FST 101

Food Chemistry
2nd Semester AY 2015-2016

FOOD
chemistry

Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Brouwers, Kamille Anne T.
Lim, Ulysses C.
Ortiz Luis, Charisse Anne C.
Torres, Caesar John
Group 4
Bachelor of Science in Food Technology, University of the Philippines Los Baos, Philippines
Date Performed: Feb 16, 2016
Date Submitted: Feb 23, 2016

Abstract
Polysaccharides are polymers of simple sugars. Starch is one of the common
polysaccharides found in nature. Starches from different sources vary from one another in
several ways and some of which is the size and shape of the granules. Different starches have
different gelatinization temperature. The granules of potato starch start to move at 58.0 C and
when it reached 60.0 C the granules were already swollen, and at 71.0 C the granules
disappeared. The second sample, which is corn starch was observed to have slight movement
at 49.0 C and rapid movement at 53.0 C forming a part where there are shrinked granules that
are compressed and a large bubbling area was formed at 65.0 C. The sago starch, at 45.0 C
the granules started to expand and move away from each other. By the time it reaches the 60.0
C mark, the granules moved further apart from each other. At 72.0 C cassava starch granules
started to burst, then extinct at 85.0 C for the rheological properties of starch experiment, corn
starch started to form a gel at 4% concentration, cassava starch at 2%, sago starch at 3%, and
agar-agar at 1% concentration. These concentrations were considered as the least gelling
concentration of the starches. Lastly, the amount of sugar greatly affects the clarity and
viscosity of the starch samples. The starch sample having the greatest amount of sugar (12
grams) is the clearest and most viscose
Keywords: Polysaccharides, starch, gelatinization

Introduction
Carbohydrate occur in plant, animal
and microorganism in many various forms
and nature (deMan, 1999). Carbohydrates
are
classified
into
four
groups;
monosaccharides, which are compose of one
sugar unit, disaccharides, two sugar unit,
oligosaccharide, two to ten sugar units, and
polysaccharides having more than 10 sugar
units. Upon consumption, carbohydrates are
broken down in our bodies forming water
and carbon dioxide. Energy produced during
the breakdown of carbohydrates is used for
other biochemical reactions occurring in the
body. Excess carbohydrates consumed are
stored in the liver as glycogen or converted
to
fats
(Anderson
etal.,
2009).
Carbohydrates consumed such as starches,
glycogen
and
gums
are
usually
polysaccharides or in scientific term,
glycans. Carbohydrate in polysaccharide
form is estimated to be more than 90% of
natures mass. The general scientific term
for polysaccharides is glycans (deMan,
1999).
Polysaccharides are polymers of
monosaccharides. Like the oligosaccharides,
they are composed of glycosyl units in linear
or branched arrangements, but most are
much larger than the 20-unit limit of
oligosaccharides (deMan, 1999).

Figure 4.1 Amylopectin, branched

arrangement

Figure 4.2 Amylose, linear

arrangement
Polysaccharides are also classified
by its composition. If all glycosyl units are
of the same sugar there are called
homoglycans such as cellulose, starch
amylose (linear) and starch amylopectin
(branched) and heteroglycan if composed by
two or more varieties of monosaccharide
units (Fennema, 1996).
Starch is a D-glucose polysaccharide
which functions as a storage carbohydrate in
plants. The granules size range and
appearance is unique to each plant species
(deMan, 1999).
Starch and starch
hydrolysis products constitute most of the
digestible carbohydrate in the human diet.
Also, the amount of starch used in the
preparation of food products, without
counting that present in flours used to make
bread and other bakery products, that
naturally occurring in grains used to make
breakfast cereals, or that naturally consumed
in fruits and vegetables, greatly exceeds the
combined use of all other food hydrocolloids
(fennema, 1996).

Methodology
Procedure
Experiment 1. Microscopic Examination of
Different Starches
Apparatus
Microscope, glass slides, cover slips
Reagents
Glycerol-water solution, 1:1
Procedure
Experiment 1 was conducted using
different food starches to determine their
physical
appearances
and
other
characteristics. At first, few grains of each
starch samples were placed in different glass
slides. Then, a drop of glycerol-water
solution (1:1) was added to avoid movement
of starch granules into the edge or outside
when cover slip is placed. Glycerol water
solution was used as a mounting medium in
starch microscopy because it avoids
hardening of slide-mount, thus allowing
starch granules to be rotated for viewing.
After placing the cover slip, each starch
sample was observed under the microscope
using high power objective.
Experiment 2. Interaction of Heat and Starch
Apparatus

Glass slide, cover slip, Hot stage

microscope
Reagents
Distilled water

A sample of starch was placed in a

glass slide and suspended in water. It was
placed on top of the hot stage of the
microscope and heated. The changes that
occurred at different temperatures were
noted and illustrated the relative shape and
sizes of the granules at each temperature.

Experiment 3. Rheological Properties of

Starches
Apparatus
Test tubes, stirrer
Procedure
Different concentrations of starches
(1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%) such as corn starch,
cassava starch and sago starch, and agaragar (0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%) were
prepared in 5mL of water in test tubes. The
samples were then placed in a boiling water
bath until complete gelatinization occurs
which was indicated by clearing of the
solution or when the solution becomes
transparent. In order to avoid settling of the
starch, stirring was done from time to time.
Then, the test tubes were cooled in running
tap water and placed inside the refrigerator
for several hours. After refrigeration, the
test tubes were inverted to determine if the
sample would slip or flow out of the tube or
not.
Experiment 4. Interaction of other solutes
with Polysaccharides in soluion
Apparatus
Beaker, heater, stirrer, weighing
scale

Procedure
The experiment was conducted by
weighing 3 five grams of the corn and
cassava starch samples. Sucrose was added
to each sample (4, 8, and 12 grams). 80 ml
of water was then added to the mixture and
heated gently while stirring until cooked.
The process of gelatinization was then
observed. The difference in time and
viscosity was also observed and noted. The
solution was then cooled in a pan of water.
The characteristics of the product was then
observed and noted on table 3.4
Results and Discussion
EXPERIMENT1. MICROSCOPIC
EXAMINATION OF DIFFERENT
STARCHES
Starch microscopy is used to
determine the physical appearance of
starches from different sources. In the
experiment, different starches (rice, cassava,
mungbean, sago, sweet potato, corn and
potato) were used. Also, an unknown
samples composition was determined based
on the structure of its components.

Figure 1. Appearance of Starch

Granules as seen in the Microscope.
(a) sago, (b) corn, (c) sweet potato, (d)
rice, (e) potato, (f) mungbean, (g)
cassava, and (h) Unknown sample.

Table 3.1 Comparison of starch granules

from various sources.
Sample

Size and Shape

Sago

Large, ellipsoidal in
shape (some are
truncated) granules

Corn

Larger than rice,

polyhedral to
subspherical granules

Sweet potato

Small; oval, round

and polygonal
granules

Rice
Potato

Has the largest

granules; ovoid in
d
c shape

Mungbean
Cassava

b
Small; polygonal
and
angular in shape

Small; elliptical to
spherical in shape
e

Small (same as sweet

potato); mostly round

in shape
Unknown Sample A Large ovoid granules
together with angular
and polygonal
granules (composed
of rice and potato

Starch is one of the common

polysaccharides found in nature. It is found
in plants and which serves as energy
reservoir.
Chemically,
starches
are
polysaccharides that are composed of
repeating units of glucose.
As seen on table 3.1, starches from
different vary from one another in terms of
size and shape. Sago starch granules are
ellipsoidal in shape and generally bigger
compared to other starches, but smaller than
potato starch granules. Some granules have
pits at one end. For the corn starch, its
granules are polyhedral to subspherical.
Most of the granules have an elongated scar,
which represents the center vacuole. The
sweet potato starch granules are polygonal
in shape. But some exist as nearly round.
Tha granules size is relatively similar to
that of the cassava. The rice starch have the
smallest granules to exist in cereal grains
(Wong, et al. 2003). It has smooth surfaced,
but angular and polygonal granules, which
looks like a rock when observed in the
microscope. The potato starch has the largest
granules among the given sample. The
granules are ovoid or pear-shaped. Some
small granules of potato exist in round
shape. The mungbean starch showed
kidney-shaped, elliptical to spherical
granules. The granules looks like shaded

beans with white scar at the center. The

cassava starch granules are mostly round in
shape. Some of its granules formed cluster
and the individual granules have dark pit on
its center. The last sample, which is the
unknown starch was identified by looking at
its composition under the microscope. After
observing the composition, the components
were compared to the structure of the
standard samples (known samples). The
unknown contains the granules of rice and
potato. Some granules were scattered and
some formed as clumps.
It can be clearly seen that granules
from various sources differ from each other.
Each of the the sources granules have
unique structure and notable characteristics,
specifically size and shape and these
characteristics may affect the performance
of the starch. Granules size have strong
effect on the performance of starch, for
example in the gelatinization temperature of
the starch. Larger granules have the ability
swell more easily, and these swelling is
important, especially in baking or cooking.
Larger granules have more space for storage
compared to smaller ones.
EXPERIMENT 2. INTERACTION OF
HEAT AND STARCH
Table 3.2. Cells of starch samples
under hot stage microscope.
St
ar
c
h
s
a
m

Observations/Temperature C
30

45

60

70

75

pl
e

S
w
e
et
p
ot
at
o

s
a
g
o

p
ot
at
o

c
a
ss
a
v
a
Starch is a polysaccharide that is
insoluble in water when not subjected to
heat. When heated, imbibition of water
occurs at certain temperature, usually at 6071.0C. It swells and starts gelatinization
process. This process let short chains of
amylose come out of the granules.
There are several steps in
gelatinization process. It starts when it reach
temperature about 60- 710C depending on
the type of starch. Then, the kinetic energy
of the hot water molecules breaks the
Hydrogen bonds between starch molecules.
Then it forms H-bond with water molecules
instead of starch molecules. As the bond
between starch and water forms, water
penetrates the starch granules and swelling
will occur. Diffusion of some amylase
occurs as water leaches out starch granules.
Then, its crystalline structure when
uncooked lost. As the temperature increases,
more granules swell. Swollen granules take
up more space and the mixture thickens and
became resistant to flows. (Vaclavick and
Christian,2008)
Gelatinization
process
requires
different factors to consider in order to form.
These are: agitation, acid, enzymes, fats and
proteins, sugar, salt, and temperature. They
affect gelatinization in different ways.

Agitation affects gelatinization by enabling

granules of starch to swell independently
creating uniform and finer mixture.
Introduction of acid leads to fragmentation
and formation of dextrin. Enzymes can
hydrolyze the starch. Fats and proteins coats
the granules that lessen the swelling of the
granules. Sugar delays adsorption of water.
Salt raises the temperature at which starch
thickens. Lastly, temperature is the factor
which is responsible for the gelatinization to
be met. (Vaclavick and Christian,2008)
As mentioned above, different
starches have different gelatinization
temperature. In this experiment, four
samples of starches were observed under hot
stage microscope. The first sample was the
potato starch, the granules of potato starch
start to move at 58.0 C and when it reached
60.0 C the granules were already swollen,
and at 71.0 C the granules disappeared. The
second sample was the corn starch, corn
starch was observed to have slight
movement at 49.0 C and rapid movement at
53.0 C forming a part where there are
shrinked granules that are compressed and a
large bubbling area was formed at 65.0 C.
Another sample is the sago starch, at 45.0 C
the granules started to expand and move
away from each other. By the time it reaches
the 60.0 C mark, the granules moved further
apart from each other. The last sample was
the cassava starch; cassava starch has finer
granules compared to the other three
samples. At 72.0 C cassava starch granules
started to burst, then extinct at 85.0 C.
(Vaclavik and Christian,2008)

EXPERIMENT
3.
RHEOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF STARCHES
The least gelling concentration is a
measure of the lowest concentration of the

solute that is enough to initiate the formation

of a gel wherein the solvent is bound in the
structure of the system. Based on the
experiment conducted, corn starch started to
form a gel at 4% concentration, cassava
starch at 2%, sago starch at 3%, and agaragar
at
1%
concentration.
These
concentrations were considered as the least
gelling concentration of the starches.
In gel formation, it was observed that
as the paste cools, there is a decrease in
kinetic energy which causes the amylose
molecules to rebond with each other as well
as to the outer edges of the starch granules
which consequently cause the formation of
networks. From the results, it can be inferred
that greater concentration of the starch
would result to a harder gel formed. The
change from being opaque to translucent or
translucent to transparent was due to the
change in refractive index of starch which
tends to become close to that of water
(Charley, 1982). The gel formed may be
viscous to solid depending on the
concentration. This is primarily due to the
amount of amylose found in the sample that
is accountable for the gel formation.
Viscosity or the resistance to flow of food
samples can be measured using different
viscometers. Capillary viscometer is a type
of viscometer which obtains viscosity by
allowing a sample flow inside the capillary
and determining the difference in pressures
between both ends of the capillary. Another
type of viscometer that can be used is the
cup type viscometer wherein the flow rate of
the sample out of the orifice of the sample
container is measured thus getting the
viscosity. A number of other viscometers
such as rotational viscometer, falling-ball

viscometer and Ottawa Starch Viscometer

can also be used, each having a different
measuring principle.
Aside from the different starches,
agar-agar was also used as sample in the
experiment. It is composed of agarose which
is accountable for its gelling property. Gels
produced by agarose have all structures
formed by hydrogen-bonded polymers
(Phillips, 2000). Agar offers a lot of uses in
the industry tracing from food even in
microbiological work. The viscosity of the
solution is also dependent on the
concentration of the solute just like in
starches. The more agar-agar is added, the
harder is the gel that can be formed.

EXPERIMENT 4. INTERACTION OF
OTHER
SOLUTES
WITH
POLYSACCHARIDES IN SOLUION
Polysaccharides are used primarily
as thickeners or gelling agents to alter or
control the flow, properties, texture,
deformation of food.
Generally, a
concentration of 0.25% to 0.50%
concentration is used in food to indicate its
range of viscosity and ability to form gels.
Table 3.4 Comparison of starch gels
obtained after cooking with different levels
of sugar.

Sample
added (grams)

Clarity
4

12

Corn

Cassava

*1 most viscous/clearest
Table 3.4 compares the difference of
corn starch clarity and viscosity to cassava
starch using different amount of sugar. As
seen on the table, there is no difference in
viscosity and clarity between the starches.
Although, it can be concluded from the table
that the amount of sugar greatly affects the
clarity and viscosity of the starch samples.
The starch sample having the greatest
amount of sugar (12 grams) is the clearest
and most viscose.
Addition of sugar tends to lower the
rigidity of a gel structure and viscosity; it
also makes the paste more translucent and
has the ability to prevent gelation in large
amounts. Sugar and starch competes for the
amount of water thus decreasing the
available amount of water for hydration of
starch (Fennema, 1976).
Other factors also affecting the
viscosity and clarity of a polysaccharide are
enzymes, pH, time and temperature.
Changes in pH outside the range of 4-7
decreases the thickening properties of starch.
Once starch is hydrolysed or cleave starch
molecule in shorter, more soluble
compounds possessing less thickening
property (Aurand, 1973)
Polysaccharides that are subject to
enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis are subject to
microbial attack because of their
susceptibility
to
enzyme-catalyzed
hydrolysis. Furthermore, gum products are
very seldom delivered sterile, and this fact

must be considered when using them as

ingredients (Fennema, 1996).

Summary and Conclusion

Starches from different sources vary from
one another in several ways and some of
which is the size and shape of the granules.
Starch granules come in different sizes.
There are relatively large granules and there
are also minute. In some starches,
composition of granules is polymodal,
meaning the granules exist in different sizes.
The shapes of the granules are also diverse.
There are starches that are composed of
round to spherical to polygonal shaped
granules. Some have either symmetrical or
assymetrical structure.
When starches are subjected to heat,
gelatinization occurs. Gelatinization is the
swelling and thickening of starch granules
with water and heat as agents. In the
process, the water penetrates in the granule
and there is increase in kinetic energy which
disrupts hydrogen bonds of starch, from less
dense to crystallize area. As the temperature
rises, the suspension becomes translucent;
the swelling starch loses birefringence
(luminous Maltese- cross under polarized
light) and begins to thicken the liquid.
Thickening increases as heating progresses;
some short chain molecules (amylose)
diffuse out of the swollen granules into the
surrounding liquid. This thickness of the
suspension may be due to oxidates (oozed
out materials) from swollen grains
(Fennema, 1976).
Having their capability to stabilize
emulsions which creates homogeneous

mixtures, starches are used as stabilizers in

some food products. Other stabilizers like
pectin or calcium chloride can also be used
like in dairy products. Lecithin, carrageenan,
alginic acid, and gelatin are some of the
common stabilizers that are usually added in
food products.

Recommendation
The starches can be examined under
microscopes with polarized filter and by
using staining medium like Iodine for better
analysis of the structure of the granules.

Literature Cited
Charley
H.1982.Principles
of
Food
Chemistry. 2nd Ed. USA: Macmillan.
pp.123, 125-126
Phillips, G.O., and Williams, P.A. 2000.
Handbook of Hydrocolloids. UK:
Woodhead Publishing. p.28

Torrence, Robin, and Huw Barton, editors.

2006. Ancient Starch Research. Left
Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA.
Hather, J.G.
(ed.)
1994. Tropical
Archaeobotany: Applications and New
Developments, pp. 86-114. Routledge,
London.
Fennema, OR. (1996) Food Chemistry. 2nd
Ed. New York: Marcel Dekker.