ame a t t he end as at t he begin
ni ng B u t s ince any di ff e rence i n t he beginning and e nd c o n
whic h c an only be
d it io ns may lea d t o c o n s ide r able e rr o r

equ al i ze d by exce ss i ve lengt h of t e s t t he R ule s a re i ntende d

t o o pe r a t e t o t he e nd t hat s uc h e rr o rs are not i n any way magni
e d by t he met hod o f te s t
Hence t he det ailed s t ate ment i n t he
regulat ions
g as

27

i n actu al o pe r at i o n t he fuel i n t he as h o r t he c oal du s t

i n t he gas main s a re ha r dly e ve r ut ili zed no c o r rect io n s houl d
S ince

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 28

be m ade fo r the s e on any t r i al

I n orde r ho w eve r t o prevent
t he re s ul t s f r o m be ing inuenced by in s uf c ien t clean in g of the
p r odu ce r any fuel w h ic h fall s o u t f r o m abo ve t he g r at e du r
ing t he cl eaning period m ay be s ubt racted fro m t he am o unt
c h arged
.

'

35

See

expl anat io n u nde r

23

37

t e s t of a l a rge engine is i n s o me i ns t ance s not po ss ible

and in any c as e a m atter o f con s ide r able co s t
I n many c as es
ho we ve r t he l a rge r g as e ngi ne s a re eit he r direct co nnected t o a
ge nerat o r o r t o s o me ot her po we r c o n s u mer as a blo w ing cyl inde r
I n t he fo r me r c as e elect ric al meas u re me nt s f ro m w hic h t he
e ff e ct ive ho rs e -po we r m ay be dete r mined a re ea s ily made I n t he
l atte r c as e t he c apac i t y gu a r antee wil l i n mo s t i n s t ance s be bas ed
u pon t he pe r fo r mance o f t he po we r c ons u mer as fo r example
t he ai r c o mp re ss ed by t he blo w ing cyl inder O ut s ide o f engines
o f t hi s ty pe
ho w ever t he re s t il l re m ai n m any c a s es i n w hic h it
w oul d be of t he ut mo s t value t o h a ve s ome mean s of determining
t he e ffect ive c apac it y and it s houl d no t be fo rgotte n t h at e ven
i n t he c as e o f mediu m-s i zed mac hines a b r aking of t he engine at
t he pl ace of e rect io n is o ften o n ac cou nt o f loc al re st rict ion s ve ry
difcult The p r oble m h as be en s ol ved fo r s team engines by
as s u ming t h at t he di ff erence bet wee n t he indic at ed hors e -po wer
at any load and t he i n d ic a t e d hors e -po we r at no lo ad is t he e ffe c
t i ve or u seful hors e -po we r I t is quite po ss ible t hat i n many
c as es t his is not quit e c o r rect but t he met hod is very ge nerally
accepted and follo wed
O n account o f t he g reat o ve rlo ad c apacit y o f t he s te am engine
a s mal l e rr o r i n t h is re s pect doe s not mean a great deal B u t t he
c as e o f t he gas engine is qu it e di ffe re nt The dat a o n h and does
not wa rr ant t he appl ic at io n o f t he s ame met ho d t o t he g as engine
and t he c on s equence s of an e rr o neou s c o nclu s io n are muc h more
s e r iou s o n ac cou nt o f t he l ac k of o ve r lo ad c apac it y
F o r t he s e re as ons one is c o m pelled i n s o me c as e s t o o mit t he
determinat io n o f t he effect i ve c apac it y alt oget her and t o be c on
tent wit h t he determi nat io n o f t he i ndic ated po wer o nly I t is
reco m mended i n s u c h c as e s t h at t he mec h anic al e fc iency be not
A b rake

M E T H ODS O F TES TING G A S ENGINE S

529

as s u med t oo high an d t hat any gu arantee s regarding fuel et c

al s o be bas ed u po n t he i ndic ated hors e -po wer
I t is s o met i me s po s s ible t o brake an e ngine o n t he te s t oor
o f t he facto ry
The mec h anic al ef c ie ncy may t hu s be p r e viou s ly
determined whe n it is k no wn t hat no brake te s t c an be m ade i n
t he nal pl ace o f e r ect ion
,

39

nu mber o f diag r am s t o be t ake n during any gi ve n te s t

c annot be denitely S pecied Muc h de pe nd s u po n t he lengt h
and t he dec is io n m ay be left t o t he j u dgment o f t he
o f te s t
ex perimenter
I t is ho we ve r al w ay s reco m mended t h at a bu n d le o f di agram s
Thu s a s erie s o f
I n s tead o f o nl y o ne be t ake n o n e ve r y c a r d
diagram s are obt ained while if o nly a s ingle diagram is t aken it
is po s s ible to hit u po n t he s ame d iag r am i n t he s erie s a nu mber
o f t ime s
( Se e u nder ext r act
The wo r k o f uid f r ict io n t h at is t he o wer -loo p diagram
l
c annot be dete r mined w it h cert ai nty fr o m t he ful l i ndic at or
c ards I t is be s t for t h at re as o n t o igno re t he l o op whe n deter
mini ng t he po s it i ve wo r k and t o nd t he negat ive work fro m s pec i al
weak S pring diagram s
The

48

The

meas u rement s o f t he qu ant ity of lu bric at ing o il u s ed is o f

i m po rt ance in s m aller engine s bec au s e t he fuel c o ns u m pt io n c an
be favorably inuenced by a c o piou s s u pply o f t he lubric ant
,

49

I f u nder

lo w

load s o nly o ne e nd o f t he cyl inder is allo wed t o

w ork t he fuel con s u m pt io n woul d be muc h l o w er
B u t S ince
t his is not generally do ne i n o pe r at io n t he re s ult s woul d be
erroneou s I f ho wever t he go vernor during o pe rat io n s hut s o ff
t he i ndividu al cyl inders o r cyl inder end s as t he l o ad dro ps t hi s
is of c ou rs e al s o permi ss i ble during a te s t
,

CH APTE R
T HE

P ER F OR MA N C E

EN GI N ES

G AS

OF

XVII
AND

P R O D U C ER S

GA S

i ndic ated i n t he rule s fo r te s t ing t he very g reat m a

jo rit y o f t e s t s o f e ngi ne s a re m ade t o dete r mine c apac it y and fuel
c o ns u m pt ion
I n s o me s pec ial c as es as wit h engi ne s d r i vi ng
gene r ato rs te s t s are al s o s o meti me s made o f t he regul atio n
The s e t hree te s t s t oget her t ake c are of w h at m ay be te r med t he
c o m me r c ial s ide o f t e s t ing All o t he r te s t s a re s pe c ial i n t hat
t hey are not often executed i n an ac cept ance t e s t but fo r m i n
mo s t c a s e s t he object o f s c ie nt ic or l abo r at o r y i nve s t igat io n
S uc h in ve s t igat io ns a r e i n m any in s t ance s ve ry v alu able and
h ave s erved t o t h ro w a oo d o f light o n t he s o mewh at co m ple x
cyl inde r action s o f t he i nte r nal co mbu s t ion e ngine I t was t hus
fou n d t h at t he tem pe r a t u r e o f t he cyl inder w all s i e t he c ool i ng
wate r co ndi t ion s pi s t o n s peed ignit io n pro port io n of mixtu re
c om p r e ss ion e t c al l h ad a more o r le ss m arked e ff ect u po n
e ngine performance I n t he follo wing t he re s ult s o b t ained and
t he c o nclu s i o n s d r awn by variou s ex pe ri menters co ncerni ng t he
e ffect o f t he s e va r iou s fact ors a r e b r iey s e t fort h
Th e m ai n bulk o f t hi s work h as bee n do ne by Wit z i n F rance
S l aby and E Meye r i n G e r m any and B urs t al l and ot hers i n E ng
l and I n s pite o f t he fact t h at no ne o f t he s e i nves t igat ion s are
o pe n t o s e r iou s objectio n o n t he s c o re o f in ac c uracy t he c o n
e lu s io n s ar r i ved at are not al way s i n ac cord
Thi s is u ndoubtedly
due t o t he c o mplexity o f t he c yl inder act ion s and t he i nter
de pendence o i t he va r iou s factors entering t he p roble m
2
I t is re a
Coo l in g W at e r Co n d iti o n s an d P i s ton S pe e d
s onable t o s u ppo s e t h at t he higher t he w all te m pe r at ure o f t he
cyl inder i e t he s mal ler t he te m perat ure di ff e rence bet w ee n
mi x tu re and wal l and t he greater t he pi s t o n s peed cutt ing
do wn t he t i me of ex po s u re t he s maller t he lo ss t o t he j acket
The heat t hu s s aved however m ay go i n t wo direct io ns : eit her
I

As

5 30

PE R FORMA NCE O F GA S ENGINES

53 1

a greater t hermal efc iency is s ho w n re s ult ing in greater po wer

de velo pe d for t he s ame e x pe nditu re of heat o r t he he at s aved
fro m go ing int o t he j ac ket is lo s t i n t he exhau st
Wit z u po n t he b as i s o f his ex peri ment s co me s t o t he former
co nc lu s io n and s ay s
Th e act io n o f t he j ac ket is t he great r egu

l at or of co mbu s t io n pheno me na
He s u m
mari ze s h is re s ult s as
follo ws :
1 The e fc ienc y inc re as e s w it h t he pi st o n s peed and wit h t he
te m perat u r e o f t he s u rr ou nding wall s
2 Th e c o mbu s t io n of e x plo s i ve mixt ure s is t he mo r e rapid
t he greater t he s pee d o f ex pan s io n and t he hotter t he cyli nde r
wall s
The wo r k of S l aby and o f Meyer ho we ver s ee m s t o co nt ro
vert t he s e c onclu s ions S o me of S l aby s te s t s S ho w t hat w hile
t he gas cons u m pt io n p e r hors e -po wer hour dec reas e s s o mewh at
wit h an i nc reas e i n t he pi s t o n s peed t he r e is an i nc reas e i n
t he cons u m pt io n wit h a ri s e of j ac ket water te m perat u r e Th e
follo wing t able o f gu r e s quoted by S c h Ot t le r fro m s o me o f Meyer s
tes t s illu s t rate s t he point t h at t he heat s aved f r o m t he j acket
by higher pi s t o n s peed m ay go t o t he exhau s t leaving t he t her
m al ret urn p r act ic al ly u na ffected
,

M A

E
t io o f

2
3n
82

P
R
P M

F FE C

H AT

U RE

Sq

inc

R a m,
Air t o G a s

RK

F1 L bs

1 87
24 7

I n te s t s

C HA RG E

No 1
.

V AL U E O F DO N E B Y

ES S

ING

140
14 1
1 90
1 84

E HAU
X

o
.

Tn

H AT D
E

T R I B U T IO N

IN , 0

IS

W k
or

Jac

Wt

a er

Eh

x a us

1 022
1 1 37
86 7
992

t hi s k ind t here are one o r t wo s i mult aneou s act io ns

not direct ly u nde r c ont r ol whic h m ay s erve t o modify t he n al
r e s ult and ac c o u nt i n a meas ure for t he di s c re panc y appe ari ng
i n t he re s ult s abo ve di s cu ss ed An i nc r ea s e i n t he te m perat u re
o f t he wal l s o r an i nc reas e i n t he pi s to n s peed bot h c au s e a de
c reas e ih t he c h a r ge volu me t he former by heat ing t he inco ming
c ha rge and dec r eas ing t he den s ity of t he mixtu re t he l atter by
i nc reas ed frict io n lo ss i n pi pe s and po rt s The direct re s ult o f
of

IN T ERNA L COM B US T ION ENGINES

5 32

t his is t hat t he e ffect o f t he act io n o f t he cyli nde r w al l u po n t he

leaner c harge is p r o port ionately greater Thu s t he benec ial
e ffect of greate r pi s to n s peed m ay be part ly annulled by t he
rel a t ively s t ro nger ac t io n o f t he w all s F u rt he r it is t r ue t h at a
and
s maller c ha r ge weigh t mean s a l o wer co m pre ss io n pre ss u re
t he c o m pa r a t i vely g rea t e r admixtu re of bu rned gas e s a t high
B ot h o f t he s e act ions
s peed s c au s e s a le ss r apid c o mbu s t io n
There a r e t hu s s e veral a nt ago
t en d t o dec r e as e t he e fc ie ncy
and t he nal re s ult is c o n s equent ly i n m any c as e s
n is t ic act io ns
qu i t e p r o ble m a t ic al
Th e n et re s ult o f an inc r e as e in t he cyl i nder wall te m pe r a t u re
or of t he pis t o n s peed or bo t h i n an e x i st ing m ac h ine is cer
t a inly a dec r ea s e of m a x i mu m c apac ity for r e as on s al ready
po i nted o u t F u rt her t he e ffect o f a va r iat io n i n t he te m pe r atu r e
o f t he j acket w ater w hile pe r h ap s n o t quite s o ma r ked i n e ngine s
u s ing gas is cert ainly qui t e n o t iceable i n l iqu id fuel e ngines
e s pec i all y t h o s e u s ing ke r o s ene o r alco hol
I t is qu i t e po ss ible
i n ke r o s ene engine s by ru nning t he j acket t o o c o l d t o i nc r e as e
t he oil co n s u mp t io n s e r i o u s ly by c on d ens at io n o f t he oil vapo r o n
t he c om parat ively c ol d cyli nder s u r face s Th e s ame hol d s t rue o f
alc o hol Thu s h o t wal l s a r e i n s u c h c as e s of u n d oubted be net
Th e l im it s t o t em pe r at u r e a r e o f c o u r s e dec r ea s e o f engine
c apac i t y and d an ge r o f p r e -igni t i o n

f
f
o f i nc r e as ing t he
o
pre
o
h
t
he
o r et ic al
e
ect
T
e
n
ss
i
m
C
3
co m pre ss io n a n d t he c o mmerc ial l imit s t o t hi s inc r eas e h ave
al ready bee n d i s cu ss ed i n Ch apte r I II Muc h o f t he i ncreas ed
e fc iency o f bl a s t furn ace and p r o d uce r g as engi ne s as co m pa red
wi t h illu mi na t i ng gas an d l iqu id fuel engine s is d i r ectly due t o
t he great er c o m p r e s s io ns t h a t t he fo r me r fuel s c an s t and The
abo ve t able of Meye r s r e s ul t s gi ve s s o me ide a o f t he gai n t h a t
c an be m ade w i t h illu mi na t ing g as by i nc r e as i ng t he co m pre ss i o n
Wi t h a c o m p r e ss io n r a t io o f
t he ave r age t he r m al efc iency
pe r cent wit h a rat io o f
t he average w as
pe r
w as
.

33

Anot he r

per ce nt

te s t m ade b y E Meye r
a
hor e po wer engi ne
w hic h w as o pe r ated w i t h ill u mi na t i ng and w it h producer g as
gave t he follo wing r e s ult s :
on

Meye r , Z d
.

J ul y

10

5 , 1 902

PER FORMA NCE

OF GAS

5 33

ENGINES

AL

I N DI C ATE D THE R M

E FF I C I E N C Y

CO MP RE S S IO N R ATIO

Wi t h Ill

um ina

t ing G as

Wit h P d
ro

uc e r

G as

27 1

Here again t he benec i al inuence o f t he higher c o m pres s io n

is marked alt hough t he gain is n o t s o great as i n t he former c as e
o wing t o t he s maller c hange i n t he co m p r e ss io n rat io
O t her ins t ances poi nt ing t o t he s ame r e s ult c an be adduce d
wi t hout difc ult y Se e t he next t able belo w al s o by E Meyer
w h o h as done an i m men s e a mou nt o f work i n t he inve s t igat ion
B anki took advant age o f t he princ i ple i n h is
o f ga s engine s
ga s oli ne engi ne i n whic h by u s i ng water i nject io n he coul d
e mploy c o mpre ss io n rat io s s i mil ar t o t ho s e u s ed i n pro ducer gas
w ork an d real i ze d t herm al efc ien c ie s full y equ al t o t ho s e o h
t a in e d wi t h t he leane r powe r ga s e s
The i nherent advant age o f t he u s e o f le an
4 Th e M i xtu re
mixt u re s h as already bee n s ho wn i n Chapter I II B urs t al l o n
t he ba s i s o f his te st s fo r t he B r it i s h I n st itut i o n of Mec h anic al
E ngineers conc lude s t hat t he t hermal efc ienc y de pe nd s u po n
t he c orrect c hoic e o f t he mixt ure and t h at t he rat io of ai r t o g as
His re s ult s ho we ver do
s houl d i nc reas e w it h t he c o m pre s s io n
n ot denitely warrant t he l atte r part o f t hi s deduct ion alt hough
it nd s s o me s u pport i n t he abo ve -me nt ioned te s t s by Me ye r r
as S ho w n by t he follo w ing t abl e :
,

'

T es

No

Ra

G a s Co n s u m p t io n Cu
P - o ur
t per 1

t i o o f Co m p ress mn

2
g
g
P ro cee d in gs

1 8 98 ,

209

TE Meye r Z d
.

d I
.

1 8 99 ,

36 1

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 34

t able s hows t hat wh atever t he rat io of c o mp r e s s io n t he

The c au s e for
gas c o n s u mpt io n is le ss w it h t he leaner mix t ure s
t his be s ide s t he t heoret ic al reas o n m ay po ss ibly be fou nd i n t he
fact t hat wit h leaner mixtu re s t he maxi mu m te m peratu res i n t he
cycle are lo wer t han wit h ric h mix t u re s al ways a ss u ming o f
cours e t hat t he mixture cont ai ns no excess gas
Ho w t he e f c ienc y o f an engine ma y be a ffected by c arele ss
s ett ing o f t he fuel val ve is wel l s hown i n s o me re s ult s quot e d
by L ucke * The te s t c ited is o n a 1 0 I H P O tt o e ngine
go verned by hit and mi ss
The fuel u sed was c arbureted
water gas
Thi s

G as

Vl

N um

a ve

Ef i

be r

c e nc

8
7
6
5

It

is

qu ite e vident fro m t he gure s t h at t he l as t s et ting was ted

a lot o f u nburned gas while t he leaner mixt u res w ere i nefc ient
prob ably due t o s luggi s h co mbu s tio n The s ame t hing Was
noticed in a s eries o f te s t s o n G e rman al co hol e ngine s i n w hic h
it w as found t hat t he s ett ing o f t he fuel needl e val ve h ad a p ro
n o u n c e d e ffect u po n t he econo my
The effect o n t he appe ar
V a ria ti o n of P o in t of I gn i ti o n
5
ance o f t he diagram o f varyi ng t he po int o f ignit ion h as already
been di s cu s s e d To get s ome idea o f t he i nuence o f varying
t i me o f ignit io n o n engine c apacit y and efc iency t he follo wing
gure s are given Th e rs t s et t was obt ained i n determining

t he range o f adj u s t ment o f t he igniter gear on an 8 x 12 hori

z o n t a l hit -and mi s s engi ne ru nni ng 265 r p m o n nat ural gas
,

L ucke

g ine D e i gn
1 O bt a ine d t h r u gh t h c u r te
S e a ve r M rga n Co Clevel n d

G as E n
o

o
.

sy

f Mr A
.

G o ul d ,

of

t he

W ell man

PER FORM A NCE

k A gl

Cr a n

b lo w h o rizon ta l
at ti m e o f igni t io n
n

In

Fig

brake loa d

at

265 R

47
47

35

33

32

24

23

15

I1
12
13

Th e

Max

8
9
10

5 35

ENGINES

OF GAS

p o ssi

P M

lbs

ble

net
I:

u
u

44 ;
44

ac com panyi ng i ndic at or c ar d s are s hown muc h redu ced

1 71
The s c ale o f S p r ing was 1 6 0 pou nd s
,

FI G

1 71

eco nd se t of gu re s is due t o Mr J R B ibbin s and was

pu bl is he d by hi m in t he Mic higan Te c hn ic fo r Febru ary 1 907
They are here r ep r o d uced by pe r mi ss ion o f t he aut hor obt ai ned
t hrough Mr R D D ay o f t he We s t i ngh o u s e Mac hine Co Th e
te s t s were m ade o n a 9 x
cyl in d er We s t inghou s e ga s engine
2
The l oad w as k
e pt c o n s t ant a t about 70 B H P t he s pe ed w as
hel d c ons t a nt at ab o u t 3 00 r p m
The gas u s e d was n atu ral
The

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

536

a con s t an t lo we r hea t ing value of 9 34 B T U The

po int o f ignit io n w a s c h anged by s t e ps f r o m dead cente r t o 55 d e
gree c rank angle ahead o f t he cen t e r t h a t is t he s pa r k was a d
v a n c e d t o t hat e x ten t
Th e f o l l o w ing t able s ho ws t he re s ul t s :

g as w it h

Pit
I g iti
Dg
ly
o n

of

on

ree s

L d
B H P
oa

R
i
l
RP M p h
aS

er

cu

ear

0
8
20
25
30
35
45
55

B T U p
BH P
'

'

ou r

ft

? Ef
r

T erma
c ie n c

on

h Ol"

B k
ra

y R e lat ive

Ef

ES S

U RES

pe r

LE S
sq m c h
'

70

M ax

Re

1 34 10
1 24 70
1 1 5 30
1 1 4 90
1 09 4 0
1 1 23 0
1 1 5 90
1 4 700

29 2
295
296
296
29 7
297
29 2

c re n c y

PR

815
8 75
94 7

95 1

97 2
94 2
74 2

151
168

ea se

36
36

25 2
25 2
379
4 37

re s ul t s o f t he te s t are s ho w n graphic al ly i n Fig 1 72

Th e be s t lead angle fo r t he s pa r k ing gea r appe ars t o be bet w ee n
30 and 3 5 deg r ee s i n whic h t hi s t e s t ag r ee s clo s ely wi t h t he re
Th e

IO

20

FI G

1 72

PER FORMA NCE

OF

5 37

GA S ENGINES
F ig 1 73

s how s
a s imil a r e ngi ne
t he t ypic al i ndic at or c ard acc o m panying eac h igniter po s it io n
As is t he c as e
6
E n gin e E c o n o m y d e p en d i n g u p on L o a d
i n t he s te am engine t he efc iency o f a g as engine dec reas e s as
t he lo ad dec rea s es belo w t he normal Th e amou nt o f t h is de
c reas e va r ie s in di fferent engine s d e pen ding m ainl y u p o n t he

obt ai ned by Mr Goul d

su lt s

on

mm r l mv

I ON

I ON I TI ON

'

H I ON

I G N I YI ON

I G N I T I ON

s t

M u n ro : 5

ao

43

'

I G N I T I ON

I G N I T I ON

'

FI G

'

"

k ind of fuel u s ed and t he s y s t e m o f go verning em ployed The

fol lo wing se t of c urves F ig 1 74 make s t hi s c lear R ega r ding
t he r ange o f lo ad abo ve n o r mal ho we ver i t is fou nd t ha t w hile
a s team e ngine ge neral ly s ho ws a dec r eas e i n e i c ie nc y fo r o ver
loads t he g as engine u s u ally s h o ws a greate r e fc iency at t he
m axi mu m load t han at t he normal ; i n ot he r wo rd s j u s t as long
as a gas engine kee ps u p t he normal s peed u nder an i nc rea s e in
.

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

5 38

P
.

H
.

B
E

G
I

S d
'

3
'

Q NV

HQ

3
NO

'

4 4:

1 V

WH I H I

O
v.1

PER FORMANCE

OF GAS

539

ENGINES

load t he t hermal e fciency will ri s e wit h t he load A few typic al

ef c iency cu rve s are s ho w n in t he gu re The dat a for t he s e h as
bee n col lected fro m variou s s ources as s hown i n t he ac co mpany
ing t able :
.

Cu rve
No

T pe

of

Deutz

E gi

BHP

g le

50

S in
Cy lin d e

ne

R PM
.

200

1 00

F l

ue

o ve rnin

Th ro ttlin
Ga s

1 11 G a s
.

R e f e re n c e

270

N at u a l
G as
P od u c e
Gas

4 50

R o be

Mix

r ttlin g

Th

E Me y e ,
Z d V d I
1 898

W e tin h u e
3 -c y
Ve rt
Deutz

rt n
so

1 899

r
n
ti re pl a nt

G u a a ntee
Fig fo r

G ii ld n e r , S in
cy lin d e

rn be rg

Nu

g le

35

220

P ro d uce r
G as

ro ttlin g

Th

1200

1 06

15

D ie el
H rn by-Ak
o

Banki

11

H it & Mi s

12

28 5

Al c o h o l

70

1 58

R u ss i a n

8
25

ro y d

Mas c h inen

Alc o h o l

as

1 905
s

Th

rottlin g

E Meye
Z d V d I
1 90 3
.

oss

cy lin d e r
D ie sel

235

De u t z S in gle

9
10

S w id e rs ki S in gle
cy lin d e

1 904
1 906 ,

gene rat r
B la t
Th r ttl in g R ie d le r
-G
F u r n a ce
G
Gr
Gas

G ii ld ne r ,
fo r l a nt in
c lu in

as

J osse

27 5
202

25

21 0

K e ro sene

Cu t -o ff

K e ros ene
Gaso line

it h wate r
injecti o n

Re

gulatin g

O il
H it &

R o bin so n ,
1 89 8

Mi ss

J o n as

a nd

Ta bo rs ky
Z d Oest
A c h & I ng
V , 1 900
.

r
.

Acc ou nt ing for t he heat furnis hed

H ea t B a l a n c e
t o a heat engine is c alled c on s t ruct ing t he Hea t B a la nc e I n an
i nternal co mbu s t i o n engine t he heat s u pplied t o t he engine is t hat
co nt ai ne d in t he fuel fu r nis hed t o t he engi ne i n a give n ti me
Fo r co nvenienc e all heat ca lcu latio ns a re refe rr ed to s o me
u s u ally r oo m temperatu re
I t is u s ual
s ta ndard tem pe r a tu re
t o ac co unt fo r t he heat i n fou r sep arat e items :
1
Heat repres ented i n i ndicated wo rk
2
Heat c a rried o ff i n th e j a cket water
7

Th e

IN TERNA L COM B US TION

54 0

ENGI NES

Heat lo s t i n e xhau s t
4
Heat lo s s due t o radi at io n c onduct io n et c
O f t hes e t he rs t and seco nd ite m s ad mit o f ac curat e determi na
t io n t he fou rt h is nearly al w ays fou nd by di fference bet we e n t he
s u m o f t he ot her t hree ite m s and t he heat s u pplied
I te m t hree
I t s c al cul at io n
is muc h more difcult o f exact determinat io n
i n vol ve s t he determinat io n o f t he weight of exhau s t g as e s and of
t he s pec ic heat of t he s e g as e s at exh au s t te m peratu re
The o nly ac curate way to nd t he weight of t he exh au s t
gas e s is by metering or ot herwi s e determining t he air s u pply t o
t he engine The weight o f t he exhau s t g as e s is i n all c as e s t he
w eight o f air plu s t he weight o f t he fuel
The r e are t wo ot her way s s o met i me s e m ployed but eit her o ne
c an o nly give approxi m ate re s ult s O ne o f t he s e dete r mines t he
c harge w eig ht fro m t he pis to n di s pl ace me nt This i nvol ves
( a ) The volu met ric efc iency o f t he s uct io n s t r oke and
( b) S o me ass u mpt io n as t o t he te m pe rat ure of t he c ha rge at
t he e nd o f t he s uct ion s troke
I t is po ss ible t o dete r mine t he volu met ric e fc ienc y w it h fair
ac cu r acy by mea ns o f a weak s p r ing c a rd but t he s eco nd po int
o ff e rs muc h mo re difc ult y The c h arge at t he end o f t he s uctio n
s t r oke t aking t he c as e o f a gas e ngine co n s i s t s of a ce r t ain a mou nt
o f air o f f r e s h g as and of bu rned ga s e s fro m t he c lea r ance
Th e
e nte r ing te m perat u re of ai r and o f g as c an be accu r ately dete r
mined but t he te m pe r at u re of t he mixtu re as it e n t e rs t he c y lin
de r c hange s due t o co nt act wit h t he hot wall s and t o mi x ing
wit h t he clea r ance g ase s N ot hing is denitely k no wn o f t he
weight o f t he c lea r ance g as es fo r alt hough t hei r p re ss u re and
volu me are k nown not hing is k no w n o f t he te mpe r atu r e Hence
neit he r t he w all e ff ect no r t h at due t o t he c lea r ance ga s e s c an be
denitely gaged and all t e mpe rat u re co mput at ion s t he refo re
beco me approximate The only po s it ive w a y o f dete r mining
t he tem pe rat u re at t he e nd of t he s uct io n s t r oke is by actu al
meas u r ement Thi s h as be e n s uc ce ss fully done but t he appa r at u s
is not s u c h as coul d well be e m ployed i n o r dinary te s t ing
I t mu s t be e vident t here fo re t hat pi st o n dis pl ace ment me as
u re m e n t o f t he w eight o f t he exh au s t ga s e s c an be approximate
o nl y To c ite a c as e in po int t he te s t o f B rook s and S tewart
ment io ned i n Chapter V s howed an act u al r at io of air t o gas o n
3

PER FO R MA NCE
te s t of

EN GINE S

OF GAS

while pi s to n di s pl ace ment c o mput at io n

54 1
s

ho wed

econd appro xi mat e co mput at io n fo r t he weight of t he

exhau s t gase s is bas ed u po n t he e x hau st gas analys i s Th e
met h o d o f doing t his h as been expl ained i n det ail i n Chapter V I
The t r ou ble w i t h t hi s s c heme l ie s i n t he difcult y o f obt aining
repre s ent at i ve gas s amples But g r ant ing even t hat t hes e are
o bt ained
it is of t en fou nd t h at co m put at ion s bas ed u po n t he
analys e s S h o w an e x ce ss c o e i c ie nt s mal le r t h an t hat really u s ed
That is t he w eight o f e x h au s t g as e s s o dete r mined is le s s t han
t he act u al amou nt Thu s S c h Ot t le r i n co m put at io n o n s o me
b as ed u po n analy s i s t he
o f S l aby s te s t s s ho w s i n one c as e t h at
exce ss c o e fc ien t was
while i n re al it y it was
S c h Ot t le r
att ribute s t hi s di s c re panc y t o a c h ange i n t he analys i s due t o a
bu r ning u p of t he lu b r ic at ing oil whic h is apt t o inc re as e t he
CO2 c o nte nt o f t he exh au s t g as at t he expen s e of t he pe rcent age
of 0
I t h as been s ho wn t hat a variat ion i n t he s u ppl y o f lubri
c at ing o il may c h ange t he fuel c o ns u m pt io n u nde r c i r cu m s t ance s
quite materially and S c h bt t le r s s u r mi s e is t herefo re p r obably
co rrect At t he s ame t i me howe ver any s uc h e ff ect mu s t be
mo re m a rked in t he s m aller m ac hi ne s and t he w r iter believe s
t ha t given rep re s ent at i ve s am ple s o f exhau s t gas f ro m any
t hing but t he s mal l m ac hine s i n co nj u nct io n w it h ac c urate fuel
analy s i s a ve r y clo s e app roxim at io n t o t he act u al weight of
t he exh au s t g as e s c an be obt ained At any rate t he met hod
s houl d be mo re ac cu r at e t h an t h at bas ed o n pi s t o n diS p la c e
ment
F i nal l y it s hou ld not be forgotten t h at even an ac cu rat e
dete r mi na t io n o f t he air s u ppl y s t ill leave s o pe n t he ques t io n o f
t he s p ec i c heat o f t he exh au s t gase s
The he at bal ance o f t he fo u r item s abo ve out lined is s o met i me s
s hort ene d t o t h r ee by co mbining item s 3 and 4 a n d dete r mi ning
t heir s u m by d iff e rence O n t he ot he r h and a bal ance o f m any
mo re ite m s c an be d raw n u p Thu s e ac h e vent of t he cyc le m ay
be ex amined by it s el f and t he heat and ene rgy i n t e r c h ange s be
A very d et ailed bal ance o f t hi s k ind is gi ven in
dete r mi ned

S c h Ot t le r s
D ie G as ma s c hi ne
p 321 Ho w far t hi s que s t io n
needs t o be e nte red int o de pend s alt oget her u po n t he i m po rt ance
o f t he te s t but an e ffo rt s houl d be m ade i n eve ry c as e t o s o a rr ange
Th e

I N TE R NA L

54 2

COM B U S TION ENGINES

t he apparatu s t hat at le as t a heat bal anc e of t he k ind rs t d is

cu ssed c an be d r a w n u p f ro m t he re s ult s o f t he tes t

By t h is
R
8
e s u lt s of Te st s of E n gin e s a n d Ga s P ro d u c e r s
term is he re meant t he re s ult s s hown by engine s o r producers
when o pe rated u nde r no r mal co ndit ions and at or near normal
l o ad Th e nu mber o f t e st s f ro m w hic h t h is dat a c an be obt aine d
is at t he p re s ent w r i t ing qu i t e l a rge and s o me not able collection s
o f t e s t da t a have been m a d e
The mo s t exten s ive is pe rh aps t h at

c on t ained i n Appen d ix A o f B ri an Do nkin s G as O il and Air

E ngine s
Thi s collec t io n c on s i s t s o f eleve n t able s arranged
ac cording t o fuel u s ed c o nt aining i n all s o me 28 0 t e st s Anot he r
l a rge collectio n is t hat fou nd appe nded t o Wit z s Moteu rs a G as

e t a P t role
S u c h collect ion s are valu able as s ho w i ng wh at
h as been done a n d s e r ve as a gu ide as t o wh at m ay be ex pected
f ro m an engine u nde r de s ign o r cons t r uct ion The great es t c are
ho weve r s houl d be exe r ci s ed t o s ee t hat o nl y rel iable d at a is
i nco r po r ated
E N G I N E TE S TS Table I ( pp 5 4 4 and 54 5 ) c ontain s a
Th e
s e r ie s o f engine te s t
dat a t aken f ro m va r iou s s ou rce s
t e st s a re a r ranged acco r ding t o t he kind of fuel u s ed t h is
be ing t he mo s t logic al way I n s o me c a s e s n o t all t he dat a
is gi ven i n t he o r iginal re po rt
Whe reve r poss ible co mput at ion s
h ave been m ade t o make t he item s co mple t e I n many c as e s
howeve r no t en o ugh i nfo r mat ion is gi ven t o pe r mit o f t hi s and
t he reco r d nece ss arily re main s incomplete
T E S TS O F PR O DU C E R S A N D PR O D U C E R P L A N TS Table I I
p 5 4 6 give s s ome o f t he re s ult s obt ained o n te s t s o f p r oducers
I n s o me c as e s t he te st s refe r t o p r odu ce rs only givi ng no dat a
rega r ding t he engine us ed ; i n ot he rs t he dat a is fairly c o m plete
for t he e n t i re pl ant
.

P ERF OR MAN CE OF GAS

I n co ncl us io n

F ig 1 75

ENGIN ES

54 3

ho ws a se t o f c urve s drawn by C H
in 1 905 d uring a n i nve s tigat io n o n the eco no my o f prod u ce r
D ay _
cu
r
ve
S ho w t he rel at io n bet w een c ubic feet o f gas u s ed
s
Th
as
e
g
a nd brake ho rs e
po w er for va r io u s kind s of ga s W hile it mu s t
be u nders tood t hat t hey are appro xi mat e o nly t hey re pre s ent
a fair general a verage of w h at is ac co m pl i s hed to -d a y Many
plant s S ho w m uc h bett er fuel co ns um pt io n b ut oth ers S how
,

FI G

1 75

c o rre s po ndingly wo rs e The c urve s al s o S ho w i n a meas ure t he

s i ze s u p t o whic h t he variou s engine s are bu ilt
Thu s an illu
m in at ing gas engine o f 1 5 0 ho rs e -po wer is a l arge engi ne o f it s
ty pe P roducer pl ant s i n 1 905 apparent ly were not built muc h
l arger t h an 500 ho rs e -po wer while nat ural gas and bl as t furnace
s w e r e bu ilt e x ceeding 1 000 hors e -power
a
engin
e
and for t h e
s
g
l att er gas 2000 and 3000 hors e -p o wer is not n o w o u t o f o r d ina r y
.

'

Kind

of

N a me
of
n ine

F l
ue

Eg

fi{t

S ro
Inc

t g G as
Ill umina tin g G as
Ill umin a t i ng G as
Il l umina ting G as
I llu mina t in g G as
Ill umina t ing G a s
I ll u min t ing G as
I ll umina t ing G as
N a t ur al G as
N a t ur al G as
N a t ur a l G as
N a t u ra l G as
I l umina in

P
P
P
P

ro

d
d
d
d

ro

eu

G ii ld ner

B a ki
T
g
n

an

Cro ss e y
es in

W
W

t gh o use
es t ingho use

S no w

a lra

th

oo

ng

es

ro

uc e r

G as

K ti g

li

a so

aso

li
li

eu

Cro ss le y
Cro ss le y
N II rn be rg

a r an

r n

ne

aso

ne

aso

ne

e rose ne

e rose n e ,
e ro se n e .

uss ia n

u ss a n

er

er

er

co
co

co

5 44

o
o

vo l

vo l

87

eu

Co

9
12

ar e n e

oe t

S
S

1
i
i

1 62

D
S
S

5 13

.
p

4
4
4
1

o
e

h
k
A

yl

tz

d
d

2 p is o ns in
1 c in e r

10
69

s o ne

M i f ld
K ti g
Ba ki

O
O

2 ( p p o se )
2 ( p p o se )
2 ( Ta n e m )

ese

vo l

1 01

Di l

24
36

ese

t e ve nso n
H orns by
H orns by

O il

235

65

erose ne

1 49

e se

ac

e ro se n e

36

3 56

d k
Bl k t

e ro se ne

em

S wi e rs i
K o e r t ing

ero se n e

l
l
l
l

2 ( Ta n

26

D iml
D i ml
D iml
Di l
Di l
Di l
ro

e rose ne

30

ese

e ro se ne

h
Al h
Al h
Al h

25

o use

G b

Alc o

er

e ro se ne

14

Pries t m a n

13

erose ne

Cru

G li
G li
G li
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
aso

18

B l A h lt
k l
Fib k
Sp i g l d
L zi
W t i gh
Ba k i

aso lin e

150

'

es

G as e r in - n
G as Coc e ril

ne

i
'

tz

u rn a c e

ne

16 1

G as

a so lin e

26

urn ac e

ne

Do u ble Act

200
235

48

o use

O e c h e lh ause r
( B o rs ig )

a so

or

m
m
m

25

oe t

30

W ti h

ur n a c e

y c le

25

() u

Cro ss le y

as

19
15

10

G as

as

uce r

as

10

G as

as

gl

G uld ner

uc e r

on

Cy

of

Sin

R D W d

as

tz

G as

dG
dG
t F
t F
t F

No

o r 4 -c

uc e r

on

A N U

Koe rting

ro

M
M
Bl
Bl
Bl
G
G
G
G
G

E D I U IV D

b
u

1
1
1

4
4
4

S
S
S

1
1
1
1
l

4
4
4
4
4

S
S
S
S
S

n
n
c a
r

oo
u
c
G
c

O
G

i
I

e
e
s

N
O
C

S
S
S
S

.
s

m
i

N
U

1000

15 8 8

1 72

249
222
240
200

27 6 9
19 7 6

/
C
I

225

V AL U E

l b bT

0 81

D I S TR I B U TIO N

OF

B T U
.

70

e erenc es and Re mar ks

R f
I

HP
.

HP
.

5 12;

Lb

Cu ft
.

Ja cke t

gi
H

V g

5 72

580

t by

85
86
76

12

6 80
597 4

35

28 6

14

M h
Z t h ft
t

De L a
er ne
a c ine
Co Ca t
Wim p linger
e i sc r i
d V d I Se p 8 , 1 9
Du bbe l,
d V d
N o v 3 190 6
Te s
S c h rot e r , Z d
V d I
u ne
1 904
Sc him a ne k Z d
d
Ja n 1 7 1903
Wl t l 1 90 2
C er
1 894
a in e r
u n , Si e
Co e e T e sis, 1904
i
ns ,
J R
Dec 1 90 3
as in s
a r e r,
Sib
Co l T e sis 1 90 1
un in
S ib Co l T esis ,
1 902
ee r
V a n e la in
Sib
Co l T e s is 1902
o
sm i
Hart wi
S ib Co l T e s s 1 90
a l in er
un ,
Sib
Co l T es is 1 904
u m p re
I ns
ec
n s
1 900
e er
our
iii r G a s
B e le n c h t u ng
1 900
E
e er
1 903

l k
B ll g
H t bl y
ll g h
B bbi
H t g
P k
l h
H t g
l h
G
l h
G ld t h
l h i
B l g
H t
l h
H h y
t M h
Eg
M y J
M y
E
M y
.

6 18

5 50

89

1000

108 6

20 2

49 5

104 1

24 2

1 69

1 45

70

33

90 1 3

83

34 1

48 1

3 13

71

81
765 ( ne t )

70 4
6 28
( B lo wing
Cy l)

1 13
376

79 5

e r.

1 35
1

83

20 4

18200

64

20078

64

'

es s ,

28

20 8 1
88
8 6

1 7500
17500
1 7500
1 8 60 4
1 86 10
18 6 10
19 800

ew
m
pe
m
aN
o
c g

p
I

19 3

w
0

p ro f
Ca m bri

Am

M y
e

dg

e,

e r,

H tm
1 8 95
H tm

an,

ar

19 800

6 07

31

19 6 00
18 000
1 8 000
1 8 60 0

1 8870

55

13

18

E
g
1
Rb

Eg
R b
Eg
,

K b y
l kPp
K b ly a
P
E M y
Zd Vd
A p i l 1903
.

1 9 4 00

'

V
V
V

9900
9900
9900
9700

1 895 , p 6 1 6
Sc h bt t le r, die
C a sma
sc h t ne
p 20 7
n inee rin ,
Vo l
88,
18 99
o inso n
1893, G as
Pe t
n ines p 702
o inso n
1898 . G a s
n ines p 7 1 0
Pe t
im e rle
C ar
er
im e r e ,
is ,
Co ,
o we r , O c t 1 90 6
.

10
4 15
3 05
12 44

a n,

ar

Di l E

Z d
586
Z d

1 906
e se

M a y 1 903

ere in ,

Ho p kinso n

e ric a n

Co

ne

gi

o rs

Ar c h & I ng
5 1 2, 1 900

Ca t

es s ,

es

es s ,

ona s

e n,

ne

as

arr o

er,

es s,

or

ee e

1 8 5 20

asc

a rc

oo

er

er

es

an
ro s s - a s

e r,

re

e r,

m p h y T t S h t t
H
1 l Z J 1902
Ri d l
G g m hi
p 1 58
E M y
Z 1 899 p 4 48
H b t M h 1 900
El w d F d G w
S ib C l l T h i
1 907
K l y S p i Sib C ll
Th i
1 900
B
S p id
Sib
ll T h i 1 902
Gl g w
P wl y Sib
C ll T h i
1902
J
T b
ky Z
u

9 63

ne n ,

54 5
5 75
7 23

14 27

29

Fe b 1905 Tes N o VI I b

36 4
1 1 86

87

er ,
,

Sm
2
$
o
.

E
2 E
o
3

a ;o >m

v
a
n

E5
n

m
um
m
y

0 :

% Bm

OI !

m 0
u
m5

m
.

h
.

:
c

83

9 0

2 3
.

3 2
S B5
a

8 8

3
3

3m

w
.

3
Z 4

8m

8u

m:
v
8
o

2 ; 3

5
a
o

33

3
.

3 e
2 zw
o

E0

12 S
S m

8
83

B8

EM
L
3
a

m
5

m
a

32o

z 6

0 %N
d M2 w

3 2
3
2
526 5
0 3
:
0

c
o ;

7 0 t

28

E
h k
3
e

v
m

w5

m
a

Bc
.

a
.

I I I I I

II

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I

m
a
m

8
9
9

38
5

om
0

0
m

m S
.

m
a
m

w
a
c
u

o
m

e?

mm

$1 Q $ v
w3
8 : 8

o
m
m3
; mf
m:

B
9

d m6
a m
m
m
w

Il l I Il l

M3

E5

m
o

2
5

6
5

m
m

HD

o
n

lb

N
.

w )
ww

O o

I I I I I

m
m

I
2

h
o

x
o

a
c

i 5

<

<

8 5

:w

Eo

<

3
0

a
o

m
3

8
<

m
o

3
.

Q
M

@
0
0

36

8$ 8
o

a
c

223

2
8

n
a

v c

6
.
.

a e

k
h
.
.

3
2

5
m
.

n
0

ww
s

5
5
.

$
3
.

S
c
o
z v
.
a
o

5
8

8
oa
2
o

mm

38
0

2
2

2 3 ow
5 2E
3 5a E33

5 <

<

25
0

m
.

8
m

S
m

m
a

c
a

6
mm

m
m8
m6
m

2m

w
d

m
g

v
6
mm

W
.

a
n

50

h
m

CH APT ER XV II I

C O ST

O F I N S T A L L A TI

dN A N D

OF O PE

R A T I ON

of Pro d u c e r s a n d En gin e s
Wit h t he approac h t o
st andardiz at ion o f t he design o f t he intern al c ombust ion engine
t he r e has also come a t enden cy t oward st and ard prices Th e
gu r e s available however fo r anyt hing but sm al l engines are not
plent iful T his is no doubt d ue t o t he fact t hat large inst al lat ions
a re as yet not n umerous and informat ion is c orrespondingly
T he writer has been able t o glea n t he following data
S carce
from current lit erat ure :
PR O D U CE R S
T he Ga s E ngin e J une 1 906 gi ves t he follow
ing gures for prod ucers :
P r e ssu r e P r od u c ers erected com plet e but n ot i ncl uding freight
-power fo r hard coal
2
5
2
per
horse
and
per
horse
power for
7
$
$
soft c oal producers T hese gures are for si zes i n t he neighbor
hood o f 3 00 horse-power T he c ost is dist rib ut ed approxi matel y
a s follows :
25 per cent i n t he producer
1 5 per cent i n t he sc rubber
3 0 per cent i n t he gas holder
3 0 per cent i n piping and ttings
I

Cost

T he increased c ost o f t he bit u minous c oal plant i s m ainly due t o

great er cost of washing apparat us
S u c tion Ga s P la n ts will o n a rough est imat e cost onl y about
o n e -half t he above
T he reason s for t his are great er c apac it y o f
prod ucer and t he el iminat ion of t he gas holder On e m aker gives
t he following approximat e gures for t he p ri ce of suction gas
plant s from 25 t o 250 horse-power
.

Price

per horse -pow er

$ 11

Hp
.

T hus a 25 horse-power pl ant wo uld cost

per horse-power
and o ne of 25 0 horse -power
per horse-power I n t he
writer s experienc e pract ice agrees fairly well wit h t hese gures
,

54 7

I N TE R NA L COM B US TI O N EN GI N ES

54 8
E NG I N E

Th e

c o s t o f s tat ionary gas engines at pres ent

s eem s t o range fro m about $ 70 per hor s e -power for very s mal l
engine s t o in t he neighborhood of $ 25 per hors e
power for
large ones R ecent quot at ion s o n producer-gas engines for in
s tan c e s howed t he c o s t t o be about $ 55 pe r hor s e -power fo r a
1 0 hor s e-power engine and $ 3 6 per hors e -power for a 5 0 hors e
power mac hine Th e latter is however a com parat ively l ow
price for an engine of t hi s s i ze The price of l aun c h engine s is
frequently lo w er t han t hi s f r o m $ 5 0 per hors e-power for t he s mal l
engine t o about $ 20 per hors e-power for an engine of 25 t o 3 0
h o rs e -po wer The co s t o f D ie sel engine s run s s omew hat higher
varying probably bet w een $ 50 and $ 90 per hors e-po w e r depend
ing upon s i ze N one o f t he s e gure s inc l ude co s t of erect ion
S uc tion Ga s P la n ts R ecent quot at ion s for plant s of t hi s
type have been for a 1 0 hors e -power plant w hic h is below t he
o r dinary co mm erc ial s i ze $ 90 per ho r s e-power for a 5 0 ho r s e
power pl ant $ 5 1 per hors e -power an d again $ 6 1 per ho rs e-po we r
and for a 7 5 hors e -power plant $ 5 3 per horse-power

Th e co st o f erect ion va r ie s largely

o
t
of
r
t
o
i
E
e
c
n
2
C s
wit h t he s i ze of t he foundation s R egarding t he latt er t he r e
s eem s t o be no definit e proport ionalit y between it and t he s i ze
I n general o f cou r s e ve r t i cal engine s do not
o f t he engine
require a s large o r a s hea vy a foundat ion a s ho r i zont al engine s
but t he condit ion o f t he g r ound h as a great deal t o do w it h t he
final co s t G iild n e r e st imate s t hat from 1 5 t o 20 c ubic feet o f
foundation pe r brake ho r s e-po w e r o f engine s hould be s ufficient
i n t he o r dina r y ca s e if t he g r ound is s afe F o r large mac hine s
however t hi s may even be a s low a s 8 c u ft pe r B H P The
t ot al co s t of erect ion and st art ing s hould not e x ceed about 3 per
cent o f t he pu r c ha s e p r ice i n t he ca s e o f ga s ol ine and ga s engine s
an d s hould n ot be over 5 per cent i n t he ca s e o f producer ga s
plant s The s e gure s agree fairl y wel l wit h t he e s t i mate s made
by H A Clark in
Thi s item is a pt t o vary wit hi n
3 P i p in g a n d Au xil ia ri e s
w ide li mit s e s pec ial ly i n prod ucer ga s plant s where m uc h de
pen d s upon t he locat ion o f t he prod ucer plant wit h referenc e t o
.

'

V er b rennun gs m o t o ren p
TH Ad e Cl ark The Dies el
,

1 90 3

4 33

En

gine P ro cee d in gs
,

of

Me c ha n ic a l E n g inee rs ,

O F I N S TA L L A TI O N

COS T

O F O P ERA TION

AN D

54 9

t he engine I n a no r mal ca s e 5 per cent o f t he co s t p r ice o f t he

engine or plant s hould co ver t he co s t Thi s ho w eve r d oe s not
inc l ude t he co s t of a n air com p r e s s or s ys t em if t hi s is required t o
s t a rt t he plant

Th e c o s t o f bui lding s is
loor
B
il
d
i
n
F
u
Sp a c e a n d
4
gs
int im at ely c onnecte d wit h t he oo r s pac e requi r e d by t he plant
bu t out s ide of t hi s not hing ve r y deni t e c an be s ai d of t he c o s t o f
t he building s inc e eve r yt hing depend s u po n t he c on s t ruct ion
us ed Th e co s t ba s e d o n t he s quare foot of oor s pace may va r y
f r o m about
fo r a plain bric k b uilding w i t h s t eel roof t o
Am ong t he gure s
fo r a modern s teel c oncret e s t r uct ure
a vailable are t he follo w i ng A H Clark in t he a rt i cle already
ment ioned e st i mate s t he c o s t of building a s follow s :
,

T pe

of

E gi
n

E gi
P
3333 5?

Co st

of

ne ,

st

ne

P ro d u c e r G a s
D ie s el
Prod uce r G a s
D ie s el
Prod uce r G a s
D ies e l

640
4 40
93 0
6 85

35
35
80
80
1 60
1 60

27
16
21
16
16
11

88 0

G iild n e r ,

i n making a s imilar e s ti mat e co m bine s t he c o s t of

building and o f nece s s ary founda t ion s fo r t he engine a n d pro
E xp r e ss ing t hi s c ombined c o s t i n pe r cent o f t he c o s t o f
d uc e r
pl ant and a cce ss orie s t he f o llowing t able s how s t he r e s ult s :
,

H
y

T pe

orse -p o we r o f

Pl t
an

Pl t
an

10

15

20

25

30

27
I llumin a t in g G as E ngine
S u c t io n G a s Pla n t Co m p le t e 30
.

22

20

19

18

26

24

22 5

21

40

50

16

15

19

18

100

1 25

15 0 1 75

13

13

13

13

15

15

15

14 5

200

17

Tu r n ing

13

next t o t he oor s pac e requi r ed t he r e is c on s ide r able

dat a avail able in t he literat u r e publi s hed Collaborat ing t h e
,

Pres s u re p rod u c e r

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

550

figure s given by manufact urers for t he oor s pace required for

hori zont al s ingle-cylinder ga s ga s oline and o il engine s and fo r
s uct ion ga s producer s
we obt ain Curve s I and I I I o f Fig 1 81
,

H
8
R
E
P

C
A
S

O
O

9
:

L
F
F

O
.

T
F

Q
S

20

40

60

80

100
B

120
E

RAK

FI G

1 40

HORS E
.

1 8
1

1 60

1 80

W ER

200

920

240

260

PO

I t s hould be r emembe r ed in connect ion wit h t he s e curve s how

ever t hat t hey r ep r e s en t ave r age gu r e s onl y a n d t hey c an t he r e
fore give only app r oxi ma t e r e s ult s F o r e x ample a 20 B H P
,

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION A ND O F O PE R A TION

5 51

uction ga s producer will according to Curve I o c c upy a p p ro xi

m a t el y 20 X 2
4 0 s q ft o f oo r s pace s a y a s pa c e 9 X 4 %ft ;
1 60
s i mila r ly a 200 B H P in s t al lation would requi r e 200 X 8
sq
ft
I n like manner Curve I I I give s t he app r oxim ate floor s pace
Thu s a 5 B H P ga s oline engine of
fo r ho r i z o n t al engine s
20 s q ft
sa y a
s t anda r d mak e w oul d p r obably requi r e 5 X 4
s pace 3 ft by 6 ft ; w hile a 1 5 0 B H P p r o d ucer o r ill uminat ing
Th
2
2
sq ft
e c urve d oe s n o t
5
a
o
r
1
s
engine
c
al
l
s
f
50
X
g
incl ud e mult i -c ylinder engine s bec au s e th e avail able gu r e s fo r
th is t y pe of engin e a r e ve r y e rr at ic F o r t he s ame rea s on n o
c urve coul d be d r a w n for vert ical engine s
While Curve s I and I I I r ep r e s ent t he s pace act ually oc c upied
by t he plan t t hey give no idea o f t he s i ze of t he p r o duc e r o r
engine roo m r equi r ed I n t he prod uce r room s pace m u s t be left
fo r t he p r oper cleaning of t he p r oducer et c and in t he engine
roo m s pace fo r di s mant l ing e t c On t hi s point t he only in for
mat ion t hat s eem s a vailable is t hat given by G iild n e r in h is e s t i
m a t e s t he re s ul t s o f wh ic h are pl o t ted in Curve s I I an d I V of
F ig 1 8 1
Th e fo r me r s ho w s t he approximat e room al lowan ce
fo r s uc t i o n ga s appa r a t u s t he la t t er for hori zont al s ingle -c ylinder
engine s ba s ed o n o n e b r ake ho r s e-power i n eac h ca s e
Th e da t a a vailable fo r p r e ssu r e p r od u c e r s is not s o exten s i ve
a s t hat fo r s uc t ion p r o duce r s
I n t he fo r me r plant s m uc h depen d s
u pon t he s ize o f t he ga s holde r O ut s ide of t hi s t he s pace re
q uired fo r s uct i o n and p r e ss u r e p r od ucers s hould n ot vary g r eat l y
Th e gu r e s at han d s eem t o ind icat e t hat p r e ss ure prod ucer
plant s inc l u d ing t he gas holder o f f r om 3 0 t o 4 0 ho rs e -po w e r
occ upy 7 5 pe r cent more s pace t ha n s u ct ion plant s o f l ike c apacit y
As t he po w e r i nc r ea s e s t he di ffe r enc e g r o w s le ss a pl ant of 1 00
h ors e-po w e r requi r ing appa r ent l y onl y abou t 5 0 pe r cent m ore
s pa ce
and o n e o f 1 7 5 ho rs e-po w er only 20 per cent m ore
Th e m in im u m h ea d r oom t e t he height o f t he room r equired
fo r ei t he r t ype of plant s eem s t o vary fro m 1 2 f t i n t he s mal l 20
h ors e -po w er plant t o 1 8 f t in t he l arge 250 hors e -p o w er prod ucer
I n P ow e r fo r Ap r il 1 90 7 L L B r ewer publi s hed t h e foll owing

table o f P r ac t i cal D at a fo r Modern G a s E ngine s

Th e t able
gi ve s in c o l um n 1 3 figu re s fo r t he floor s pace requi red by engine s
l a rger t ha n t ho s e s o far di s c us s ed T h e lett ers in col um n 7 h ave
s

I NTE R NA L CO M B USTI O N EN GIN ES

552

the following mea n ing :

d t d d ouble t an d em
.

tw

t win ; t d t andem ;
.

M M

5
3

E
:
T
E
8

k ill
k ill
k ill
er

er

D tz
D tz
D tz
C k ill
O h lh
D tz
D tz
er

eu
eu

eu

oc

er

ec

au se r

eu
eu

Koe rt in g

D tz
eu

b g

N u rn e r
Oe c he lhh u se r
Koe r ting
Co c eril

k l

1
1
2
l
2
4
l
2
1
2
4
1
l
2
4
4
2
2
2

m
E

'

52

a
r

2 3

%
s
H J

'

r.
e

'

5m

8 5

mc

w
n
s

w
n

'

295
38 3
4 84
5 12
38 6
318
3 10
3 27
258
5 60

0
o
t 0

0
0

?
"

o5

P
9
H

D
\
[

NN.
30 7
24 6
230
21 2
1 70

n
s

P
Q

'

5 31

5 40
5 40

13

"

12

: 29

31

8
v

as
m e

$ 9

H
.c

13 g

Es ;

Co c
Co c
Co c

c5

x
c

13

11

10

It

ingle cyl inder ;

s
;

15 0
1 05
150
120
1 20
1 40
80
1 30
1 10
1 30
1 30
1 10
90
80
1 30
1 20
1 10
1 10
1 10

_
3

a 3

s e

om

66 1
706
35 3
55 1
4 47
394
7 34
4 87
4 25
37 1
34 2
297
5 38
4 88
322
264
248
21 8
1 64

w
d

bN
n

N
N
w
oO
c

bN
o
h
c
$
ow
a

;
D
5
G

O
C

D
C

bo
t
u

be noted f r om c ol u mn 6 t hat t he r e is onl y o n e double

a ct ing fou rcyc le engine i n t he li s t Th e la r ge engine s cited a r e
al l s ingle
act ing t w i n o r tandem o r d oubl e engine s I t would
n at u r al ly be a ss u med t hat t he l at er t ype s o f large four-cycle
engine s w hic h are nea r l y al w ay s double act ing t andem or
double -act ing t w in t andem mac hine s s houl d s how a decrea s e
i n t he oo r s pac e r equi r ed a s c om pa r ed wit h t he gu r e s in
An i n d ic a t i on of t he s aving in bot h weight and
c ol um n 1 3
oo r s pace t hat m ay be e ffected by a d op t ing t he double
a ct ing
p r inciple is given by t he gu r e s for t he 1 4 00 B H P d o uble
ac t ing t andem Cocke r ill engi ne in t he la s t l ine o f t he t able Th e
s aving t he r e s how n is rema r k able and t he w r ite r h a s not been
a ble t o c heck it in t he ca s e of ot he r engine s t he de s ign of w hic h
h a s been c hanged f r om t he t win or d oubl e-t w in s ingle
act ing t o
t he d ouble -a c t ing tandem Th e rea s on fo r t hi s proba bl y is t ha t
oppo s ed s ingle -a ct ing engine s us ual ly wo r k wit hout a cro ss -head ,
w ill

COS T O F INS T A LLA TION

AN D

O F O PERA TION

553

w hile double-act ing cylinders demand t he us e o f t he s ame H ence

t he t ot al lengt h of engi ne is n ot c hanged materially

The t ot al c o s t of operat ion c on s i s t s

5 Co st of O pe ra tio n
o f t he following item s :
(a ) I nte r e s t on c apital
(b) D ep r eciat ion o f P lant a nd B uilding s
(0 ) I n s urance
(d ) F uel Co s t
(e) Co s t of Cooling Water
(f ) L ubric at ing O il and Wa s te
(g) Att endance
(h ) Maintena nce a nd R epairs
Of t he s e t he rs t t hree item s are u s ual ly called t he xed
c ha rge s
and t he la s t ve t he op er a ting o r wor ks c o st Th e s u m
of xed c ha r ge s and wo r k s c o s t is t he tota l o p er a tin g c o s t
(a ) I N T ER E S T O N CA P I T A L The u s ual allowan ce in t hi s count ry
for intere s t o n capita l is 6 per cent
There is litt le
(b) D E P R E CI A T I O N O F P L A N T A N D B U I L D I N G S
doubt t hat a s far a s ga s produce r s are c once r ned t he wear and
t ea r on t hi s part of t he plant is m uc h le ss t han it is on a boiler
plant o f t he s ame capacit y On t he ot her hand t he s t re ss e s i n a
ga s engine are gene r al ly higher t hrougho ut t han t ho s e i n a s t ea m
engine o f t he s a me po w e r and t hi s nat ural ly lead s t o a s hort er
life and con s equent ly s omewhat highe r allo w ance for deprecia
t ion Taking it alt oget he r an all o w ance o f fro m 7 t o 1 0 per cent
o f t he capit al out lay fo r t he po w e r plant s hould c o ver deprec ia
t ion t he lo wer gure fo r a producer plant t he higher w here
engines alone are conce r ned
D ep r ec iat ion o n t he build ing should n o t exceed 2 t o 3 per cent
of t he building co s t
I n c a s e t he building is rent ed t he rent
i n s tead of depreciat ion s hould be c ha r ged again s t t he plant
(0 ) I N S U RA N C E Thi s item is u s ual ly ve r y s mal l a s c om pared
wit h t he re s t a nd is t herefore in mo s t c a s e s neglected
(d) F U E L Co sr s Thi s item is very often us ed as t he s ole
c rite r ion o f t he econo mic s tat u s o f a plant but in man y ca s e s t hi s
is n ot t r ue
Where t he c o s t o f fuel is very high a s for in st an ce
where ill uminat ing ga s o r ga s ol ine are u s ed t he fuel c o s t u s ual ly
fo r m s t he maj or part of t he o pe r at ing expen s e s B ut w here t he
c heaper fuel s are us ed or t he plant is o f hi gh efc ienc y a s is often
.

'

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

554

t he c a s e i n producer plant s an anal y s i s w il l s how t hat w hat are

u s ually con s idered t he incident al expen s e s i n m any c a s es far

o ut w eigh t he fuel co s t
Th e fuel co s t varie s wit h t he load on t he engine
The gure s
gi ven by m an ufact u r ers u s uall y rep r e s ent t he be s t gure s obtained
at maxi m u m load but s uc h c ondit ion s rarel y o bt ain in p r act ice
At any rate it would not be s afe t o ba s e c o mput at ion s upon s uc h

*
parade gure s H aeder c on s ide rs t hat t he economy gure
gi ven by a n engine at
maxim u m load which is equa l to 8 5
per cent of rated load if an o ver-c apac it y o f 20 per cent is
a s s umed is t he be s t gure o n w hic h t o ba s e c om putat ion s
Th e s a me writer give s t he fol lo w ing t able for t he va r iat ion of t he
fuel c on s um pt ion wit h l oad The t hird l ine i n t hi s t able give s
t he s a me info r mation regarding a s tea m plant :
,

V AR I ATI ON

G as

E gi
n

M ax

H it - nd m i re gul at i n
Thr ttlin g re g ul a ti n
ss

L C ONS U M PTI ON

.
.

W IT H

L OAD

M ax

1
1

S te am

1
oa

FU

ne

OF

pla nt

1 50 1 8
1 75
1 07

96

Th e

t able is ba s ed upon t he a ss um pt ion t hat t he gas engine

o perate s normall y o n { U o f it s maxi m u m load and t hi s is put
equal t o t he no r mal load on t he s t eam engine I t is int ere s ting
t o not e t he s upe r iorit y of hit -an d -mi ss regulat ion a s far as econ
o m y is c oncerned
o ver t he ot her met hod o f go verning and t he
s upe r io r it y o f t he stea m engine o ver bot h a s regard s s mal l varia
t ion in econo my o ver a w ide range of load
G uld e r r make s a s i milar e st i mat e wit h t he fol lowing re s ult s :
,

IN CRE AS E
r

A pp o x i ma te o ad
llu m i na tin G a s E n
S u c ti o n G a s E n ine
ie sel O il E n gi ne

I
D

F U E L CO N S U MPTI

0 F

g ne
i

75
10
20
10

66
20
30
20

O N W I TH D C R E A S I N G L O A D
33
50
25
f N rmal L d
60
35
90 per c ent h i he r fuel
g
E

50
30

75
55

H a ed e r D ie G a m o t oren
TG uld ne r V er b rennun gs mo t o ren
s

80

p 427
.

oa

c o n s u m pt io n t ha n
a t full l oad

1 00

COS T

INS TA LLA TION

OF

Thus , fo r

AN D OF

O PERA TION

555

example if a n ill um inating ga s engine u s e s 20 c u ft

o f ga s per B H P hour at full load we may except it t o u s e
27 c u ft per B H P hour at half load and
X 20
X 20
3 8 c u ft per B H P hour at quart er load
Th e ant hrac it e c oal con s umpt ion of s uct ion ga s plant s for
variou s s i ze s o f plant s and fo r diff erent load s is given by Haeder
i n t he following t able :
,

ON S U MPTI O N OF

AN THR

B H P
N o r m a l L o ad B H P
.

A CI T E

IN

14
10

S U CT I O N G As
P -ho u

B H
.

Ma x Ca p a cit y

40
30

70
50

1 21

ax

P L A N TS

1 40
1 00

1 00
70

93

P OU N DS

IN

90

21 0
1 50

88

PER

4 20
3 00

86

84

ax

ax

It

is

evident from a st udy of t he gure s i n t he abo ve table s

t hat t he probable average load at wh ic h a p r o s pect i ve plant will
operate plays an i mpo rtant part in t he e s t imat io n o f fuel co s t s a
point w hic h s hould not be lo s t s ight of
We nd in t he engineering l iterat ure o f t he day con s iderable
i nformation regarding fuel con s umpt ion and fuel co s t s Th e
c o s t gu re s given belong t o one o f t wo cla ss e s : eit her t hey are
ba s ed upon a ss umpt ion s regarding bot h con s um pt ion o f fuel and
c o s t of unit weight of t he fuel o r t he gu r e s are obtained in
act ual operat ion I t goe s w it hout s aying t hat t he latter c la ss is
m uc h more val uable t ha n t he former I n t he ca s e o f a ss umed
co s t s and con s um ption s c om pari s on s are u s ual ly made bet ween
s tea m a nd ga s power under variou s condit ion s o f operat ion
S uc h c om put ation s are i ntere sting bec au s e t hey s how w hat
might be reali zed in eac h ca s e but in attem pt ing t o practic al ly
apply t he informat ion t he g r eate s t attent ion s hould be paid t o
t he c ondit ion s a ss umed As regard s a ct ual con s um pt ion gure s
t he t able s o f t he previou s c hapter give c on s iderable informat ion
regarding efcienc y o f operat ion F ro m t hi s data it s hould be
ea s y t o c om put e t he fue l c o s t s as s oon a s t he local c o s t o f unit
weight is k nown
B elow are given a few h ypot het ical comput at ion s
I n s ome
ca se s bot h t he fuel c on s um ption a nd t he fii e l co s t are a ss u med
out r ight i n ot hers a n attempt ha s bee n made t o det e rmi ne t he
,

IN TERNAL COMB US TION ENGINES

5 56

fuel c on s umpt ion i n relation t o t he s i z e o f t he engine The se

gure s are fol lo wed by a few fuel co s t gures fro m act ual pract ice
Addit iona l dat a for fuel c o s t f r o m act ual O perat ion will be found
i n t he dat a o n t ot al operat ing c o s t s at t he end of t hi s c hapter
The fol lo w i ng t able s how s an e s t i mat e t aken fro m t he c ata
logue o f a wel l -know n manuf act urer

REL

A TIV

CO S TS

or

FU E L

DI FFE R E N T TYP E S

W I TH

F lC
m d
ue

T pe

of

E gi
n

ne

ass o f

F l

Pi

ue

r ce

of

su

F l

er

per

gr

o ss

g
s E n g ine

Oil

ru d e O il

E n ine

c zn t s

per

o ur

5 l bs

6 69

3 lbs

4 02

4 02

3 l bs

ga l
ga l

pe r

1 00

'

'

40

cent s per
1 000 c u ft
N a tu ral G a s
20 cent s pe r
G a s E n gi ne
1 000 cu ft
per
G a s E n g ine w i t h A nt hrac i te Coa l
r
gr
s u c ti o n
od u c er
o ss t o n
p
per
G a s E n gi ne w i t h Co ke
gro ss t o n
s ucti o n p ro d uce r
Ga

t on

i
gn
g i

er

er

o ur

Bit um in o u s Co a l
c o n
S i m ple n o n
d e n s in g s li d e v a lve
Bitu m in o u s Coal
Co m p o u n d c o n
d e ns in g
B it u m ino u s Coa l
S te am T u bine
G a so line
14

Cos t p er

t p
B H P iin
g
:
p
B
h

ce n s

p er

B H P
p
h

ue

Co s t in

on

E N G I N ES

or

I llu m in a t in gG a s 75

19

cu ft

13

cu

ft

26

lb

1 34

1 67

lb

next t able compiled by J I Wi le is s im ilar t o t he abo ve

except t hat t he a s s um pt ion s di ffer s ome w hat A c ompa r i s o n of
t he corre s ponding it em s in t he t w o t able s s erve s t o s ho w t he
variat ion i n t he na l re s ult s arri ved at by c omp ut at ion s of t hi s
kind
Th e

CO S T O F INS TA LL A TI ON
ST

ATI S T CS

F U E L CO N S U M PT I O N

or

PO WE R

G AS

Kl n
'

T yp e

O PE RA TI ON

COS T

AN N U M

AN D

AN D

gp
B H P p
h

t io n

Pn cc p e r
To n

of

ue

in l

er

s )

er

gf i ;

as

as

Sim p

G li
t p
12
G ll
1000
I ll m i t i g 75 p
C bi F t
G
N t
l G 30 p 1000

ne

as

a ura

ne

na

as

ne

er

er

C u ic

i
Bi
E gi
q l
d St m E gi B it m i

ea m

no us

ee

ee

o ur

p er 1

p er

B H P A m
3000
p
h
h
.

n nu

er

o ur

o ur s

Pi t

er

on

ne

l St

c en s

ne

aso

'

pe

our

O il E gi
G
E gi
E gi
G

P RO D U CE R

or

t i

c ori u m p

ue

PER

5 57

O TH E R P OW E RS

F l

'

F l

E nmne

Of

AN D OF

b F ee t
B H P
b Fee t
pe r B H P

1 8 Cu ic
p er
1 3 Cu ic
.

39

39

75

75

30

25

25

750
5 65
4 70
4 50

8 lbs

0a

Co m p ou n

g
g t
g
g
gi
gi
gi

N o n -c o n e ns in
Trip e xp a n in S ea m
n ine c o n e ns in
ro uc e r G as
n i ne

P
P
P
P

l E
Eg

ro
ro

ro

d
d
d
d

d
d

uc er

G as
G as

uce r

G as

u cer

E
E
E
E

ne

ne

ne

3 00

no u s

ne

ea

l
l

Co a
i u m ino u s
Coa
n
ra c i e

Bt

A th

5 00

G a s Co e
B it u n i o us
0 l
n t ra cit e
Coa

1 875
1 565

1 8
1 5 65

15

15

ii
A h
l

g
m
)

rd

H D ay i n an i nve st igat ion o n t he ec onom y of gas pro

d u c e r engine s c om piled t he following fuel c o s t dat a for t he
va r io u s kind s o f p r ime mo vers ment ioned The fuel c o n s u m p
tion gure s we r e obt ained i n eac h c a s e by c ollabo r at ing t he
re s ul t s o f a con s iderable n um ber o f t e st s Th e co s t s per a nnu m
were t hen computed by a s s um ing t he c o s t o f unit weight of t he
fuel Th e t otal t ime of ope r at ion per year is t aken at 3000
.

AN N U

AL

F U E L CO S TS

FO R

S TE

AM

PE R

T yp

e of

E gi
n

Th e

TON

B H P

ne

g
g
g
g
g
g

S i m ple , n o n-c o n d en s in
S i m ple , c o n d en s in
Co m p o un d , c o n d en s in
Co m po un d , c o n d en s in
Co m o un d , c o n d en s in
T ip 6 ex p c o n d en s in

EN GI N ES

OF

COS T

2000

Lbs Coa
.

per

LBS

OF

CO

AL

ASS U M E D

AT

B H P
.

Cos t

o ur

g g

50
1 00
200
1 000
2000

dat a availa ble for

ste a m

S i bley Co lle

tu bin es is

ge Thes i

s,

1 9 05

n ot

as

ext en s ive

as

IN T ERNAL COM B USTION ENGINES

5 58

t hat for s team engine s and t he range co ve r ed is not s o wide a s

regard s c apac it y Th e follo w ing gures al s o com piled by Mr
D ay s ho w s ome fuel c o s t s for pri me move r s o f t hi s kind Th e
wo r king t i me h as agai n been a ss u med at 3 000 hou rs per ann u m
,

AN N U

AL

F U E L CO S TS

S TE

F OR

AM

TU RB I N E S

p E R TO N

N um

be r of T es t s

g B H P

ve ra e

OF

COS T

2000

LB S

OF

AL

Co s t

of

AS S U M E D

AT

fi g g;
d

CO

B HP

gag:

6 16
1 08 5
1 359
1 73 9

27
10
5
25

c om put at ion s m ade on illu min a ting and n a tu ra l ga s

engine s s how t he foll o w ing r e s ul t s Time of ope r at i o n pe r yea r
3 000 ho u r s c o s t o f ill umi nat ing ga s 75 cent s per 1 000 c u ft co s t
Th e latt e r a ss um pt ion
o f nat u r al ga s 5 0 cent s per 1 000 c u ft
is high s ince in many l oc al it ie s na t u r al gas is s old at 3 0 o r even
I t is a s im ple mat t e r howeve r t o red uce
20 cent s per 1 000 c u f t
th e gure s in t he t abl e i n t he c o rr e s ponding ratio
Th e

A L FU E L CO S FO R I LU M I A
I LLU M I A G G S AS S U M
O

AN N U

AT

50

TI N

C E N TS

PER

1 000

TI N

CU

FT

AN D

AT

75

HAT

OF

CO S T

A UR AL
T

G AS

lC t

of

u m ina

ting

n n ua

os

B H P

G as p e r
o u rs
o f 3000

p er

Il

10
20
30
40
50
75
1 00
200
3 00
4 00
5 00

G AS E N G I N E S

C E N TS ,

A
B H P

A URAL

u min a

G as

t i ng

Na

t u al
r

G as

ll

G as

E gi
n

ne s

Na

t ural G as

y ea r

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION

O F O PERA TION

AN D

5 59

Fo r p r od uc er ga s engine s D ay fo und t he fol lo w ing gur e s

t he c on s um pt io n o f ga s and of coal , fro m w hic h t he fuel c o s t s

year of 3 000 hours are c om puted a s s uming coal t o c o s t $ 4

t on of 2000 pound s
,

for
per
per

AN N U

B H P
.

A L F UE L
Cu

p er

ft

B H
.

CO S T

OF

L bs

of
.

P R O D UC E R

G as
P~
h ou r

p er

1 05
96
89
83
79
76
73
72

50
1 00
1 50
200
25 0

500

of

B H
.

G AS E N G I N E S

Coa l
P

- o ur

n n ua

l C t fC l
B H P
os

p er

oa

c o s t o f t he ga s fo r bla st fu rn ac e ga s engine s h a s i n many

c omputat ion s been neglected o n t he a ss um pt ion t hat t hi s ga s
if n o t u s ed i n engine s is a me r e wa ste p r od uct
L ately however
it h as co me t o be r ecogni zed t hat s o me val ue mu s t be a ss igned t o
t hi s fuel s ince money w a s expended o n it in every ca s e fo r clean
ing i t preparat o r y t o m aking it t fo r u se in engine s Th e o r dina r y
met hod of eval uat ing t hi s ga s is t o c om pa r e it s heat c ont ent wit h
t hat of s tea m and t o a ss ign a val ue t o t he ga s co r re s ponding t o
t he c o s t o f s team Thu s t he c o s t o f t he ga s w ill in every localit y
vary w i t h t he c o st o f c oal As an example H F reyn
make s
t he foll o w ing co mputat ion :

L et u s a ss ume t hat t he price of coal deli vered int o bin s at

t he plant be
per t on t hat t he coal have a heat value of
B T U pe r pound a nd fu r t her t hat s tea m o f 1 5 0 pound s
boiler pre s s ure or about 1 6 5 pound s ab s ol ut e press ure be rai s ed
by burning t hi s c oal under boilers O ne po und o f s tea m w ill
t hen cont ain 1 225 B T U fro m zero degree s F a hren heit Ass u m
ing feed w ater at 70 degree s t he r e wo uld be required 1 1 5 5 B T U
t o generat e 1 pound of s team at 1 5 0 pound s boiler pre ss ure I n a
boiler plant having 6 5 pe r cent efc iency 1 000 pound s o f coal
Th e

Po we r a n d Co s t o f O pera ti o n o f a P o we r S ta ti o n
Blas t-fu r na c e P l a nt J o u rn a l W e s ter n S o c iety o f

F re yn , Av a il a ble

Wa te G a e fr m a
E n g ineer
F eb r u a ry 1 9 06
fo r

s s

s,

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 60

1 1 55
7 3 00 pound s o f
could rai s e
X 1 000 X
The val ue of 1 000 po und s of s team w ould be
st e a m
or
c To t hi s m us t be added for labor
(2 X
and maintenance approxi mately 1 e per 1 000 pound s o f s tea m
1 000 c u ft o f
m aking t he t ot al val ue of 1 000 pound s
c
bla s t fu r nace gas ha ve a heat val ue o f 1 000 X 90
B T U
and a r e equivalent t o
1 1 55
5 1 po und s o f
X
s team w hic h i n t urn a r e w o r t h ( 5 1
1 000 ) X
1 c
Th e val ue of 1 000 c u ft of bla s t fu r nace gas would t herefore

be 1 c
*
E
Z
I
L be r hardt in an a rt icle i n t he eit s c hrift d V d
makes
a s imilar c o mput at ion arriving at a s o me w hat di ff erent re s ult
S ta rt ing wit h t h e ass um pt ion t hat 1 000 poun d s o f s tea m will
c o st fro m 25 t o 3 2
acc ording t o t he price and qualit y o f coal
he nd s t hat 1 000 c u ft of cleaned bla s t fu r nace gas s hould have a
val ue of fro m
to
t he ga s having a heat ing val ue o f 1 02
c
Thi s is c on s ide r ably higher t han t he value
B T U per c u ft
fo und by F r eyn w hic h is m ainly d ue t o t he lo wer grade o f c oal
B T U per pound ) and t he highe r grade o f gas a s s umed
To get s o me idea of t he fuel co s t o f bla s t furna ce ga s power
E berhardt i n t he a rt ic le m en
a s com pared w it h s t ea m powe r
Th e o r igina l t able s gi ve t he
t io n e d gi ve s t he fol lo w i ng t able s
c o s t per B H P ho u r but t he s e ha ve been r ec omputed t o t he
ba s i s o f a year of 3 000 w o r king hours t o make t hem direct l y c o m
parable wit h t he gu r e s i n previou s t able s
.

AN N U

AL

OF

CO

AK

T
Co s t
Co s t
Co s t

F U E L CO S T
EN

of c o
of

AL AK
T

EN

1 02

AT

al pe r

1 000 lbs
o f 1 000 c u

t on
.

AT

T U

of

of s

ft

BL A S T
F U R N A C E G AS
E N GI N E S
H E ATI N G V A LU E
H E ATI N G V A LU E O F G AS
1 1 650 B T U P E R L B

OF

PER CU

FT

d o ll a

2000 lbs

team

of

ga s

cent s
cent s

fair bl a s t f u rnace ga s engine will s ho w t he following fuel

c ons umpt ion :
At full load 99 c u ft of ga s per B H P hour
At I 91, load 1 06
At
load 1 1 3
At
load
122
13 1
At l load
J une 3 1 90 5
.

COS T O F INS TA LL A TION

O F O PERA TION

AN D

Wit h t he s e a ss umpt ion s o f ga s con s umpt ion per B H

o f local c o s t of c oal
t he fuel c o st s per B H P per year
hou rs wil l t hen be a s per t he following t able :

Per Ce n

Co s t

of

1 00
p er T o n

66

80

lC t
os

of

of

and

3000

t full Loa d o n En gine

90

n nu a

56 1

Bl t F
as

u rna c e

G as p er

50

B H P D ll
.

a rs

fuel c o s t o f operat ing o n ga solin e a s fuel is of c ours e c o n

Th e u s ual
s id e ra bly higher t ha n any of t he gure s above quoted
a ss u mpt ion made I n regard t o ga s oline engine s is t hat t hey will
requi r e 1 pint o f ga s oline pe r B H P hour Thi s c o rr e s pond s
t o a t he r mal effic ienc y of about 1 8 per cent on t he b r ake a gure
w hic h s hould be reac hed by a fair-s i zed engine i n good c ondit ion
F o r th e s m al ler m ac h i ne s howe ver one pin t is perha ps s ome
w hat l ow a nd for s a y a 2 hors e-po w er mac hine a c on s u mption of
It
2 pint s pe r B H P hou r is probably a s afer a ss u m pt ion
s houl d al s o be bo r ne in mind t hat t he pu rc ha s e price o f ga s oline
varie s s omewhat wit h t he quant it y bought The f o llowing table
o f fuel c o s t s t ake s t he s e vari o u s point s int o a c co u nt
Th e

OS T FO R G A S O LI N E E G I

F UE L C

H
rg

B H P
H OU R S

N ES P E R

P
S ize o f E n ine , B
al , c ent s
Co s t o f as o line pe
P
Co n su m pti o n o f aso line pe B
h r , all o n s
F uel c o s t pe B
P pe yea , d olla
.

g
g

g
H

PER

A R OF 3000 W O R K I N G
6
16

4
18

YE

20

10
l4

20
l3

25

20

18

15

12

Many e s ti
(e) CO S T O F W A T ER F OR CO O L I N G A N D WA S H I N G
mate s o f t otal o perating c o s t s t ot ally neglect t he co s t o f water
fo r cool ing and wa s hing purpo s es required by t he pl ant alt hough
i n man y localitie s t hi s may amount t o a con s ide r able it em of
ex pen s e I n general te r m s w he r e w ater h a s t o be brought from
c it y mai n s it pays t o in s t al l c ooling apparat u s o f s ome k ind
O f cou rs e for s mal l i n st allat ion s t h is m ay be s i mply a t ank from
.

IN TERNA L COM B US TION ENGINES

562

t he s urface of w hic h t he heat is radiated Th e t ank is connected

at t op and bot t o m w it h t he w ater j acket o f t he engine a n d t h e
Whe r e s uc h a c ooling t ank can
w at er c i r c ula t e s by c onvect ion
not be placed in t he im me d iat e vicinit y o f t he engine and c on
n e c t e d t o t he j acket by s ho rt s t raight pipe s a c i r c ulat ing pum p
As t he s i ze o f t he in s t allat ion g r o ws
o f s ome kind m u s t be u s ed
co o ling t o w ers or cool ing pond s have t o be r e s ort e d t o unle s s an
ab u ndant s ou r ce o f clea n wate r is available wi t hou t c o s t except
t hat of pum ping U nde r s uc h c ondit ion s t he c o s t o f c ooling
water is ve r y mate r ially r educed
Wit h any k ind o f co o ling
s y s tem t he c o s t t hen c on s i s t s of t h e c o s t of pumping pl u s t he c o s t
o f any c lean w at er t ha t mu s t be s u ppl ied f r o m t ime t o t ime t o
replace t hat l o s t by evapo r at ion
O f c ours e it is not pos s ible t o
give any denit e gure s for t hi s co s t item be ca u s e it depend s
u pon t he co s t of w ate r i n t he part i c ul ar l oc alit y u pon t he t ot al
a mount o f water circulated and upon t he k in d o f pu mp s u s ed
A fe wgu r e s fo r t he a mount o f w at er required o r i n c i r c ulat ion
pe r B H P hour are given below
I n a p r od uce r plant a n addi t ion al a mo unt o f wate r is requi r ed
fo r t he pro d ucers and s crubbers Th e w at er vapori zed fo r t he
produce rs of c ou rs e is not again available Tha t u s ed for t he
w a s hing plan t is in general s ubj ect t o t he s ame c on s ide r a t i o n s a s
t hat u s ed fo r cooling t he engine s B u t whe r e a c o o l ing s y s te m is
u s ed fo r bot h t hey s houl d neve r be c o mbined bec au s e t he re
r t he engine s a r e m uc h m o r e
i
r
m
n
for
clean
c
ool
ing
ater
f
o
u
e
e
t
s
w
q
Th e s c r ubbe r wate r u s ual ly c a rr ie s c on s i d erable quanti t ie s
s t r ict
of s e d i ment a nd is c onta minated wit h a m monia and s ulfu r c om
poun d s s o s t r ongl y in s ome c a s e s a s t o gi ve it a very no x iou s
o d or I n s uc h c a s e s s ett ling t ank s an d po nd s t oget he r w i t h a
c on s ide r able addi t ion of clean w ate r s eem t o be t he onl y r emedie s
t o r ec ove r at lea s t a pa rt of t he w ate r
Th e app r oximat e quant i t y of c o oling w at er requi r ed m ay be
gu r ed f r o m t he follo w ing con s ide r at ion s :
O ne hors e -power a ss um ing a n engine e f c ienc y o f s ay 25 per
.

cent at t he c yl inde r req ui r e s t he expendit u r e

of

pe r I H P hour Th e j acket l o s s approximat e s a bo ut

4 0 pe r cent of t he heat ex pen d ed t h at i s i n t hi s ca s e t he j ac ket
wat er mu s t c arry o ff 4 0 X
4 080 B T U : per hour
B T U
.

COS T O F INS TA LL A TION

AN D

O F O PE R A TION

t he i nlet t em perat u r e at 70 d egree s the out le t at 1 50

we nd t he n umbe r o f p o un d s of w ater required

Ass u ming

d eg ree s
app r ox

5 63

4 080

=51

1 5 0 70

= sa

pound s

y 6 %gal lon s

per I H
.

hour

at ful l load
Th e following gure s fro m va r iou s s o u r ce s S how how t hi s
e s ti mate agree s wit h ot he r s a n d w it h s o me dat a fro m act ual
pract ice
W H eym i n t he Ga s motor en tec hnik* s t ate s t hat a prod uc er
pl ant requi r e s per ho r s e -po w er hou r
gall on s for t he engine
4 gal lon s for t he s c r u bbe r a n d 1 3 gal lon s fo r t he produce r va p o
ri zer
F re yn in t he paper al r eady ment i o ned m ake s t he fol lowing
e s ti m ate s fo r a bla s t fu r n ac e ga s plant o f
B H P
Thei s s en
w a s hers are u s ed t o clean t he gas
.

oa

A LL O

d E gi
on

NS

Fo r t h e

ne s

WA R

COO L I N G

OF

E gi
n

ne s

per

TE

B H
.

RE Q U I R E D

W h

Fo r t h e

P~
ho ur

cu.

ft

as

of

p er 1000

e rs

ga s

c e a ne

p e r m i nu

te

F ull

I
I

al s o e s tim ate s t hat if t he plant is l ocate d nea r a s t rea m

o f wate r t he c o s t o f pu m ping wo ul d p r obabl y be i n t he neighbor
hood o f 2 c per 1 000 gal lon s
J R Bibbin s r o n a 5 1-hour te s t o f a 500 hor s e -power We s t ing
hou s e ho r i zontal engine repo rt ed a w ate r con s umpt ion for t he
engine s onl y o f
gallon s per B H P hou r at ful l l oad Th e
gal lon s pe r B H P h o u r I
s a me aut ho r i t y report s a gure o f
f o und o n s imil ia r engine s in anot her plant
I n con cl u s ion it s houl d be s aid t hat t he water-con s um pt ion
of ga s engine s depen d s s omew hat upon t he s i ze o f t he c yl inde r
Thu s a s ingle -acting cylinder o f very la r ge diamet e r u s ual ly
F re yn
,

N o ve m be

TJ R
.

R
of

W Pa
.

1 90 7

Bi bbins P ro cee d in gs A S M E M id -N o ve m be r
Bibbin s G as Dri ven E le c t r ic Powe r S t a t io n Pro c
,

1 90 7
of

t he Eng S o c
.

IN TERNA L COMB U S TION ENGINES

5 64

requi r e s mo r e c ooling w ater t han t wo s ingle-act ing o r one double

act ing c yl inde r o f t he s a me c apac it y S kilful atte ndanc e al s o
is a con s i d e r able fact or i n t he a mount o f cooling water u s ed a
point w h ic h is very often neglected
STE
T
h
A
N
D
l
W
A
c
on
umpt
ion
of
l
ub
r
i
cati
ng
per
I
L
e
s
o
i
O
)
(f
B H P hou r depend s upon t he s i ze of t he engine and as i n t he
ca s e of cooling water la r gely al s o upon t he ca r e o f atten d ant s
I t is al s o t r ue t hat n e w mac hine s m ay for a t ime requi r e t wo o r
t h r ee t i me s t he ordinary a mo unt of o il unt il al l t he part s h ave
beco me adj u s t ed t o t heir s e r vi ce I n large a n d me d ium s i zed
plant s it is u s ual t o employ a g r avit y o r ci r c ulat ing s y stem o f
oiling i n w hic h c a s e t he oil is reco ve r ed lt ered a n d again u se d
I n s uc h s y s tem s t he c o s t of o il is a s m al l it e m and c on s i s t s mo st l y
of t he c o s t of o il nece s s a r y t o repl ac e t h at un avoidabl y l o s t
Of
cour s e none o f t he c ylinder oi l u s ed is rec overe d
G iild n e r e s t i mat e s t hat t he con s u mpt ion of l ub r i cat ing o il
u s ual l y va r ie s fro m 006 t o 008 pint s o f oil pe r B H P -hour a n d
th at under favo rab le condit ions 003 pint s pe r B H P -ho u r m ay
be r eac hed
L L B r ew er nd s t hat t he c on s um pt ion fo r t he la rge
engine s quoted i n t he t able page 552 va r ie s f r o m 004 5 t o 00 5 5
pi nt s per B H P -hou r a nd t hat i n double-act ing t w o -c yc le
engine s t he c on s u mpt ion m ay be a s low a s 003 5 pint s
Th e fol lowing t able c o mpiled by J R B ibbin s and p ubli s hed
i n t he pape r befo r e t he S o ciet y o f E nginee r s o f We s t Penn s yl vania
al r eady quoted s h ow s t he a ct ual o il c on s umpt ion i n a plant c on
t aining t wo hori z ont al We s tinghou s e engine s o f 5 00 ho rs e -power
eac h di r ect connected t o 3 00 K W generat ors The gu r e s
c o ve r a pe r iod of fo ur mont h s and t he re s ult s s hould t he r ef o r e be
very r eliable Th e s y s tem of oiling u s ed is o f t he c ont inuou s
c i r c ulat ing and lte r ing t ype Th e c o n s umpt ion a mo unt s t o
00202 pint s o f c ylinde r oil and 00 28 6 pint s o f engine o il per
ho rs e -power hour w hi c h agree s well wit h t he gure s gi ven by
B rewer
.

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION

O F O PERA TION

AN D

5 65

OI L CON S U M P TI O N

end ing S un d ay Ma y 23 1 906

E N GI N E O I L ]
C Y L I N D E R OI L
S e c ia l G a s E n gine O il
K in d
I m per ial Cylind er O il
Ma ke r
Uni o n P et ro leu m Co Ph i ad elp h i a
1 8 cent s pe r G a l
P r ice ( barrel l o t s )
3 2 c ent s pe r C a l
7 65 G a l s
5 6 1 G al s
Q u a ntity u sed
1 4 0 } G al s
1 9 1 %G a l s
Q u a ntity u se d pe r m o nt h
G al s
G al s
Q u a ntit y u se d pe r ( o p e r t g ) d a y
Gal s
Gal s
Q u a ntity u se d pe r full d a y
4 m o nth s

g ine H u r per d y
g ine H P H u r pe r d
O il per E n g ine H u r
O il pe r H P H u r
C t pe r E n g ine H o u r
C t pe r H P H u r
En
En

ay

Gal s
G al s

Gal s
Gal s

os

os

37
1 8 5 00

37
1 85 00

ent s

cent s

To ta l Co s t

ent s per H P H o u r
.

The

c o s t o f cott on wa ste or ot her c lean i ng material is a n item

ve r y hard t o e s t imate and i n any c a s e of li t t le i n uence o n t he
na l re s ult
I t is u s ually c o mbined w it h t he c o s t o f o il and
s o me gure s fo r t hi s co mbined co s t w ill be found in t he e s t imate s
of t otal ope r at ing co st s at t he end of t hi s c hapter
(g) ATT E N D A N C E Th e s t at ement ve r y often c a r ele s s ly made
wit h regard t o s ma ll gas engine in st al lat ion s t hat t hey requi r e no
wait ing on is of c ou rs e not quite t he t r ut h Th e fa ct is t hat a
s mal l ga s o r ga s oline engine
if i n good o r der doe s n ot require
after s t art ing m uc h attending exc ept t he proper handling o f t he
l ubricat ors I n t hi s re s pect t he ga s powe r in st al lat ion h as a n
ad vantage o ve r t he s mal l stea m power plant w here at lea s t o n e
ma n is general ly required a ll t he t ime Fo r s mal l nat u r al ga s or
illum inating ga s engine s t herefore it is po ss ible t o empl oy t he

enginee r t o u se a fa milia r term s ome w here el s e at l ea s t p a rt

of t he t i me but nat ural ly a s t he s i ze of engine inc rea s e s t hi s
and it is doubt ful if s uct ion ga s plant s n o
s pare t ime dec rea s e s
matter h o w s mal l c an get along wit h le ss t han o ne m an s ent ire
ti me
The general met hod s o f t ak ing c a r e o f medium s ized and l arge
,

I n lu d e c rank case oil fo ex c ite r en g ine Drainag e fr m g l an d f

m a in en g ine c llecte d m ixe d w ith old en g ine il a n d u e d in c ra nk c a e N
c ra nk ca e il pu rc ha e d
S uf cient q u a ntity l d en g ine
TI n lud o il c o n u m pti n f a uxili ar ie
uppl y a uxili arie repl aced by fre h il
il d rawn f ro m c i rc ula t i n g sy te m t
*

es

o s

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

566

engine s a r e pe r hap s not fa r di ffe r ent f r o m t ho s e u s ed i n s tea m

engine p r act i ce I t can not be denied ho we ve r t hat ga s engine s
ha ve m uc h m ore opport unit y so s o s peak t o go wrong That is
j ac ket wat er l ub r ication igniter s val ve s et c all need ca r eful
looking aft e r and any of t he s e t hing s if neglected may cau s e
a s hut do w n
While t he r efo r e s team engine attendant s generall y
a c c u s t o m t hem s el ve s t o t he n e w s e r vice ve r y quickly it would be
wrong t o a ss ume t hat t hey can i n gene r al t ake ca r e o f a gas
engine plant w it h o ut s ome i n s t r uct ion a n d p r act ice O f cou r s e
t he la r ger t he plant t he mo r e import ant t hi s point become s
T here s eem s t o be not hing i n E ngli s h engineering lite r at u r e
t o give a n approximat e idea of t he t i me act ual ly r equi r ed i n
attending ga s engine s G iild n e r p r op o s e s t he following equat ion s
appa r ent ly ba s ed o n p r act ical expe r ience :
F o r ill uminat ing gas nat u r al ga s an d oil engine s

ga s

:
.

25

Nu

h ou rs

uct ion ga s plant s W

ho u r s
w he r e W
t i me of attendance r equi r ed in hours per day of 1 0
hou r s and N
r ated c apac it y o f plant
T hu s fo r i n s t anc e a 1 00 ho r s e -powe r nat u r al ga s engine w ould
a ct ual ly require about 25 V
ho u rs in a 1 0hou r s h if t
Henc e t he att endant s t i me could be l a r gely u s ed s ome w here el s e
O n t he ot her hand a 1 00 ho r s e -po w er s uct ion ga s pl ant woul d
V 1 00
a ct ually r equire
h our s w hic h mean s t hat t wo
men wil l ha ve t o be e mployed
W he r e a s t at ion is made up of s eve r al s mal ler unit s and pro
d u c e rs t he c o s t o f a t ten d ance n at u r ally increa s e s
Th u s if t he r e
a r e n unit s i n a plant of N h o rs e -po we r tot al G iild n e r s t ates th a t
t he act ual t i me re qui r ed pe r ope r at ing day o f t he plant may be
e xp r e ss ed by

V ii N; ho urs
W
Fo r

"

if w e t ake a 1 200 hors e-po we r s uct ion

unit s o f 3 00 ho rs e -po w e r eac h

Thu s

up of

ga s

pl ant made

4 x 1 200

whic h woul d mean t he s ervice o f

hou rs

men in t he

1 0-hour

hift

If

COS T O F INS TA L LA TION

t hi s capacit y had bee n put in

O F O PE R A TION

AN D

56 7

unit t he t i me would h ave bee n

one

hours

V 1 200

w hic h woul d have cal led for only 5 men per s hift
I f i n an y of t he above equat ion s we int roduce t he h ou r ly wage
s c al e
we may expre ss t he co s t o f atten d an ce pe r B H P pe r
hour Thu s if t he s cale s hould be 20 c per hour we w ould have for
ill u m i nating ga s nat u r al ga s o r o il engine s for t he 1 0-hour s hift
.

Co s t
F or

Co s t

and
Co s t

per B H
.

uct ion

ga s

per B H
.

fo r

ho ur

plant s
P

per B H
.

x 2 5 x/N

50

cent s

VN

10 N

"

20

ho ur

l arge s uct ion

20

VN

25

"

10 N"

plant s of

ga s

a
unit s

V 7.
cent s

20 x

P -hou r
.

10

c en t s

MN

"

The r e is

litt le dat a available t o c heck t he ac c urac y o f t he s e

fo r mula) bu t t he t wo o r t hree in st ance s c ited by va r iou s a u t h o ri
t ie s for t he labor co s t in s uct io n gas plant s c hec k ve r y well wit h
t he r e s ul t s o f t he fo r mula
Th e expendit ure s for
( h) M A I N T E N A N C E A N D R E P A I R S
m aint enance and repairs o f a gas engine in s t allat ion s hould n o t
exceed 3 pe r cent o f t he pu r c ha s e p r ice o f t he engine s and p r o
d u c e rs
There is no d o ubt t ha t t hi s item may ea s ily run t o 1 0
per cent and o ver e s pecially if in a p r o d uce r plant in s ufcient
atten t ion is paid t o cleaning t he ga s B u t s uc h co ndit ion s are
n ot no r mal and s hould n o t oc c u r i n g o od p r act i ce
F re yn s t ate s t hat t he f o llo w ing a r e ave r age gure s fo r repai r
ac c ount s fo r a bla s t furnac e gas st at ion :
2%pe r cent pe r yea r o f t he p r ice o f t he engine s and electric
gene r at o rs
7 per cent per year o f t he p r ice o f t he c leaning pl ant
5 pe r c ent per yea r o f t he p r ice o f t he air co mpre s s o r u s ed fo r
s tart ing
2 per cent per year o f t he p r ice o f pi ping etc
To t hi s may be added f r o m 1 t o 2 per cen t o f t he c o s t of t he
buil d ing a s m aintenan c e for t he bui l d ing
,

COM B US TI ON

I N TERNAL

568

O pe r a tin g

Tota l

an d

Co st s

Co s t

E N GI N ES

Co m p a re d with

oth e r
As in t he ca s e of fuel co s t s t he i nform at ion
P ri m e M ov e r s
a vailable i n enginee r ing lite r at u r e on t ot al operating c o s t s is o f
t wo k ind s I n t he r s t kind t he e s t i mat e s a r e ba s ed ent i rel y
upon hypot het ic al a ss um pti on s i n t he s econd t he re s ult s a r e
t ho s e obtained i n act ual ope r a t ion Again t he latt e r inf o r ma
tion is o f c o urs e o f m uc h grea t e r val ue but e x cept fo r la r ge in
E s pecially
s t a lla t io n s l i t t l e o f t hi s c la ss h a s been made public
a s r egard s s mal l in s tal lat ion s of ga s oline o il an d i ll um ina t ing ga s
engine s t he r e s eem s t o be an al mo s t ab s ol ut e lack o f d at a refe rr ing
t o t o t al o pe r at ing c o s t s Fo r t hat rea s on i n o r der t o get s ome
idea of c o s t s it w il l be nece ss a r y fo r t he t i me being t o d epend upon
c o s t c o mpu t at ion s ba s e d o n a ss umpt i o n s I n any c onc rete c a s e
t he s e a ss um pt ion s s hould be ca r efull y s c an ned t o se e h ow t hey
ag r ee wit h act ual ly exi s t ing condit ion s befo r e fo r ming a nal idea
o f ope r at ing co s t
Th e dat a available f r o m act ual p r act ice is m ainly d ue t o Mr
J R B ibbin s
and ot he r s o f t he We st inghou s e Mac hine Co m
pan y and of co u rs e rel ate s t o We stinghou s e engine s Thi s h o w
eve r doe s not p r ecl ude t hei r appl icabili t y t o o t he r s i mila r plan t s
Thi s inf o rmat ion co mbined wit h t hat f r o m a fe w E ngli s h plant s
is ab o ut al l t hat can be cit ed at t he p r e s ent w r it ing
Hypot h et ic al c o m put at ion s are nea r l y al l m ade o n a com pa r a
t ive ba s i s O f t hi s k ind a r e t he t able s publ i s he d by W O Webbe r
in t he E n gin ee r ing N e ws Augu s t 1 5 1 90 7 I t is not ea s y t o gi ve
a conci s e ab s t ract o f t he va r iou s fact o r s a ss umed i n t he co mpu
t a t io n of t he s e t able s and for t hat rea s on t hey are given i n full
except fo r elect ri c power w hi c h d oe s not e s pecial l y i nt e r e s t u s here
as

f o ll ow in g is a p ar ti al li s t o f t h e v alu a ble p a pe rs publi sh ed :

J R Bibbin s G a s Dr iven E lect r i c P ow er Sys te m s Warren Jam e s to w n
S tr eet R a il way E ng S oc o f W Pa ; G a s P o w e r fo r Cent ra l S t a ti o n s Am
I n s t o f E E N e w Yor k D ece m ber 1 8 1 903 ; P rod ucer G a s P o w er P l a nt
P ro c A S M E D ece m be r 1 906 ; Applic a ti o n o f G a s P o w e r t o Cent ra l
S ta ti o n W o r k N a ti o n a l E lec L i gh t As so c W a sh in g t o n D
J une 1 907 ;
D ut y Te s t on G a s P ow e r P l ant P ro c A S M E Mid -N o ve m be r 1 907 ;
a nd A W e s t
G a s P o w e r in E le c t r i c R a il w ay W o r k Am e r i c a n S t r eet 6
I nter u r ban Ra il way As so c Ph il ad elph i a Co nventi o n 1 905
E E Arn o l d Th e H i gh P o w e r I nte r na l Co m bu s ti o n E n g ine a n d it s Fit
ne ss for Central S ta ti o n W ork N e w E n g l a n d S t ree t R a il way Club Marc h 1 904
Re p r in t f ro m P o we r D ec e m be r 1 9 03 A Gas E ng ine P u m pin g S ta ti o n
Th e

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION

CO S T

in H P
Pr ice 0 fplen
a nt
g ine i n pl ac e
G aso line pe r B H P pe r h o u r
Co s t p e r g all o n
c o s t pe r
ho u rs
Atten d a n c e a t $ 1 pe r d ay
I nte re s t 5 p e r cent
D ep recia ti o n 5 pe r c ent
R ep airs 1 0 pe r c ent
S upplie s 20 pe r cent
I n s u rance 2 pe r c ent
Ta xe s 1 pe r cent
P o we r c o s t
S ize

of

OF

} ga l
a

56 9

A S O LI N E P OW E R

O F O PERA TION

AN D

1 g al

10

20

} g al

g al

1
.

th e se g u re s sho ul d be add ed c harge s o n s pace

Va lue o f s pac e o c c upied
To

I nte re t 5 pe r cent
R ep a i r 2 pe r cent
I n u ra nce 1 pe r c ent
Ta xe 1 pe r cent
T ta l a n nu a l c harg e f
pac e
To ta l c t pe r a n nu m
C t f 1 H P pe r a nn u m 1 0
h u r ba i
$ 0 1 352
Co t o f 1 H P pe r h u r
s

oc c

upied

as

f o ll o ws :

s,

s,

or s

os

os

s s

CO S T
p e r 1 000

ubi c feet

pl a nt in H P
E n g ine c o s t i n pl a ce

S i ze

of

of

ga s

net

OF

le s s
ga s

G AS

$ 0 0 4 92

P O WE R

pe r cent if pa i d in
7 60 B T U
20

1 0 d ays

10

20

30

25

22

20

Va lue o f ga s c o n s u m ed 3 08 0
h o u rs
A tten d a n c e $ 1 p e r d a y
I nte re s t 5 pe r c ent
D ep reci a ti o n 5 p e r c ent
R ep a i rs 1 0 pe r cent
S upplie s 20 pe r cent
I n s u rance 2 pe r c ent
Ta xe s 1 pe r cent
P o wer c o s t
Annu a l c harg e fo r s p a ce
To ta l c o s t
r a nnu m
Co s t o f 1
P pe r a nnu m 1 0
h o u r b as i s
Co s t of 1 H P pe r h o u r
$0
,

$ 0 03 3 1

H P -h o u r i n c ubi c feet

Gas p er

$ 0 07 8 0

1014

$ 0 05 6 1

$ 0 04 5 6

IN TERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

570

CO S T

OF

A POWE R

S TE M

pla nt in H P
Co s t of p la nt pe r H P
Fix ed c harg e 1 4 pe r c ent
Co a l pe r H P -h o ur in p o un d s
Co s t o f c o a l a t $ 5 e r t o n
A tten d a nce 3 080 po u rs
O il was te a nd s upplie s
h o ur bas i s
Co s t 1 H P pe r a nnu m 1 0
Co s t o f 1 H P pe r h o u r
S ize

of

10

20

15

20

12

AN N U

AL

B H P
.

of

CO S T

OF

PO WE R

U it

$ 0 08 3 2

$ 0 0906

PE R

B R AK E H O R S E P O W E R

S t ea m

G as

aso line

Att ent ion is

called i n t he s e t abl e s t o t he high allo w ance for

repairs i n t he ca s e o f t he ga s oline and ga s engine an d t he high c oal
con s u mpt ion a ss umed fo r t he s tea m engine
Anot her inte r e s t ing c om pa r i s on is t hat m ade by H A Cla r k
.

Un i t

T U
.

t
; ga so line

c os s :
,

Co a l , $ 5 p e r t o n ; ga s
p e r a ll o n

p e r 1 000

ub i c feet a t
,

76 0

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION

AN D

O F O PERA TION

571

in a paper o n t he D ie s el E ngine
I n t hi s c a s e t he c omput ation s
are c arried o ut fo r t h r ee s i ze s of D ie s el engine Cr o ss ley G a s
E n gine a nd D o ws on p r od uce r and high-s peed c om pound c on
d e n s m g s tea m engine
Th e conditi o n s a ss umed are pa rt l y a s
follo ws t he r e m ainde r being given in t he t able it s elf
Co s t o f fuel delive r ed :
D ie s el engine c r ude o il at
pe r t on
appr
per
e
gal lon
Cro ss ley engine ant h r acit e at
per t on
S team engine coal at $ 3 pe r t on
The fuel co s t is ba s ed o n t he follo w ing a ss um pti o n :
F o r t he D ie s el t he c on s um pti o n h a s been t aken in eac h c a s e
The s e rate s were
a s t he mean bet w een full and half-load rate s
act ually d etermined by te s t s
F or t he Cr o ss ley
to
po und s o f coal per B H P hour
plu s an allo w ance fo r s tand -by l o ss e s
F o r t he s tea m engine 4 t o
poun d s o f c o al pe r B H P hour
fo r t he lowe s t and highe st powe r s a s s um ing an evapo r at ion o f
8 p o und s of w a t e r per pound o f coal
Th e c o s t gure s i n t he o r iginal t able have al l been t ran s po s ed
The c om put ati o n s a re ba s ed o n a year o f
t o dolla r s and cent s
27 00 working hou r s
I n t he di s c u ss ion o n Cla r k s pa per t he c o s t c om putat i o n s
we r e rat he r s eve r ely c r itic is ed main ly o n ac c o unt o f t he fuel
c o s t s a s s umed Th e c lai m w a s made t hat bot h t he coal c o ns u m p
t ion for t he s tea m engine a n d t he c o s t o f t he s tea m c oal w a s
e pe r gal lon c oul d
a s s u med t oo high a nd t hat t he c o s t o f o il at
only a pply t o s eaboa r d t own s As fa r a s American c ondit ion s
are concerned t he a s s umptio n rega r ding t he s tea m engine wou ld
s eem t o be about r ight
while t he co s t of ant h r acite at
per
t on for t h e gas engine is cert ain ly not t oo lo w O n t he ot he r
hand t he price of
e pe r gallon fo r t he c ru d e o il would s eem t o
favo r t he D ie s el engine I t all c o me s t o t he p o int t hat a ppl ie s
t o al l c omputat ion s o f t hi s kind and t hat is t hat t he r e s ult s are
s trict l y appl ic able o nly t o t he locali t y fo r w hic h t hey are co m
Allo w ing for po ss ible d i ffe r ence in t he labor c o st s h o w
p ut e d
ever it s eem s t o t he w r i t e r t hat t he co mpa r i s on is quite fai r a s
bet we e n t he s tea m a nd t he ga s engine
P ro c o f M E 1 903 I I
*

COS T

O F I N S TA L L A TI ON

AN D

OPE RA TI ON

OF

573

As

a nal exam ple o f t hi s k in d o f hyp o t het ical com put ation

t he f o l l o wing t able is given Th e g u r e s a r e due t o Mr L G
F in d lay of t he D e L a V e r gne Mac hine Compan y o f N e w York
They w e r e p r e s ent ed at t he D ay t on meet ing o f t he O hio S oc iety
o f Mec hanic al
E lect r ical and S t ea m E ngineers a n d we r e pub
lis h e d in P owe r J uly 1 907
Th e t able is very c om plet e and w ould
r epay c a r eful s t u d y E s pec ially inte r e s t ing is t he e ffect o f t he
load fac t o r on ope r at ing co s t s T hi s facto r is he r e dened a s
t he ave r age load o n t he plant divi d ed by t he r ated c apac it y o f t he
plant
I n Cla r k s t able s above no ment ion is made of t he l oad factor
a n d it is evi d ent ly a s s umed t o be 1 00 per cent
That h o w eve r
is a condi t i o n e x i s ting and maint ained in ve r y few plant s
In
fact if it w e r e i t w oul d be poor engineering a s it give s t he plant
but ve r y litt le overloa d capac it y Th e marke d e ffect t hat a
dec r ea s e o f t he load fact or f r o m 1 00 p er c ent t o 5 0 per cent h as
U p o n ope r ating c o s t s is very c learly b r ought o u t in t he t able
I n t he table s given below fo r actual co st dat a t he load fact o r
is i n m o s t c a s e s even lo w e r t han t hi s
I n t he di s c u s s ion o n t he r es ult s o f t he t able fol lowing it s
p r e s ent a t i o n t he s tea m men obj ect ed t o t he c om pa r i s on bet w een
t he s t eam a nd ga s plant s at t he rate d l o ad on a c c o unt o f t he
m uc h g rea t e r o ve r l o ad capaci t y o f t he s t ea m engi ne plant L i ne s
3 6 3 7 3 8 a nd 3 9 of t he table a r e c o m pute d on t he a s s um p t i o n
t hat 8 0 pe r cent o f t he s tea m u s ed by t he engine s is a vaila ble fo r
heat ing but n o s t anding c harge s a re made again s t t he hea t ing
plant
Tu r ning next t o data f r o m act ual pract ice t he fir s t o f t h e
fol lo wing t able s w a s gi ven by Mr J E D o ws on in a paper i n t he
1 904
J ou rn a l o f the I n stitu te of E lect ri ca l E n gin eers Ap r i l
Th e t able r efe rs t o r e s ul t s o b t ained i n t w o E ngli s h plant s ; t he rs t
is equipped w it h D o w s on gene r at or s a nd Cr o s s ley engine s t he
s econd w it h t he s a me t ype of p r o d ucer and We s t ingh o u s e ve r t ical
engine s of c o mpa r a t i vel y s mall s i ze I n s pi t e of t he h ighe r c o s t
of c oal t he g r ea t e r c apacit y of t he Wal t ham s t o w plant s b r ing s
d o w n t he w age a n d repai r i t em s enough t o make t h e t ot al wo r k s
c o s t s n o t fa r di ffe r ent Th e t able onl y give s w o r ks c o s t and it
s h o uld be remembered t hat t he re s ul t s a ppl y t o E ngl i s h c o nd i
t ions

I N TE RN A L COM B U ST ION

574

E N G N ES

m
a

3
o
s
%e
@

2 u

t.

:
m
m

8
3
S
@
3
s

0
5 3
34 0 g
3
.

8
8
a

z
<

2
<

m
e

m
m

u
o

m
c
o
o

o
z
<

m
.

m
u

3
5
o

c
a

o
.

c
a
n

8
E m
m

m
o

m o
a
mn

c
a
n

c
q

%o

8
9
m
s

m 5

m co 2
a mm
m
o
m

8
B

mE

c
o

o
a
s
o

$
0

m
u

m
.

8
8

#
9

m a 5
D
m s
o 5
B m
8
o
6
m

w
m

o
o

m5

"

E
a

E
w

c
a
n

8 g
o

5 8
0
m%
g

w
k

s
;

2
z

$
E5
:

m
m

<

s
5

E
m

c
o

m
g
n

8
m

g B
o o m

8
S $ me
m:

n
o

m
8
a

#
3
9
6

o ;

@
0

a
o

8
3 8
3 8

8 $ Q
0 3 3
o n
m
3
5
3
wS
6 c
S d E
S
o
3
a
Q
s
8 p S Q a 5 c : o
;
o
0
a a n
8
d
r
w
y
v
u
3
3
o
o
w
S
s
p
a
o 8
E
8
o
m
E o m m mc
m e
8
w
:
mm m
m
2

o 3
w
9 m
@ w c m
o m
u
S
s
S
c
S
g
5 Q Q : 3 Q E? o
5 c v
w
m
a

x
c
i o s
2m m M S
m
o
i o
o
p
i
ms
Q
$
$ m
o

E3 : g
B 3$ 2
o
8
Q
S
2
A

3 mQ
8 o
m

n
.

$
0

o
a

o
p

w
o e

m m m
o

mm

3
0

6 8
0

0 o o o 0 _
H

m w
.

m:

E
m
m m
Q
.
N

m
wm

m
o
n

22E

w
.

c
o

o
o
.

8
9

s m

o u
o m

3
3

m a

2o

m
a

a
m
o o

COS T O F INS TA LLA TION

wo
wv
ma

m
s

m
m

o
h
m

m
v

O F O PERA TION

AN D

c
o

w
ww

mo
h

575

d
o
m
m

c
o

m
s

c
a

w
e

E
:

o
n

m
o

e e
n n

d d

$
.

c
a

m
m

mn
d w

m
w m
.

m
u o
m
d
: m
M

o
h

c
a

w o
ww

c
a

3
8

m a

mn
d

mn
s d

at

m mo
w
n
;
d

o a
w n

d
m

n n
o w
.

d
m

U 0
o

o
o

m
d

m
.

m
u

0
0

8
0

2
.

59

m :
0

E0
9

8
8
:

0
0
9

2
9
9
3
8

0
8

2
8
0

8
3
4

23 m
8
0
w
a
8
m
8 s
9

w
a
s

9
8

8
9

8
$
8

3
8 3
?

8
0

3
9

m
o
m

2
8

8
.

8
9
0

8
8

9
9

m
.

8
9

_
9

m
c
o

W
Q

S
O

8
0

8
0

9
9

8
8

8
9

8
.

8
:
9

8
9

3
0

8
9

S
8
m

8
8

8 2
0

8
8

m
a
m

8
.

w
m 83
0

m
m

m
m

qm

3
9

5
0

3
8

m 3 H

.
9

8
9

T
:

.
e

2
A 0

0
9

9
.

mw
d w

m
a

8
0

o
n

9
a

8
o

8 08

m 0

3
8
8
3
0
8
w
0 w
8
9
3
3
3
I

9
.
9

w9

8
0

9 s

w9
o

8 8
0

0 0

3 8
0 0
8 9
3
0
.

IN T ERNA L COMB US TION ENGINES

5 76

ec ond an d t hi r d t able s foll o w ing a r e due t o Mr J R

B ibbin s of t he We st inghou s e Mac hine Co m pan y and w e r e pub
lis h e d in a pape r o n t he Appl ic a t io n o f G a s P o w e r t o Cent ral
S t at ion W ork read before t he N at ional E lect r ic L ight As s oc ia
tio n at Wa s hingt on J une 1 90 7 B ot h o f t he s t at ion s ment ione d
us e nat ural ga s fo r fuel b ut t he B r adford plant is eq ui pped wit h
rat her s mal l We st inghou s e vert ica l engine s while t he Wa rr en
and J a me st o w n s t at ion c ontain s t wo l arge d i r ect c onnected unit s
o f 50 0 ho r s e -power eac h
I n bo t h c a se s t he load fac t or is c on
s id e ra bly le s s t han 5 0 per c ent ; i n t he c a s e o f t he B r adfo r d plant
it is onl y about 1 9 per cent Th e gu r e s fo r t he l atter plant are
remarkable fo r t he lengt h of t i me c overed 8 %years
The

W O R KS

CO S T

OF

O P E R A TI N G

P L A N TS

G AS

Pl t
an

IVIidla n d Rai wa y Co
e ices t e r

E n ine :
Ca p a city
N u m be

M a ke

te s ted

Ub

r an

Di

s tric t

W lt h
a

S ta tio n

a ms ow

1 5 00
7

3 00
6

C o ssl e y
5 m o nt h s

W e tingh u se

2004 9 7

6 5 9 75 6
Arc a n d inc a n d e sc ent
li h tin , o wso n ga s

L ng th f r un
L ad fact r

12 mo

nth s

K W -h our g enera te d
R e m ar k s
s e r vice
.

D uty

inc a n d e sc ent
li gh tin g D o wso n ga s g

Ar c

pl a nt :
pe r K W -h o ur
pe r B H P

Co s t :
Coa l
F uel

1 23 c
020c
2920

4 73c

l 7o
0950
0 15 c

4 45 0

A u thorit y :

R M
.

D LY
EE

F A
.

S u pt Loc o mo tives
.

W O R KS

pe r to n
pe r K W
h o ur
O il w as te wa te r
W ag e s
To ta l wo r k s c o s t p o w e r
hout
c ent s pe r K W ~
.

g D

of

Lbs
L bs

a nd

W I LK I

NS

ON

E lec E ngine er in c har ge

.

P O W E R G A S D R I V E N CE N T R A L S T ATI O N
B R AD F O R D E L E C T R I C L I G HT
P O W E R Co B R A D FO R D P A
4 70 kil o wa tt s
S ta ti o n c a p a cit y ( ve en g ine s )
N u m be r O f years in o pe ra ti o n
per cent
Ave rag e s t a ti o n l o ad fa ct o r
Ave rag e g a s c o n s u m pti o n pe r kil o w a tt
ho u r
cu ft
pe r c ent
Ave rag e h ea t ef c ienc y a t s w itc h b o ard

I nclu d ing s ta nd -by l oss e s

CO S T

OF

COS T
w

INS TA LLA TION

OF

or

co s t

of

F uel , ga s , inclu d in h ea tin

S ta ti o n wa e s
O il , wa s te a nd s upplie s
R unn in
ep a i s ( t o ta l )
R unnin
epa i s ga s en ine s

454
848
28 5

gr
gr

To

5 77

Balkans:

o we r

O PE R A TION

AN D OF

r
r
g
ta l o pera tin g c t
os

En

g ine rep air

pe r ho rse -p o we r per year

per en g ine pe r year
7 5 pe r cent o n inve s t m ent
B rad ford n a tu ra l ga s
s

F uel

W O R K S CO S S G S P O WE R
WA RR
J A M TO W S R T

ES

EN

A I LW A Y

PL AN T

R A I L W A Y CO M P

EE

Ca p a city o f pl a nt ( t w o unit s )
Ave a e ti m e o pe a te d pe d a y
A ve a e o utput pe d a y
l o ad , pe cent a tin

r g
rg

r
r
r

W k
or

rg
W ag e

Ave a e F i
F uel ga s

Co s t

of

D ll

o wer

r t F u r M nth
s

kil o wa tt s
h o u rs
4 1 1 5 kil o wa tt h o u r s
3 7 pe r cent
6 00

AN Y

ars

c e n s pe r
o wa
ou r

per d ay

K il

tt h

1 9 06 :

s,

O il
R ep a i rs a nd
To ta l

m i scell ane o u s

u pplie s

B rad f ord S a n d

F uel

n a tu ra l

ga s

I n con cl u s ion t o m ake t he gu r e s i n t h e above t able s readily

c ompa r able a mong t hem s el ve s t he c os t d at a h a s been re c o m
,

'

t o t he ba si s o f c o s t i n cent s per B H P hour in al l c a s e s

Table I gi ve s t he t ot al operat ing c o s t s fo r s mal l and me d ium
s i zed plant s as c omputed f r o m t he d at a o f Webber
Clark
Th e d i ffe r enc e i n t he
Th e l o ad fact or is i n al l ca s e s 1 00 pe r c ent
c o s t o f s tea m po w e r arri ve d at by t he t wo aut horit ie s is rem ark
a ble Cl ark s gure s being le s s t han 5 0 per c ent t h o s e o f Webber
Th e rea s on fo r t h i s is found i n t wo di r ect ion s d i ff erent a s s u m p
tion s a s t o c o s t of c o al $ 5 pe r t o n a s again s t $ 3 and di ff e r ent
a ss umption s as t o t he c oa l c o n s um ption per hors e-power Webber
p ut e d

IN TE RN A L

578

CO M B US TI ON EN GI NE S

as s u me s a s h igh as 20 pou nd s o f co al pe r hors e -p o wer fo r a 6

h ors e -po wer pl ant and c h arge s a 20 h o rs e
po wer plant u p with 1 2
pound s per h o rs e po w er-h ou r I n fac t Webber s gu re s are ve r y
l ibe r al th roughout for al l t h r ee k ind s of po w er
I n Table I I t he w o r k s and t ot al operat ing c o st s per B H P
hour are s ho w n s ide by s ide a s co mput ed fro m F indlay s t able
,

ABL

O pera tin g Co s t s pe r B H P -h o ur
S m a ll a nd M e d iu m S ized P l a nt s

To ta l

Ki

d fP
o

Ki

o wer

of

F l

g
g
g
g

Co al

D ie el

5
1 00
1 00
1 00
1 00
1 00

Pl t

Size

of

er

an

25

'

I ll G a s
G a so line
Co a l
P od G a s
.

43

ue

S t ea m E ng in e
G a s E n gin e
G a s E n ine
S te a m E n ine
G a s E n ine
O il E n ine ,

5?

Cos t in

ce n s

B H

P.

o ur

308 0 1 3 9 6 3 5 1 4 7 4 5 4 1 4 0 3 7 3 1 2 8
3 08 0 6 2 4 6 3 9 3 6 3 5 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 9 2 8
308 0 8 5 4 9 3 7 3 3 3 1 2 8 2 7 2 6 2 4 2 3
1 78
1 26
27 00
98
1 38
l 04
2700
80

ABL

II

O pe ra tin g a n d W o rk s Co s t e r B H P -h o ur
F in d l ay
u te d fro m Ta ble by Mr L
W orp3 c o s t s in b racket s
To ta l
Co m

W ebbe r
W ebbe r
W ebbe r

64

78

1 08

1 00 27 00

Ki

in

m?
ours

oa

24
24

o wer

ze

Si

g 5s
'

Ce n

24
24

d fP

1 00
5O
1 00
50
1 00
50
1 00
50

1 000
OOG
1 000
1 000
200
200
200
200

39
69
53
88
76
88

30)
4 1)
33)
47 )
69 )

73 )

ts

p er

B H

31
54
46
84
40
71
59

- o ur

39
67
55
99
43
86
69
1 26
.

( 3 0)
( 49 )

I N S TA LL A TI ON A ND

COS T OF

O PE RA TI ON

OF

5 79

dat a f r o m t he B r adf o rd a n d J ame s town plant s and from

t he t w o E n gli s h plant s s h o ws t he f o l lo wing re s ult s for t he w ork s
c o s t per B H P -h o ur
Th e

Fm }

N a tu
N a tu

D
D

ral g
r lg
a

oa

ac or

B H P
.

ra e

V k
p
ig
f
\ ol

as

n ga s
o w s o n ga s
o wso

Pl t
an

6 40
800
4 00
2000

as

Brad fo rd
Ja m e s t o w n
M i d l a n d R a il way
Waltham s t ow

67
57
35
33

t he s e gu r e s and t ho s e o f Table II t he c onc lu s ion

s eem s j u s tied t hat i t s hould be ea s ily po ss ible t o produce o n e
brake ho r se po w e r in a fai r s i zed pl ant s a y no t under 200 ho r s e
po w e r fo r a wo r k s c o s t of f r o m 5 t o 7 5 cent s per hou r depen d
ing up o n t he c ondi t ion s i nvol ve d Thi s e x c l u d e s xe d c ha r ges
a n d a s s u me s a load fac t o r in t he neighb o r hoo d of 5 0 per cent
F ro m

IN DE X

Alc oh o l ,

c ar bu rete r
A b so lute te m pe ra tu re
Accu m ul a t o rs o r s t o rag e ba tte r

P AG E

Abeille

ie s

1 89

6
411

Acety lene ,

c o n s ta nt s fo r
Ad i a b a t i c a n d i s o t h e r m a l
c ha n ge s grap h ica l ex
p re ss i o n s for
Ad i a b a tic Cha n g
e x p a n s i o n w o r k per
fo rm e d in
line equ a ti o n o f
Ad m ixtu re o f benz o l t o a lc o h o l
Afte r -bu r nin g
A ir ga s p ro d ucti o n o f
A ir requi red fo r c o m bu s ti o n o f
a lc oh o l
A ir req ui r ed fo r c o m bu s ti o n
A ir t he r m o m ete r
Alc o h o l
c o m m e rci a l ta ble o f
s pecific
gravitie s a n d
h ea tin g v a lue s
Alc o h o l a ir r e q ui re d fo r c o m

21 1

55
16

1 98
1 67

1 87

r H r n by Ak
o

ro y d

1 93

c os t o f
A ut o m at ic cut -o ff en g ine Ja c o b

53
52
1 84
220
147

5 65

son

27 1

en g ine Co ntinental
F ra nklin
3 72
Mo o r e
H orc h
ho rs ep o wer ra tin g o f
A u t o m o bile g as o line en g ine
A ut o -S p arke r
A uxili ar ie s a n d pipin g c o s t o f
A uxili ary s p ark g a p
A ut o m o bile

1 83
136

3 73
3 74
3 74
3 73
4 83
3 72

4 16
54 8
4 09

1 83

b u s t io n

345

Atten d a nce ,

1 96

e rs

A t o m ize

v a p o r iz in g d ev ic e s for
A lli s
Cha l m e rs ga s en g ine
Alt m a n a lc oh o l v a p o r ize r
Am e r ic a n Cro ss l ey s ucti o n p ro
d u oe r
A t o m iz in g o r s p ray in g c ar bu r et

P A GE

of

1 83

Alc o h o l ,

c o m p o s iti o n a n d h ea t
in g v alue o f
Alc o h o l en g ine
va p o r a i r m ixtu re s
Alc o h o l d en a tu re d
Alc o ho l v a p o r ize r A lt m a n
D eutz
Dre sd en
D uerr
S wi d e rs ki -L o ng ue m a r re
,

18 1

B arnett s en g ine
i g niti o n c o ck
Barsa nti a nd Ma tteucci free p is
t o n en g ine
B a tte r ie s p r i m a ry a nd s ec o n d
a ry m et h o d o f c o nnectin g
Bea u d e Ro c ha s
Bea u d e R o chas o r O tt o cycle
th e o retic a l
Benz o l
ad m ixtu re o f t o a lc o h l
Bl as t fu rn a ce ga s c o m p o s i ti o n
a n d h ea tin g va lue o f

239

3 90
203
1 83

4 20

1 98

1 98

20 1

20 1

65
184

18 4

1 99

58 1

209

I N DE X

582

PAG E
fuel

Bl as t fu rn a ce ga s en g ine s
c o s t s fo r
Blas t fu rna ce ga p repara ti o n o f
value o f
B o m b c a l o ri m ete r Mah ler s
B rayt o n c ycle t he o retic al
en g ine
en g ine d i agra m
o il en g ine te s t o f
B ra ke h o rse -p o w e r d e niti o n o f
B ra ke Pro n y
B riti s h Th erm a l U nit
B ro wn en g ine o f
B ruce-Me rri am -Abb o tt en g ine
Buckeye t wo
cycle en g ine go v
e rnin g o f
Buckeye t wo-cycle ga s en g ine
Bu ffa l o ta n d e m en g ine
Buil d in g s a nd oor-s pa ce c o s t of
,

s,

2 10

r ifu gal g ver n r f h it

mi
reg ula ti n
Ch rg in g f t rag e b tte r ie

560

Cl as s i fic a ti o n

56 1

1 29

69
24 8
250
25 0
38

39
14
23 4
275

467

28 6
28 2

5 49

Cent

o s

ss

P AG E

-a n d

or

454

s o

fuel s
h ea t en g ine s
inte rn a l c o m bu s
ti o n engine s
Cl a s s i c a ti o n o f p r od uce rs
Clea nin g o f bl a s t fu r n a ce ga s fo r
u se in en g ine s
Cle ara nce s a n d c o m p r e ss i o n p re s
s u re s
fo r v ar i o u s fuel s
O tt o cycle ta ble of
Cle r k s en g ine
Cle r k en g ine d i agra m
en g ine s te s t s o n
Cle r k s expe r i m ent s o n s pecific
h ea t
Cle r k La n c h e s te r s ta r te r
Cl o se d cycle d e niti o n o f
Co cke r ill en g ine s
Co d e o f G e r m a n S o ciet y o f E u
fo r te s tin g ga s
gin e e rs
p rod ucers a nd ga s en g ine s
Co efficient exce ss d e niti o n o f
Co efficient o f fl y-w h eel r e g ul a
ti o n
Co effi cient o f g o ve r n o r re g ul a ti o n
Co ke o ven ga s c o n s ta nt s fo r
Co l d ga s efficienc y
Co o lin g wa te r c o n d iti o n s a ffect
in g ec o n o m y
Co m binin g w ei gh t s a n d v o lu m e s
fo r ga s e s
Co m bin a ti o n ga s o l ine a n d alc o
h o l v a p o rize r
Co m bin a ti o n p rod ucer s
Co m bin a ti o n p ro d uce r Cr ss le y
D eutz d o uble z o ne
L oo m i sP ettib o ne
Co m bi n a ti o n sys te m s o f g o ve r n
of

Ca l o

r ie

14

inte n s ity
Ca l o r i m e t e r Car pente r s c o a l
J unke r s ga s
Mah le r s b o m b
Cal o r i m et r ic th e rm o m ete rs
go ve rn o r
Ca m pbell o il-en g ine

144
1 30

13 1

1 29
11

fo r

4 56

r b n h ea tin g value f
Car b n m n xi d e h ea tin g v lue
o

Ca

1 32

1 32

of

Ca

rbu reter a t m izin g

p ray
in g
r bu reter bubblin g t y pe f
D a i m le r
or s

1 87
1 85
1 88

De Dio n

1 90

191

G autie
S in t z

u rface
Car bu rete rs
Carn o t c ycle
Ca rn o t o r reve rs ible en g ine
Cell s we t a n d d ry
s

27
1 58
21 0

90
25 5

25 7
25 7

224
4 32
61

336

Ca lo r ic

Ca

17

146

1 88

186
1 85

62
54
4 10

511
137

4 39
4 40
208
15 1

530
1 27

20 2
1 73
1 73

1 73

1 74
4 47

i ng

a i r req ui re d fo r
Co m bu s ti o n line O tt o c ycle
Co m bu s ti o n o f a lc o h o l a ir re
q u ired
Co m bu s ti o n ,

136
90

183

IN DE X
P AG E

p re ss u re d ue t o
220
p ro d uct s o f
1 36
Co m pa ra tive c o s t o f p o we r fo r
v ari o u s p r i m e m o ve rs 5 6 9 5 79
Co m p ar i so n o f t h e oretic a l a nd
61
a ctu a l h e a t en g ine s
Co m pa r i s o n o f v ar i o u s t h e o ret
ic a l cycle s
73
Co m p o s iti o n a n d h ea tin g v a lue
18 1
o f al c oho l
Co m p o s iti o n a n d h ea tin g v a lue
bl as t fur n a ce ga s
209
Co m p o s iti o n a n d h e a tin g v a lue
1 79
o f ga s o line
Co m p o s iti o n a nd h ea tin g v a lue
1 79
o f ke r o sene
Co m p o s iti o n o f o il ga s
20 7
Co m p o s iti o n o f m o s t c o m m o n
c o m m erci a l ga se s gra p h
ica l rep re enta ti o n
21 4
Co m p o s iti o n o f p ro d uce r ga s by
v o lu m e pe r p o un d o f c a r
bo n g a s ified
15 2
Co m p o s iti o n o f p rod uce r ga s by
wei gh t pe r p o un d o f c ar
Co m bu s ti o n ,

15 1

r
ec n m y
m p r e i n p r e u re
d t m

Co m p

Co

bo n ga s ie d
e ss i o n , e ffect
ss o

on

s an

ss

p e ra t u re s fo r
a of

5 32

O tt o cycle

t ble
Co m p r e s s i o n p re s s u re s a nd c lear
a nc e s
fo r v ar i o u s fuel s
O tt o cycle t a ble o f
Co m p r e s s i o n s t ro ke O tt o c ycle
Co m p re s s i o n t e m pe ra tu re d ue t o
Co n d en se rs i n s p a r k c o il s
Co n d iti o n s requi re d fo r t h e p ro p
e r fo rm a ti o n o f a l c oh o l
v a p o r-a ir m ixtu re s
Co n s ta nt p re s s u re en g ine s
cycle
Co n s ta nt p r e s s u re
t ra n s fe r o f
hea t a t
Co n ta nt te m pe ra tu re en g ine s
Co n s ta nt v o lu m e o r expl o s i o n
en g ine s
,

88

v o lu m e t ra n s fe r o f
h ea t a t
Co n s t a nt s for a cetylene
c o ke o ven ga s
Co n s ta nt s ga s t a ble o f
Co n s t a nt s fo r ga s en g ine fuel
gas e s ta ble o f
Co n s ta nt s fo r illu m ina tin g ga s
n a tu ral ga s
wa te r-ga s
Co nve rs i o n o f so li d fuel s t o ga s
Co a l c a l o r i m ete r Ca rpente r
Co s t o f a tten d a nce
Co s t o f e recti o n
Co s t o f o o r-s p a ce a n d buil d
in g s
Co s t o f fuel fo r illu m in a tin g ga s
a n d n a tu ra l ga s en g ine s
Co s t o f p o we r fo r v ar i o u s p r i m e
m o ve rs
569
Co s t o f p ro d uce r s a n d en g ine s
o il a n d wa s te
o pe ra ti o n
pipin g a n d a uxili ar ie s
Co s t of wa te r fo r c o o lin g a n d
wa sh in g
Co s t s fuel
o pe ra tin g
Cro s by in d i c a t o r
Cro ss ley c o m bin a ti o n p ro d uce r
g a s en g ine
Cro s s ley h it -a nd -m i s s g o ve r n o r
va p o rize r
Cro u se -H in d s d i s t r ibut o r
d o uble -b a ll ti m e r
Cru d e o il
Cr u d e o il d i s till a te s
Cr u d e o il s ta ble o f h ea tin g v a lue
a n d c o m p o s iti o n
Cu rrent so u r ce s o f
Cycle B ra y t o n t h e o retic a l
Ca r n o t
Ch o ice o f be s t
cl o s ed d e niti o n o f
c o n s ta nt p re ss u re
d e niti o n o f
Co n s ta nt

90

86
220

404

50
21 1
208
1 26
21 3
206

21 2
212
146
130
5 65

5 48

05

5 79

547
564
53 3
548

56 1
5 53
5 68
34
1 73

3 24
4 52
1 94
4 25
4 08
1 78
1 80

20 3

30
1 04

P AG E

5 83

50

31
28

1 78

4 10
69

62

79
61
1 04

I N DE X

5 84

P AG E

D ie el th e oret i c al

( bi d e ,

71

O tt o co m bu s ti o n line
O tto co m p re ss i o n s t ro ke
O tt o cyclic efficiency o f
O tto ex ha u s t s t ro ke
O tto expa n s i o n line
O tt o p re ss u re ra ti o in
Cyc le O tt o re q ui r e m ent s fo r be s t
efficiency in
Cycle O tt o s ucti o n s t ro ke
Cycle O tt o ta ble o f a ll o wa ble
c o m p re ss i o n p r e ss u re s a n d
,

90
86

68
1 00
97

92

1 00

84

c le a ra n c e s

fo r va r io u s fue ls

90

88

O tt o ta ble

of

cycli c

e f

c ie n c ie s

69

O tt o ta ble o f v o lu m et r ic
ef ciencie s a n d s ucti o n
p re ss u re s
Cy cle O tt o typi c a l l o w e r l o o p
d i agra m s
Cycle Th e o retic a l Bea u d e R o
c h as or O tt o
Cycle t w o -s t ro ke
Cycle s th e o reti c a l c o m pa ri s o n
Cyclic ef cien c y d e niti o n o f
Cy c li c efficienc y o f t h e o retic a l
O tt o c ycle
Cy clic ef ciencie s fo r O tt o c ycle
ta ble of
Cy cle ,

86

D
D ai m ler c ar bu reter
D a h b ard park c il
D Di
carbu reter
D elam ar h it d m i g ve rn r
D e L a V erg ne t w - y le il
g ine
D ena tu red alc h l
D en atu rizin g ag ent f alc h l
e

on

-a n

101

65
1 02

73
62
68

1 90

t a ble o f
D ep re c ia ti o n of pla nt

or

454

en

3 80

1 73

35 1
1 62
1 65

25 9
25 8
25 7

1 20
1 19

D i agram ent r py m at h em atical

c n tr ucti n f
D i agram f L en i r eng ine
D i agram p re u re v lu m e d
ned
D i agram D ie el en g ne
i n d ic a t r f rm f
l w e r l p O tt cycle
o

ss

oo

s o
o

O tt o cycle
D ie s el cycle t h e o retical
en g ine
D ie sel en g ine d i agra m s
D ie sel eng ine d evel o p m ent
go ve rn o r fo r
D ie sel eng ine s ear ly te s t s
D i sso c i ati o n t h e o ry o f
D i s t r ibut or Gro u se H in d s
h i gh ten s i o n
L eavitt
Dre sd en alc oh o l v ap o rize r
D urr a lc oho l vap or ize r
D y nam os a nd m ag net os
,

24 2

s,

1 12

3
1 06
40
101

94

71
385
1 06
of

25 9
4 59

on

26 2

98
4 25
4 23
4 26
20 1
20 1

415

1 83

ings

1 98

1 88

1 43

o c

69

4 06

ga s

ss

a na l y s e s
D eutz alc oh o l va p o rize r
D eutz d o uble-z o ne co m bi na ti o n
p rod uce r
D eutz ga s eng ine
p re ss u re p rod uce r
s ucti o n p rod uce r
D evel o p m ent o f t h e D ie sel e n
g ine
D evel o p m ent o f t h e ga s eng ine
in d u s t ry
D i agra m Cler k en g ine
D i agra m ent ro py graph ic al
c o n s tr ucti o n o f
D i agram ent ro py inte r preta ti o n

c oe ffi

ss

of

26 3

s o

p e ra t u re s

Cycle ,

D e i g n general fea tu re f
D ete rm ina ti n f exce
cient fr m ex ha u t

O tt o ta ble o f c o m p re s
p r e s s u re s a n d t e m
sio n

Cy cle ,

PAG E

184
a nd

buil d
5 53

E c o nom i s t

cru d e

o il

v a p o r ize r

1 95

IN D E X
P AGE

cyc li c d e niti o n o f
E fficien c y c yclic o f t h e o retic a l
O tto c ycle
E f c ienc y h o t ga s
c o l d ga s
E fficiencie s fo r O tt o c ycle t a ble o f
E hrhard t a n d S ch m e r en g ine
go ve r n or for
E ject o r m uffle r
E lect ric a l t h e r m o m ete rs
s t ar te r s
E ne rg y kineti c
E n g ine B ar nett
B ray t o n
B rayt o n o il te s t o f
B ro w n
Ca r n o t o r r eve rs i ble
Cayley s
Cle r k
Cle rk te s t s o n
E n g ine d i agra m Cle r k
B rayt o n
E n g i ne d i agra m s D ie s el
E n g ine D ie s el d evel o p m ent o f
fu r nace ga s
E n g ine f ree pi s t o n O tt o a nd
Lan gen
E n g ine ga s m et h o d o f o pe ra
ti o n
E n g ine s gu n p o wd e
E n g ine H u g o n
E n g ine in d i c a t o r
E n g ine L eb o n
L en o i r
L en o i r d i agra m o f
E n g i ne ; L en o i r ga s c o n s u m p
ti o n o f
E n g ine O tt o
E n g ine s O tt o te s t s o n
E n g ine Pa pin
P erry
R o be r t S t reet
S ti rlin g h o t -a i r
Wri gh t
E n g ine ec o n o m y a s a ff ecte d b y
co m p r e ss i o n
E f cien c y,

62

68
151
151
69

46 1
4 28

8
436
2
23 6
24 8
25 0

23 4
54
26
25 5

25 7
25 7
25 0
1 06
259

25

a ff e c te d by
c o o li n g wa te r c o n d iti o n s
E n g ine ec o n o m y a s aff ected by
pi s t o n s pee d
E n g ine e c o n o m y a s a ff e c te d by
var i a ti o n i n fuel m ix
tur e
En g ine ec o n o m y d epen d in g up o n
l o ad
E n g ine ec o n o m y d epen d in g up o n
p o int o f i g niti o n
E n g ine s c o n s t a nt p re s s u r e
c o n s t a nt te m pe ra tu re
E n g i ne s c o n s t a nt v o lu m e o r ex
pl o s i o n
E n g ine s D ie s el te s t s o n
h ea t cl a ss i c a ti o n o f
E n g ine s
h e a t c o m p ar i s o n o f
th e o retic a l a nd a ctu al
E n g ine s h o t -a i r
E n g ine s
i nte r n a l c o m bu s ti o n
cl as s i c a ti o n o f
E nt ro p y
15
E nt ro py d i agra m gra p h ic a l c o n
s t r ucti o n o f
E nt ro p y d i agra m inte r p ret a ti o n
o

omy, a s

530

5 30

533
537
5 34

30
31

28

26 2
l7

61
22

27
1 07

of

244

1 20

26
233

24 2

32
23 4

23 9
24 2

1 19

r py d iagram m ath e m a tic al

f
c n t r ucti n
E nt r py r el a ti n g ene a l
E recti n c t f
E r ic
n h t ai r en g ine
E xce
c effi c ient d e niti n f
E xce
c ef cient f r m exha u t
E nt

g ine e c n

P AG E

En

5 85

ss

s,

o -

ss o
ss

os

25 1
25 4
23 2

23 8
23 3
24
23 5

548
22

1 37
1 43
97
224
220
220

532

1 09

a n al ys i s
E xp a n s i o n line O tt o c ycle
E xpe r i m ent s o n s peci c h ea t b y
Cle r k
E xpe r i m ent s o n s peci c h e a t by
La ng en
E xpe r i m ent s o n s peci c h ea t by
Ma ll ard a n d L e Ch a t e lie r
E x h a u s t ga s a n a l ys i s exce s s c o
effic ien t fro m
E x ha u s t ga s c o m pu t a ti o n s o n
s t r o ke O tt o c y cle
,

24 2

1 12

1 43
1 38

1 00

I N DE X

5 86

PA G E
Ex

p l o s i b i l i t y o f fuel m ix
tu re s
21 5
E xpl os i o n o r c o n s ta nt v o lu m e
en g ine s
E xpl o s i o n r ec o rd e r Ma t h o t
E xpl o s i o n ti m e o f
E xpl o s ive m ixtu r e

illu m in a ting ga s
a n d n a tu ra l ga s en g ine s
F uel c o t s fo r p ro d uce r ga s e n
g ine s
F uel c o s t s fo r s te a m en g ine s
s tea m tu r bine s
F uel ga se s c o n s t a nt s fo r
F uel m ixtu r e c o m put a ti o n s o n
F uel m i xtu re v ar i a ti o n in a f
fe c t ing ec o n o m y
F uel m ixtu r e s expl o s ibilit y o f
F uel s cl a ss i fic a ti o n o f
liq ui d h ea ti n g va lue o f
s o l i d h e a tin g v a l ue o f
F u r n a ce ga s en g ine
F u s i o n t h e rm o m ete r s
F uel

218

P AG E

fo r

cos s

28
5 00

227

21 5

F
28 8

s,

s-

o s

27 7

3 89

'

s-

an

a r

o s

ro

B o wen
i g niter
a nd

m a ke -a n d -b

elect r ic

G u illea u m e

Gas

157
227

549

reg ul a ti n c ef c ient
o

of

439

gh t ta ble f
ga line en g ine
F
F rm
f in d i c a t r d i agra m
m ea n e ffective p re
F r m ul a f
u re G r ve r
en g ine K t i g
F u -c y cle g
F u r c ycle ga line en g ine S t r e
lin g er
F u r te rm in al par k c il
F ra nklin a ut m bile en g ine 3 7 2
pi t n en g ine Bar nti d
F
F ly-wh eel w ei

s o

oe r

28 0

36 2

21 5
146
1 34
1 35
25

11

s o

3 74

an

sa

a nd

24 4

F uel

co sts
F uel c o s t s fo r bl a s t fu r n a ce ga s
eng ine s
F uel c o s t s fo r ga so line en g ine s
.

of

487

c al o r i m eter J u n ke r s
G a s c o ke o ven c o n s t a nt s fo r
G a s c o n s ta nt s R fo r pe rfect
gas e s ta ble o f
G a s c o n s t a nt s t a ble o f
G a s c o n s u m pti o n o f L en o i r en
g ine
G a s bl a s t fu r n a ce c o m p o s iti o n
a n d h e a tin g v a lue o f
G a s illu m in a tin g c o n s ta nt s fo r
n at u ral c o n s ta nt s fo r
o il c o m p o s iti o n o f
o il h ea tin g v a lue o f
pe rfect s peci c h ea t o f
G a s p ro d u c e r s a n d en g ine s te s t s
,

48
1 26
24 2
209

206
212
207
20 8
12

5 42

of

p ro d uce rs in p ra ctice
G a s wa te r c o n s t a nt s fo r
G a s e s c o m binin g w ei gh t s a n d
v o lu m e s
G a s e s c o m m e rci a l c o m p o s iti o n
Gas

1 56
21 2

1 27

21 4

of

G as e s ,
56 1

208

5 53
56 1

13 1

23 9

ree pi t n en g ine O tt
Lan gen

of

4 05

Co d e

s o

4 72

Ma tteucci

so

re c -

as

40

358

or

440

s,

so

of

en g ine s te s t s

o il

Ga s

a nd

436

5 33

4 00

t arter
F ix a ti o n o f t ar-f o r m in g ga se s in
p rod uce r ga s
F l a m e p ro p aga ti o n vel o city o f
F l o o r-s pa ce a n d buil d in g s c o s t

oo s

1 38

re a k

Fly-wh eel

558

1 68

a nd

F elten

d uc e r
Fa y

557

rba nk en g ine
en g ine
Fa i r b a nk M r e
F i r b a nk M r e c r u d e il va p r
i er
F i b k M r e s ucti n
p

5 59

Fai

55 8

fuel c o n s tant s fo r
illu m ina ti o n ta ble
G as e s
c o m p o s iti o n

21 3

of

20 7

I N DE X
P AG E i

pe rfect chara cter i s tic s o f

G a s e s pe rfect l a w s o f
G as e s pe rfect ta ble o f s pe c i c
v o lu m e s
G a se s s peci c h ea t o f
G a s en g ine Alli s -Cha l m e rs
B r uce-Me rr i a m Abb o tt
Bu c keye t w o cycle
Buff a l o ta n d e m
Cro ss ley
D eutz
D ie s el
F a i r b a nk s
Co
Fa i r b a nk s Mo rs e
fu r na ce
H a utefeuille
G a s en g ine s J a c o b s o n
G a s en g ine K o e r t i n g f o u r
c ycle
K oe r t ing t wo -c ycle
Gas e s ,

45

46

en g ine s
c o s t s fo r
il lu m ina tin g a nd
G a s en g ine s
n a tu ra l fuel c o s t s fo r
G a s en g ine s m eth o d o f o pe ra
ti o n
G a s en g ine s m et h o d s o f te s tin g
p ro d uce r fuel c o s t s fo r
s m a ll a n d m e d iu m s ize
G a s ic a t io n i n p re ss u re p ro d uc
c
e r s ra te o f
G as o line c o m p o s i ti o n a n d h ea t
in g v a lue o f
G a s o line m ixin g d evice s fo r
G a so line e n g ine a ut o m o bile
Gas

47
48

3 45
27 5
28 6
28 2

3 24

35 1
385
28 8

277
25

28 0

O ld s
S t a n d ard

3 13

S t re linge r

29 1

34 7
3 20

g ine S n w
g ine T d
W a ren h it d m i
W e tin gh u e
W e tingh u e h r iz ntal
en gine W e tin gh u e ve r ti
l i ng le ctin g ta n d e m
en g ine g ve r ni ng
en g ine in d u t ry d evel p

3 29

s,

3 06

-a n

295

ss

266

'

Gas

ca

Ga s
Gas

-a

3 04

m ent

439

of

en g ine reg ul a ti o n
t e s t s t a ble s o f
G a s en g ine a n d p r o d ucer s

439

Gas

Gas

544, 5 45

cos

en g ine s a nd ga s p ro d uce rs
re s ult o f te t s
en g in e s Co ckeril l
,

26 5
1 77
1 79
185

3 72

o-

3 64
3 60

rine
f u r cycle

ma

3 67

362

en g ine s
fuel c o s t s fo r
m ar ine
G a utie r c a r bu rete r
G ene ra t o r s c u rrent m ec ha nic a l
f orm s o f
G e rm a n S o ciet y o f E n g inee r s
Co d e fo r te s tin g ga s p ro
d u c e r s a nd ga s en g ine s
G ibb o n ke ro s ene v a p o r ize r
G o ve r n o r Ca m pbell o il en g ine
Cr o s s le y h it a nd -m i s s
D el a mare h it a n d -m i s
D ie el en g ine
G o ve r n o r Eh rha rd t a nd S e h m c r
en g ine
G o v r n o r H o r n by-Akro yd en
g ine
G o ve r n o r
K o e rt ing fo ur-c ycle
en g ine
G o ve r n o r N u r nbe rg en g ine
G a s o line

358

56 1
36 1
191

4 15

511
1 93

4 56
454

46 1

458

4 60
4 58

G o ve r n o r re g u la t io n , c o e f c ie n t o f 4 4 0
547

559

Ga s

3 06

486

26

358

3 10

G a s en
G a s en

L zie r t w cycle

3 55

558

26 7

346

56 1

Fo os

23 2

33 9

en g ine N u rn be rg ta ble
s ta n d a rd s ize s
G a s en g ine Oe c h e lh au se r
Old s
Ph il ad elph i a O tt o
Pre m ie r
R ive r s i d e

Gas

P AG E
bl as t fu r nac e fuel

58 7

ve rn o r R o bey
S p r in g el d h it -a n d -m i s
G o ve r n o r W e s tin gh o u se ve r tic a l
en g ine

Go

5 42

455

45 3

4 60

IN D E X

588

P AG E

r nin g Bu c keye t w - ycle

en g ine
en g ine
G ve r nin g f g
y te m
d mi
G ve r nin g h it
t i g en g ine
G ve r nin g f K
f O h lh au
G ve r nin g
g ine
G ve r nin g f t w cy cle en g ine
y te m f
G ve r nin g L t m b
R ein hard t m eth d
R ei h enb ac h en g ine
m a ll t w -c ycle e
G ve r nin g
g ine
G ve r nin g y te m
f
G ve r nin g by v a ry in g ti m e
i g niti o n
G ve r nin g by v a ry in g t h q u a l
ity f t h fuel m ixtu re
G ve r nin g b y v ary in g t h qu a n
tity f fuel m ixtu re
pen d ulu m f h it
G ve r n r
mi
reg ul ati n
d
cent r ifu gal f h it
G ve r n r
reg ul a ti n
nd m i
f
G ve r n r m ec h a nic a l d et a il
f th
G ra p h ic a l c n t r ucti n
ent r p y d i agra m
ad i a
G ra p h ic a l exp re i n f
ba tic
th erm al
d i
c han g e
m
G ra p h i c a l rep re ent a ti n f

G o ve

o c

-a n

ec

se r

e s

e o

o s,

4 49

465
4 64

4 63

4 67
441

449
444

ss

o s,

ss

s o

o s,

an

4 50
45 4
4 50

55

21 4
4 72
477
233

3 98

of

as

ss

23 2

1 90

of

1 78

H ea tin g v alue

of

ga li ne
hyd r g en
ker ene

1 79

so

132
1 79

os

li q ui d fuel s

134

o il

208

ga s

li d fuel s
H ea ting value s a nd s pe c i c gra v
itie s o f c o m m er ci a l a lc o
h o l t a ble o f
H ea tin g value s o f hyd ro carb o n s
ta ble o f
H eatin g v alue s o f t r ue expl o s ive
m ixtu re s ta ble o f
H i gh ten s i o n d i s t r ibut o r
j u m p -s par k sys te m
H it -a n d -m i s s en g ine Jac o b s o n
W arren
H it -a n d -m i ss g o ve rn o r Cro s sley
D elam are
S p r in g el d
H it -a nd -m i s s sys te m o f go ve r n
so

1 35

18 3

H
,

1 20

H am m er b reak i g niti n
H a utefeuille Abb g en g ine
H y v a p ri e r
H eat a t c n tant p re u re t ran
fe r f

co

p o s iti o n o f m o s t c o m m o n
c o m m erci a l gas e s
G ro ve r s f or m ul a fo r m ea n e ffect
ive p re s s u re
G uld n e r s m et h od o f d e t e r m in
in g h o rse -p o w e r
G unp o w d e r en g ine s

so

fer o f
50
H ea t bal a nce
5 39
H eat d e niti o n o f
3
H e a t en g ine s cl as s i c ati o n of
17
H ea t eng ine s th e o reti c al a nd
a ctu a l c o m pa r i so n o f
61
H ea t m echa nical equi valent of 1 5
rel ati o n o f t o ent ro p y
54
H ea t unit
14
H ea tin g v alue a n d c o m p o s iti o n
fo r t r ue expl o s ive m ix
tu re s fro m l i q ui d fuel s
t a ble o f
21 7
H eatin g value a n d c o m p o s iti o n
o f a lc o h o l
18 1
H ea ti ng val ue a nd c o m p o s iti o n
o f bl a s t fu r n a ce ga s
209
H ea ting value d e niti o n o f
1 29
H ea tin g value o f c ar b o n
1 32
H e a tin g v alue o f car b o n m o n
o xi d e
1 32
H ea tin g value of c r u d e o il s ta ble

or

ss o

4 46

or

c o n s ta nt v o l u m e t ra n s

or

an

467

at

4 68

444

4 39

en

o-

ss s

oe r

as

467

H ea t

P AG E

50

mg

132
21 6
4 23
4 23
26 8

29 5
452
454
4 53

44 2

I N DE X
P AG E

H rch a ut
H r iz ntal

bile en g ine s
o
o
ga s en g ine W e s tin g
ho u s e
Ho rs n by-Akroy d a t o m ize r
H or n s b y-Akro yd eng ine go v
e r n e r fo r
H o rn s b y-Akroyd o il en g ine
H orse p o we r b ra ke d e ni ti o n o f
H o rse -p o we r d e ne d
H or se p o we r d ete r m in a ti o n fro m
m e a n e ff ective p re s s u re
H o rse -p o w e r fro m s t a n d ard a i r
refe rence d iagra m
H o rse -p o we r G uld n e r s m eth o d
H o rse -p o we r i nd ica te d d e ni
ti o n o f
H o rse -p o w e r ra tin g o f a ut o m o
bile en g ine s
Ho t -a ir en g i ne E ric s so n
S ti r lin g
Ho t -a i r-en g ine s
Ho t ga s ef cienc y
Ho t tube i g nite r K oe r t ing
N e w to n s
Ho t tube i g niti o n
w it h ti m in g va lve
H u g o n eng ine
H yd ro c arb o n s ta ble o f he a tin g
v a l ue s o f
H yd ro g en l o w e r a n d h i g h e r
hea tin g value o f
H ype rb o l a m etho d s o f d ra win g
om o

3 73
30 4
1 93

458

3 76
38
l

4 72

4 76
477

38
4 83
22
24
22
15 1

395
238
3 94

3 95
24 2

132

Ig niti n
Ig niti n by elect ric park
h ea t f m p re i n
o
o

co

ss o

tube
o pen fl a m e
Ig ni ti o n c o ck Barnett s
Ig niti o n ham m e r b rea k
j u m p -s pa rk
m ake
a n d -b re a k
Ig niti o n vari a ti o n in aff ectin g
ec o n o m y
ho t

B o w en

a nd

b re a k
I g nite r h o t tube

m a ke

4 00
,

N ewto n

238

tu be
K o e r t ing o pen a m e
I llu m ina tin g ga s c o n s ta nt s fo r
I llu m inatin g gas e s table of c o m
p o s iti o n o f
I n d ex fo r expan s i o n a nd c o m
p re ss i o n line s m et ho d of
nd ing
I n d ic ate d ho rs e p o we r d e n i
ti o n o f
I n d ic a t o rs en g ine
I n d ic a to r Cro s by
o ptic a l
Ta b o r
Tho m p so n
I n d ic a t o r d i agra m s f o rm s o f
I ne r ti a g o ve r n o rs fo r h it -a n d
m i ss reg ul a ti o n
I nte r nal c o m bu s ti o n en g ine s
cl a ss i c a ti o n o f
I so the rm al line e q u a ti o n o f
I so therm al a nd a d i aba t i c
c ha n ge s gra ph ic a l ex
p re s s i o n s fo r
I s o th e r m a l c ha n g e
I so th e rm al expan s i o n wor k p e r
f o rm e d i n
K o e r t ing , h o t

395
393
20 6

Fay

207

1 15

Ig nite r

P AGE

a nd -

5 89

38
32
34

35
34
33
40

4 50

1 32

43

3 92
39 7

39 6
3 94

39 2
3 92

3 98
40 1
3 97

Jac o b so n a u t o m atic c u t-o ff en

g ine
Jac o b s o n ga s en g ine s
h it
g ine
a n d -m i s s e n
th ro ttlin g en g ine
J u m p -s par k i g niti o n
J u m p -s par k a nd m a ke -a n d -brea k
s ys te m s c o m p ar e d
J u m p -s park sys te m h i gh ten
sio n
J unke r s ga s ca l o r i m ete r

26 7
26 8

272
401
4 10

534

27 1

4 23
13 1

IN DE X

590

PAG E

K e ro sene c o m p o s iti o n a nd hea t

in g V a luc 0 f
K e ro sene v a p o r ize r G ibb o n
K inetic ene rgy
K oe r t ing en g ine g o ve r n i n g o f
f o ur-cycle ga s en g ine
K o e r t ing f o u r-c ycle en g ine go v

P AG E

1 79

tu be i g nite r
o pe n a m e i g nite r
s ucti o n p ro d uce r
p re ss ure p ro d uce r
K o e r t ing s ucti o n p ro d uce r
pe a t
K oe r t ing t wo-cyc le en g ine

3 95
393
1 66

16 1

fo r
1 72

313

4 07
s on s

peci c

g va lve

1 87

M
Mag net o , a cti o n o f
Mag net o s a n d d y n a m o s
Mag net o s sys te m s o f w i r in g

4 16
4 15
e ni

pl o y in g
Mah le r s b o m b c a l o r i m ete r
Ma inten a nce a n d repa i rs
Ma ke -a n d -b rea k a nd j u m p -s par k
sy s te m s c o m p a re d
Ma ke -a n d -b rea k i g niti o n
Ma ll a rd a n d L e Ch a t e lie r s ex
p e r im e n t s o n s peci c h ea t
Ma n ogra p h
Mar ine ga so line en g ine L o zie r
t w o-c ycle
Mar ine ga so line en g ine S ta n d a rd
Mar ine ga s o l ine en g ine s
Ma th e m a tic a l c o n s t r ucti o n o f t h e
ent ro py d i agra m
Ma t h o t expl o s i o n rec o rd e r
Ma tteucci a n d B arsa nti free p is
t o n en g ine
Mea n effective p re s s u re G ro ve r s
f o rm ul a
M ea n e ff ective p re s s u re t a ble s
fo r d ete r m inin g
Mec ha nica l d eta il s o f g o ve r n o rs
equivalent o f h ea t
f o rm s o f gene ra t o rs
M et h o d o f c o nnectin g up p r i
m ary a n d sec o n d a ry ba t

4 22

1 29

567
4 10
39 7

35

h ea t
L aw s o f pe rfect ga se s
L ea vitt d i s t r ibut o r
L e nc a u c h e z d o uble -z o ne s ucti o n
p ro d uce r
L e n c a u c h e z s ucti o n p ro d uce r
L en o i r en g ine
d i agra m o f
ga s c o n s u m pti o n o f
L e t o m be sys te m o f g o ve r nin g
L e bo n s en g ine
L i m it s o f expl o s ibility fo r fuel
m ixtu re s m ad e f ro m d if
fe re n t fuel s
L i m it o f pi s t o n s pee d
L i q ui d fuel en g ine s
L iqui d fuel s h ea tin g val ue o f
L iqui d fuel s m ixin g d evice s fo r
L o o m i s-P ettib o ne c o m bina ti o n
p rod uce r
L o we sys te m fo r m a kin g o il ga s
L o w ten s i o n sys te m o f w i r in g
L o we r a n d h i gh e r h e ating va lue
o f hyd ro g en
,

L u n ke n he im e r m ix in

c os

so

4 68
28 0

101

K oe rt ing h o t

L a te ti m e r
L n gen ex pe r i m ent

s,

4 60

fo r

oo

1 93

e rno r

en g ine

L we r l p d i agram O tt cy cle
L z ie r t w -cycle m ar ine ga line

220
46

4 26
1 70
1 70
239

24 2
24 2
4 65

23 4

21 8
47 1

3 58
134
1 85

1 96
4 21

36 1
1 12

5 00

4 72

t e r ie s

Met ho d
Met h o d

of

Met h o d

15

4 15

43

or

on

h a rd t
of
s

an

ss o

1 15

g ve rning

of

g ine

450

raw ing hy pe rb l a
nd in g in d ex f ex
i
d c m p re i n

of

4 73

4 20

line s
M eth od

132

367

p ans
1 74

364

R ein ~

464

pe ra tin g

ga s

en

26

IN D E X
P AG E
Meth od

te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
bra ke h o rse -p o we r
Met h o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 190 1
c a l i b r a t i o n o f in s t r u
m ent s
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
c o m puta ti o n o f t e m per
a tu re s
Met h o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 90 1
d u ra ti o n o f te s t s
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 90 1
he a t ba l a nce
Met h od s o f te s t Co d e o f 190 1
he a t unit s c o n s u m e d
Met h o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 90 1
in d ic a ted h o rs e-p o we r
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 90 1
in d ic a t o r d i agram s
Meth od s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
m e as u re m ent o f fuel
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
m ea s u re m ent o f j a cket
wa te r
Met h o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 90 1
s pee d d ete r m in a ti o n
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
s ta n d a rd s o f ec o n o m y
Meth o d s o f te s t Co d e o f 1 9 0 1
a nd
s t o ppin g
s t a r tin g
te t s
Mie t a nd W ei ss o il en g ine
M i xi n g d evice s fo r ga s o line
liqui d fuel s
M ixin g va lve s L u n ke n h e im e r
Mo n d p re s s u re p ro d uce r
Mo n d p ro ce s s f r m a kin g p ro
of

497

488

hot

458
of

3 46

5 03
4 92

5 02
4 93

501
4 93

494
4 98

50 1

en g ine
p re u re p ro d uce r
eject o r
P o well
Muffle rs
ss

4 93
383
18 5
185
1 87

1 78

25 0
3 80

3 76
3 83

38 8
3 75
20 7
208
1 96

29 2
3 60

3 74

160

4 28

4 28

4 26

N
fo r

O il en g ine s
O il ga s c o m p o s iti o n o f
heatin g va lue o f
L o we sys te m fo r makin g
O l d s ga s en g ine
O l d s g a s o l ine en g ine
O pen fl a m e i g nite r K o e r t ing
i g n i ti o n
O pe ra t in g c s t s
O pe ra ti o n c o s t o f
O ptic a l in d ic a t o r
pyro m ete rs
O tt o o r Bea u d e R o c ha s c ycle
th e o retic a l
O tt o c ycle c o m bu s ti o n l ine
c o m p re s s i o n s t ro ke
d i agra m s t ypic a l
ex ha u s t s tro ke
exp an s i o n line
p re s s u re ra ti o in
0

c o n s ta nt s

d u c e r ga s
a ut o m o bile

O il a n d was te c o s t s o f
O il c r u d e d i s till a te s
crud e
O il s c r u d e t a ble of h ea tin g
va lue a n d c o m p o s iti o n
O il en g ine B ra yt o n te s t o f
D e L a V e rg ne t wo-cycle
H o rn s by-Akro yd
Mie t z a n d W ei s s
P r ie s t m a n

of

Co d e

of

en g ine
g ine s te s t s

Oe c h e lh au se r ga s
O il a n d ga s en

494

en g ine go ve rnin g

Oe c h e lh au se r
of

ga s ,

3 39

ral

4 02

N a tu

23 8

Mo o re
Mo rga n
Muffl e r

P AG E

tube i g nite r
N o n t re m ble r s pa r k c o il
N u rnbe rg en g ine
g o ve rn o r fo r
ta ble
N urn be rg ga s en g ine
s t a n d a rd s ize s
N e wto n

591

21 2

65
90

86
94
1 00
97
92

I ND EX

an

P AG E
be s t

O tt o c yc le re q ui re m ent s for
efficien c y i n
O tt o cycle s ucti o n s tro ke
O tt o c yc le t able o f a ll o wa ble
c o m p re ss i o n p r e s s u r e s
a n d cle a ra n c e s fo r v a r i o u s
fuel s
O tt o cycle t able o f c o m p re ss i o n
p re ss u re s a nd te m pe ra
tu re s
O tt o c ycl e t a ble o f c yc lic e f
,

1 00

84

90

88

c ie n c ie s

P i s t o n s pee d e ffe c t o n e c o n o my
li m it of
P it t s e ld ti m e r
P o ette r p re ss u re p ro d uce r
P o well m uffle r
P o we r o f ga s en g ine s
P re m ie r ga s en g ine
P re ss ure a fte r c o m bu s ti o n
p ro d uce rs
p ro d uce r c apa citie s
P re s s u re p ro d uce rs rate o f gas i
,

471

347

c a t io n

K oe r t ing

161

Mo n d

86

68
1 02
1 01

25 1
25 4
24 4
24 7

en g ine

24 8
29 1

23 2

i ne r ti a go ve r n o rs
h it -a n d -m i ss re g ul a
or

ti o n
P e rfect gase s c haracte r i s tic s o f
l aw s o f
P e rfect ga s s peci c h ea t o f
P e rfect ga se s ta ble o f s peci c
v ol u m e s
P e rry s en g ine
Pe t re a n o s u rfa ce c a rbu rete r
Ph il ad elph i a O tt o en g ine
P ipin g a n d a uxili arie s c o s t o f
.

450
45

P ro d ucer s cl a ss i c a ti o n o f
c o m bin a ti o n
P ro d uce r c o m bin a ti o n Cro s s ley
P ro d uce r c o m bin a ti o n D eutz
d o uble -z o ne
P ro d u c e r c o m bin a ti o n L o o m i s
P etti bo ne
P ro d uce r d eta il s
,

1 59
1 60

92
3
1 94

57 9

1 58

1 73
1 73

1 73

1 74
1 75
1 49

P ro d uce r ga s c o m p o s i ti o n o f by
v o lu m e pe r p o un d o f c a r
,

46
12

1 62

547

ga s

Pr

b o n ga s ie d
o d uce
ga s , d ete m in a ti o n

1 52
of

ei gh t a n d v o l u m e pe r
p o un d o f c a r b o n
P ro d uce r ga s en g ine s fuel c o s t s
w

1 63

fo r

of

P
P en d ulu m

Pa p in

P o ette r
Tay l
W ile
P re s s u re ra ti o in t h e O tt o c y cle
v o lu m e d i agra m d e ne d
P r ie s t m a n o il en g ine
v a p o rize r
P r i m e m o ve rs c o m p ara tive c o s t
o f p o w e r fo r
5 69
P ro d uce rs a n d ga s en g ine s c o s t

1 60

1 76

1 62

1 59

1 77

1 62

P re ss u re p ro d uce r D eutz

471

69

O tt o c ycle t a ble o f v o lu m et r i c
efficiencie s a n d s ucti o n
p re s s u res
O tt o c ycle t he o reti c a l cycli c
ef cienc y o f
O tt o c ycle t wo -s t ro ke
O tt o c ycle typic al l o we r l oo p
d i agra m s
O tt o en g ine
en g ine s e arl y te s t s o n
O tt o a n d L a n g en f ree pi s t o n e u
g ine
O tt o-La n g en free pi s t o n en g ine
ta ble o f t e s t s
O tt o-L a n g en f ree pi s t o n en g ine
typic a l d i agra m
O tt o ga s en g ine Ph il ad elp h i a

A GE

47

23 8
187

29 1
548

15 1

fo r

5 59

P ro d uce r ga s x a ti o n o f
ga s Mo n d p ro ce ss
,

1 57
1 63

I N DE X

P ro d u c e r pl a nt s te s t s of
Pro d ucers p re ss u re
Pro d uce r p re ss u re D eutz

P AG E

546
1 59
1 62

K o e r t ing

161

Mo n d

1 63
1 60

P o ette r
Tayl o r

1 62

1 59
1 60

Pro d uce rs s u c ti o n
P rod uce r s ucti o n Am e rica n
Cro s s ley
P ro d uce r s ucti o n D eutz
Mo rse
F a ir ba n ks
,

1 65

593

P AG E

r a nd m a inten an c e
R e q ui re m ent f
be t efficienc y
R ep a i

or

in O tt o c ycle
R e q ui re m ent s fo r p ro pe r s c a v
t wo
e n g ing o f c y li n d e r
cycle en g ine
R eve r s ible en g ine Car n o t
R ic h s ucti o n p ro d uce r
R ive rs i d e ga s en g ine
R o bey g o ve r n o r

1 00

1 03

54

1 69

3 20
4 55

K oe r t ing

167

1 65

pea t

1 72

L e n c a uc h e z

1 70

R ic h

1 69

P ro d uce r y iel d the o retic a l

P rod ucti o n o f a ir ga s
wa te r ga s
P ro d uct s o f c o m bu s ti o n
P ro ny b ra ke
Pyro m ete rs
o ptic a l
,

1 53
1 47
1 47
136

39

rg ent g eng ine

S c a ven g in g
f c ylin d e r
tw
ycle en g ine
re q ui re

Sa

3 10

as

m ent s fo r

1 03

the rm o d y nam ic s
S in t z c a r bu re te r
ti m e r
S n o w ga s en g ine s
S o li d fuel s h e a tin g v a lue o f
S o u rce s o f cu rrent
S p ar k c o il a cti o n o f
d as h b o ard
f o u r-te rm ina l
three-te rm inal
N o n -t re m ble r
t re m ble r
S p ar k g a p a ux ili ary
c o il s c o n d en s e r s in
c o il s type s o f
plu g s
S peci c gra vitie s a n d h e a tin g
v a lue s o f c o m m e rci a l a l
c oh o l ta ble o f
S peci c h e a t a t c o n s t a nt p re s
s u re
S peci c h e a t a t c o n s ta n t v o lu m e
S peci c h ea t expe r i m ent s by
Cle r k
S peci c h ea t expe ri m ent s b y
Lan g en
S pe c i c h e a t ex pe r i m ent s by
Ma ll ard a n d Le Ch a te lie r
S ec o n d la w

of

Q
Q u a lity g o ve r nin g
Q u a ntit y g o ve r nin g

1 68
1 66

K oe r t ing fo r

4 44
4 46

R
Ra te

Ra te

pr
of

wo

rk

1 77

t r g e b a tte r ie s
c o efficient o f fl y
R e g ul a ti o n
wh eel
R e g ul a ti o n g o ve r n o r
R e g ul a ti o n o f ga s en g ine s
R eic h enba c h en g ine g o ve r nin g
R a tin

i n p re s s u re

ga s ic a t io n
o d uce s

of

of s o a

4 13

4 39
4 40
4 39

4 63

of

Re in ha d t
R el a ti o n

567

of

m eth o d
h eat t o

g ve rnin g
ent r py
of

464

54

55
1 88
4 06

3 29
1 35

4 10
4 02
4 06
4 05
4 05

4 02
4 03
4 09

4 04

4 05

'

4 C6

1 83
13

13

224
220
220

I N DE X

594

PAG E

c h ea t d e niti n f
S peci c h e a t f pe rfect g
12
S peci c
h ea t
v ri a ti n w i th
te m pe ra tu re
S peci c h ea t ta ble f
S peci c v lu m e
f pe rfect ga e
S peci

as

s o

nor

453
so

F elte n

a nd

G u ille a u m e
s

so

ss

s o

s,

os s

s,

or

os s

or

o -a r

accu

or

s,

es

er

s,

431

p re s s u re s a n d v o l u m et ric
ef ciencie s fo r O tto c ycle
ta ble o f
S ucti o n p ro d uce rs
p ro d uce r A m e r ic a n
S ucti o n
Cro s s ley
S ucti o n p ro d uce r D eutz
F a irba n ks Mo rs e

557
5 58
24

411
4 14
4 13

4 14
97

362
23 3

86
1 65

167

165
1 68
1 70

L e nc a u c h e z

1 72

1 69

ucti o n s t ro ke o f O tt o c ycle
S u r fa ce c a r bu re t t r
S w i d e rs ki -L o n g i re m a rre a lc o h o l
v a p o rizer
S ys te m o f g o ve r nin g Le t o m be
S ys te m
w i r in g
of
e m pl o yin g
m ag net o s
S ys te m o f w i r in g lo w ten s i o n
S y s te m s o f g o ve r nin g
c o m bin a ti o n
S ys te m o f g o ve r nin g h it -a n d
m i ss
S ys te m s o f w i r in g

84
186
1 99

4 22
4 2]

44 1
447

Ta ble s

4 29

S ucti o n

442

436

1 76

p rod uce r
d o uble -z o ne

4 33

be r

S u c ti o n

43 1

en

so

4 28

o s

4 32

367
436

r ting a ppara tu
u r ce f
S t ar tin g by a uxili ry
p wer
S tar tin g by c m p re e d a i r
elect r icity
fuel m ixtu re
m ea n
f c ra nk
S te a m en g ine fuel c t f
tu rbine fuel c t f
S ti rlin g h t i en g ine
m
S t rag e b a tte r ie
lat r
S t rag e b a tte r ie
c h rg in g f
ra ting f
t tin g f
S t ra ti c a t i n th e ry f
f u r c ycle ga line
S t li g
g ine
S t reet R be r t en g ine f
v lu m e f c rub
S ucti n pl a nt
S ta

re

13

g ve r

r
r ine ga line en g ine
S t r te r Cle rk L nc h e te r
a

pea t

1 66

S ta n d a d m a

K oe rt in
g

187

h it -a n d -m i s s

R ic h

47

e rs

r ingel d

u c ti o n p rod uce r

K oe r t ing , fo r

48

s,

t a ble o f
S p ra y in g o r a t o m iz in g c a r bu re t
Sp

s,

12

PA G E

Le nc a uc h e z ,
1 70

r
g
effective p re u re
fo r

d ete m inin

m ea n
4 73

ss

a ll o wa ble c o m p re s s i o n
p re ss u re s a nd cleara nce s
fo r v ar i o u s fuel s
O tt o
cyc le
Ta ble o f c o m binin g w ei gh t s a n d
v o lu m e s fo r ga s e s
Ta ble o f c o m p o s iti o n a n d h ea tin g
v alue fo r t rue expl o s i ve
m ixtu re s f ro m liqui d fuel s
Ta ble o f c o m p o s i t i o n o f t ypic a l
illu m in a ti n g ga se s
Ta ble o f c o m p re ss i o n p re ss u re s
a nd
t e m p e r a t u r e s fo r
O tt o c ycle
Ta ble o f c o n s t a nt s fo r ga s-en g ine
fuel gase s
Ta ble o f c yclic e f ciencie s fo r
O tt o c ycle
Ta ble o f d en a tu r iz in g ag ent s fo r
a lc oh o l
Ta ble o f en g ine te s t s
54 4
Ta ble o f ga s c o n s ta nt s R fo r pe r
feet gase s
Ta ble o f h ea tin g v a lue a n d c o m
p o s iti o n of c r u d e o il s
Ta ble

of

90
1 28

21 7

88
21 3

69
1 84
5 45

48
1 78

IN DE X
PAG E

h ea tin g v alue s o f hyd ro

c ar b o n s
Ta ble o f h ea tin v a lue s o f t r ue
expl o s ive m ixtu re s
Ta ble o f r e l a t i v e fl y-wh eel
wei gh t s
Ta ble o f s peci c gra vitie s a n d
h ea tin g v a lue s o f c o m
m e rc ia l a lc o h o l
Ta ble o f s peci c h ea t s
Ta ble o f s peci c be a t s fo r pe r
feet gas e s
Ta ble o f s peci c v o lu m e s o f pe r
feet gase s
Ta ble o f s t a n d ard s ize s N ar n
be rg ga s eng ine
Ta ble o f te s t s o n p r o d uce r pl a nt s ;
th e rm o m etr ic s c ale s
Ta ble o f t r ue expl o s ive m ix
tu re s for c o m m e r ci a l
g as e s
Ta ble o f v a p o r ten s i o n fo r a lc o
h o l a nd wa te r
Ta ble o f v ar i o u s ga s c o n s ta nt s
Ta ble o f v o l u m et r ic efficiencie s
a n d s ucti o n p r e ss u r e s fo r
O tt o cycle
Tab o r in d i c a t o r
Ta n d e m ga s en g ine Bu ffa l o
W e s tin gho u s e
Ta r-f o r m i n g ga se s x a ti o n o f
Ta yl o r p r e ss u re p ro d uce r
Te m pe ra tu r e a b s o lu te
Te m pera tur e afte r c o m bu s ti o n
Tem pe ra tu r e d efiniti o n o f
Te m pe ra tu re s a n d c o m p re s s i o n
p re ss u re s fo r O tto c yc le
ta ble o f
Te m pe ra tu re s c ale s
Te s t o n B ray t o n o il en g ine
Te s t s o f Cle r k en g ine s
Te s t s o f en g ine s a n d ga s p rod uc
e rs
re s ult s o f
Te s t s o f ga s en g ine s
o n e a r l y D ie s el en g ine s
o n ea r l y O t t o en g ine s
Ta ble

of

21 6

en g ine s

PAG E

Co d e

fo r 1 9 0 1

4 87

p ro d uce r pl a nt s t a ble
Te s tin g o f ga s en g ine s m eth o d s
on

1 83

13

t rag e ba tte r ie s
Th e o retic a l a n d a ctu a l be a t e n
en g ine s co m par i s o n o f
Th e o retic a l B rayt o n c ycle
c y cle s c o m p ar i s o n o f
D ie sel c y cle
Th e o reti c a l O tt o c ycle
cycli c
ef cienc y o f
Th e o retic a l O tt o o r Be a u d c
R o c ha s cycle
Th e o retic a l y iel d o f p ro d uce r
Th e o ry o f d i s s o ci a ti o n
s t ra ti c a ti o n
Th e r m a l unit B r iti sh
Th e r m o d y n am ic s s ec o n d la w
Te s tin

486

of s o

48
47

346
546
5

546

4 14

61
69

73

71

68

65
1 53
98

97
14

21 6

of

r
Th e r m
Th e rm

55

Th e m o-ele m ent

om

28 2

eter a ir
o m ete r s
c al or i m et ric
elect r ic a l
fu s i o n
v a por
Th e r m o m et r i c s c a le s ta ble

306

Th e rm o p y le

204
1 26

86

34

157
1 59

6
220
3

ga s
of

fo r
4 40

a n d o il

of

Te s t s

Te s t s

132

59 5

11

8
11

11

if

i nd i c a t o r
Three
p or t t w o-c ycle en g ine
Th ree-te r m in a l s p ar k c o il
Th ro ttlin g en g ine Ja c o b s o n
en g ine s Warren
Ti m e o f expl o s i o n
Ti m e r Gro u s e -H in d s d o uble -b a ll
Lac o s te
P itt s fiel d
Th o m p s o n

88
5

S in t z

250

25 7

542
26 2
25 4

33
366
4 05
27 2
29 5

227
4 08
4 07

4 07
4 06

Ti m in

g v a lve

3 95

Ti m e

4 05

To d ga s en ine
To t a l o pe a tin

ra n fe r

of

u re

3 06

gc t

os s

568

h ea t a t c o n s tant p re s
50

IN DE X

5 96

ran fe r

PA G E

h ea t a t c o n s ta nt
vol u m e
Tre m ble r s p ar k c o il
Tr ue expl o s ive m ixtu re
fo r
Tr ue expl o s ive m ixtu r e s
c o m m e rc i a l ga s s ta ble
T

of

50
4 03
21 5

21 6

en g ine g o ve r nin g

Two-c yc le

P r ie s t m a n

of

4 4 9 , 46 7

K oe r t in g

3 13

three-p o r t
Two-c y cle ga s-en g ine Buckeye
Two -c yc le m ar ine g as o line e n
g ine L o z ie r
Tw o-c ycle o il en g ine
D e La
V erg ne
Two-s t ro ke O tt o c ycle
Typic a l c o m put a ti o n s o n fuel
m ixtu re s
ex ha u s t
and
g as e s
O tt o-L a n g en
Ty pic al d i agram
f ree pi s t o n en g ine
Ty pic a l D ie s el en g ine d i agra m s
Typic a l l o w e r l o o p d i a gra m s
O tt o c ycle
Typic a l O tt o c yc le d i agra m s
,

366
286

3 64

3 80
1 02

or

or

an

1 38
24 8
1 06

Va p o r izer A lt m a n a lcoh o l
Va p o r ize r c o m bin a ti o n a lc o h o l
a n d ga s o line
,

1 92

io

W arren h it d -m i en g ine
thr ttli n g en g ine
W a te d il c t f
W te r g c n tant f
p r d ucti n f
W i r i ng l w ten i n y te m f
W ei gh t ywh eel t ble f
W e tin gh u e g en g ine
W e tin gh u e h riz ntal g
g ine
W e tingh u e ver tic al en g ine
g vern r f
W e tingh u e ver tic al in g le c t
in g ta n d e m g en g ine
W et d d y cell
W ile p re u re pr d uce r
W i r in g e m pl y in g m ag net y

295

220
227
3 06
1 76

94

14

an

560
20 4
11
20 1

ss

a s,

os

s o

as

or

a s eu

or

-a

as

L o n g u e m a rre

1 96

554

s,

1 90

l oad
Var i a ti o n o f s peci c h ea t w i th
te m pera tu re
V el o ci ty o f am e p ro p aga ti o n
V e r tic a l ga s en g ine W e s tin g
h o u se
V o lu m e o f s c r ubbe r in s ucti o n
pl a nt s
V o l u m et r ic efficiencie s a n d s u c
ti o n p re s s u re s fo r O tt o
c ycle ta ble o f

w it h

1 93

20 1

101

Value o f bl a s t fu r na ce ga s
V a p o r ten s i o n fo r alc oh o l a n d
w a te r t a ble o f
Vap o r th er m o m eters
Va p o r izer alc oh o l D urr
Va p o r ize r alc o h o l S w i d e rs ki

os

-a n

B r iti sh th e rm al

1 98

Unit ,

3 89

1 95

1 94

W H ay
Vap r iz in g d evi c e f alc h l
Va p riz ing d evice f c ru d e il
d ke r ene
Var i a ti n f fuel c n u m pt n
o

1 94

of

Va p o r izer Cro ssle y

c r u d e o il E c o n o m i s t
Vap o rize r c r u d e o il F a irba n ks
Mo rs e
Vap o r ize r D eutz alc oh o l
Dre s d en alc oh o l
G ibb o n ke r o sene

PA G E

1 99

1 98

an

ss

202

te m s

of

os, s

295

5 64
21 2
147

4 21

440
266

I N DE X
W i rin g y te m f
W ork pe rf rm ed in ad i ab ati c ex
,

PA G E

s o

4 20

59 7

PA G E

Wr i gh t en gine

235

pa n mo n
Wo r k pe rf o r m ed in i so th e rma l
expa n s i o n
W o rk ra te o f
,

53
53
1

Yiel d

of

prod u c er th eo reti c al
,

1 53

B O O KS

L IS T OF
ON

St e a m

St e a m E n gin e e ring

an d

AU CH I NCL O SS , W S
Th e P ra c ti c al Ap p li c ati o n
V alve an d L i n k M oti o n to Stati o n ary , P o rta bl e ,

of t h e Sli d e
L o c o m otive ,
an d M ari n e E n gi n e s , w i t h n e w a n d s i m ple m et ho d s fo r p ro p o r
t io nin g t h e p ar ts
F iftee n th E d itio n r evis ed
5 2 I ll u s t ra ti o n s
8 vo
1 44 p p
Clo t h
.

A Treati s e o n
B ACO N , F
W
I n d i c ato r , wi t h d ir ect io ns fo r it s
.

Ric h ar d s S tea m E n gin e

th e

B y Char les T Po r ter Re

v is ed w i t h n o t es a nd l arge ad d iti o n s as d evel o p ed by Am er i c an p ra c
t ic e ; w it h an appen d i x c o nt a inin g u s eful fo rm ul a: a n d rules fo r en gi
I llu s t ra te d
1 6m0
n ee rs ,
F ou rth E d it io n
Cl o t h
1 8 0 pp
u se

B oi l er Te s t s : Em b ra c i n g t h e r es u lts o f o n e
H
hun dr ed and t h ir ty-s even ev a po ra tive tes ts m ad e o n s even ty-o n e bo il
I llu s t ra ted
8 vo
Cl o t h
25 2 p p 3 00
e rs co n d u c ted by t h e a u t ho r

B ARRUS ,

rac in g t h r es ult f o ver on hu nd red feed

f v ar i u k i n d
en gin e
d t h e r i nve ti ga ti n
f te am
w a t r te ts
c nd u c t ed by t he a u t h r W it h n u m e r u gu re table an d d i
E n gin e Te s t s
an

Em b

am s

s o

pp

s o

s,

s,

s,

33 8
8 vo
Cl o h
c has d to ge t
t wo
.

pu r

ab o ve

be

P racti c a l Treati s e o n th e S te am E n gi n e
B EAUM NT, W W
I n dic ator , an d I n d i c ator D i a gram s
W i t h n o tes o n en gi ne pe r
fo rm an c es exp a ns i o n o f s te am , be ha vio r o f s te am i n s te am en gi ne c y lin
.

d e rs , a n d
enla ged

B E GTR UP ,

en c e

on

ga s

1 28 I l

a n d o il

en gi ne

lu s tra tio ns

and

Th e S lid e V al ve

e rn p rac t i c e in t h e
1 45 pp
Cl o t h
8 vo

S econ d E dit io n ,
26 1 pp

it s F u n c ti o n s

U ni ted S ta te s

t o m od

t ra te d

d i a g am s
Cl o t h
8 vo

evis ed a nd

Ne t ,

W i t h s pec ial refe r

S ec on d E d itio n

I llu s

V AN NOSTRAN

D CO M PANY S

M a ri n e B oi ler s : t h eir Co n stru c ti o n an d Work

BERTI N, L E
in g, d e al i n g m o r e es pec iall y w i t h tub u l o u s b o il e rs
Tran sl a ted by
.

Les l ie S Ro be tso n
r evis ed a nd enla rged
.

B OO TH ,

P r e fa c e by S ir W ill iam W hi te
3 5 0 I llu s t ra t io ns
8 vo
Cl o t h

t h ei r Co nt rol .
Ne t ,

S ec ond Edit ion ,

6 94 p p N e t , 5 00
.

an d

W H Su p erh e at , Su p erh eati n g,

I llu s t ra te d 8 vo Cl o t h 1 70 p p
.

W a t e r S oft e n i n g a n d Tr e atm e n t c o n d ens in g pl an t feed p um p s

I llu s t rate d 8 vo
a nd h e a te rs fo r s te am u s e rs a n d m a nufa c tu r e rs
Ne t
Cl o t h
,

CARP E NTE R , R C , a n d D I E D E RICH S , H

I nte rn al Co m ba s
t i o n E n gi n e s ; Th eir Th eo ry , Co n stru c tio n , an d O p er ati o n
.

I ll u s t ra ted

8 vo

CH R I STI E ,

Clo t h

W W
7 7 I ll us t ra t io ns
8 v0
.

Chim n e y

teets

a nd

Ne t ,

Clo t h

D e si gn

R evis ed

B oil e r -water s , S c al e , Co rro s i o n , F o amin g

61 1 pp

an d

en la

N et ,

A b oo k fo r en gi nee rs a n d ar c hi
200 p p 3 00
Il lu s t ra ted
8 vo
Cl o t h

Th eo ry

rged

pp

242

F u rn a c e D r aft
;

it s P ro du c ti o n by M e c h anic al M et h o d s
r evis ed I llu s t rated 1 6m o B oard s 80 p p ( Va n

S ec ond E d itio n ,
N o s t a n d S c ien c e Se ries N o
.

CLAR K ,

ents

D K
F u el :
it s Co m bu s ti o n a n d E c o n o my

Co m p ris i n g a n a b rid gm ent o f A Tr e a t i s e o n t h e Co m bu s ti o n o f Co a l

by C W Wil l iam s
W i t h extens ive add i tio n s on re c en t p rac ti c e in t h e
co m bu s t i o n a n d e c o n om y o f fuel
c o ke wo o d pea t p e t ro leum
co a l
etc
F ou rth E d it ion
3 66 pp
1 4 4 I ll u s t ra ti o n s
1 2m o
Cl o t h
.

DAY, C

I n d i c ato r

Thi d E d it ion

D RAPER ,

1 25

Thi d E ditio n

upplem ent o n
tio ns 1 2m o
.

Clo t h

on

an d

Cl o t h

of
Cl o t h
.

B o iler Te sti n g

pp

220

2 00
.

Th erm o dyn amic s

W i th a
1 4 3 I llu t ra

e n la

rged

t h e S team E n gi ne

of

36 3 p p

t h e S te a m E n gi n e

Twelfth E ditio n ,

P ri n c i p l e s
1 2m o

E n gi n e

1 2m o

Th e Arit h m eti c

1 2m o

en gines

lo t h

t ra t ed

A Te xt -boo k

as

an d

Heat a n d the
1 3 3 I llu s t ra t i o n s

G OODEVE , T M

G O UL D , E

D i a gram s
I ll u s tra t io ns

I llu s

80 p p

A H an dboo k o n t h e S te a m E n gi ne
H AE D ER , H
W it h
es peci al r efe rence to s m all a nd m ed iu m
en g ines Fo r t he u s e
s iz ed
o f en g ine m a ke rs
m e c ha n i c al d rau gh t s m en en gi nee r in g s tu d en t s a n d
u s ers o f s te am po w er Tra ns l a ted fro m t he G e rm an w it h c o n s id
c ra ble add iti o n s a n d a l te ra ti o n s b y H H P Po wles Third E nglis h
Ed it io n revis ed
I llu s t rated 8 vo Cl o t h 4 6 5 p p
.

B OO K S

ON S TEAM AN D A

LL I E D

S UB J E CTS

Sl i d e V alve G ear s
H AL SEY F A
An expl a n a t io n o f t he
ac t
a nd co n s t ru ct i o n o f p la in a n d c u t n
o ff s l i d e v al ve s
E leven th
i
o
E d it io n revis ed a nd enla rged
1 0 9 I ll u s t ra ti o n s
21 1
1 2m o
Clo t h
pp
.

H AUSB RAN D E
D ryi n g by M ean s of Air a n d S tea m W i t h
expl a n a ti o n s fo rm ul as a nd t a bles fo r u s e i n p rac t ice Tran s l a ted
fro m t h e G e rm a n b y A C Wr i gh t I llu s t ra ted l 2m
Cl o t h
7 0 pp
N e t 2 00
.

E v a p orati n
g,

Co n d en s i n g,

Coo li n g Ap p ar a tu s

an d

pl a n a ti o n s fo rm u l ae a nd t a bl es fo r u se in p ra ctice
t h e s e co n d r evi s ed G e rma n ed iti o n b y A C Wr i gh t
gu res tables a nd d i a gram s 8 vo Clo t h 4 23 p p
,

Ex
T a n s l a ted f o m
it h nu m e o u s
Ne t ,

r
W

'

r
r

H E CK R C H
Th e S team E n gi ne a n d O th e r S t eam M otor s
A text
b o o k fo r en gi neeri n g co lle ges and a t rea t is e fo r en gi neers I n
Tw o Vo lu m e s
Cl o t h
8 vo
V ol I
Th e Th e rm o d yn am i c s a n d the M e c h ani c s of the E n gin e
1 87 Ill u s t ra t io ns
4 00 pp
Ne t
V ol I I F o rm , Co n st r u c ti o n , a n d Wo rkin g o f the E n gi n e :
Th e S team Tu r bi n e
6 98 Il lu s t ra t io n s
Net
6 86 p p
Ab rid g ed ed i t io n o f a bo ve t wo vo lu m e s
I n P res s
.

H U TTO N W S Ste am B oi ler Co n s tru cti o n A p rac tic a l han d

b oo k fo r en ginee rs b o iler m akers a nd s te am u s ers co nt a in i n g a l arg e
c o ll ecti o n o f r ule s a n d d at a rel a t i n g to r ecent p ra ctice in t h e d es ign
co n s t ru c ti o n an d wo rk i n g o f a ll kin d s o f s t a t io n a ry l o co m o tive a nd
m ari ne s team b o il ers
F ou rth E d itio n c a refu lly r e vis ed a n d en la r ged
5 40 I llu s t ra ti o n s
8 vo
Cl o t h
675 p p
.

rn en gi ne
Ed it i n r vi d

an d

pp

JAMIE SO N

a nd

se

Ha n dboo k Co m p ri s in g a t rea t is e o n
bo ile rs m arine l o co m o t i ve a nd s ta t io n a ry S ixth
en la rged
5 56
4 23 I llu s t ra t io n s
8 v0
Cl o t h

A Te xt -boo k

Th e P ra c tic al E n gi n e er

mod e

S team

on

S team E n gi n e s ,

an d

g tu rb i ne an d b o i le r S pe c i ll y rran ged f t h e u f en gi
I n ti tu t i n f Ci vi l E n ginee r t h d i pl m a
th
ee rs qu al ifyin g f
ad vanced cien ce
d d e grees
f te c hn i c al c l le ge
d u n i ve r i t i e
ce r ti a tes f B ri ti h nd c l ni a l B ard f Ed u c ti n a d h n u r
f L n d n I n titu te in m ec hani c l
c r ti c a tes
f t h e Ci ty n d G u il d
en ginee ri n g
ll v
F ift nth Ed it i n
r vi d
d en ginee r
g n
I llu tra ted 8 v Cl o t h 8 4 p p
in c lu d i n

or

an

an

s.

e ra

ee

s,

s o

se o

or

an

o o

se

E l e m e n t a ry M an u a l

th e S t e am E n gin e
S pe c iall y arran g ed fo r t h e u se o f rs t ye a r s c ience a n d a rt Ci ty a nd
G uil d s o f Lo n d o n I n s titu te a n d o t h e r elem ent a ry en g inee r in g s tu d ent s
1 50
Cl o t h
Te n th Ed it io n r evis ed ) 1 2m o
on

S tea m

an d

KE NNE D Y, R

V AN N O S TR AN

D CO MPANY S

M o d ern E n gi n e s

and

G e n er a tor s

P o wer

p rac t i c al wo r k o n p r i m e m o ve rs a nd t he t ran s m i s s i o n o f p o w er W i t h
tables gu res a nd full -p a ge en gra vin gs S ix v o lu m es I ll u s tra te d
Cl o t h
8 vo
Si n g le v o lu m e s e a c h
C
F u el , W ater , a n d G as An al y si s
KE R S H A W , J
B
W i t h 5 0 I llu s tratio n s 8 vo Cl o t h 1 77 p p Ne t
fo r s te am u s ers
D e s i gn o f a Hi gh Sp ee d S te am E ngi n e W i t h
K LE IN , J F
n o tes d i a gram s fo rm ul as and table s S econd E d ition r evis ed a n d
25 7 p p
Ne t
1 4 0 I llu s t ra ti o n s
Cl o t h
en la rged
8 vo
K L EIN H AN S , F B
B oi ler Co n stru c ti o n
A p rac tic al exp l an a t io n
o f t h e be s t m o d e r n m et ho d s o f b o ile r co s t ru c t io n f ro m t he l ayin g o u t
n
o f s h eets to t h e c o m pleted b o il e r
W i t h d i a gram s a n d full -p age e n grav
in gs
Cl o t h
42 1 pp
8 v0
K O E STE R , F
S team E lectri c P o wer P l a nt s a n d t h ei r Co n
s tru cti o n
A p r a ctic a l t re a ti s e o n t h e d e s i gn o f cent ra l l i g h t a nd
po we r s t a ti o n s a nd t hei r ec o n o m ic al c o n s t ru c t io n a n d o pera ti o n 3 40
Ne t
I llu s tra tio n s 4 m Cl o t h 4 73 pp
L EAS K , A R Triple a n d Qu a d ru p l e E xpan si o n E n gi ne s a n d
B oi ler s a n d th ei r M an a gem ent
F ou rth E d itio n r evis ed a n d
en la rged
1 2m o
7 4 I llu s t ra t io n s
Cl o t h
3 06 p p
L E WE S V B L i q ui d a n d G a s eou s F uel s an d t h e P art Th ey
P l ay in M o d er n P o wer P ro d u c t i o n
I llu s t rated 8 vo Cl o t h
348 p p
Ne t
( Va n No s t ra nd s W e s t m i n s te r Se r ies )
L UCKE , C E P o w er , Co st , a n d P l an t D e si gn s a n d Co n st ru c
ti o n 2 Vo l s
I n P res s
P I CK W O R TH C N
Th e I n d i c ato r H a n d boo k
A p ra ctic a l m a n
u al fo r en gi nee rs
I n Two Par ts
1 2m o
Cl o t h
P a rt I Th e I n di c ator : I t s Co n s t r u c t i o n a nd A ppli c a t i o n
Thir d
Ed ition
8 1 I llu s t ra t i o n s
1 30 pp
P a rt I I Th e I n di c ato r D i a gram : I t s An alys i s a n d Calcu l a ti o n
Th ird E d it io n
1 4 3 I llu s t ra tio n s
1 3 4 pp
1 50
PR AY T , J r
S team Tabl e s a n d E n gi ne Con s t ant
Co m piled
f ro m R e gn aul t Ra nkine a nd D i xo n d i rectl y m akin g u se o f t h e ex a ct
re co rd s 8 vo Clo t h 1 26 p p
R AN K IN E , W J M
Th e Ste am E n gi ne a n d O ther P ri m e
M over s
W i t h d i a gram o f t h e m ec hanical p ro per ties o f s team Fo l d
in g
pl a tes nu m e ro u s t ables a n d illu s t ra ti o n s F ifteen th E dition th or
o u ghly revis ed b
8 vo
Cl o t h
y W J M ill ar
U s e f ul R u le s a n d Ta ble s R el ati n g to M en su r a ti o n , E n gi
n e e ri n g
S tru c t u re s a n d M a c hi n e s
W it h tables te s ts a nd
fo rm u las fo r t h e u se o f ele c t ri c a l en gi n e e rs
B y An d re w J am ies o n
S even th Ed ition thor ou ghly r evis ed b y W J Mill ar
1 2m o
I llu s t ra ted
4 8 2 pp
Cl o t h
.

B OO K S

ON S TE AM A N D A

LL I E D

SU B J E CTS

RATE AU , A
E xp eri m e n t al R e s e a r c he s on t h e F l o w of S te am
Th ro u gh N o z z l e s an d Ori c e s
Tran s l a t ed by H B B ryd o n
.

I llu s t

rated

1 2m o

Cl o t h

82 p p

Ne t ,

t rea ti s e o n t h e c a u s es an d p reventi o n
o f t h ei r p rim in g
Thir d
w i t h rem ar k s o n t h ei r gene ra l m a n a gem ent
E d itio n
e n l a r ged
1 2m o
a nd
Cl o t h
r ewr itt en
7 9 I llu s t ra ti o n s
26 4 pp
N e t 2 00

REE D S M a ri n e B oi le rs

R ICHAR D S O N ,
Co ns t
Cl o t h

ru cti n
o

Th e M o d ern S te am E n gin e

Us e

p ra ctic al t rea ti s e

I ll u t ra ti n

3 00

8 vo
Ne t , 3 5 0

B as ed o n a s ho r t co u rs e
W it h 1 7 1 I llu s
Co lle g e Lo n d o n
B oi l e r s

to

K ey

L S W ater Tu be
o f lectu r es d el i ve r ed at U nive rs i t
y
t r a t io ns
228 p p
Cl o t h
8 vo
.

D e i gn

Th eo y ,

384 p p

R OB E RTS O N ,

R O SE ,

R u n ni n g

E n gi ne

an d

E n gi ne s

p ra ctic a l

t rea ti s e upo n t h e m an a gem ent o f s team en gi ne s a n d bo ile rs fo r t h e

u s e o f t ho s e w h o d e s i r e t o p a s s a n ex am i n a t io n t o t a ke c harge o f a n
en gine o r bo ile r W it h nu m ero u s illu s t ra ti o n s a n d i n s t r ucti o n s U po n
en gi nee rs c alcu l a ti o n s in d i c a to r d i a gram s en gine ad ju s tm ents a n d
o t he r v a lu a ble info rm a ti o n nece s s a ry fo r en g inee rs a n d r em en
Th ird
E d it io n
1 2m o
Cl o t h
4 16 pp
,

R O SS I TER ,
No s t

S t eam E n gi ne s

ra nd We tm in te r S er ie

O W AN

B oi ler

8 vo

SCH UM ANN ,

Cl o t h

Cl o t h

Th e P ra c ti c a l P hy s i c s

8 vo

Wi t h an int r d u c ti n b y

I llu t rati ns
s

I llu tra ted

of

Th u

ln

ess

M o d ern Ste am

th e

( V an

rt n
s o

Wi th

314

683

M an u al

He a ti n g a n d V entil ati o n
in t he ir p r a ctic a l a ppli c a ti o n fo r t h e u s e o f en gi nee rs a n d ar c hi te c t s
E m b ra cin g t a bles a nd fo rm u l ae fo r d i m en s i o n s o f h ea tin g fl o w a nd
retu r n pi pe s fo r s te am a nd ho t w a ter bo ilers flues e t c F ou rth E d ition
r evis ed a nd e n la rged
I llu s t ra ted 1 2m o L ea t he r 1 00 pp
F

of

S CR I B NE R , J
M
Twe nty-rs t E d it io n
SEATO N , A

I llu tra ted

s

M e c h ani c s

an d

1 6mo

E n gi neer s

Mo ro c co

Co m p ani o n

26 4 p p

of M a ri ne E ngi neeri n g Co m p ri s in g
c o n s t ru c ti o n a n d w o rkin g o f m ari ne m ac hine ry W i t h
t h e d e s i gn
nu m e ro u s tables an d ill u s tra ti o n s r ed u c ed fro m wo rk in g d rawi n gs
S ixtee nth E ditio n r evis ed a n d en la rged
Cl o t h
73 5 pp
8 v0
E

A M a n u al

SEATO N , A E , a n d R OUN THW AI TE , H M

A P o c ket -boo k o f
M a ri ne E n gi neeri n g R ule s a n d Table s
F o r t h e u se o f
.

ri ne en gi neer
u pe r
d n av l r c h i te c t
d e i gne rs d ra u gh t m en
i t d
nd c n t r ucti n o f m ar ine
t
d
ll en ga g ed in t h d e i
m a c hine ry n a v al nd m e r c a nt il e
vi d
nd
l gd
N i t E d it ion
I llu tra ted l 2m
L ea the r 560 pp
ma

an

n en

en s ,
,

an

s,

o
,

re

se

en a r e

ON STE AM AN D A

B OO K S

S EXTO N , A

W H

S H O CK ,

o c co .

S O TH E RN ,

ript i n
nd r un

sc

J W
.

r vi

E d ition ,

S TI L L M AN , P

ete r s te am

E d it io n

rg d
e

p ra c ti cal d e
tte d
co ns t ru c ted
Illu s tra ted 8 vo
A

F lexible

S te a m Tu r bi ne s

l th

c o

s an

t ra nd

TRINKS ,

t io ns

8 vo

Cl o t h

JAM E S

TON GE ,

Co a l

an d

1 6m o

pp
I llu s tra ted

es

eco nd

8 vo

Cl o t h

28 3 p p

S h a f t G overno r s

( Va n No s t ra n d Sc ien c e

Revis ed

( Va n No s

Net ,

H O U S UM , C
B o ard s 1 00 pp

5 10

W e tm i n te r Se r i

tu rb ines
Lo ui s C

as

96 p p

ro

E d it io n

N e t , 2 50

W i t h an append i x n
a nd t h e fu tu r e
f h ea t en gi ne
Au t h rized t ra n l a t i n
L ew ens tein W i t h 24 1 cu t d 3 lit h grap hed table S
o

H alf

I n d i c at or and t h im p v ed m an m
gau ges : t he ir u tility a d applic ati n N w

a nd

m an

S t e am E n gin e

S TO D O L A, A

4 to

8 vo

v ac uu m
Il lu s tra ted 1 6m o

enl a

a nd

s ed

a nd

1 73 p p

Il lu s tra ted

S ec ond

r a t i ns

Th e M ar i ne S te am Tu rbi n e
Parso ns Marine Di rbin e as now

t he

of

Cl o t h

t he ir d es i m co ns t ru ctio n
a nd
3 4 Fu lf a g e P l a tes

S te am B Oile I S

1 50
ll u s t
4 7 5 pp

SUB J ECTS

R efr a c to ry M ate ri al s

an d

'

a gem e n t .

mo

F u el

LL I E D

N e t , 2 00
.

I ll u s t a
Se ies N o
50 cent s

27

VAN N O STR AN D S Ye ar B oo k

W i t h m an y t able

s and

WAL KE R
I

1 8 9 l lu s t

ram s

d iag

SYD NE Y F

ra t io n

8 vo

of

M e c h ani c al E n gi neeri n g D ata

( F i rs t y e ar

S te am B oi ler s ,

Cl o t h

pp

42 8

i ss ue
E n gi ne s ,
of

an d

In P

es s

Tur bi ne s

Ne t ,

WATS O N , E P Sm al l E n gi ne s an d B oi ler s A m anu al o f co n

c i s e a nd s pe c ific d i r e c ti o ns for t h e co ns t ru cti o n o f sm a ll s te am en g ine s
an d bo ile rs o f m od e r n typ es f ro m ve ho rs e -po w e r d o w n t o m od el
s izes
Illu s t rated l 2m o Clo t h 1 1 6 pp
Z E UNE R A
Te c h ni c al Therm o d yn am i c s
Tr a n s l a t ed f ro m t h e
F ifth c o mp letely r evis ed Ger m a n E d ition o f Dr Z e n ne r s o ri gi n al t rea t
is e o n t he rm o d yn am ic s by J F K lein
I ll u s t ra ted 8 vo Cl o t h Two
Ne t
v o lu m e s
.

An y book in t h is lis t will be

t h e w or l d

V AN

p
2

M
u rra
3
y

sen

t p ost p aid t o

o n re c e ip t of

and

27

in

p ric e , by

N O ST R A N D
ublis h ers ano

an y a d dre ss

C O M PA N Y

B ooksellers

W arre n

S t r e e t s, N e w

Yo r k
.