MicrowaveGenerators

Dr.Prasant KumarPattnaik
AssistantProfessor
DepartmentofElectrical Engineering
BITSPilani HyderabadCampus
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Colpitts Oscillator

CT isseriescombinationofC1 andC2

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Colpitts Oscillator
Example:
Colpitts Oscillator circuithavingtwocapacitorsof10pFand100pFrespectively
areconnectedinparallelwithaninductorof10mH.Determinethefrequencyof
oscillationsofthecircuit.

Solution

Hencetheresonantfrequencyis

Upto fewMHzsignalscanbegeneratedusingthisoscillator
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MicrowaveSignalOscillators
SolidStateDevices
GunnDiodes
ImpactIonizationAvalancheTransitTime(IMPATT)Diodes
TrappedPlasmaAvalancheTransitTime(TRAPTT)Diodes
BarrierInjectedTransitTime(BARITT)Diodes

VacuumTubes
KlystronTubes
MagnetronTubes

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GunnEffect
DiscoveredbyJ.BGunnin1963
PeriodicfluctuationsofcurrentpassingthroughntypeGaAs whenapplied
voltageexceedsacertaincriticalvalue
Bulknegativeresistancepropertyofuniformsemiconductor
Inpositiveresistancethecurrentthroughandvoltageacrossitareinphase
AndhenceI2Rpowerisdropped
But
Innegativeresistance,thevoltageandcurrentare1800 outofphaseand
voltagedropisnegativeandhencepowerI2Risgenerated

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GunnEffect

Fieldvs CurrentDensity
NtypeGaAs
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RWHTheoryofGunnEffect

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TwoValleyModel
DatafortwovalleyinGaAs

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TwoValleyModel

TransferredElectronDensities
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TEDeffect
Electronsinthelowervalleyshouldhavehighmobility,smalleffective
massandLowdensityofstate&
Electronsintheuppervalleyshouldhavelowmobility,largeeffective
massandHighdensityofstate
Bottomoflowervalleyandbottomofuppervalleyshouldbelarger
thanthermalenergy
Separationbetweenthevalleysshouldbesmallerthanthebandgap
Currentdensitydecreasewithincreaseinthefieldbeyondacertain
valuegivingrisetonegativeresistance
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ModesofOperationofGunnDiode
n+

nGaAs

n+

GunnmodeorTransitTime(TT)mode
LimitedSpaceCharge(LSA)mode
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GunnMode
WhenvoltageexceedsVth electronsaretransferredfromlowenergyhighmobilityconduction
bandtoahighenergylowermobilitysubconduction band
Theheavierelectronsbunchtogethertoformanelectricfielddipoledomainnearthecathode
Electricfieldacrossthedomainisgreaterthantheaveragefield
Alltheconductionbandelectronsdriftacrossthecrystalatthesamevelocityandtheless
mobilebunchedelectronshavereducedvelocity
Thecurrentinpresenceofdomaindecreases
Afterthehighfielddomaintravelledintotheendofthecontactthecurrentreturnstothe
higherlevelandahighfielddomainisagainformed
Eachdomainresultsinapulseofcurrentandthesefluctuationsoccuratmicrowavefrequencies
withperiodequaltotransittime
Lowefficiencyofpowergenerationandcannotbecontrolledbyanyexternalcircuit
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LSAmode
Gunndiodeworksasapartofresonantcircuit
Theresonantcircuitistunedtofrequencyseveraltimeslargerthan
TTmodesothatthedipoledomainsdonothavesufficienttimetoform
ThecircuitactsasanegativeresistanceoscillatorwhenV>Vth
RL ismade20%greaterthannegativeresistancetoenableoscillation
tostart
Oscillationbecomesteadywhenaveragenegativeresistance becomes
equaltoRL
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GunnOscillatorExample
Thedriftvelocityofelectronis2x107 cm/sthroughtheactiveregion
oflength10micronGaAs.Calculatethenaturalfrequencyofthediode
andthecriticalvoltage
Ans:
Naturalfrequency=driftvelocity/lengthofactiveregion
=2x105/(105)=20GHz
Criticalvoltage=lxcriticalfield
=103 x(3.2kV/cm)
=3.2V
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GunnOscillatorDisadvantages

Lowefficienciesatfrequenciesabove10GHz
Smalltuningrange
Largedependenceoffrequencyontemperature
HighNoise

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AvalancheTransitTimeDevices
pnjunctionswithheavilydopedpandnregions
Underreversebiastheyproducenegativeresistanceatmicrowave
Frequencybyusingcarrierimpactionizationavalanchebreakdown
Threetypes
(i) Impactionizationavalanchetransittime(IMPACTT)
effectdevices(upto 100GHz)
(ii)Trappedplasmaavalanchetriggeredtransittime(TRAPATT)
effectdevices(13GHz)
(iii)Barrierinjectedtransittime(BARITT)effectdevices
(lownoiseapplication)
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VacuumTubeTypeGenerator

ReflexKlystron
Magnetron

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Vacuumtubes

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LimitationsofVacuumtubes

Limitationsofvacuumtubesbeyond1GHzoperation
1. Interelectrodecapacitance(IEC)Effect
2.LeadInductance(LI)Effect
3.Transittime(TT)Effect
4.EffectduetoRFlosses

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LimitationsofVacuumtubes
Interelectrodecapacitance
Reactanceofgridtocathodecapacitancebecomestoosmall
reactanceXc=1/(2*f*C)
Signalisshortcircuitedinthetube
Resonantfrequencyoftunedcircuitdecreases
ThecapacitanceC=0rA/d
canbeminimizedbyreducingtheareaoftheelectrodeor
byincreasingthedistancebetweentheelectrodes
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LimitationsofVacuumtubes
LeadInductance

TheleadreactanceXL=2*f*Lincreaseswithfrequency
itisparallelwithinterelectrodecapacitance
Voltageappearingattheactiveelectrodesarelessthanvoltageatthebasepins
inductanceofcathodeiscommontobothgridandplatecircuits
Thisprovidesapathfordegenerativefeedbackresultinginreductionof
efficiency

Canbeminimised bydecreasinginductanceL=(l/0r)A
byusingshortleadswithoutbasepins
byincreasingAanddecreasingl
Butthiswillhavelesserpowerhandlingcapability
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LimitationsofVacuumtubes
Transittimeeffect
Timetakenforelectrontotravelfromcathodetoanode
=d/v0,
whered=distancebetweencathodeandanode
v0=velocityofelectrons
Underequilibrium
Staticenergyofelectron(eV)=Kineticenergy(1/2*m*v02)
Hence,=d/ 2eV/m
Atlowfrequencies, isnegligiblecomparedtoperiodofthesignalandhencethegrid
voltageandplatecurrentareinphase
Athighfrequencies, iscomparabletoperiodofthesignalandhencethegridvoltage
andplatecurrentarenotinphase,thegainbecomesacomplexquantityresulting
reducedefficiency
Tominimizetransittimeeffect,electrodeseparationcanbedecreasedorthecathode
potentialcanbeincreased
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LimitationsofVacuumtubes
EffectduetoRFlosses
Skineffectloss
Athigherfrequencies,theskindepthbecomessmallandRincreases
Canbeminimizedbyincreasingthesizeoftheconductor
Dielectricloss
Dielectriclosswhichoccurinvariousinsulatingmaterialsuchasspacers,
glassenvelopeetc.dependsonthelosstangent,
Largerfrequencieshavelargerlosses
Tominimizethisreducethesurfaceareaoftheglass
Radiationloss
Whendimensionofthewireapproachesthewavelength,itwillemit
radiationwhichincreasewithfrequency.
canbeminimizedbypropershieldingofthetubeanditscircuitry
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MicrowaveTubes
KlystronOscillator
Aklystronisavacuumtubethatcanbeused
eitherasageneratororasanamplifierof
power,atmicrowavefrequencies.

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TwocavityKlystronAmplifier

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ElectronVelocityModulation
Electronsinjectedfromcathodearrivecavitywithuniformvelocity
Electronspassingthroughthefirstcavityatzerosofthegapvoltage
(signalvoltage)Passthroughwithunchangedvelocity
Thosepassingthroughpositiveswingofthegapvoltageundergoincreasein
thevelocity
Thosepassingthroughnegativeswingofthegapvoltageundergodecreasein
thevelocity
Electronsbunchtogetherastheytraveldownthedriftspace
Thisiscalledelectronvelocitymodulation
Thedensityofelectronsvarycyclicallywithtimeandhencearesaidtobe
currentmodulated
TheKineticenergyoftheelectronsarethustransferredtothefieldof
secondcavity
Theoutputiscoupledoutofthesecondcavity
Theelectronsterminateatcollector

KlysterGermanword>Bunch
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KlystronOscillator
AKlystronamplifiercanbeconvertedtoanoscillatorbyfeeding
backpartofthecatcher outputtothebuncher inproperphase
satisfyingBarkhausen Criterion

Barkhausen Criterion
(i)LoopGain(Ab)=1
(ii)Phaseshiftiszeroorintegralmultiplesof2
A=openloopgainofamplifyingelement
b=Feedbackfactor
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ReflexKlystron
Thereflexklystronhasbeenthemostused
sourceofmicrowavepowerinlaboratory
applications.
Itsasinglecavityvariablefrequency
microwavegenerator

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ReflexKlystron
ConstructionofReflexKlystron
Areflexklystronconsistsofanelectrongun,acavitywithapair
ofgridsandarepeller plateasshowninthediagram.
Inthisklystron,asinglepairofgridsdoesthefunctionsofboth
thebuncher andthecatchergrids.
Themaindifferencebetweentwocavityreflexklystronamplifier
andreflexklystronisthattheoutputcavityisomittedinreflex
klystronandtherepeller orreflectorelectrode,placedavery
shortdistancefromthesinglecavity,replacesthecollector
electrode.
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ReflexKlystron
ReflexKlystronoscillator

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ReflexKlystron
WorkingPrinciple
Thecathodeemitselectronswhichareacceleratedforwardby
anacceleratinggridwithapositivevoltageonitandfocused
intoanarrowbeam.
Theelectronspassthroughthecavityandundergovelocity
modulation,whichproduceselectronbunchingandthebeamis
repelledbackbyarepellerplatekeptatanegativepotential
withrespecttothecathode.
Onreturn,theelectronbeamonceagainentersthesamegrids
whichactasabuncher,therbythesamepairofgridsacts
simultaneouslyasabuncherfortheforwardmovingelectron
andasacatcherforthereturningbeam.
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ReflexKlystron
WorkingPrinciple
Thefeedbacknecessaryforelectricaloscillationsisdeveloped
byreflectingtheelectronbeam,thevelocitymodulated
electronbeamdoesnotactuallyreachtherepeller plate,butis
repelledbackbythenegativevoltage.
Thepointatwhichtheelectronbeamisturnedbackcanbe
variedbyadjustingtherepeller voltage.
Thustherepeller voltageissoadjustedthatcompletebunching
oftheelectronstakesplaceatthecatchergrids,thedistance
betweentherepeller andthecavityischosensuchthatthe
repeller electronbuncheswillreachthecavityatpropertimeto
beinsynchronization.
Duetothis,theydeliverenergytothecavity,theresultisthe
oscillationatthecavityproducingmicrowavefrequency.
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ReflexKlystron
Thistubeiscalledareflexklystronbecauseelectronsperformreflexaction
repelstheinputsupply
Thereareoftenseveralregionsofreflectorvoltagewherethereflexklystron
willoscillate,thesearereferredtoasmodes
Theelectronictuningrangeofthereflexklystronisusuallyreferredtoasthe
variationinfrequencybetweenhalfpowerpointsthepointsintheoscillating
modewherethepoweroutputishalfthemaximumoutputinthemode.
Itshouldbenotedthatthefrequencyofoscillationisdependentonthe
reflector/repeller voltage
varyingthisrepeller voltageprovidesacrudemethodoffrequencymodulating
theoscillationfrequency
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ReflexKlystron

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Poweroutputandfrequencycharacteristics
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ReflexKlystron
PerformanceCharacteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Frequency: 4 200GHz
Power:1mW 2.5W
Theoreticalefficiency:22.78%
Practicalefficiency:10% 20%
Tuningrange:5GHzat2W 30GHzat10
mW

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ReflexKlystron
Applications
1. Radarreceivers
2. Localoscillatorinmicrowavereceivers
3. Signalsourceinmicrowavegeneratorof
variablefrequency
4. Portablemicrowavelinks
5. Pumposcillatorinparametricamplifier

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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
TravelingWaveTube
TravelingWaveTube(TWT)isthemostversatile
microwaveRFpoweramplifiers.
ThemainvirtueoftheTWTisitsextremelywide
bandwidthofoperation.

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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)

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SchematicofTWT
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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
Basicstructure
ThebasicstructureofaTWTconsistsofacathodeandfilament
heaterplusananodethatisbiasedpositivelytoacceleratethe
electronbeamforwardandtofocusitintoanarrowbeam.
Theelectronsareattractedbyapositiveplatecalledthe
collector,whichhasgivenahighdcvoltage.
Thelengthofthetubeisusuallymanywavelengthsatthe
operatingfrequency.
Surroundingthetubeareeitherpermanentmagnetsor
electromagnetsthatkeeptheelectronstightlyfocusedintoa
narrowbeam.
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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
TheuniquefeatureoftheTWTisahelixorcoilthat
surroundsthelengthofthetubeandtheelectronbeam
passesthroughthecentreoraxisofthehelix.
Themicrowavesignaltobeamplifiedisappliedtotheendof
thehelixnearthecathodeandtheoutputistakenfromthe
endofthehelixnearthecollector.
ThepurposeofthehelixistoprovidepathforRFsignal.
ThepropagationoftheRFsignalalongthehelixismade
approximatelyequaltothevelocityoftheelectronbeam
fromthecathodetothecollector

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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
PrincipleofOperation
Thepassageofthemicrowavesignaldownthehelixproduces
electricandmagneticfieldsthatwillinteractwiththeelectron
beam.
Theelectromagneticfieldproducedbythehelixcausesthe
electronstobespeededupandsloweddown,thisproduces
velocitymodulationofthebeamwhichproducesdensity
modulation.
Densitymodulationcausesbunchesofelectronstogroup
togetheronewavelengthapartandthesebunchofelectrons
traveldownthelengthofthetubetowardthecollector.
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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
PrincipleofOperation(Contd)
Theelectronbunchesinducevoltagesintothehelix
whichreinforcethevoltagealreadypresentthere.Due
tothatthestrengthoftheelectromagneticfieldonthe
helixincreasesasthewavetravelsdownthetube
towardsthecollector.
Attheendofthehelix,thesignalisconsiderably
amplified.Coaxialcableorwaveguidestructuresare
usedtoextracttheenergyfromthehelix.
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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
Advantages
1. TWThasextremelywidebandwidth.Hence,itcan
bemadetoamplifysignalsfromUHFtohundredsof
gigahertz.
2. TheTWTscanbeusedinbothcontinuousand
pulsedmodesofoperationwithpowerlevelsupto
severalthousandswatts.

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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
PerformanceCharacteristics
1.
2.

Frequencyofoperation :0.5GHz 95GHz

Poweroutputs:
5mW (10 40GHz lowpowerTWT)
250kW(CW)at3GHz(highpowerTWT)
10MW(pulsed)at3GHz
3.Efficiency: 5 20%(30%withdepressedcollector)

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TravelingWaveTube(TWT)
Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

LownoiseRFamplifierinbroadbandmicrowavereceivers.
Repeateramplifierinwidebandcommunicationlinksand
longdistancetelephony.
Duetolongtubelife(50,000hoursagainstthforother
types),TWTispoweroutputtubeincommunication
satellite.
ContinuouswavehighpowerTWTsareusedin
troposcatter links(duetolargerpowerandlarger
bandwidths).
UsedinAirborneandshipbornepulsedhighpowerradars.

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Magnetron

Klystrons,TWTareOTypetubes
O refersoriginaltype(Linearbeamtubes)
Crossfieldtubeswhereelectricandmagneticfieldare
perpendiculartoeachother,TheseareMType;Magnetron
TheinteractionofelectronwithRFfieldforalongerduration
resultsinhigherefficiencydevices(e.g TWTandMagnetron)

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TypesofMagnetrons

Negative resistance Magnetrons

Make use of negative resistance between two anode
segments but have low efficiency and are useful only at
low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
Cyclotron frequency Magnetrons
Depend upon synchronization between an alternating
component of electric and periodic oscillation of electrons
in a direction parallel to this field.
Useful only for frequencies greater than 100 MHz.
Cavity Magnetrons
Depend upon the interaction of electrons with a rotating
electromagnetic field of constant angular velocity.
Provide oscillations of very high peak power and hence
are useful in radar applications

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TypesofMagnetrons

1. Splitanodemagnetron
staticnegativeresistancebetweentwoanodesegments
2.Cyclotronfrequencymagnetron
synchronismbetweenanaccomponentofelectricfieldand
periodicoscillationofelectroninadirectionperpendiculartofield
3.Travellingwave(orcavitytype)Magnetrons
InteractionofelectronswithtravellingEMfieldoflinearvelocity

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Magnetron

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Magnetron
Construction
Each cavity in the anode acts as an inductor having only
one turn and the slot connecting the cavity and the
interaction space acts as a capacitor.
These two form a parallel resonant circuit and its resonant
frequency depends on the value of L of the cavity and the
C of the slot.
The frequency of the microwaves generated by the
magnetron oscillator depends on the frequency of the RF
oscillations existing in the resonant cavities.

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Magnetron Description
Magnetron is a cross field device as the electric field
between the anode and the cathode is radial whereas the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial.
A high DC potential can be applied between the cathode
and anode which produces the radial electric field.
Depending on the relative strengths of the electric and
magnetic fields, the electrons emitted from the cathode
and moving towards the anode will traverse through the
interaction space
In the absence of magnetic field (B = 0), the electron travel
straight from the cathode to the anode due to the radial
electric field force acting on it.
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Magnetron

BunchingofelectronsinsideMagnetroncavity
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Magnetron
The number of bunches depends on the number of
cavities in the magnetron and the mode of oscillations, in
an eight cavity magnetron oscillating with - mode, the
electrons are bunched in four groups
Two identical resonant cavities will resonate at two
frequencies when they are coupled together; this is due to
the effect of mutual coupling.
Commonly separating the pi mode from adjacent modes is
by a method called strapping. The straps consist of either
circular or rectangular cross section connected to alternate
segments of the anode block.
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Magnetron
PerformanceCharacteristics
1. Power output: In excess of 250 kW ( Pulsed
Mode), 10 mW (UHF band), 2 mW (X band),
8 kW (at 95 GHz)
2. Frequency: 500 MHz 12 GHz
3. Duty cycle: 0.1 %
4. Efficiency: 40 % - 70 %
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Magnetron
ApplicationsofMagnetron
1. Pulsed radar is the single most important
application with large pulse powers.
2. Voltage tunable magnetrons are used in sweep
oscillators in telemetry and in missile
applications.
3. Fixed frequency, CW magnetrons are used for
industrial heating and microwave ovens.

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Conclusion

GunnDiodes
Klystrons ReflexKlystron
Magnetron

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