American Geographical Society

The U.S. Military as Geographical Agent: The Case of Cold War Alaska
Author(s): Laurel J. Hummel
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 95, No. 1 (Jan., 2005), pp. 47-72
Published by: American Geographical Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034309 .
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THE U.S. MILITARYAS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT:
THE CASEOF COLD WARALASKA*
LAURELJ.HUMMEL
Alaskawas strategically
keyto theU.S. defenseplanduringthecold war(1946theeffect
1989).As such,itwas thesceneofan enormousandsustainedmilitary
investment,
of whichwas amplified
smallresibyAlaska'sundiversified
economy,
sparsedevelopment,
dentpopulation,and marginalized
of theera. The strong
politicalstatusat thebeginning
Alaskandemographics,
economicdevelopment,
and infrastrucpresenceaffected
military
intheadmissionofAlaskatotheunionin1959.Thehighprofile
tureandfigured
prominently
andlong-term
oftheU.S.military
hadsucha dramatic
on thecourseofAlaska
affect
presence
thattheresultwas tantamount
to a "militarized
Alaska,coldwar,hislandscape."
Keywords:
toricaldevelopment,
militarized
landscape.

ABSTRACT.

1tthebeginningofWorldWarII,Alaska'smostlyprimary-sector
economyshifted

whentheterritory
was catapultedto strategic
in thePadramatically
importance
cifictheater
as bothan air-corridor
connection
totheSovietUnion,thena U.S.ally,
andkeyterrain
thatneededtobe keptoutofJapanese
hands.Defenseexpenditures
inAlaskatotaledmorethansibillionbetween1941and 1945(USARAL 1969). Atthe
endofthewar,defensespendingpushedAlaskaintoa periodofuncertainty.
Alaskanshadlittleconfidence
thatthemainprewarextractive
minindustries,
especially
eral mining,would recoverin timeto preventeconomicmalaiseand massive
andmininghadbeenshutdown
(Whitehead
1998).Forestry,
out-migration
fishing,
World
War
from
the
diversion
of
male
ofnormaltrade
II,
labor,interruption
during
and manufacturing
and,in thecase of goldmining-asignificant
patterns,
partof
theminingindustry
atthetime-theWarProduction
Boardorderthatcloseddown
all gold-mining
operationsin thecountry.
Buttheenormousmilitary
inAlaskaduringthecoldwarensured
undertakings
Alaska'sfutureand setthestageforstatehood,
whichotherwise
wouldlikelynot
haveoccurreduntilthediscovery
of oil on theNorthSlope in 1968.According
to
theAlaskahistorians
Claus Naskeand HermanSlotnick,
"theCold Warrescued
Alaskafromeconomicdepression
and obscurity"
(1987,131).Thebuildupwas conditionedbythequicklychanging
international
thenationalstratepicture,
security
that
addressed
and
It
and
it,
gies
rapidtechnological
changes. broughtimmediate
enormoustransformation
toAlaskainmanytangibleandintangible
ways.In terms
ofconstruction
and infrastructure
themilitary
investment
expansion,
peakedearly
in thecoldwar,duringwhatone observerdubbed"thefrantic
fifties"
(Woodman
roleas a powerfulgeo1999,lo9). This discussionfocuseson theU.S. military's
graphicalagentbetween1945and 1959,theyearofAlaska'sentryintotheunionas
* Theauthor
A.Galgano.
thetechnical
assistance
ofFrancis
togratefully
wishes
acknowledge
* DR. HUMMELis an associate
WestPoint,
of geography
at theU.S. Military
Academy,
professor
New York10996-1695.

TheGeographical
Review
95(1):47-72,
2005
January
@ 2006bytheAmerican
ofNewYork
Society
Geographical
Copyright

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48

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

theforty-ninth
influence
remained
state.Thedegreeofmilitary
verystrong
throughoutthecoldwarperiod,and evenin thepost-coldwarepochthemilitary
continues to rankamongAlaska'stop employers
and is themajorconduitforfederal
2002;
2000;Friedand Windisch-Cole
spendingin thestate(Case 1999;Goldsmith
2002;
Schell
2002).
Haycox
THE ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR AND ALASKA'S EMERGING ROLE

GerAt thecloseofWorldWarII, theSovietUnionmovedquicklyto neutralize

central
zoneagainsttheWestbyestablishEuropeintoa buffer
manyandtransform
in
Eastern
1994).Althoughthecold war
(Walker
Europe
ingpro-Sovietregimes
inEurope,itevolvedintoa
forces
of
conventional
as
a
confrontation
military
began
nucleararmsas theSovietUnionbeganrapiddevelopglobalcontestof strategic
andmissilesin responseto forward
mentofnuclearweapons,long-range
bombers,
andWhorton
ofU.S.B-29"atomicbombers"(Ambrose1993;Hoffecker
deployment
ofthefirst
Sovietnuclearbomb,followed
1995).TheAugust1949detonation
bythe
ofmainlandChina,createdenormousdomestic
takeover
Communist
politicalpresthattheSovietUnionwould
to reassessearlierestimates
sureon theU.S. military
bombattackwithnuclearweaponsandlong-range
notbe abletolauncha successful
Truman
with
NaofPresident
ersuntil1955.The administration
responded
Harry
mobilization
CouncilResolution
tionalSecurity
68,callingfora peacetimemilitary
threat(Schaffel
international
to meettherapidlyincreasing
1991).The invasionof
to stepup
incentive
SouthKoreaby Communistforcesin 1952providedfurther
on a hastyandmajorexpansion
TheUnitedStatesembarked
preparations.
military
nuclearforcesaroundtheworld(Ambrose1993)
as wellas strategic
ofconventional
ofnewstrategies
fordetection,
andondevelopment
standoff,
retaliation,
interception,
in thosedeand showdownagainstthe"RedMenace."Alaskafigured
prominently
fenseplans.
Alaskagainedstrategic
WiththeSovietUniondefinedas theprimary
enemy,
to
Central
of
its
location
because
(Denfeld1996).
earlycoldwarthinksignificance
truththattheshortbasedon thesimplegeographical
ingwasthe"polarconcept,"
estdistancebetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion-andviceversa-wasa
inthe1930sbyGen.Billy
lineacrossthepolarregion(Figurei). Recognized
straight
of
one oftheearliestand mostvocalproponents airpower,as thekeyto
Mitchell,
as technonewattention
airwars(Pagano1998),thepolarconceptgarnered
future
a
vulnerable
tarUnited
States
continental
rendered
the
advances
eventually
logical
of
attacktriggered
planningforsystems
get.The perceiveddangerof transpolar
NorthAmericaandmadeAlaska
acrossnorthern
andinterception
advancedwarning
therequiredforces.
a strategic
aircenterforbasingand commanding
totheSovietUnionwaskeyforanotherreasonas well:Close
Alaska'sproximity
seismicanomaliesthroughthegroundand via airborneplatenoughto register
itallowedtheUnitedStatesto monitortheambitiousSovietnucleartesting
forms,
valuealso includeditsgeologicalwealth:It possessed
Alaska'sstrategic
program.
andmilitary
crucialtothecreationofcoldwarindustrial
tenofthesixteenminerals

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U.S. MILITARY

PEKIN,
E

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

49

ALASKA
ASA FORWARD
STAGING
AREA
AKTKtI

To K

MOSCOW

NADYM

V'KUT~
GL
/AR

150

OPNH

jI -,,,-

SPACIFIC

'~P4~DA

00

Ot

OCEAN

NAUTICALMILES,
ANCHORAGETO:

ALANTIC
OCEAN

YYR
DRO

300

60

isoAi

~r6~

459

EATTLE

},6,OLUL

1500

NEW YORK
VCHICAO0~

Anadyr
Archan e
Chicago
Copnhqen
onoalutu
London
Migadan
Moscow
Murmansk
Nadoym
New York
Norilsk
Peking
Provide1iya
San Fanisco 0
1ea9ttl
Seoul
Tokyo
Vladivostok
Vorkuta
Yakutsk

905
3,253
2,483
3,518
2,482
3,902
1,703
3.789
3,001
2,973
2,930
2,598
3,468
662
,742
9,249
3,278
3,004
2,878
2,950
2,152

60

~S~N FRANCISCO

120

9O0

FIG.1--AnAlaskanviewofcoldwarpoliticalgeography.
MapslikethisshowingAlaska'sproximity
to potential
foesand alliesbordering
thepolarroutehelpedtojustify
theU.S. military
investment
in
Alaska.Source:AdaptedfromCloe 1984.(Cartography
byRobertA. Getz,U.S. Military
Academy)

products(Nielson1988). This mineralsupply,combinedwithAlaska'sperceived

"barrenness"
and remoteness
fromthecontinental
UnitedStates,attracted
federal
who wantedto base nuclearand chemicalactivities
authorities
of all sortsin the
nondefense
detonations
undertheAtomicEnergyCommission's
region,including
PlowshareProgramas wellas declaredmilitary-related
detonations,
experimental
nuclearpower,and chemical-weapons
testing.'
In addition,Alaskawas theonlyplacewhereU.S. forcescouldtraindomesticonditions
similarto thosefound
callyforgroundand aircombatin cold-weather
in theSovietUnion.Despitemilitary
leaders'pronouncements
thatair-delivered
nuclearweaponry
wasthefuture
ofwarfare,
no onetrulybelievedthatthemission

of groundforcesto keep and hold terrainwas obsolete (USARAL 1972).Whetherin

fora manneddefenseofAlaskaor foran invasionof Sovietterritory,

preparation
Americansoldiershad to trainto fight
in extreme
Arcticconditions.
Withan area
morethantwicethesizeofTexas,Alaskaoffered
unlimited
relatively
spaceforbases,
and experimentaairfields,
military
bombingranges,air and groundmaneuvers,
tion in Arcticengineering:
an enormousdefenselaboratoryof largely"uninAlaska
Natives-and
uncontested
land.Alaskawassettobecome,
habited"-except
by

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50

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

as theAlaskanhistorianStephenHaycox(200la) vividlydescribedit,a "strategic

freeworlddefenseredoubt."
CHARACTERISTICS

OF "MILITARIZED"

ALASKA

The hustlethatcharacterized
thebuildupofcoldwarAlaskawasmarkedmoreby
confusionand countermanding
plansthanby a singlevisionand focusedeffort.
and
it drovein Alaskachangedseveral
The nationalstrategic
the
investment
plan
in intelligencetimesand fora numberof reasons,amongthemadvancements
which
in
the
and
of
turn
amended
threat,
abilities,
degree type perceived
gathering
world
of
on
an
and thelongduration diplomatic
hostilities
stageof
ever-changing
small"hotwars"shadowedbytheconstantspecteroftotalwar.The mainreason
forthechangeswas therapidevolutionofweaponstechnology.
Earlyin thecold
war,nuclearbombs and the evolutionof long-rangebombersand jet fighters
withgroundforcesmostly
abouta "heartland"
conceptofAlaskandefense,
brought
defense
sites.Thisfirstdeof
and
surface-to-air
to
the
bases
protection
relegated
and
fenseplan,and thewarmachineit drove,was one of detection,
interception,
late
threat
the
becamethelargest
Asmissiles
retaliation.
first-line
1950s,
by
perceived
withit $360 millionin
centerwasbuilt,bringing
a ballistic-missile
early-warning
UnitedStates
defensecontracts(Nielson1988).Missilesbased in thecontinental
them.
and
and
all
the
bombers
Alaska-based
equipment
supporting
people
replaced
of
thencongressional,
The territorial,
delegationknewtheimportance keeping
Whendefenseplannersturnedtheir
of nationalstrategy:
Alaskain theforefront
weremade
oftenensued,andefforts
and
from
attention
Alaska,outcry protest
away
andAmericandecisionmakers'mindsbypromoting
to keepAlaskainAmericans'
ofthe
"Gibraltar
"GuardianoftheNorth,"
ofAlaskaas thecountry's
a perception
USARAL
Front"
"Coldest
"Northern
or,alternatively,
(Lewis1959;
Bulwark,"
North,"
1965;Sherwood1967;Wise1982; Cloe 1984;Naskeand Slotnick1987;Nielson1988;
Denfeld 1996; Seidler1996).

in
describedabove,keptinterest
as wellas otherfactors
The politicallobbying,
nationalplan resultedin an almostconstant
buttheever-evolving
Alaskastrong,
rebuilt
"wasbuiltand repeatedly
stateofturmoilas Alaska'sdefenseinfrastructure
someinstallations
as military
conceptschanged"(Rogers1962,63). Thisrendered
in someextremecasestheywereabandoned
obsoletebeforetheywereactivated;
forthenextprojectevenbeforetheywerecompleted.The resultwas a cold war
itself
militarized
form,
havingbeenlaidinpart
landscapethatexistedinpalimpsest
rolein thePafromAlaska'sstrategic
ontoa modifiedculturallandscaperesulting
ofWorldWarII.
cifictheater
POPULATION

AND

DEMOGRAPHICS

theexpansionofAlaska'spopulationwasled bysoldiers
In termsofrawnumbers,
and operations(Whitehead
construction
or civiliansengagedin military
1998).In
themostactiveperiodofmilitary
the1950s,
personnel
military
buildup,active-duty
froma high
ofthetotalAlaskanpopulation,
ranging
justunder21percent
averaged

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

51

in 1952to15.4percent
in 1959(AlaskaIndustry
ofalmost26 percent
1972;Mason
in
the
of
numbers
to
Later
dueto
Alaska
fell,
era,
1974)(TableI).
personnel
assigned
the"increasingly
andsophisticated
hardware"
thatrequired
less
complex
military
butthenumber
never
fellbelowthe20,oo000
(NaskeandSlotnick
1987,138),
manpower
mark.The early-era
data enumerated
the
personnelbut failedto reflect
military
TABLE

I-MILITARY

NUMBER

PERSONNEL

IN ALASKA,

OF

PERCENTAGE

ACTIVE-DUTY
MILITARY
YEAR

1940-1989

TOTAL

PERSONNEL

POPULATION

IN ALASKA

OF ALASKA

OF

ALASKA' S
POPULATION
ASSOCIATED

WITH

THE MILITARY

1940
1.3
1,000
75,000
1941
8,000
1942
60,000
1943
152,000
1944
104,000
1945
43.1
60,000
139,000
1946
18.4
19,000
103,000
1947
21.4
25,000
117,000
1948
21.4
27,000
126,000
1949
22.7
30,000
132,000
1950
18.8
26,000
138,000
1951
23.1
38,000
164,000
1952
25.5
50,000
196,000
1953
23.5
50,000
212,000
1954
22.4
49,000
218,000
1955
22.6
50,000
221,000
1956
20.4
45,000
220,000
1957
21.0
48,000
228,000
1958
16.4
35,000
213,000
1959
15.4
34,000
220,000
1969a
25.9
283,000
32,000
1979a
18.0
23,910
404,500
1989a
17.3
25,782
536,848
a In lateryears,as moredatabecameavailable,the
included
percentage
linked population segments;for example,militarydependentsand
See thetextforfurther
employees.
explanation.
Sources:DOD n.d.; Rogersand Cooley1963,7,8; AACDCS/C1970; 1976,
10-11;1977,4; 1978, 4; 1979, 4; 1983,4; 1984, 11,13-14; 1985,23; 1988, 9, 14;
Bowen 1970, 5, 22, 25, 38; 1971, 3-4; Alaska Industry1972; MasoN 1974, 8;
Crow 1975, table 1; AC DCS/C 1990, 10-12; Fried 1996.

muchlarger
numbers
ofpersons
associated
withthemilitary.
Thislinked
populationincluded
immediate
members
of
Defense
Defamily
active-duty
personnel,
civil
and
servants
their
of
the
families,
partment
employees services'nonappropriated
fundbusinesses
andcommissary),
AlaskaArmy
andAir
(suchas thebaseexchange
National
Guardsmen
as wellas military
reservists
andtheirfamilies,
andmilitary
retirees
andtheir
families.
Basedonpartial
datafrom
a number
ofsources,
thetrue

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THE GEOGRAPHICAL
REVIEW

52

MAJOR
COLDWAR
BASESIN
ALASKA

SiteLove

FO
RT
WAINWRIGHT
b

Defense
Air
SiteTare

Ar
Defense
Site
Peter

EJELSON
AFB

Fort

Air

rato

MIary

ainwright

K- Defense
Site
Jig

AirDefense
SiteMike

ALASKA

Fairbanks

Anchorage
Sewv d'

CANADA

VMittier
AirDefen5se
Site
Bay

1-

IN9

FORTRICH RDSON

BASESITE

%ir,t

e le
'I i er

ko
412A~ce~v
4urn

ARMYINSTALLATION
AIRFORCEINSTALLATION
AIRDEFENSESITE

"a'n

fi
EZAME*NDOPF
[A chorage
AirDefense
SitePoint

Miii

3 era

AirDefense

SiteSummit

ALASKA
RAILROAD

FIG.2-Major cold warmilitary

AirForceBase,
and Elmendorf
basesin Alaska.FortRichardson
and EielsonAirForceBase (originally
called"26 Mile Field"),contribalongwithFortWainwright
utedto theconcentration
ofAlaska'sgrowing
and
populationaroundtheurbanareasofAnchorage
Fairbanks.
The map also showsthelocationsof eightair-defense
sitesbuiltto protectthe
artillery
Academy)
majorbases.Source:AdaptedfromOHA1996.(Cartography
byRobertA. Getz,U.S.Military

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

53

ofmilitary-associated
inAlaskaduring
the1950s
hasbeenestiproportion
persons
matedatbetween
and
and
n.d.;
(DOD
40
45percent
Rogers Cooley1963;AAC DCS/C
1970;Bowen1970,1971;AlaskaIndustry
1972; Mason 1974;Crow1975;Fried1996).

Thisestimate
isconservative,
inthatitdoesnotinclude
theconsiderable
number
of
who
to
came
Alaska
the
the
defense
inpeople
seeking employment
opportunities
promised.
dustry
Themilitary
effort
thedemographics
ofAlaska
inseveral
changed
important
ways.
itaffected
theethnic
Priorto194o,Alaska's
of75,000
was
First,
makeup.
population
divided
aboutevenly
Native
between
Alaskan
Americans
andCaucasians.
By1950,
theproportion
ofAlaskaNatives
tototalpopulation
haddeclined
tooneinfouras
thepopulation
climbed
to138,ooo.
A decadelater,
witha totalpopulation
ofmore
than220,oo000,
Alaska
Natives
wereonlyone-fifth
oftheresident
(Chance
population
to greater
numbers
ofCaucasians,
thedefense
1962;Whitehead
1998).In addition
thefirst
numbers
ofBlacks,
inall-Black
first
units
buildup
brought
significant
during
theWorld
WarII construction
oftheAlaskaHighway
andthenin an increasingly
multiracial
force.
Thepreponderance
ofmales
relative
tofemales
alsodropped
military
from
thetimewhenAlaska's
workforce
fishermen
and
comprised
overwhelmingly
miners.
Thisoccurred
notbecausedefense
anddefense
construction
werenotmale
dominated
butbecausethepostwar
hadenacted
newpolicies
thatencourmilitary
toaccompany
their
members.
Mostmilitary
agedfamilies
military
peopleandtheir
were
of
the
so
wasincreased
spouses
childbearing
age,
military-associated
population
a
of
three
to
four.
school
in
and
by multiplier
Concurrently, enrollmentsAnchorage
Fairbanks-location
ofthefourlargest
coldwarbasesandhometoapproximately
80
ofthemilitary
(AAC
percent
population-soared

DCS/C

1970).

Themilitary
efforts
alsoencouraged
concentration
ofpopulation
within
Alaska
andincreased
as military
and
construction
were
focused
urbanization,
population
onAnchorage
andFairbanks
mushroomed
from
a popula2). Anchorage
(Figure

tionof about30,000to morethan82,000between1950 and 1960, an increaseof

almost175 percent,
fueledbythegrowth
ofElmendorf
AirForceBase,homeofthe

Alaskan
AirCommand
andtheAlaskan(Joint
andofFort
Command,
Services)
of U.S. ArmyAlaska(Browne1953;Atwood1957;ACPC
Richardson,
headquarters

the
1958; ACOC 1961;Rogersand Cooley 1963;U.S. Census Bureau 1995). Similarly,

ofFairbanks
anditsimmediate
whichconstitute
Fairbanks
environs,
population

NorthStarBorough,morethandoubledduringthesameperiod,froma popula-

tionofabout23,000ooo
tomorethan49,000. Thisgrowth
waslargely
spurred
bythe
of
Ladd
Air
which
later
became
the
Fort
and
Field,
presence
Army's Wainwright,
26 MileField,
whichdeveloped
intoEielsonAirForceBase(Cooley1954;Sullivan
1971; FNSB 2005).
STANDARD

OF LIVING

The coldwarmilitary
boom attracted
Alaska-theater
veterans
eagerto returnto a
economicstart,
as wellas menand theirfamilies
placewheretheycouldgeta fresh
ThesenewAlaskansweredifferent
broughtbyor enticedbydefenseconstruction.

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54

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

FIG.3-Schmidt'sBeervan-cum-military
couldexpandto accomhousing,1949. UntilAnchorage
modatetheinfluxofpeopledrawnbytheboomingdefense
itwasplaguedbyhighly
inflated
industry,
laborcosts,a severeshortage
and overcrowded
ofhabitabledwellings,
schools.Thelabelaffixed
to the
identifies
thisconverted
vanas beingoccupiedby"an enlistedman,hiswifeand
originalphotograph
child."(Reproducedcourtesy
oftheAlaskaStateArchives)

fromthe"sourdoughs"
and gold-rush
minersofold.2Theyweregenerally
searchless
for
the
Alaskan
of
off
traditional
the
elecing
homesteading
experience living
tricalgridthanforthe"lower-forty-eight"
standard
towhichtheywere
ofamenities
accustomed
(Hilscherand Hilscher1959;Rogers1962;Denfeld2001).Mostofthem
weremembersof the"mid 20thcenturyurbanindustrialsociety"(Naske and
whoexpectedcontemporary
ofcommunity
Slotnick
standards
1987,137)
livingand
residents
service.Thesenew,expectant
providedimpetusforincreasedservicesin
twoways:Theyhelpedto createa criticalmass,whichassistedeconomiesof scale
and enabledtheestablishment
of amenities;
and theyexponentially
increasedpoliticalpressure
to providethoseservices(Hilscherand Hilscher1959).
thestandardof
thedefenseboom initially
notincreased,
decreased,
Ironically,
basescouldnotbuildfamily
living.Military
housingfastenoughto accommodate
to
the
localeconomyin searchofhousing.
thefamilies
so
turned
pouringin, they
The resultin the early1950swas a severehousingshortagein Anchorageand
livedinshoddy
andresulting
families
Fairbanks
astronomical
housingcosts.Military
huts
with
Arcticentryof
towns
conditions:
Quonset
Shanty
"wanigans"-military
families
shackssprangup overnight,
housingexcessmilitary
ways-andmakeshift
in the
theexorbitant
rentselsewhere,
whocouldnotafford
as wellas anynewcomer
event
that
a
even
existed
(Figure3).
unlikely
vacancy

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

55

FIG.4-Thishomeontheroadsystem
nearGlennallen,
Alaska
wasonceownedbya member
ofthe
coldwar-era
Ground
Observation
whoaddedthetwo-story
better-and
cerCorps,
cupolatoafford
warmer-air
observation.
inAlaskatended
observers
to taketheirtaskseriously
in
tainly
Although
viewofthewidely
heldbelief
thatthey
werepartofthecountry's
"Northern
suchmaterial
Bulwark,"
modifications
wererare.(Photograph
November
2001)
bytheauthor,

Defense
intheexplosive
construction
alsoresulted
oflaborunrest,
which
growth
ledtotheriseoforganized
laborinAlaska.Defense
substaneventually
spending
increased
labor
costs
in
an
area
Seidler
1989;
1996),
tially
already
high-cost (Haycox
thedemandforlaborandpricing
outsomelocallyowned
artificially
stimulating
businesses.
Federal
attracted
workers
from
andfisherpaychecks
mining,
forestry,
thereestablishment
ofthenaturalresource-based
industries
that
ies,retarding
hadlargely
shutdownduring
World
WarII (Rogers
Seidler
1962;Spence
1995;
1996).
Butdemandincreased
fortheproducts
oflocalagriculture
to supply
thegreatly
ofFairbanks
andAnchorage,
expanded
populations
especially
giventheexceedtimes
for
fresh
and
the
new
consumers'
demands.
In
ingly
longshipping
produce
the
influx
of
and
demands
of
a
construcgeneral, rapid
people
verycompressed
tioncycleinitially
overwhelmed
therudimentary
infrastructure.
Alaska"strained
to accommodate
therealities
ofmilitarization
andcrashdevelopment"
(Nielson
1988, 181).

RESIDENTS

PARTICIPATION

Alaska's
civilian
wasincorporated
intothedefense
effort
ina personal
population
as
members
of
the
Ground
Observer
the
Ground
Observer
way,
Corps.Although
was
not
thedegree
ofparticipation
was-oneofevery
220
Corps
uniquetoAlaska,

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56

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

residents
Alaskans
felttheimmediacy
oftheglobalconfrontation
and
(Allen1993).
ina landonly50airmilesfrom
a senseofpurpose
theSoviet
in1953
Union.Formed
thecorpscomprised
asa stopgap
volunteers
whospentshifts
into
measure,
looking
theskiesforenemy
aircraft.
Becausetelephone
service
theterritory
was
throughout
and
service
observers
nonexistent,
sparse long-distance practically
many
belonged
radionetwork,
an elaborate
communications
to an amateur
andsomedesigned
andMorsecode(ADN1955).
Asan example
ofthededicaplanusingsearchlights
inthevillage
tionofthesevolunteers,
oneparticipant
ofGlennallen
builtanobservationcupolaontohishome(Denfeld
4).
1996)(Figure
the
Alaskan
cold
war
was
the
oftheAlaska
to
Unique
experience
incorporation
as
soldiers
of
the
Alaska
NaNativepopulation
intothedefense
Army
machinery
AswiththeGround
Observer
Alaskans'
tionalGuard,
207th
Group.
Corps,
Infantry
in
the
lower
as
citizen-soldiers
was
similar
to
what
was
participation
occurring
fortyandtraining
of
states.
Thedistinctive
wastherecruitment,
aspect
organization,
eight
TheseNative
American
or"Eskimo
asthey
weredubbed.3
Scouts,"
units,
Native-only
conofAlaska's
"bush"(offtheroadnetwork)
unitswerebasedinfifty-one
villages,
in thewestandnorthwest
centrated
1999).
(Alaskan
1959;USARAL 1972;Woodman
described
their
and
mukluk
to
mukluk"
with
Soviet
(Bedard
1987)
enemy
"Standing
as Alaska's
(Bedard1987),
"eyesandearson theground"
byU.S.Sen.TedStevens
reconnaismission
ofconstant
Guardunitshadthesingular
theseAlaskaNational
Thismission
madespecific
use
Sovietactivity.
homeareasforpossible
sanceoftheir
were
local
for
of
the
environment
and
oftheirintimate
people, many
knowledge
andwhalsubsistence
hunters
allwerelifeersandvirtually
long Alaskans (Fay 1955;
Alaskan1959;Robertson
1989).

atAlaska
FIG.5-A coldwar-erarecruiting
postertargeted
IntheAlaskaTerritorial
Natives.
Guard,thesetroopsprovided
and northwestern
ofthewestern
pegroundreconnaissance
ofAlaska,as wellas assistancein rescueoperations
riphery
ofregularnon-Native
and cold-weather
troops.Adtraining
in Nome,
ditionaltrainingtookplace at theheadquarters
Bethel,and Anchorage.Freetripsto theselargercitiesand
tools.(Reprowerealso recruiting
accessto theiramenities
of theAlaskaArmyNationalGuard,Public
ducedcourtesy
Affairs)

Althoughthe Eskimo
rolewas
Scouts'"peacetime"
incaseofinreconnaissance,
vasion their assignment
wouldescalateintoa highstakes
gameofcatandmouse,
ofreporting
withthemission
whileevadcovert
intelligence
(Figure5). Their
ingcapture
wasaccomtraining
military
interpreters,
plishedthrough
becausemanyAlaskaNatives
hadonlylimited
knowledge
ofEnglish(USARAL 1972). The
relationshipbetweenthe
AlaskaNativesin theguard
andtheU.S.
service
military

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

57

beneficial
one.Knowingtheterrainand
Armywas seenbythearmyas a mutually
how to navigateand survivein theArctic,theEskimoScoutsprovidedvaluable
to active-duty
reconarmyunitsin Alaskaand performed
training
ground-level
too vastand formidable
forregulartroops.
naissancein a territory
intheguardandtheeconomicand culturallifeof
NativeAlaskansparticipating
thebushvillagesthatwerehometo guardarmorieswereundoubtedly
changedby
theirexperiences.
Some of theNationalGuardarmoryoutpostbuildingsbecame
withcommunity
interwoven
lifeas gathering
and socialcenters(Williams2000ooo;
a
Eskimo
Scouts
received
small
but
2002).
Coy
regularincome,whichpotentially
alteredthesubsistenceand barter-based
portionsofthelocal economythatwere
at thetime.MostEskimoScoutmeetings,
and reports
utilized
significant
training,
theEnglishlanguage,
whichup to thattimehad beenusedonlyto a limiteddegree
in thesmallerbushsettlements.
In addition,thehierarchical
and uniquemilitary
culturewas overlaidontopreestablished
AlaskaNativesocialstructures.
Opinions
aboutthenatureoftheeffects
ofthisculturalinterface
varywithintheNativeand
communities:
hasbeennotonlydecriedas invasive
non-Native
and
"Westernizing"
"responsibility"
damagingbutalso toutedas a valuableteacherof (Western-style)
(Kawagley1995;Williams2000). To be sure,theexistenceof EskimoScoutunits
betweentwoculturesthat,untilthen,
broughtabouta greater
degreeof interface
had had limitedcontact-theWesternized
and traditional
NativeAlaskan
military
Hummel
2ooo;
(Williams
ways
200oo2).
AlaskaNatives
wereaffected
inmorewaysthanjust
activities
bycoldwarmilitary
theirparticipation
as EskimoScouts.Environmental
damageto Nativelandsand
(Nielson1977;Armstrong
1978;Simonandothers
peoplehasbeenwelldocumented
are theunderground
nuclearexplo2001).The twomostwidelyknowninstances
sionsconducted
between
the
and
of
Defense
and
theAtomic
1965 1971by Department
Commission
on Amchitka
Islandandtheexperiments
inpreparation
forthe
Energy
nuclear
detonations
to
that
were
constitute
the
Alaskan
anticipated
portionof the
PlowshareProgram,
code-named"ProjectChariot"(Rock1962; PointHope 1992;
1993).In addition,AlaskaNativeswereshownlittlerespectduringthe
Vandegraft
andconductofseveralearlycoldwar-eramilitary
A mostnotable
planning
projects.
was
the
of
when
in the
example
planningphase ProjectChariot,
Ifiupiat
neighbors
of
Point
were
notbriefed
Commission
officials
nearby
village
Hope
byAtomicEnergy
untiltwoyearsafter
theprojecthadbegun,andthenonlyin incomplete
anddangerouslymisleading
ways(Chance2002; O'Neill 1994).Anothercontroversial
project
wastheArctic
Aeromedical
function
anditsrelation
to
Laboratory's
studyofthyroid
cold-weather
in whichAlaskaNativeswereusedas humanmedical
acclimatization,
informed
consent(NRC1996;BHBC 1997).
derived,
subjectswithout
properly
WORKFORCE AND ECONOMY

The totaleconomiceffect
ofmilitary
activities
duringthecoldwarwas staggering.
The Department
ofDefense'sexpenditures
in Alaskawerejustunder$450million
in 1950 and by1953had grownto $512 million(Baliles1974;Whitehead
1998). Mili-

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58

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

fortheDepartment
ofDefenseaccountedformorethan
taryand civilianworkers
half of the Alaskan workforcein 1952. In 1951defense-relatedconstructionalone

incomein Alaska,morethantwicethenaprovided15 percentof private-sector

tional proportion(Bowen 1970). A 1961 guide to Alaska put it simply:"Almostevthestatehas todayit owesto military
spending"(Kursh1961,212). The
erything

AlaskanCommand,sursameyear,theAnchorage-based
jointservicescommand,
in Alaska(Crow1975).The defenseindustry
passed$3 billionin totalinvestment

was the biggestemployerand biggestspender from1940 to 1970 (Haycox 200olb),

in1977
overtaken
whentheNorthSlopefieldsstarted
producing
bytheoil industry
construc(Seidler1996).The trans-Alaska
pipelinewasthefirst
majornonmilitary
tionprojecteverin thestate.
construction
peakedin 1954,mostof thehousingneedshavingbeen
Military
and
formilitary
metand majorbaseswellon thewayto completion;
expenditures
civilianconstructionfrom1949 to 1954had averaged$250 millionper year (Naske

continued
as thelargconstruction
contract
andSlotnick
1987).Defense-dominated
one-third
of
for
one-fifth
to
estsourceofprivateincomethrough
1959,accounting
all privateincome thatyear(Bowen 1970;Fried and Huff1984).

sharesin Alaska'stotal
and employment
Althoughdirectdefenseexpenditures
to thestate's
effect
oftotalcontribution
themultiplier
revenuearestraightforward,
income
and
other
The
and
is
not.
sector
salaries,
profits,
wages
private
economy
in
the
busiincluded
are
to
the
businesses
sharesofprivate
military normally
selling
sectorof thestate'seconomy(Rogers1962),makingthese
ness or nongovernmental
to gauge. HarryKursh(1961,213)estimatedthattwo-thirdsor more
effectsdifficult

or indirectly
ofAlaska'sprivatebusinessincomewas generated
bydefense
directly
thataboutone hundredjobs werecreatedin Alaskaforeverymillion
and,further,
and takesintoacone is conservative
Whether
dollarsofconstruction
contracting.
the
invokes
a
or
countonlydirectfederal
multiplier, resultis indisputexpenditures
forAlaska'seconomywere
investment
ofcoldwardefense
able:The consequences
and longlasting.
substantial
STATEHOOD

valuetotheUnitedStatesandroleas
Thereis ampleevidencethatAlaska'sstrategic
"GuardianoftheNorth"was a majorfactorin itsadmissionto theunionin 1959
(Gruening1967;Haycox 2001oa).Foremost,and ironically,the national defensein-

thepopulationbase and economythatconvincedmany

dustrygavetheterritory
withoutfederal
itselfin thefuture
thatAlaskawascapableofsustaining
lawmakers
demosubsidies(Bowkett1989).The cold warbroughta different
"life-support"

graphicgroup to Alaska,people who "protestedbeing demotedto second class staforself-government.

tus"(Hilscherand Hilscher1959,105) andagitated
Active-duty

at homeforAlaskanstatedelegations
peoplelobbiedtheircongressional
military
in overwhelming
and
voted
hood (U.S. Congress1953; Bowkett
1989)
affirmatively
mandatedplebiscite
numbersin a 1958congressionally
1967)(Figure6).
(Gruening
a
war
were
in
the
cold
role
and
Alaska's
keyjustification
strategic
necessity
Military

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

59

FIG.6-Members
ofa B-47crewfrom
AirForceBase,nearFairbanks,
Eielson
holdcopiesofa local
Alaska's
astheforty-ninth
admission
state.
andinfluence
investment
newspaper
proclaiming
Military
weremajorfactors
inAlaska's
inmany
The
servicemen
and
women
sta1959statehood
ways. 35,00ooo
tionedinAlaska
wereallowed
tovoteina 1958plebiscite,
andthey
affirmed
admisoverwhelmingly
sion.(Reproduced
oftheEleventh
AirForceHistory
Office)
courtesy

forstatehood
andwereadvanced
in thestrongest
terms
to Congress
bymilitary
leaders
suchas DouglasMacArthur,
and
Chester
Nimitz
Arnold,
(U.S.ConHenry
1962).
gress1953;
Rogers
Giventhelinkage
offederal
needstoAlaska's
theperspecstatehood,
military
tiveofsomestatefounders
as expressed
atthefortieth-anniversary
ofthe
meeting
constitutional
convention
seemsa bitunusual.
Thehistorian
Whitehead
John
(1998)
thatformer
wereaskedwhether
thecoldwarmilitary
reported
delegates
buildup
wasa consideration
the
of
the
constitution.
thefirst
during drafting
Oddly,
response
wasinthenegative;
further
reflection
included
comments
thatthemilihowever,
"freed
the
from
its
former
on
tarybuildup
population"
dependence themining
andfishing
which
in
the
had
interritorial
themselves
industries,
past involved
politicsandengaged
inself-serving
andintense
One
(Whitehead
1998,
198).
lobbying
couldarguethat,
as thenumber-one
and
in
the
industry employerAlaska, military
hadlittle
needforlower-level
ithada strong
andwith
lobbying;
gripon thestate,
statehood
cameanunprecedented
method
ofcontinued
defense
control.
President
Eisenhower's
thatsomeofAlaska's
federal
installations
Dwight
misgivings
military

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60

THE

Barrow,

Prudhoe
Bay

ALASKA
*ome
-gr

GEOGRAPHICAL

0
F.irb
e

n
orage

t.1

vadez

*Seward

uneau

McKayLine

THE McKAYLINE

inFIG. 7-ConcernthatAlaska'sfederal
military
soverstallations
be
state
by
might compromised
wassuchthatittooktheMcKayLinetowin
eignty
Eisenhower's
Thelinedelimited
President
support.
from
thatpartofAlaskawhichcouldbe withdrawn
thestatetofederal
fornationaldefense.
jurisdiction
northoftheYukonRiverandwestofa
Everything
pointon theAlaskaPeninsulawas markedforpoto
tentialfederalcontrol.
Thus,Alaska'smovement
to destatehoodwas conditionalupon deference
fenseinterests.
byChadJ.Parkerand
(Cartography
RobertA. Getz,U.S. Military
Academy)

REVIEW

could somehowbe compromised

by
statesovereignty
a caveatin
prompted
the finalstatehoodbill.The McKay
Linewas drawn,demarcating
a huge
areanorthoftheYukonRiverandwest
ofa pointon theAlaskaPeninsulathat
could be withdrawn
as neededfrom
forthepurstatetofederal
jurisdiction
national
defense
of
(Bowkett
pose
1989;Whitehead1998) (Figure7).
INFRASTRUCTURE

Despitethe$2 billionofconstruction
spendingby the federalgovernment
duringWorldWar II (Naske 1986),
remainedtoo
Alaska'sinfrastructure
to
the
frenetic
defense
sparse support
effortof the cold war (Naske and
Slotnick1987).The hundredsof millionsof dollarsper yearfordefense
construction
mostlysupportedfacilitiesdesignated
foruse bythemilitary
(Bowen1970).Twopetroleum
pipelinesysformilitary
use (USARAL 1968). Perhapsequally
temswereconstructed
exclusively
as demandled
fundedintheprivate
wasthespinoff
construction
sector,
important
and utilitiesto supportthe
of civilianhousing,businesses,
to theestablishment
civilservants,
and military
housedoffbasewhoconstituted
influxofcivilians,
approximately75 percentof Alaska's nearly200,000 residentsin the earlycold war
as a resultof themilitarypresimprovements
years(AT1955a,1955b).Infrastructure

and travel.
encechangedhowAlaskanswereableto live,work,communicate,
ofa roadnetwork
The increased
defensepresenceledto the1948authorization
and road-mainthemajorbases.Thissix-year-long
to interconnect
road-building
the
times
totalamount
morethanthree
costmorethan$125million,
tenanceprogram
road
allottedoverthepreviousforty-three
years(Naske1986).Mostoftheexisting
II
Alaska-Canada
to
War
defense
needs-the
in
World
had
built
been
response
system
constructed
bythehandsofsoldiers.BecausetheAlaska
literally
Military
Highway,
to the
and improvements
curtailedmaintenance
Road Commissionhad severely
miles
of
air
in
to
and
trails
increased
of
sled
roads
due
travel, 1947only2,785
system
localsys1,720milesofwhichwereunconnected
pavedand unpavedroadsexisted,
milesof mostly
tems(Rogers1962;Naske1986).Withintenyears,morethan5,100oo
majorbasesand logisticalcentersin southpavedroadsconnectedthemilitary's
of thetranscentralAlaska(Rogers1962). Untiltheoil boom and construction
hadbeen
the
and
road
Alaskapipelinein themid-197os,
system
building financing
of
in
needs
the
out
carried
"accomplished
by,influenced
military
by,or
supportof,

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

61

forAlaska'sstateferry
forces"(USARAL 1972, 78). Eventhejustification
the
system,
of southeastern
Alaskato themilitary
AlaskaMarineHighway,
and itsconnection
in south-central
Alaskawasbasedon nationaldefense(Naske1986).
headquarters
The selectionin 1948of a colonel"on loan" fromthe armyas commissioner
of
ofthemilitary
in thedetheinfluence
roadsforAlaska(Naske1986)demonstrates
ofAlaska'sroadgrid.
velopment
TheAlaskaRailroad,running
betweenSewardand Fairbanks
andAlaska'schief
sourceof inlandfreight
hauling,had an averagedailycapacityof 1,500tonseven fornormal(nondefense)requirements
insufficient
(DOI 1956;Naske and
Slotnick1987).Consistingof obsoleterollingstockand unsafetracks,it was reto bythecommanderofU.S. ArmyAlaskaas a "470-milestreakof rusting
ferred
junk" (Worden 1947,28). Rehabilitation,extensions,and improvementsbegan in

a linkto26 MileField(laterEielsonAirForceBase),nearFairbanks,
1949,including
whichat thetimehad no road accessat all. Althoughthemilitary
initiatedand
almostsingle-handedly
droverailroad-system
itdid notreceiveevenhancement,
itdesired,
a railroadlinkto thelowerforty-eight
states(Wooderything
including
man 1999).

Atthestartofthecoldwar,Alaska'sportswerenotremotely
capableofhandling
theinfluxof military
construction
and supplies,whichcamemostlyby
materials
sea fromSeattle.The choicesweretheportsof Seward,Whittier,
or
Anchorage,
Valdez-eachone insufficient
in itsown way.The portofAnchorage
suffers
from
in
the
and
from
winter
on
the
tides-second
continent
36-foot
icingproblems
only
to theBayof Fundy.Sewardwas 74 "crowmiles"fromthenew headquarters
in
moreby theone poor road or theantiquatedrailroad.
Anchorage,
considerably
Woodworms
hadcausedseveredamageto Seward'sdocks,whichrequiredfrequent
buthaul(Naskeand Slotnick1987).Valdezwas ice freeyear-round,
replacements
theWrangell
ingsuppliesup and overtheChugachMountainsand through
Range
wasa daunting
was
Whittier
about
from
miles
and
50
prospect.
only
Anchorage ice
freeyear-round,
withportfacilities
builtduringthewarby thearmy,
but it had
beenclosedsincetheendofWorldWarII andwasfamously
plaguedbyhighwinds
and almostcontinuousprecipitation.
The armycentereditsefforts
and fundson all oftheportsexceptAnchorage,
in
the
that
civilian
the
possibly
hope
economywouldbe strongenoughto support
there.
The
and the
improvements
facility
portsofSewardandValdezwererebuilt,
roadand railroadlinesconnecting
themwerevastlyimproved;
theysoon accommodatedall sizes,types,and quantitiesof military
and civilianfreight
(Kennedy
at Whittier
werereopenedin 1948on an emergency
basis
1982). The portfacilities
and improvedoverthe nexttwelveyearswithrailroadyards,two new docks,warehouses,a powerplant,an engineterminal,petroleumstoragefacilities,and utilities
(Denfeld1994;Taylor2ooo; USACEAD 2002) (Figure8). The armydiscontinueduse
of the facilitiesshortlyaftercompletingconstructionin 1960 because the road system (improvedby the army) had been upgraded to the point thatWhittier'sport
and itstenuouslinkwiththe restof Alaska-a singlerailroadline througha moun-

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THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

62

almostintotality
for
Whittier
wasoffered
taintunnel-wassuperseded
byhighways.
leaseto thecivilianbusinesscommunity
(Woodman1999).
funds
werebuiltwithfederal
atAnchorage
andFairbanks
International
airports
for
realeaders
decided
in
because
that,
1949,
security
explicitly
military
starting
airfields
air
force
bases
or
aviation
should
no
use
commercial
sons,
army
longer
consideredit inadvisableto enlarge
(AAC 1958). The CivilAeronautics
Authority
bases (Woodman
in thecitiesdue to theirproximity
to military
airfields
existing
were
rural
new
facilities
were
built
from
scratch.
so
1999),
Additionally, airfields
instalandupgradedin supportofthelargenumberofmilitary
builtorlengthened
road
Sixteen
the
acrossvastareasunreachable
lationsbeingestablished
system.
by
weremade all-weather,
of theruralairfields
navigableby thelate
day-and-night
1950swith the addition of militaryTacticalAir Navigationequipment (HQ 18o4th

theCivilAeronautics
n.d.;AAC 1958). Although
analogousVHR OmniAuthority's
made it to many
DirectionalRange/ TacticalAirNavigation
programeventually
the
otherruralairfields,
approachesin bad weather,
allowinginstrument-landing
for
civilenhanced
aid
opportunities
military's
navigational programsignificantly
who wereallowedto use thesixteenstate-of-the-art
and businesses,
ian residents
airfields (AAC 1958; HQ

USAF

1958; Memorandum ... 1958).

establishin Alaskabeganwiththemilitary's
infrastructure
Communications
in
and
Cable
mentoftheWashington-Alaska
System theearly
Telegraph
Military
thus
thatsystem,
traffic
on
and
allowed
commercial
The
nonmilitary
19ioos. military
Recommunications.
ofcivilianuse ofAlaskanmilitary
a longhistory
establishing
namedthe"AlaskaCommunications
System"
(ACS)and upgradedto wirelesstechcontinued
residents
its
use
exceptduringWorldWarII (Alascom1992).
by
nology,
on theciviliansideforthelong-line
hadresponsibility
TheACS,runbytheairforce,
thecivilianpopulace"and forcommercial
operationoftheAlaska
"serving
system
Railroad'scommunicationfacilities(Alaska Railroad n.d.; AFCS1967,2; Woodman

a uniqueservice
1999).Duringtheearlyyearsofthecoldwar,theACSinaugurated
in isolatedminingand fishing
forpeople in remoteareas-at bush homesteads,
theACSoperated
With
its
of
Alaska.
the
Gulf
on
and
"bush-phone
service',"
camps,
A dailyschedule
radio
communications.
with
stationsequipped
fourteen
two-way
and ifhe or shefailedto respondto a call,
witheachsubscriber,
was maintained
comcrewswouldinvestigate
search-and-rescue
(USARAL 1972). A secondstrategic
reto
circuits
multichannel
reliable
"WhiteAlice,"provided
munications
system,
and toAlaskanvillagesbeyondthereachand capability
installations
motemilitary
shoulddivestitselfoftheovertaxed
oftheACS.Congressdecidedthatthemilitary
Disand in 1969it passedtheAlaskaCommunications
and outdatedACSsystem,
posal Act to authorizeprivatizationof the entirenetwork(Salley n.d.; Reynolds
1988;Woodman 1999). Forty-sevensites,715miles of long line,the microwavesystem on the Aleutian Chain and southeasternAlaska, ocean cables, and an ocean
cable ship were all put up forsale (Woodman 1999). Not untilthe ACSwas sold to

ciofAmericain 1971didAlaskapossessa civilian-owned,

theRadioCorporation

vilian-operatedcommunicationssystem-and even thenit was militaryin origin.

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

63

FIG.8-Soldiers
at thePortofWhittier
fordutyinAlaska,
circa1950s.Anambitious
unloading
ofWhittier's
which
hadbeendeveloped
World
WarII,wasundertaken
after
facilities,
upgrade
during
ofmilitary
andsupplies
untilthe
1948.Theportwastheentry
pointoflargenumbers
personnel
roadsystem
morereliable
thanWhittier's
badweather
and
improved
provided
connectivity
famously
railroad
lineallowed.
ofU.S.Army
Alaska)
single
(Reproduced
courtesy
SCIENTIFIC

RESEARCH

AND THE

MILITARY

Alaskawas greatly
affected
of a researchinfrastructure
bytheestablishment
supand
warfare.
Thenewand morelethaltechscience,engineering,
medicine,
porting
nologiesof thecold war,combinedwiththeperceivedlikelihoodthatthepolar
on theArctic
route,focusedattention
greatcirclewasa potential
weapons-delivery
theater
ofoperations.
Scientists
withinthedefense
establishment
sawtheEarthas a
inwhichto designandtestnewweaponssystems,
laboratory
improvecommunicahad retions,and supportgroundtroops(Leslie1993). ThatArcticenvironments
ceivedscantattention
in thepastlentan increasedsenseofurgency
to a scientific
aboutbuilding,
and fighting
in coldenvironments.
questforknowledge
operating,
Interest
focusedon Alaska,amongotherArcticand Antarctic
places,and militarizedit further.
In 1948theOfficeof NavalResearchestablished
theNavalArctic
ResearchLaboratory(NARL) in Barrow,Alaska,the northernmost
in
settlement
NorthAmerica.The NARL'S
missionof"research
in all appropriate
scientific
fields
relatedto theArcticenvironment"
thosefields
(Britton
1964,44) meantprimarily
thatdirectly
benefited
thecoldwarmilitary
effort.
all government-sponHowever,
soredresearch
waswelcome,as wasthatundertaken
byanyoftheacademicinstitutionsthatheldthe contractforoperatingthe NARLovertheyears:Swarthmore
andtheUniversity
ofAlaska(Britton
College,Johns
HopkinsUniversity,
1964;Reed

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64

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

withAlaskanAirCommand,militarized
FIG. 9-The NavalArcticResearchLaboratory,
together
fromAlaska,themilitary
at
thepackice of theArcticOcean as wellas Alaska.Working
established
stationson floating
ice islands.T-3,alsoknownas "DriftStationBravo,"
leastsevenresearch
pictured
in 1962 to becometheU.S. NavyUnderwater
around1958and was transferred
here,was established
AirForceHistoryOffice)
oftheEleventh
SoundLaboratory.
(Reproduced
courtesy

and Ronhovde1971).Barrow,
a mostlyAlaskaNativevillageof about400 inhabitants,saw itspopulationincreaseby 25 percentduringthesummerseason,when
zostudiesinmarineinvertebrate
theNARLbrimmed
withresearchers
undertaking
and
other
underwater
vascular
acoustics,
subjects.
planttaxonomy,
ecology,
ology,
was conductedat many
The NARL'Spresencewas notlimitedto Barrow;research
research
stations,
outpostsnorthoftheBrooksRangeand on atleastsevendrifting
on hugeice floesin theArcticOcean (Britton1964;AT 1970;
builtand maintained
Wise1978)(Figure9).
was theArcticAeromedical
institution
Anothermilitary
research
Laboratory,
basedfrom1947to1967atLaddAirForceBase(nowFortWainwright),
justoutside
in themedicaland relatedsciences
Itsmissionwasto carryoutresearch
Fairbanks.
thehealthofmilitary
and preserve
in orderto increasethecombatefficiency
permost
sonnelinArcticclimates(AirUniversity
n.d.).A "humanfactors
laboratory,"
and gear
variousdiets,clothing,
of itsresearch
mentesting
subjectsweremilitary
biochemof
forthefiveinternal
medicine,
physiology,
departments environmental
thelaboratory
and
However,
1961).
(AAC
equipment,
psychology
protective
istry,
a fieldstaFrom
a
to
science
in
Alaska
Natives
Western
verypersonalway.
exposed
hut"in theNativevillageof
tionbased out in a WorldWarII-vintage"Jamesway
studiesofadaptationto Arcconductedlong-term
Anaktuvuk
Pass,thelaboratory

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

65

wasdesignedto studytheroleof
theresearch
ticcoldbyAlaskaNative.4
Specifically,
acclimatization
cold.
The
thethyroid
in
to
a radioacstudyusediodine-131,
gland
in 102AlaskaNativesubjects(NRC
tivemedicaltracer,
to measurethyroid
activity
of unethicalpracticesweremade againsttheair
1996; Reuter1997). Accusations
thatNativesubjectswerestrong-armed
intoparticipating
without
force,
including
theirinformed
consent.The laboratory's
constitute
unscrupulous
practices
testing
one ofthebasesforcontinued
oftheDefenseDepartment's
criticism
coldwarpoliciesand actionstowardAlaska'sNativesand Nativelands(Armstrong
1978;Simon
and others2001).
Alaskawas thesiteofthefirst
field-built
nuclearreactorin theworld.A fieldassembledprototype
MediumPowerReactor,theSM-1Awas experiStationary
mentalon twofronts:
Notonlywasitthefirst
reactor
builton-site,
itwasalsoa feat
ofengineering
thatproveda nuclearpowerplantcouldbe builtand operatedin a
subarctic
environment
(B. Johnson
1996). The reactorsuppliednuclearpowerfor
thearmy'sFortGreely,
about90 milessoutheast
ofFairbanks
and nearthetownof
DeltaJunction,
forexactly
tenyears,atwhichtimeitbecamethefirst
nuclearplant
everdecommissioned
(Fasnachtand others1992).
Doubtshavebeenraisedas tothesafety
ofthesurrounding
and
people,animals,
environment
due to severalpossibleradioactive
the
dereactor's
exposuresduring
cadeofoperation
R.
ATSDR
andEckstein
(W. Johnson
1993;
1999;Buske,Miller,
200ooo).
Claimsthatradiation
wasreleasedfocuson sixpossiblesources,
including
improper
solidand liquidwastedisposal,use of radioactive
steamforheating,and several
accidentsassociatedwithdefective
controlrods.One citizens'advocacygrouphas
accusedthearmyofconcealing
theprimary
missionoftheSM-1Aas a producerof
nuclearmaterials
forusein small-scale
tacticalnuclearweapons(Buske,Miller,
and
Eckstein2000). Despiteassertions
thathealthproblemsresultedfromtheSM-iA
theDepartment
ofDefensehas longdeniedthepresenceofunacceptable
program,
levelsofhazardousmaterials
andhashailedtheexperiment
as a landmark
scientific
success(USARAL 1972;B. Johnson
and
Homstad
1996;Mighetto
1997;Woodman1999).
The SM-1Awas nottheonlynewtechnology
testedat FortGreely.
The army
then
admitteda seriesof secretopen-airtestsofchemicaland
conducted,
denied,
biologicalwarfare
agentsat itsGerstleRivertestsiteand thenearbyDelta River
watershed
on theFortGreelygroundsbetween1963and1967(Fineberg
1972; Simon
and others20oo1;
Ruskin
GB (sarin)and VX nerve
2002).Specifically,
Kelley200oo2;
dissemination
agentcold-weather
testingwas conducted,as wellas thereleaseof
a bacterialagent(DOA1976).Thus,FortGreelyholdsthedistinction
of
tularemia,
the
in
the
United
other
thanUtah'sDugwayProving
States,
Ground,
being onlyplace
wheregerm-warfare
to havebeentestedin theopen atagentsare acknowledged
mosphere (Fineberg1972).

Coldwarmilitary
scientific
workhelpedto developtheFairbanks
campusofthe
of
Alaska.
The
whichwas originally
Institute,
University
university's
Geophysical
as a program
ofAmerican-Soviet-Canadian
inArcticscience,
envisaged
cooperation
into
a
research
to
meet
the
forgeophysical
developed
facility
military's
requirement

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66

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

research.
Not onlyweredefenseneedsin partresponsible
forthecreationof the
to thehistorian
ofscienceRonaldDoel (1997),theinstitute
beinstitute;
according
camea leaderin interdisciplinary
of
those
because
as
needs,
cooperation
questions
demandedworkthatspannedtradiposedbythecoldwardefenseestablishment
tionaldisciplinary
boundaries.
Evidence
indicates
thatthedefense
industry's
requirementsdrovetheUniversity
ofAlaskatocreateAlaska'sfirst
doctoralprogram
andto
establish
otherscientific
inpermafrost
zostudies,
programs
oceanography,
botany,
Arctic
and
CRREL
USACE
(Davis
1992;
2002).
ology,
biology, geology
Cold wardefenseresearchand practicalexperience
led to advancesin Arctic
Research
conducted
and
academicpartnerships
engineering.
by military
agencies
withthenascentUniversity
ofAlaska,Fairbanks
and theAtomicEnergyCommisofplanning,
and maintaining
a huge
sion,combinedwiththepracticum
building,
network
ofinstallations
ofvarying
sizeandfunctions
with
the
facilialong
logistics
tiesand infrastructure
to supportthem,led to significant
advancesin ArcticengiNorthSlopeoilproduction,
Itisdoubtful
thatAlaska'snextboomindustry,
neering.
wouldhaveoccurredas quicklyas itdidwithoutthescientific,
and engiresearch,
the
cold
war
neeringlegacyof
military.
TOWN-UNIFORM

RELATIONS AND THE ROAD AHEAD

As thedefenseestablishment
movedintoAlaskaat a rapidpace and becameinbecamea significant
force
themilitary
volvedwithlocalandterritorial/state
leaders,
and civilianworldswas
The interaction
in thecommunity.
betweenthemilitary
tomeasure.Themilitary
Alaskansinwaysthataredifficult
butitaffected
definable,
meninuniin
and
was
the
cities,
Anchorage Fairbanks;
largest
presence ubiquitous
drankin
formboughtand rentedhousing,shoppedin stores,ate in restaurants,
closedyearsbefore(Atwood
thathadofficially
district
a red-light
bars,andsupported
1957;Naske and Slotnick1987). School enrollmentsincreasedmarkedly,as did stu-

who weretransfered
ratesfromfamilies
dentturnover
everyyearor two (Naske
and heldbenin localorganizations
unitsvolunteered
and Slotnick1987).Military
efitsforlocal civiliancharities(USARAL 1976).

itsverypresence
themilitary
community
projects,
supported
actively
Although
residents
resented
Some
in
unease
livingdurAnchorage
manyquarters.
generated
feellike,a
if
did
not
in
it
what
looked
the
of
like,
uniformly
ing age McCarthyism

police state(AT1954a). Other citizenslamenteda boomtown out of control,com-

and thevariousformsof vice

steeppriceincreases,
pletewithhousingshortages,
thattraditionallyaccompaniedyoungmen on liberty(AT1954b).

tookan activerolein firefighting,

search-andAcrossruralAlaskathemilitary

rescue operations,earthquakeassistance,and victimextraction.This involvement

extendedto annual airbornedeliveryby "Santa" of holidaygiftsto childrenin the
most remotevillages (USARAL 1969; AAC MAD 1976; Woodman 1999). The Armed
ForcesRadio Network,providedforthe soldiersand sailorsat remotestations,became a communicationshub formanycommunities(Kursh 1961).Soldier-hobbyistsbegan raisingsilversalmon on base,whichwerethen"airmobiled"in 450-gallon

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U.S. MILITARY

AS GEOGRAPHICAL

AGENT

67

forstocking
in lakes;thisfish-smolting
was
bucketsunderarmyhelicopters
facility
givento theAlaska Departmentof Fish and Game in 1976(Woodman 1999). In one

yeartheAlaskanAirCommand,quarteredmostlyin Anchorageand Fairbanks,

fromemergency
medicalaidtothe
provided$2millionforstateandlocalactivities,
frompolice-dogdemonstrations
to supplying
thevillageof Fort
Scout-O-Rama,
Yukonwithcleanwaterwhenthevillagewellwasdry(AAC MAD 1976). Theseactiviin partby a desireforpositivepublicrelations.
tiesundoubtedly
weremotivated
Buttheyalso reflect
a genuineconcernon thepartof military
personnelto deal
in
withobservable
needs thelocalcommunity.
Andthegoodwillengenpositively
deredin the civilianpopulationby charitableand serviceactivitiesclearlywas
to themilitary.
withcommunity
beneficial
Off-base
lifewas justone
engagement
but
an
that
the
extensive
rolein the
facet,
one,
important
helpselucidate military's
cultureofcoldwar-eraAlaska.
Alaska'sgeographical
position,climate,and trainingenvironment
gaveit the
enormous
for
investment
the
cold
war.
Cold war
highestpriority
military
during
after
investment
World
War
investment, previousmilitary
II, laid
military
during
thefoundation
forAlaskaneconomicdevelopment.
Road and railroadnetworks,
theferry
facilities
and objectives
forscience,
portsand airfields,
pipelines,
system,
and military
and thelong-linecommunication
were
research,
engineering,
system
directresultsof coldwarmilitary
The physicalpresenceofthecoldwar
interests.
has becomelessdistinct
overtime.It has beensupplanted
military
bya largeU.S.
forcerestructured
tofight
thewaron terrorism.
Thecoldwarcultural
landmilitary
at
one
time
marked
installations
across
in
548
scape,
by
military
Alaska-ranging
size fromindividual,
isolatedstructures
to self-contained
cities-hasbecomeless
visiblebecausemanyinstallations
fromthaterahavebeenclosedor clearedaway.
the
investment
is now lessliterally
embodiedin thecultural
Although military's
other
means-economic
landscape,through
development,
politics,demographics,
socialconstruct-the
coldwarmilitary
influenced
Alaska.
profoundly
contemporary
Themilitary's
inAlaskaduringthecoldwaris an exampleofthepoteninvestment
tialofthemilitary
to actas an agentofgeographical
change.
the
continues
to
make
its
Today, military
presencefeltin a numberofmeasurableways,whichdeservecloserstudybygeographers
and others:theeconomy,
politicalgeography
andpossiblerelatedchangesbroughtaboutbymilitary
the
voters,
between
the
and
Alaska
and
the
increasNatives,
complicated
relationship
military
retirees
whoarereturning
to settlewheretheyservedduringnumbersofmilitary
ingthecold war.Althoughtheend of thecold war saw a reductionin military
investment
commensurate
with"peace dividend"downsizingand reductionsin
and augmentationcaused by the war on terforce,the currentforcerestructuring
rorismand the invasionof Iraq have once again increasedthe numberof military
troopsand defenseexpenditures.As of 2003 Alaska ranksnumberone among U.S.
statesin per capitafederalspending-fullyone-thirdof thestate'seconomyis driven
by it-with defensespendingthe largestsinglecomponent,contributing25 percent
of all federalfunds(Goldsmithand Larson 2oo3). The federalgovernmentremains

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68

THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

numberoneamongAlaska'semployers
2ooo;FriedandWindisch-Cole
(Goldsmith
of those federaljobs are
2002; Goldsmithand Larson 2003). Half (about 16,6oo00)

and theyareaugmented
active-duty
military,
bytwiceas manyciviliansin support

positions (Case 1999; Hollander 2002a, 2002b). Althoughthe 2005 Base Realign-

ofEielsonAirForce
a streamlining
mentand ClosureCommissionrecommended
the
which
a
and
civilian
would
mean
loss
of
Base,
jobs, armyhasincreased
military
of one newbrigadeand the
itspersonnelneedsin Alaskawiththeestablishment
of another.Interior
Alaska'sFortGreelyis now hometo a testing
augmentation
nawithinthenascentand controversial
for
missiles
interceptor
range long-range

tional missiledefensesystem(Hollander 2002a, 2002b).

andcomtestbed,newtroopalignments
Allsigns-thenationalmissile-defense
airmoveto supportcross-Pacific
increasedinfrastructure
bat structures,
military
at
the
with
technical
research
and
sustained
defense
ties
ments,
University
programs
thatthemilitary
is finding
ofAlaska-indicate
new,post-coldwarwaystocontinue
AlaskaSen.TedStevensand with
itspresencein Alaska,at thebehestofpowerful
in all discibusiness
thesupportof a largely
Investigators
community.
dependent
and
offer
theirown
add to theliterature,
plineswoulddo wellto initiateresearch,
ofAlaska'songoingmilitary
contextualizations
legacy.
NOTES
1. The PlowshareProgramwas theU.S. AtomicEnergyCommission's
planto developpeaceful
a programin whichphysicists
was ostensibly
in thelate1950s.Plowshare
usesfornuclearexplosives
a "slightly
flawedplanet"(O'Neill1994,25),notto facilitate
to enhanceand correct
actedas engineers
In reality,
wasborninpartdue tobroadening
theprogram
thenuclear-weapons
opposition
program.
to thehazardsof aboveground
bythecommission's
nuclear-weapons
testingand was administered
Prorolein thePlowshare
Alaska'sintended
Dan O'Neilladdresses
DivisionofMilitary
Applications.
in
The
Firecracker
(1994).
Boys
gram
"real"Alaskansas
is a termusedbyAlaskansto describelong-term
2. "Sourdough"
residents,
as "Cheechakos."
who areknowntongue-in-cheek
opposedto newcomers,
unitsmadeup
3. "EskimoScouts"is a termofindeterminate
originusedtodescriberural-based
ofAlaskaNativemenand women.The use oftheterm"Eskimo"was mostlikelyinitiated
exclusively
NamemberoftheAlaskaArmyNationalGuard,foritincorrectly
lumpedtogether
bya non-Native
"Eskimo"is a
CentralYupik,SiberianYupik,and Ingalikheritage.
tivesofIfiupiat,
Gwichin,
Koyukon,
used
wordfromtheAlgonquinpeopleofeasternCanada,butitwasadoptedbywhitesand routinely
National
Guard
Native
of
an
Alaska
Natives.
Alaskans,
many
imprecise
descriptor
Though
including
by
consideredto inhabitonlytheseacoastsof theArcticand
Eskimoare normally
members-because
stuck.Mostof thesameunitsarein existence
moniker
"Eskimo
Scouts"
subarctic
today
regions-the
to simplyas "Scouts."
and are usuallyreferred
witha canvasskinovermetal
hutis a longand rathernarrowstructure,
4. A Jamesway
typically
createa roundedceilingthatextendsinone archfromthe
arches.Thesupports
orwoodensupporting
hutswerecreatedfor
thehutthusdescribesa semicircle.
Jamesway
groundup. Seen fromthefront,
use butwereoftenfoundto be quitehardy.
temporary
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