Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

From Suresh: Fatigue of Materials

INTRODUCTION
Importance of Fracture Mechanics :
All real materials contain defects: understand
the influence of these defects on the strength of
the material. Defect-tolerant design philosophy.
Relevance for Fatigue: understand the initiation
and growth of fatigue cracks.
We will use two approaches, an energy-based
approach and a more rigorous mechanics approach.
2

Introduction

Griffith Fracture Theory

Key Idea : Griffith (1921) postulated that for unit
crack extension to occur under the influence of the
applied stress, the decrease in potential energy of
the system, by virtue of the displacement of the
outer boundaries and the change in the stored elastic
energy, must equal the increase in surface energy
due to crack extension.
3

Consider the center-cracked plate shown below.

The in-plane dimensions of the plate are large
compared to the crack length.

Using the results of Inglis (1913) Griffith found that

the net change in potential energy of the plate caused
by the introduction of the crack is:

a B
.
WP
E'
2

E
E'
Plane strain
2
1 v
=E
Plane stress
The surface energy of the crack system is

WS 4aB s
where S is the free surface energy per unit surface area.
5

The total system energy is then given by

a B
U W P WS
4aB S .
E'
2

Griffith noted that the critical condition for the onset

of crack growth is:
dU dWP dWS
a

2 S 0,
dA
dA
dA
E'
2

where A=2aB is the crack area and dA denotes an

incremental increase in the crack area.
Thus the stress required to initiate fracture is:

2E ' S
.
a

As the second derivative, d2U/da2 is negative, the

above equilibrium condition gives rise to unstable
crack propagation. This applies for brittle materials;
it must be modified for ductile materials such as metals.
7

Orowan (1952) extended Griffiths brittle fracture

concept to metals by simply adding a term representing
plastic energy dissipation. The resultant expression
for fracture initiation is

2E ' ( s p )

where p is the plastic work per unit area of surface

created. Generally p is much larger than s .
8

Energy Release Rate

Crack Driving Force

Consider an elastic plate with an edge crack of length

a, as shown below:

The total mechanical potential energy of a cracked

elastic body is given by the general expression
W

wF

where is the stored elastic strain energy and wF is

the work done by the external forces.
Irwin (1956) proposed an approach for the
characterization of the driving force for fracture in
cracked bodies, which is conceptually equivalent to
that of the Griffith model.
10

Irwin introduced, for this purpose, the energy release

rate G which is defined as

dWP
G
.
d

WP, and thus G, can be evaluated for different loading

conditions. This definition is valid for both linear and
nonlinear elastic deformation of the body. G is a function
of the load (or displacement) and crack length. It is
independent of the boundary conditions, in particular
whether the loading is fixed-displacement or fixed-load.
11

The Griffith criterion for fracture initiation in an ideally

brittle solid can be re-phrased in terms of G such that
2 a
2 S .
G
'

We define the compliance C (inverse of the stiffness) of

a cracked solid as C=u / F. It can be shown that
F 2 dC
.
G
2 B da

Thus measurements of compliance as a function of crack

length allow the energy release rate to be evaluated.
12

Modes of Fracture
The three basic modes of separation of the crack
surfaces (modes of fracture) are depicted below:

Combinations of modes (mixed-mode loading) are

also possible.
13

Modes of Fracture

Definitions

Mode I (tensile opening mode): The crack faces

separate in a direction normal to the plane of the crack.
The displacements are symmetric with respect to
the x z and x y planes.
Mode II (in-plane sliding mode): The crack faces
are mutually sheared in a direction normal to the
crack front. The displacements are symmetric with
respect to the x y plane and anti-symmetric with
respect to the x z plane.
14

Definitions

Modes of Fracture
Mode III (tearing or anti-plane shear mode): The
crack faces are sheared parallel to the crack front.
The displacements are antisymmetric with respect
to the x y and x z planes.
The crack face displacements in modes II and III
find an analogy to the motion of edge dislocations
and screw dislocations, respectively.
15

Plane Crack Problem

The preceding analysis considered fracture from an
energy standpoint. We now carry out a linear elastic
stress analysis of the cracked body, which will
allow us to formulate critical conditions for the
growth of flaws more precisely. An analysis of this
type falls within the field of Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics (LEFM).

16

We consider a semi-infinite crack in an infinite plate

of an isotropic and homogeneous solid as shown below:

Our goal is to develop expressions for the stresses,

strains and displacements around the crack tip.
17

Equilibrium Equations

Plane Crack Problem

The equilibrium equations (no body forces) are
rr 1 r rr

0,
r
r
r
r 1 2 r

0,
r
r
r

where r and are the polar coordinates as shown

previously.
18

Plane Crack Problem

Strain-Displacement

The strain-displacement relations for polar coordinates

are:
u
u 1 u
rr

1 1 ur u u

.
2 r
r
r

The strain compatibility equation in polar coordinates is:

2 1 r
1 r
1 2 rr 1 rr
0.
2

2
2
2
r
r r
r r r
r
r r
2

19

Plane Crack Problem

Hookes Law (for plane stress,

Hookes Law

E rr rr ,

zz

0):

E rr ,
2G r G r r .
For the case of plane strain ( zz 0):
2G rr 1 rr ,
2G 1 rr ,
2G r r .

20

Plane Crack Problem

Airy Stress Function

For the plane problem, the equations of equilibrium are

satisfied when the stress components are expressed by
the Airy stress function through

rr

1 x
1 2x

2
,
2
r r
r
r

2x

,
2
r

1 x

.
r r

Using these definitions for the stresses and Hookes

law, the strains can be expressed in terms of .

21

It can be shown that the compatibility equation, when

expressed in terms of the Airy stress function, satisfies
the biharmonic equation:

1 1

.
0, 2
2
2
r
r r r
The boundary conditions for this plane crack problem
are:
r 0 for .
2

These conditions express the fact that the crack is

traction-free (no loads applied to crack face).
Note: there is no condition on rr .
22

A choice of the Airy stress function for the present

crack problem should be such that x has a singularity
at the crack tip, and is single-valued. We try a solution
of the form:

r p r , q r , ,
2

Where p and p are harmonic functions of r and

(i.e. 2 p 0 and 2 q 0).
Now consider a separate solution, Rr , of
the following form (Williams, 1957):
23

p A1 r cos A2 r sin ,
q B1 r

cos 2 B2 r

sin 2 .

This form leads to the following expression for x:

A1 cos B1 cos 2
2
r
A2 sin B2 sin 2 .

xr

Note that we have expressed x as a symmetric part and

an anti-symmetric part. The symmetric part provides
the Mode I solution while the anti-symmetric part
provides the Mode II solution. We will derive the
Mode I solution here.
24

2
r

2 1r A1 cos B1 cos 2

1 rx

r r

1r A1 sin 2 B1 sin 2

Apply the boundary conditions:

A1 B1 cos

0,

A1 2B1 sin

0.

25

2Z 1
hence
2

The admissible cases are: (i) cos = 0,

where Z is an integer including zero, and thus
B1= A1 /( + 2) or (ii) sin = 0 and hence = Z and
B1= A1. Since the governing equations are linear, any
linear combination of the admissible solutions provides
a solution, hence can have any satisfying:
Z
,
2

Where Z is a positive or negative integer, including zero.

26

Out of all the possible values of , how do we decide

the appropriate value of ?
The value of cannot be found from any mathematical
argument. We need to use a physical, based on the total
strain energy around the crack tip. From the expressions

for the stresses, ij ~ r and ij ~ r . Therefore the

strain energy density is given by

1
2
ij ij ~ r .
2
27

The total strain energy within an annular region,with

inner and outer radii r0 and R, respectively, centered at
the crack tip, with unit thickness is

2
1
r0 2 ij ij rdrd ~ 0
R

r0

2 1

drd .

We assert that the strain energy should be bounded

( < ) as r00. Using this physical argument, we
see that > -1. ( = 1 gives ij 0). If < 1, the
strain energy will not be bounded.
28

Thus the physically admissible values of are

3
1
1
Z
, 0, , 1, , 2, ..., (or ) ,
2
2
2
2

where Z is 1, 0, or a positive integer. Taking the most

dominant singular term ( = 1/2 and thus B1=A1/3)
we find that:
5
3
1
2

r A1 cos cos r r 2

2
2 3

ij A1 r

~ijI ij r 0 ij r 1 / 2 .....
29

The higher order terms, with exponents greater than

zero, vanish as r 0. We write A1 K I / 2 where
KI is the stress intensity factor.
Thus we have that:

ij

KI
2r

I
~
ij ix jx .

The first term is the leading singular term for linear elastic
mode I crack problems. ~ijI is a function of alone (no r
dependence). The second term, generally referred to as the
T term, is a non-singular term which can be important in
some situations involving fatigue. ij is the Kronecker
delta function.
30

From Hookes law, the strains are linearly related to

the stresses so that

KI
ij
.
2r
Since the strains are calculated from the
displacement gradient,

KI
ui
r
2r

KI
2

r.

31

Plane Crack Problem

Stress Intensity Factors

The stress intensity factors for Modes I, II and III are

defined as follows:

2r 0 ,
lim 2r 0 ,
lim 2r 0 .

K I lim
r 0

K II
K III

r 0

r 0

yy

xy

yz

The stress intensity factor K depends on loading and geometry.

Many different geometries have been evaluated, either
analytically or numerically, and are available in the literature,
e.g., Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors, D. P. Rooke.
32

Plane Crack Problem

Similitude

For a crack of length 2a1 in an infinite plate, subjected

to an applied stress 1 the stress intensity factor is
known to be K I 1 a1 . Consider two large plates, one
with a center crack of length 2a1, the other with a center
crack of length 2a2. A stress 1 is applied to the first
plate, and a stress 2 is applied to the second plate. If
(1)
( 2)
we choose 1, 1, 2 and 2 so that K I K I then the
fields at the crack tip are identical in both cases. This
is the principle of similitude, which is very important in
fracture mechanics as it allows results from laboratory
scale tests to be applied to large scale fracture problems.
33

Plane Crack Problem

Stress Intensity Factors

How do we apply this analysis to the failure of actual

materials? It has been found experimentally that when
the stress intensity factor K (which depends on the
geometry and loading) attains a critical value KC (a
material property) the crack begins to grow, i.e., the
critical condition for the onset of fracture is
K Kc.
The condition can also be expressed in terms of the
energy release rate, i.e., c.
What are some typical values for KC?
34

Material
Glass
Al2O3
Si3 N4
Polymers
Al alloys
Steels

Kc (MPa m )

1
34
48

0.5 2
10 100
30 300
35

Fracture Mechanics #2:

Role of Crack Tip Plasticity

Estimate

Plastic Zone Size

Consider inelastic and permanent deformation at the

crack tip (stresses are too high for the material to
remain elastic).
First order estimate of plastic zone size:
Assume: plane stress, and the material behavior is
elastic-perfectly plastic. Set the stress yy= ys
(along the line = 0).

yy

K1
2r

*
p

ys
2

K
a
r

2
2
2 ys 2 ys
*
p

2
1

Where we have used the result that for a semi-infinite

crack in a very large plate K I a.
What about the details of the plastic zone shape? The
shape of the plastic zone is obtained by examining the
yield condition, in conjunction with asymptotic K-field
results, for all angles around the crack tip. Either the
Mises or the Tresca criterion can be applied.
3

Plastic Zone Shape

Recall that for the Tresca yield condition yielding
occurs when max ys / 2 .
We will use the Mises yield condition. The Mises
condition in terms of principal stresses is given as

1 2

2 3 3 1 2
2

2
ys

where y s is the uniaxial yield stress. (For a tension

test, 2= 3=0, 1= ys ).
4

On the plane = 0, xy= 0 and thus xx and yy are the

principal stresses 1 and 2. The stresses z 3; z =0
for plane stress, z = ( xx + yy) for plane strain.
However, in general the shear stress xy is not zero and
the principal stresses 1 and 2 cannot be determined so
easily.
The principal stresses 1 and 2 are evaluated as follows
(can use Mohrs circle, for example):
2

xx yy
xx yy
2
xy

1, 2
2
2

Substitute the known expression for xx, yy and xy

in the Mode I crack problem (derived last time) and
find that:
KI

cos 1 sin
1
2
2
2r

2
cos 1 sin
2
2
2r
KI

3 2
cos (plane strain); 3= 0 (plane stress).
2
2r
KI

Substitute in to the Mises yield condition:

Plane strain:
2
I

K 3 2

2
2

sin

1
2

1
cos

ys

2r 2

Plane stress:
2
I

K 3 2

2
1 sin cos 2 ys
2r 2

These expressions can be used to solve for the radius

of the plastic zone rp as a function of :
Plane strain:

1
rp
4

KI

ys

3 2

sin

1
2

1
cos

Plane stress:

1
rp
4

KI

ys

3 2

1 2 sin cos
8

Check: We note that the Plane Stress case reduces to

our first order estimate for = 0.
Also note that (KI/ ys)2 has dimensions of length.
Next we will compare the extent of the plastic zone
in the two situations, plane stress and plane strain,
for two cases, = 0 and = 45.

1
For = 0, ,
3

rp plane strain

rp plane stress 9

1
For = 45, ,
3

rp plane strain

1
0.381
rp plane stress
2.8

Extent of the plastic zone is significantly larger for the

plane stress case.
10

Plastic Zone Shape

Plane stress/plane strain

11

Plastic Zone Shape

Plane stress/plane strain

12

Plastic Zone Size

For Plane Stress:

Engineering Formulae

1 K I
rp
ys

For Plane Strain:

1
rp
3

KI

ys

Similar analyses can be done to determine the plastic

zone size and shape for Mode II and Mode III loading.
13

Plane stress/plane strain

Specimen Thickness Effects

Thickness B

14

Meaning of
Recall the Strain Energy Release Rate .
What does it physically represent? It is the rate of
decrease of the total potential energy with respect to
crack length (per unit thickness of crack front),i.e.

PE

a
What is the connection between and K?

15

For Mode I:
Plane Stress:

2
I

Plane Strain:
2
I

K
2

1
E

16

For the general 3-D case, plane strain and anti-plane

strain loading:

K K
1 2
2
K

1
E
E
2

For the plane stress case (combination Mode I and

Mode II):

K K

E
2

17

K Dominance

Domain of validity

There exists an annular zone where the K solution

is valid:

The inner radius is given by rp (plastic zone size).

18

The outer radius, r0, is the radial distance at which

the approximate, asymptotic singular solutions
deviate significantly (say, by more than 10%)
from full elasticity solutions which include higher
order terms. It is found that,

r0 0.1a
where a is the crack length.
19

Example Problem

Size Requirements

Consider a low strength steel with ys=350 MPa,

KIc=250 MPa m and E = 210 GPa. What are the
Minimum specimen size requirements for a valid
KIc measurement?

20

Example Problem

Size Requirements
KIc Test

ASTM standard E399 (1974) for KIc testing (specimen

dimensions large compared to plastic zone):

K Ic

a, b, B 2.5

ys

Substitute the known values for ys and KIc. Find that

a, b, B 1.28 m! 50 inches

21