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MINE SUBSIDENCE TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Reprint

from the

Proceedings of the
MSTS 5th Triennial Conference
Coal Mine Subsidence 2001
Current Practice and Issues
Maitland, 26th to 28th August 2001

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SUCCESSFULLY MANAGING THE UNDERMINING OF

MAJOR STRUCTURES
P.Davis MIEAust CPEng
Acting Subsidence Risk Engineer, Mine Subsidence Board
SUMMARY
Significant coal reserves in New South Wales are located under major public utilities and other
structures. Mining of coal beneath such structures has to be considered carefully and
assessment of the impact of mining subsidence needs to be carried out in order to determine
any steps to be taken to protect the structures. The adoption of engineering solutions to
successfully protect major structures has allowed those structures to remain safe and
serviceable while being exposed to mine subsidence.
1.

INTRODUCTION

The mining of coal reserves underground

can lead to significant subsidence occurring
on the surface. This subsidence can have a
significant impact on structures. In the past
options for protecting surface structures
have included sterilising coal reserves. This
could be catered for more readily with bord
and pillar mining as stable coal pillars could
be left beneath major structures. However,
with longwall mining this has become more
difficult as significant operational problems
can be encountered in the mine if substantial
blocks of coal are to be left behind.
If coal is not to be sterilised under major
surface structures then it becomes necessary
to consider the effects of mining on those
structures and to consider options for
protection by engineering means. For
buildings yet to be built in areas where
mining is known to be proceeding it is
possible to incorporate design features into
the structure prior to construction that will
limit damage resulting from subsidence. For
existing structures the performance under
subsidence movements needs to be
considered and features built into the
existing structure.
It is necessary that design engineers and
owners understand the effects of subsidence

on structures. Studies of previous cases of

similar structures and their performance will
provide some indication of steps to take.
Effects of mine subsidence on major surface
structures is considered and some case
studies are included to review how the
management of the process has led to
successful undermining of those structures
without significant damage occurring.
2.

SUBSIDENCE EFFECTS ON
STRUCTURES

Movement of the ground surface following

the extraction of coal results in a number of
movements on the surface. These
movements include vertical subsidence,
ground strains, curvature and tilt.
In general terms vertical subsidence
represents a rigid body movement that has
little effect on structures above ground level.
However, flooding problems may arise if
structures are in close proximity to
watercourses and in some cases the water
table may rise to a higher level causing
some problems to parts of structures below
ground level. If structures traverse a mined
area it may be a problem of having some
parts at different levels. Power lines for
example may have their clearance affected

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when some towers or poles are subsided

while the nearby ground is not.

or synthetic insulators. There are basically

two types of towers being suspension and
tension towers.

Ground strains occur as a result of

differential movement between two points
causing a change in length of the surface
between the two points. Both tensile and
compressive strains can generate damage in
buildings. Tensile strains can cause cracking
of materials, opening of joints or separation
of components. Compressive strains can
lead to buckling of materials, heaving of
surfaces, crushing of components and
closure of some openings.
Curvature
results
from
differential
settlement across the ground surface and can
be a most damaging parameter for some
structures on the surface. Curvature will
lead to both compressive and tensile strains
developing and these effects are mentioned
above.
Tilt resulting from underground mining
results from differential movement between
two points that changes the slope of the
surface between the two points. Some
problems associated with tilt include
changes to gradient, superelevation and
cross falls and increases in tension of cables.
In many cases the damage that occurs to a
structure as a result of mine subsidence is a
combination of some or all of these
parameters.
3.

TRANSMISSION TOWERS

In New South Wales a majority of power

stations are located close to coalfields and
consequently the transmission lines that
deliver the electricity to the cities and towns
cross coal reserves. Most of the major
transmission lines in NSW operate between
132kV and 500kV and the conductors are
supported on substantial steel framed
structures. Most transmission lines are
overhead lines with steel reinforced
aluminium conductors. The conductors are
insulated from the towers by porcelain, glass

Figure 1 - Types of Transmission Towers

The effect of subsidence movements on
transmission towers will vary depending on
the type of structure, its location and the
magnitude of those effects.
Vertical subsidence may affect the clearance
of conductors to the ground if a supporting
tower is subsided but the surrounding
ground is not. Also if one tower is subsided
and adjacent towers are not then tension in
the conductors may increase.
Tilt can also lead to increases in conductor
and earthwire tension as they are stretched.
The principal effect is the alteration of the
tower loading due to movement of the
conductor attachment points. If the degree
of tilt is severe it can lead to the loss of
stability and the potential collapse of the
tower.

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164

Ground strains and curvature can produce

deformations to the structure sufficient to
cause failure. The structural capacity of the
tower legs and bracing members becomes
critical. The strain has the potential to
increase or decrease the distance between
tower legs, which may lead to buckling of
members and consequent tower failure.
Various techniques to protect transmission
towers have been implemented to date and
have proven to be successful. When the
effect of subsidence on steel towers is
considered excessive there are several
methods to protect the structure. The option
of replacing a steel transmission tower with
a series of wood pole structures either side
of the original tower is a proven method.
The steel tower is fully dismantled and the
conductors are transferred across to supports
on the new wood pole structures. This
technique can be economical only if a single
steel tower is to be affected. If more are to
be affected the need for a significant number
of temporary wood pole structures leads to a
blowout in the cost of protection. The wood
pole structures have advantages over the
steel tower in that they are far more flexible
and are capable of withstanding levels of
subsidence that the original steel tower
would not cater for. Following completion
of mining the original steel tower can be
reassembled and the conductors moved back
on to it. The wood pole structures are then
removed ready for another job in the future.
Another proven method of protecting steel
towers is to install a large reinforced
concrete cruciform footing to the base of the
tower. The footing acts to tie the legs of the
tower together to prevent spreading and to
prevent the transfer of ground strains into
the structure itself. The cruciform footing is
installed just prior to undermining and the
original pier footings are severed at ground
level following installation of the new
cruciform. The size of the cruciform footing
is such that the mass prevents overturning of
the tower in the event of extreme loading.
Design of the cruciform footing allows for a

method of relevelling the tower in the event

of significant final tilt of the structure.
The cruciform footing method has been
found to be fairly economical when
compared to other methods of protection
including temporary structures. In excess of
ten of these footings have been installed by
the Mine Subsidence Board over the past 5
or so years and their success has led to
significant reserves of coal beneath towers
being mined.

Figure 2 - Typical Layout of Cruciform

Footing

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Communication between all parties involved

to achieve a successful solution is the key to
the success of the mentioned solutions. The
mining company involved needs to inform
other parties well in advance of their
proposals to undermine the structures. This
then allows plenty of time for organisations
such as Transgrid, the Mine Subsidence
Board and others to plan the design and
construction prior to the effects of
subsidence.
Survey monitoring following both before
and following completion of mining allows
the success of the works to be fully assessed
knowing how the movements have
progressed and how the transmission line
has responded.
4.

BRIDGES

When bridges are to be undermined it is

important to appreciate how the mine
subsidence movements will affect its
performance. In some cases bridges can be
designed in advance for the effects of
subsidence. Allowances for vertical
settlement and strain can be designed into
the structure so that when subsidence does
occur the bridge is not unduly affected. It is
important in these cases that the relevant
authorities such as RTA or local councils
who own bridges are well informed in
advance of potential undermining.
When structures have not been designed for
subsidence movement it is possible to
design protective measures for bridges to
dissipate the expected movements. Again
communication between all relevant parties
is the key to success of any remedial works.
On several occasions know the Mine
Subsidence Board has been involved in the
protection of major bridges from the effects
of subsidence. The Rockford Road Bridge
over the Bargo River at Tahmoor was
subsided up to 550 mm by longwall mining
and successfully kept in service.

The 75 m long bridge has 6 spans supported

on reinforced concrete columns. While the
bridge was being subsided the bridge deck
was supported by a series of trusses and
hydraulic jacks that were automatically
adjusted to compensate for movement of the
deck. When monitoring showed the bridge
was being influenced by the longwall, the
deck was lifted from the headstocks and
supported by the hydraulic jack system.
Sensors monitored the pressure in the
hydraulic lines and the pumps were able to
automatically compensate for the movement
of the bridge deck.
Some restrictions on traffic speed and lane
closures were implemented, however, the
bridge did remain in service at all times.
When surveys showed that movement had
finished, the deck was lowered back onto its
original supports, the adjustment system was
removed and the bridge was reopened to
normal traffic.
Another successful case of monitoring the
effects of subsidence movements on a major
bridge has recently been completed. The
twin freeway road bridges over the Nepean
River at Douglas Park were monitored
closely during nearby longwall mining.
Although not directly undermined it was
thought that due to the steeply sloping
gorges in the region that some movement
might occur at the bridges. A system of
monitoring the movement of the bridges was
put in place by the mining company and a
technical committee comprising the key
players observed the results and determined
if any remedial work was to be required.
Following completion of mining in the area
it was decided that some minor remedial
work would be required to relieve stress in
hinge joints at one point in the deck. The
remedial action has involved pushing the
deck sideways by a few millimetres at a
location adjacent to a bridge pier near the
hinge joint location. The bearing at the pier
was eased to allow movement by hydraulic
jacking to occur.

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5.

RESIDENTIAL AREAS

In some cases it can become necessary to

carry out major works to a residential area
affected by subsidence movements. In
recent years several waterside locations
have been affected by lowering of the
ground to a level below the adjacent water
body.
Successful restoration projects for areas
affected by mine subsidence have been
undertaken at Chain Valley Bay, Gwandalan
and Buff Point. One of the key lessons
learnt from the events was that both the
physical and social effects of mine
subsidence have to be addresses by any
restoration project.
The Buff point restoration project aimed to
restore the area worst affected by the
subsidence movement. This involved the
purchase and demolition of houses, the
filling of some land, the reconstruction of
major infrastructure such as roads, services,
drains and so on, and the creation of a new
park area.
Another residential project where successful
management has led to a good result include
a rural dwelling in the Hunter Valley. The
house was undermined by longwall with
subsidence in the order of 600 mm with
strains of 4 mm/m and tilts of 11 mm/m. In
order to limit the effects of subsidence, steel
beams were placed under the house to
support it independently of its piers. After
the internal brick chimney was dismantled
the house was lifted by jacks prior to its
being affected by the mining. As the
longwall progressed under the house the
support beams were jacked to keep the
house level. Following completion of
mining the piers were relevelled, or in some
cases rebuilt, and the house lowered back
onto its original foundations.
During the undermining of a major high
school in the Lake Macquarie area any
repairs necessary as a result of mining were

carried out quickly and without interfering

with school activities. The buildings in this
case were designed for subsidence and
subsequently behaved well during the event.
However, close liaison was maintained
between the school, the mining company
and the Mine Subsidence Board to ensure no
significant issues occurred.
With design prior to mining including such
features as breaking the buildings into
smaller units, the inclusion of slip layers and
the use of flexible connections for service
pipes the school handled the subsidence
movements well.
6.

PIPELINES

The effects of mine subsidence on pipelines

can vary and include increases in stress
levels and changes in grade. Water and
sewer pipelines need to be checked to see if
the change in grade following mine
subsidence allows flow to continue as
designed. If necessary monitoring of
sections of pipelines can be setup and
changes of grade checked. If required new
pipelines may need to be installed and flow
diverted to maintain service.
In the case of an old lead jointed water
supply pipeline in the Western coalfield that
was undermined by longwalls at relatively
shallow depth it was necessary to
completely replace the pipeline by a new
polyurethane pipeline laid across the surface
of the affected area. The effects of
subsidence as predicted by the colliery were
considered to be severe and the ability of the
old cast iron pipeline to absorb the
movements was considered poor. To
maintain flow of water through the pipeline
it was decided to install a new plastic line
adjacent to the existing line run across the
surface of the ground. Following completion
of subsidence movements, the new pipeline
would be buried and maintained as part of
the total system.

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On several occasions now high pressure gas

pipelines
have
been
successfully
undermined. Prior to undermining a
theoretical analysis was undertaken by the
gas authority to review the potential
increases in stress in the pipeline. On several
occasions it was found that potential
problems existed as strain levels in the
pipeline approached or exceeded established
safe levels and protective measures needed
to be implemented.
It was considered the best solution to
uncover sections of the pipeline by
excavating a trench either side of the
pipeline. A number of strain gauges were
installed on the pipeline to monitor pipe
strains. Also a survey line was installed to
monitor ground movements. Maintaining
the flow of gas was considered imperative
and so a secondary temporary pipeline was
installed bypassing the worst affected area
to be on standby for diversion of flow. As
mining progressed a close eye was kept on
pipe strains and as they approached the
allowable Code limits the bypass line was
commissioned. The exposing of the main
pipeline did protect it from receiving the
worst effects of strain. However, the profile
of the pipeline did need to be altered and
this was done by lifting and sand bag
packing under it so that the stresses were
within
tolerable
limits.
Following
completion of subsidence the pipeline was
buried and the easement landscaped and
regraded.
7.

RAILWAYS

Historically railways have been protected

from the effects of mining. This has been
done by not allowing mining of pillars or
longwalls under the railway easement.
However, in recent years mining has been
allowed under railway lines and the process
has been successful.
Subsidence has the potential to affect the
track and track environment in a number of

ways including increased compressive

forces in rail track and displacement or
stretching of overhead wires leading to
increased stresses. Other problems may arise
with potential damage to bridges, culverts,
cuttings, cabling, drainage etc.
Several years ago mining by longwall took
place under the main Northern railway with
subsidence in excess of 350 mm being
recorded. A number of precautionary
measures were put in place to help the line
handle the movements. The rails were
destressed by cutting in places and
significant monitoring of stress levels took
place while mining proceeded. It was
necessary for all parties to work closely with
each other to provide all the necessary
information. Significant planning and lead
times were necessary in order to
successfully complete this project. However,
the works were carried out as mining
progressed and the overall project was a
great success.
Plans to undermine a railway line must be
identified early in the planning process so
that all the relevant authorities can be
involved in the approval process and
subsequent design of mitigatory measures.
8.

TUNNELS

In recent times a major water supply canal

and tunnel have been undermined by a
series of longwall panels. The tunnel, driven
through sandstone is unlined for 3 km of its
length. Prior to undermining the mining
company undertook extensive studies to
identify the risks including tunnel collapse,
heritage value, preservation of bat colonies,
water contamination and
horizontal
movement at the tunnel inlet.
Engineering consultants investigated
effects of subsidence on the tunnel
recommended protective measures
minimise the possibility of rock falls
would impede the flow of water in

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and
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168

tunnel. Mitigatory work was carried out to

sections of the tunnel by way of
strengthening it by bolting and meshing.
9.

final repairs done following completion of

the movement. In these cases roadside signs
have been erected to warn drivers of the
potential problems that may occur.

ROADS
10.

The effects of subsidence on roads include

cracking due to tensile strains, humps
forming as a result of compressive strains
and loss of cross fall or superelevation as a
result of tilt. In addition problems with
drainage and with lines of sight may become
issues. Generally speaking it is not possible
to carry out mitigatory works to roads
themselves. Planning of mining underneath
roads needs to be carried out very carefully
so that any resulting damage will not affect
the serviceability of the road or the safety of
its users.
Tensile strains can lead to cracking of the
riding surface and if left unattended can
reduce the life of the road and can lead to
serious safety problems for road users.
Ingress of water into cracks and hence into
supporting base layers can quickly
deteriorate the road surface. Compressive
strains can lead to buckling and the
formation of humps in the road surface. This
can also lead to serious safety issues with
road users.
On several occasions when it was known
that mining was to proceed under major
roads, working parties have been set up to
examine the potential effects and to put in
place a management plan to rectify damage
as it occurs.
The Pacific Highway South of Newcastle
has been undermined on several occasions
now and each time the successful
management of the process has allowed
mining to proceed and repairs to be carried
out quickly. As cracking occurred or as
compression humps appeared temporary
repairs were carried out quickly to maintain
the road in service. Damage to roadside
drains were patched where necessary and

CONCLUSIONS

Mining has now occurred under many

public utilities and major structures in New
South Wales. By planning in advance and
maintaining good communication between
all relevant parties it is possible to
successfully manage the subsidence that is
to occur.
As more experience is gained in different
areas, authorities are becoming more
comfortable with planning for and managing
the introduction of protective measures. The
mining industry is also given greater
comfort in knowing that major structures
can be successfully undermined if sufficient
timing and planning is implemented.
In years to come it is likely that even more
significant surface structures will be
undermined or planned to be undermined.
The lessons learnt to date indicate that if all
the necessary planning is carried out well in
advance then it may be possible to recover
the coal reserves under such structures
without unduly affecting their serviceability.
11.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper has been prepared with the

assistance and support of the Mine
Subsidence Board.
12.
1.

REFERENCES
Burton B. (1995) Behaviour of
Structures Subjected to Mine
Subsidence Proceedings of the
Mine Subsidence Technological
Society Third Triennial Conference
on Buildings and Structures Subject

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169

to Mine Subsidence, Newcastle

ISBN 0 646 22573 1, pp 1-8
2.

Davis P. (1998) Protecting

Transmission Towers From The
Effects of Mine Subsidence
Proceedings of the Mine Subsidence
Technological
Society
Fourth
Triennial Conference on Buildings
and Structures Subject to Mine
Subsidence, Newcastle ISBN 09585779-0-0

3.

Holla L. (1991) The Experience of

Mining Under Public Utility
Installations in New South Wales
Proceedings of the Mine Subsidence
Technological
Society
Second
Triennial Conference on Buildings
and Structures Subject to Mine
Subsidence, Maitland ISBN 0 646
05155 5, pp 57-65

4.

Mine Subsidence Board

(1997), (1998), (1999)
Review

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(1993),
Annual

170