Legendre PDF

*^MM?fl;.
'4'fe'i"ii?*
The
tine
original of
tliis
book
is in
Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001166341
^'jments of geometry.
3 1924 001
166 341
ELEMEJSTTS
OP
aEOMETET.
BY
a^m:legendre.
ADDITIONS AND MODIFICATIONS
M.
ArBLANCHET,
"J
^LISVE OF THE POLTTECHNIO SCHOOL; DIBEOTOK OF STUDIES OF SAIKTE-BABBE,
TRANSLATED FEOM THK ELEVENTH FRENCH EDITION,
FRANCIS H.^MITH,
BnPEBIirrENPENT
A. M.,
AND PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS
IW THE VIBOIHIA
IIILITABT INSTITUTE, LEXINGTON, VIRGINIA.
KELLY
BALTIMORE:
& PIET, PUBLISHEES,
174
Baltimokb Steeet.
1867.
Entered accoiding lo Act of Congress, in the yenr 1867,
By FRANCIS
TI.
SMITH,
Id the Clerk's Office of the District Court of thQ United States for TirpinlL
UiLT
t rirr,
fit
ÂLTinMV
n>i|
TO
THE ALUMNI
OF
THE VIRGINIA MILITARY INSTITUTE,
f lis max^
IS
APPECTIONATBLT INSCRIBED
THEIE FRIEND AND FORMER PRECEPTOR,
THE TRANSLATOR.
PREFACE.
Pure Geometry may be
considered to form the real
foundation of mathematical instruction.
Some
acquaint-
ance with Arithmetic and Algebra usually precedes

study
its
but the time necessarily employed in gaining a
practical facility in the application of the rules of these
-branches, leaves
little
room
for
the
cultivation
of the
reasoning faculties as they are exercised in Geometry.
Geometry rests upon a few simple and self-evident

and from these, by the rigid processes of deduction, the student of mathematics is afforded a valuable
truths
discipline, which supplies an important corrective

some of the evils resulting from an exclusive devotion
Hence its importance as an essential branch
analysis.
mental
for
to
of academic instruction.
Geometry owes
its origin,
genius of the Greeks.
as a science, to the inventive
The demonstrations
left
by the
Greek Geometers are models of accuracy, clearness, and

elegance, and are admirably adapted to training the mind
to habits of close reasoning and luminous arrangement.
Soon after the revival of letters, the principal works of the
Greek Geometers were translated in Italy by OommaTidine^
embracing fragments of ApoUonius' Conies and of the
Towards the close of the 16th
Collections of Pappus,
century, Yieta restored the lost Tract on Tangencies, and
PREFACE.
11
SiielUus reproduced the
Soon afterwards
supplied the 5th book of
Plane Loci.
Viviani, the disciple of Galileo,
Apollonius.
In pursuance of a plan to print at Oxford a complete

Greek Geometers, filling up the blanks from
series of the
an inspection
of
the Arabic
manuscripts,
Dr. David
Gregory edited the works of Euclid, and Dr. Halley,

Apollonius; while Torelli's edition of Archimedes, purchased in Italy, was issued from the same press.
Euclid
is
the founder of the ancient
His great work, known
as the
Greek Geometry.
Elements of Euclid,
He
a text-book in most of the English schools.

to
have lived in the time of the
first
years before the Christian era, and
is
is still
appears
Ptolemy, some 300

said to
have been
His
the founder of the Alexandrian mathematical school.
work on Geometry
consists of thirteen books.
Two
have sometimes been added, of which Hypsicles

posed to have been the author.
A
in
others
is
sup-
complete edition of Euclid's Elements was published
Oxford,
in
1703, in the original Greek,
In 1824^1825, an edition of the
by Dr. Gregory.
books of Euclid
was published in Berlin, in Greek,- with a Latin translation, and copious notes forming a commentary on the text.
This edition was edited by Camerer.
first six
In 1826-1829, another complete edition of the Elements
was published
in Berlin, in Greek, with a collection of
various readings, by Ernest Frederick August.
In 1781, .James Williamson published in Oxford the

of two quarto volumes of the Elements of Euclid,
first
with dissertations, which was followed

printed in London, in 1788.
tri'uslation
into
English
by.
a second volume,
This edition gives a close
of the
thirteen
books of the
original.
Robert SimsOn, a distinguished Scotch mathematician,

published a Latin edition of the Elements, in one quarto
PREFACE.
iil
volume, in 1756, which he compressed, in 1760, into an
The English
English octavo.
of the
first six
nal, materially modified
state of
wide
edition of
Simson
is
a digest
books, with the 11th and 12th of the origi-
adapt them to the existing
to
mathematical instruction.
This edition has had a
circulation, and constitutes the basis of the various
editions of the Elements
by Playfair^ Lardner, De Mor-
gan^ Todhunter, and others, which have appeared, from
time to time,
to
meet the demand
for Euclid in the English
schools.
Many
important additions were made to the digest of

Euclid'^ Elements, by mathematicians of the 18th century,
by which it has been corrected, simplified, and materially
The Elements of Geometry, by Thomas Simpand similar works in the French language, by Clai-
improved.
son,
raut and Legendre. are the most deserving of notice.
Simpson^s volume
of Clairaut
is
is
still
brief but perspicuous.

shorter,
and
is
The Geometry
designed to guide the
student by deductive processes to the solution of math-
ematical problems.
a higher position
But the Geometry

and
is
of Legendre claims
generally regarded as the best
work on the elements of Geometry that has ever appeared.

The work of Legendre has long been the standard textbook
in
the French schools.
It
was subsequently
trans-
by Brewster ; and the translation of Brewster, with modifications by Professor

%Farrar, constitutes the basis of the American edition of
lated for the English schools
Legendre, published by Professor Davies.
The
present translation
is
from the
last
French edition
of Legendre, with ?idditions and modifications by
M. A.
Blanchet, an eleve of the Eoole PolyteoJinique, and
di-
rector of studies of Sainte-Barhe.
M.
Blanchet has materially improved the original text

of Legendre, not only in the general arrangement of the
work, but in the simple demonstrations he has given for
"
PEEFAOE.
IV
the
measures of the
circle,
Valuable Appendices
are
cylinder,
and sphere.
embracing The
cone,
added,
also
Theory of Transversals ; The Pole and Polar Line;

Mdxhnuin Figures under a given perimeter ; together
witli
copious examples for the exercise of the student, in
the demonsti-ation of
Theorems and
in
the
solution of
Geometrical Problems.
Til is
translation
of Blanchet's
edition
of Legendre's
Geometry, constitutes one of the Mathematical Series of

the Virginia Military Institute.
embraced
in this series,
The following works,
have already been published
SniitVs Elementary Arithmetic, for Beginners.

Smith's Arithmetic, for
High
Schools
and Academies.
Smiths Algebra.
Smiths Bios Analytical Geometry.
The Elements of Geometry will be immediately followed
by a translation of Lefebure de Fourcy's Trigonometry,
which will be published in the same volume with the
Elements, as well as separately.
VrRGIOTA MlLITAET INSTITUTE,
Lexington, Va., March
1,
1867.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY.
BOOK
I.
DEFiisrmoisrs.
All bodies occupy in space a determinate position,
I.
which
it
called volume.
is
The surface
II.
oi a
body
is
the limit which separates
from the surrounding space.

III.
The
locus, or place, in
bodies meet,
I"V.
is
A point
which the surfaces of two
called a line.
is
the locus or place in which two lines in-
tersect each other.
V. Volumes, surfaces, and
lines, are considered inde-
pendently of the bodies to which they belong.

VI. The
and
name
of figures
is
given to volumes, surfaces,
lines.
VII. Geometry has for

extension of figures,
VIII.
right line
shortest distance
its 6bj\ct the
the study
is
of
we
to another,
whole extent.
is
the
its points.
can only draw one right line from
and
that, if
two points of right
coincide, the. lines themselves will

their
measurement of the
their properties.
an indetinite line which
between any two of
It is evident that
one point
and
lines
coincide throughout
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETBT.
IX.
Irokm
line is a line
composed of several right
lines.
X. Every line which

line, is a
A plane
XI.
taken at
not a right
is
line,
nor a broken
curve line.
is
a surface, in which,
if
any two points be
joining them will
will, the right line
lie
wholly
in the surface.
XII. Surfaces, which are neither planes, nor composed

of plane surfaces, are curved surfaces.
XIII.
The
formed by two right lines, AB, AC,

which cut each other in A, is called an
figure
The point
angle.
angle, and the lines
is
the vertex of the
AB
and
AC
are
its
sides.
The angle
the letter
is
sometimes designated by
of the vertex of the angle;
and sometimes by the three

or
CAB,
letters,
BAC,
taking care to put the letter of the vertex in the
middle.
Two
angles,
and
a,
are said to be equal when,
plied one to
tlie
other, they
if
ap-
may be made
Thus, if we place the angle

a on A, so that the side ab shall coincide
with AB, if then the side ac takes the ditocoincide.
rection
li!
ci
s/
c\
AC,
the sides of the
will coincide,
two angles
and the two angles will be
equal to each other.
An
angle
is
double, triple, &c., of the angle D,
contains,
between
its sides,
if it
two,
three, &c.,
angles equal to D.
Angles may, therefore, be compared with each other as other
magnitudes.
meets another right
line,
XIV. Wlien a riglit line, AB,

CP, so that the adjacent angles,
SOOE
fiAC and BAD,
.
f.
are equal to each other, the line
be perpendiculaf
said to
AB
is
CD,
to the line
and the equal angles, BAG, BAD, are called

right angles.
It will
point
may
be demonstrated that through any
we
taken on the right line CD,
always erect a perpendicular on
this
and that all right angles are equal to each other.

Every angle greater than a right angle is called an obtuse angle, and every angle smaller than a right angle is
line,
called an acute angle.
XY. Two
when, being situated on the same plane, they

will never meet, if produced in-
lines are said to
be
parallel.,
definitely.
The
XVI.
A ^?awej/?p'Mre
is
lines
AB, CD,
are parallel.
a plane terminated by
If
lines.
the bounding lines are right lines, the space which they
enclose
is
called a rectilinear figwre, or polygon,
lines themselves taken together
form the
and the
contov/r, or
pe-
rimeter. of the polygon.
The
lines
AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA, taken
together,
form the perimeter of the polygon
ABCDE.
XVII. The simplest
is
of
called a triangle.
five sides
XVIII.
When
polygons
a hexagon, one of six sides,
a triangle has
It is
quadrilateral
a polygon of four sides
one of
all
the polygon of three sides.
is
a pentagon,
etc., etc.
sides equal,
it
is
called an equilateral triangle / an isosceles triangle
is
all
its
which has two of its sides equal and a scalene

triangle is a triangle which has all its three sides untriangle
equal.
The
triangle
ABC is equilateral /
oho,
having the sides
ELEMEXTS OF GEOMETRy.
db, ac equal, is isosceles, wliile the triangle def, all the sides
of which are unequal,
XIX. The
a scalene triangle.
is
right angle triangle
a triangle which has
is
one right angle. The side opposite the right angle is called the
hypothenuse
ABC
thus,
is
a right
angle triangle, with a right angle

at
and the side BC, opposite to

is the hypothenuse.
the right angle,
XX. Among
quadrilaterals
we
distinguish
five the
square, the rectangle, the pwrallelogram,,
the lozenge or rhombus, and the trapezoid.
The square
has
its
its
ABCD is
right
is
a square.
is
a quadrilateral, which
its
sides equal.
a rectangle.
posite sides parallel
lozenge or
equal, but
angles
ABCD
angles right angles, without having
The parallelogram
The
and
rectangle
angles:
The
a quadrilateral which has
equal,
sides
its
is
its
is
a quadrilateral, which has
ahcd
rhombus
is
is
its
op-
a parallelogram.
a quadrilateral whose sides are
angles are not right angles.
BOOK
ABCD
is
t.
i)
a lozenge or rhombus.
The trapezoid or trapezium
is
a quadrilateral, only two
which are
sides of
lel
abed
is
XXI.
paral-
a trapezium.
diagonal
is
right line which joins the
two
of
vertices
angles
which are not adjacent
to
each other.
polygon
is
a polygon, the sides of
an equiangular polygon has
all its
XXII. The equilateral

which are equal and
;
angles equal.
XXIII. Two polygons are equilateral when they have

and placed in the same order
that is, following their perimeters in the same order, the
their sides equal,'each to each,
first
one
side of the
equal to the
is
side of the
first
other, the second of the one to the second of the other,
and
so
on.
The same
angular polygons.
definition applies
equal angles, are called the homologous
two equi-
to
In both cases, the equal
sides, or
sides, or
the
the ho-
mologous angles.
XXIV.
A convex polygon
produce any one of

the
same
side of
The, polygon
its sides,
tliis
is
a polygon such, that if
aU of the polygon
we
will lie on
right line.
ABODE
is
a convex polygon.
eter of a
The perimconvex poly-
gon cannot be interby a right line in

more than .two points;
sected
for, if
a right line, IQ,

the
perimeter
ABODE
at the points
cut
M, ]Sr, P, Q, the side

BO, which is cut by
the right line in one of
its
intermediate points
1*
IS",
would
lO
evidently have parts of the figure situated on both sides

of
direction.
its
XXY. Any
figures whatever, viz., volumes,
two
faces, or lines, are said to
plied,
N.
be equal, when they
may
sur-
be ap-
one to the other, and perfectly coincide.

B.
In the four
ures only, that
is,
first
figures
books
we
shall consider plane fig-
drawn on a plane
surface.
Explanation of Terms and Signs.
An Axiom
is
Theorem,
is
a self-evident proposition.
a truth which becomes evident
by a pro-
cess of reasoning, called a demdnstration.
Problem,
is
a question
which
is
proposed, and which
requires a solution.
A Lemma is
a subsidiary truth, which
is
employed
in
the demonstration of a theorem, or in the solution of a
problem.
The common name oi proposition is given, indifferently,

and lemmas.
A Corollary is a remark on one or more preceding propositions, showing their connection, their utility, their re-
to theorems, problems,
striction, or their extension.
An hypothesis is a supposition made, whether in the

enunciation of a proposition, or in the course of the demonstration.
The sign = is the aign of equality: thus, the erpression,

means that A is equal to B.
To express that A is smaller than B, we write A < B.
To denote that A is greater than B, we wri'.,e A > B.
The sign -f called plus, indicates addition.
The sign called minus, indicates subtraction.
A = B,
Thus,
and
-i-
and
represents the
AB
remains in taking
sum
of
two
quantities,
represents their difference, or
from A.
what
BOOK
The
11
I.
sign x, indicates multiplication
resents the product of
A bj
B.
thus,
rep-
Instead of the sign x,
use a point thus, A B is the same thing

X B. The same product is also indicated without
using any sign. Thus, AB but in using this last method,
we must be careful to distinguish it from the line AB,
which denotes the distance between two points, A and B.
The expression A x (B + C D), denotes the product
of A by the quantity B + C D. If we wish to multiply A + B by A B + C, we indicate the.produet thus,
(A + B) X (A B + C ) the quantities embraced within
we sometimes
as
the parenthesis being considered as a single quantity.
A number placed
before a line or a quantity serves as
a multiplier of this line or quantity

the line
AB
is
we
denote the half of the angle A,
The square of the
AB
The
precise
line
AB
s/
is
meaning
a line Will be explained in
The sign
indicates
a.
Through a point
and
to
AB
cube by
its
square and cube of
proper place.
Â
A x B,
or the
thus, y/2
represents
the
mean propor-
taken,
Theoeem.
I.
on a
perpendicular on this
fact, let
A and B.
Pboposition
In
written
root to be extracted
square root of the product
erect one
express that
AB
write JA.
of the
its
denotes the square root of 2
tional between
tlius, to
taken three times, we write 3
given, right line,
line,
and only
AM at
us suppose a right line
with
AC,
point
first
to turn
it
will
we may
one.
coinciding
around the
form two ad-
MAC, MAB, of
MAC, from being
jacent angles,
which one,
very small, will go on increasing, while the other,
MAB,
at
12
greater
tirst
it
becomes
MAC,
than
constantly decrease
will
until
zero.
The angle
MAC,
from being smaller than MAB, bemoves, greater than this angle
AM
comes, as the line
AM" for the moving
consequently, there will be a position
where these two angles will be equal, and it is evident there can be only one position where this equality
line,
can
exist.
Corollary.
All Tight angles are equal.
perpendicular to
HG
AB, and
perpendicular to
the
might be erected
is
at
the
the
we
place
the line
EF
on AB, so that the point
on C, Gil will
two perpendiculars
the same point on a right line, which
CD;
direction
EF;
DCB is equal to
angle HGF for, if
take
be
angle
^^
DC
Let
fall
otherwise
impossible.
Pkoposition II.^Theorem.
Every right line CD, which meets another right line

with it two adjacent angles, ACD, BCD, the
sum, of which is equaZ to two right angles.
AB, makes
C erect on AB the perpendicular CE. The

ACD is the sum of the angles ACE, ECD also,
ACD + BCD will be equal to the sum of the three angles,
At
the point
angle
ACE, ECD, BCD.

these, ACE, is a
the two others,
ECD
make a
Hence, the sum
together,
angles,
is
equal to the
must
also
sum
ACD
of the three angles,
be equal to two right angles.
The
first
of
right angle;
and
BCD
right angle.
of
the
two
BCD, which
ACE, ECD, BCD,
and
BOOK
CoroUary
13
I.
ACD, BCD
If one of the angles
I.
be
liglit,
the other will be right also.
Corollary II.
If the line
AB,
pendicular to
be perpendicular
For,
it
if
DE
to
DE.
be perpendicular
adjacent angle
DCB, and
are both right angles.
a right angle,
its
adjacent angle
ACE = ACD,
Hence,
Corollary III.
The
AB
and
su
But,
ACE is also
is
m of the
ACD
be
to
DE.
BAG,
sum
is
for
equal to the two
BAC, CAF.
Theorem.
ACD, DCB,
right angles, the two exterior sides,
together equul two
CA, CB, will form one
same right line.

CB be not the prolongation of AC,
if
prolongation of
ACE
BF,
side of the right line
equal to two right angles
Pkoposii'ion III.
the
if
a right angle.
perpendicular
adjacent angles
For,
that they
on the
their
and
AB,
equal
CAD, DAE,EAF,formed
same
angles,
to
is
consecutive angles,
is
If two adjacent
ACD
follows that the angle
to its
DE be perAB will
reciprocally,
AC
being a right
of the angles
ACD
let
CE
be the
then, the line
line,
and
the
DCE
sum
will
be equal to two right angles (Prop.

II.)
But, by hypothesis, the
sum
ACD and DCB, is

then ACD + DCB =
of the angles
also

Taking from each
;
ACD + DCE.
angle
angle
of
these
equals, the
ACD, there will remain the angle DCB, equal to the

DCE, which is impossible. Hence, CB is the pro-
longation of
AC.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETKT.
Theorem.
Pkoposition TV.
Jf two
AB and DE, intersect each other, the
right lines,
opposite angles,
formed
ACD, ACE,
the line
AB
is
at the vertex C, are equal.
DE
For, since the line

angles
right, the
is
sum
of the angles
also equal to
of the
and since
ACE, BCE,
is
two right angles
ACD + ACE = ACE +
hence
_3
^-^ "
sum
a right line, the
is
BCE.
Taking from each the

same angle ACE, there will remain the angle ACD equal to its
"We might demonstrate, in the same
~B
BCE.
opposite angle
manner, that the angle
ACE
equal to
is
its
opposite angle
BCD.
Scholium.
two right
Tiie lour angles
formed around a point by
equal to four right angles
taken together, are equal
two
other angles,
In general,
each other, are together
lines wliich intersect
to
any number of right
ACB, BCD, DCE, ECF,
FCA,
be equal
C,
will
;
for, if
by means
right
two perpendiculars,
sum will
sum of the
evi-
suc-
they have two sides
and
triangles are equal,
&c.
Theokem.
when
of the one equal to two sides
included angle of the other, each
AB
of
four
at the point
dently be equal to the
ACB, BCD,
Let the side
to
we form
four right angles, their
Pkoposition V.
Two
of all the consecu-
tive angles
angles
the included angle
to
lines
sum
point C, the
cessive angles
tlie two
two right angles.
meet in a common
and
right angles,
ACD, BCD, are also equal
if
ACE, BCE,
the angles
for,
be equal
and
the
side
AC.
to each.
to tlio
side
DE,the
BOOK
to the side
DF, and
15
1.
by the sides
and AC, be equal
to the angle D, included
by the sides DE and
the angle A, inohided
AB
DF
then will the
ABC
angle
and
tri-
DEF
be equal.
For, these triangles
may be
one upon the other, so that they will
placed,
exactly coincide.
Thus,
AB,
equal
the point
but since the angle
the side
DE
direction
AC.
point
if
DE on its
A, and the point E on
equal to the angle A, when
we
place the side
will fall on
is
placed on AB, the side
is
Besides,
will fall
DF
is
on C, and the third
BC
DEF
ABC.
equal to the triangle
Corollary.
gles,
When
the side
the angle
AC =
triangle
and the side
triangles are equal,
triaii-
A = D, the side AB =
DF, we may conclude
BC =
Peoposition YI.
Two
will coincide
three parts are equal in two
three other parts are also equal; that
C = F,
EE,
side,
take the
hence the
therefore, tlie
each to each, to wit, the angle
DE, and
AC;
equal to
exactly with the third side,

is
DF will
is,
that the
the angle
B = E,
EF.
Theoeem.
when
they have two angles
and
of the one, eq;ual to two angles and

included side of the other, each to each.
the included side
Let the angle
the
be equal to the angle E, the angle
to the angle F, and the side BC, included by the
angles
to
the
and C, equal
side
EF,
in-
cluded by the angles
and
triangle
to
tlien will
DEF
tlie trian-^le
the
be equal
ABC,
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETBY.
16
For,
E
E
if
we place the
will fall
is
EF
side
on B, and the point
on
equal BC, the point
its
Since the angle
on C.
ED
equal to the angle B, the side
will take the direc-
BA, and the point D will be found somewhere on the

line BA.
Again, since the angle F is equal to the angle
C, the line FD will take the direction CA, and the point
tion
be found somewhere on the side CA hence, the

point D, which is at the same time on the lines BA and
will
CA,
will fall at their intersection
therefore, coincide with each other,
Corollary.
equal, viz.,
the two triangles,
and are equal.
When two triangles have the three parts

B = E, C = F, and BC=EF, we may con-
clude that the three other parts are also equal; that
AB=DE, AC = DF,
and
Theoeem.
Proposition VII.
In every
triangle,
any one
is,
A = D.
side is smaller
than the
sum
of the other two.

For, the right line BC, for example,
tance from
shorter than
"We
to
AB
-|-
difference
we
the shortest dis-
and hence
BC
is
AC.
may remark
side of a triangle
for if
is
is
also, that either
greater than the
between the other two
sides,
represent the three sides
by
and suppose a the greatest side, we shall have

a <b + c; taking c from both sides of the inequality, we
have a c<b; and if we take b from both sides, we have
a b<c.
a, b,
and
c,
Proposition VIII.
Theorem.
taken within the triangle ABC,

If from any point
we draw the right lines OB, OC, to the extremities of a
side Be, the sum of these lines will be less than the sum
of the other two sides
AB
AC.
BOOK
BO
Produce
line
00
is
until it
17
I,
meets the side
shorter than
OD + DC
AC
in
(Prop. VII.)
the right
Adding
BO to both sides, we shall have

BO + 00 < BO + OD + DC or,
BO + OC<BD+DC.
"We have likewise BD < BA +
;
AD;
adding
DC
to both sides,
we
BD + DC < BA + AC.
But we have just proved BO +
OC < BD + DC hence, for a greatBO + OC < BA + AC.
shall
have
er reason,
Thkokem.
PEOPOBrrioN IX.
Every convex polygonal line ABGD is less than any

which envelops it.
Produce in the same direction the sides of the polygon
ABDC, until they meet the enveloping line we shall
have the following series of in-
line
MEFG
equalities
AB + BH < AL LE + EH.
CI < BH + HF + FI.
CD+DK<CI +IG -fGK.
DA + AL < DK + KM + ML.
-f-
BC +
Adding
these inequalities,
by member, and suppressing the parts common

members, we have
AB -H BC -f CD
"We might prove,
gonal line
is
less
-I-
DA < EF + FG -f GM
in like
than
-1-
two
ME.
manner, that every convex poly-
anj'
enveloping line terminated at

^
the same extremities.
Remark.
member
to the
The preceding theorem
is
case of the theorem just demonstrated.
only a particular
18
Theorem.
Pkoposition X.
If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two

of the other, each to each, and the included angle of
aides
one triangle greater than the included angle of the

triangle,
t]i,e
third side will helong to
triangle
tlie
other-
and
the greater
which has
the greater
third sides will he unequal,
included angle.
Take the
triangles
AC = FH,
FG,
ABC, FGH,
which we
in
BAG >
and the angle

F
Iiave
GFII
then will
BC be greater
the side
than the side
Make
GFH
CAD
AD =
take
C and D:
triangles
ACD,
GF, and
the
GH.
the angle
= GFH,
_
AB =
join
are equal, since
they have two sides and the included angle of the one
equal to two sides and the included angle of the other.
(Prop. VI.)
It
suffices
now
show that
to
BC
is
greater
than CD.
Divide the angle
AE
BAD into
the right line will
DE
fall
two equal parts by the
in the greater angle
line'
BAC;
two triangles, BAE, EAD, will he

equal, having two sides and the included angle in each
di-aw the line
the
Tlien BE = ED.
But, in the triangle EDC, wo
CD < ED + EC. Keplacing ED by its equal BE,
we have CD < BE 4- EC, or CD < BC.
equal.
hnve
Reciprocally,
be equal
and
if,
to
if
AB, AC, of the triangle ABC,

FG, FH, of the triangle FGH,
the sides
the two sides
besides, the third
side
greater than the third side
BAC
will
For,
GFH,
if
CB
of the
GH of
be greater than the angle

the angle
BAC
first
triangle be
the second, the angle
GFH.
were smaller than the angle
from what has been just demonstrated,
CB
would
'
BOOK
be
less
have
GH, which
than
the angle
if
BAG
GB = GH
is
19
I.
contrary to the hypothesis
be equal to the apgle
(Prop. V.), which
is
GFH, we
and
should
also contrary to the
hypothesis.
Theoeem.
Pkoi'Osition XI.
If two
triangles have the three sides of the one equal to
the three sides
of the
other, each to each, the triangles will
he equal.
AB = DE, AG = DF, BC = EF, then will

ABC, DEF, be also equal, and we shall have
Let the side

the triangles
A=
the angle
E, and
C = F.
the angle
^
D,
B=
For,
angle 'A
the
if
were greater
than
the
angle D, since the sides
AB,
to each, it follows,
side
BG would
tlie
angle D, the side
A cannot be
fore, the angle
But
BC
to
niust be equal to
it
is
BC would be
EF there-
equal to
greater nor less than the angle

it.
We
B = E,
manner, that the angle
like
in
equal
from the preceding theorem, that the

EF; and if the angle A
smaller than the side EF.
Hence,
are
DE, DF, each
be greater than
were smaller than
D.
AG
the sides
might pi'ove,
and the angle
c =r.
Scholiuih.
site
to
angles,
We
remark, that the equal angles
the corresponding equal sides;
A and D,
are opposite to the equal sides,
Piti iposrrioN
In an
isosceles
sides arc equal.
XII.
lie
thus, the
oppoequal
BC, EF.
Tii k( iekm.
triangle, the angles opposite the equal
20
Let
tlie
AB = AC,
side
C=
then will the angle

the vertex A, draw
From
mi'ddle point
of the base
ABD, ADC,
triangles
AD
BC
AD
common,
to
the
the
two
have
will
three sides equal, each to each
AB = AC
B.
the
that
is,
by hypothesis,
and BD = DC by construction. Hence,

by the preceding theorem, the angle B
is
An
Corollary.
equal to the angle C.
equilateral triangle
is,
at the
same time,
equiangular.
The equality of the
Scholium.
triangles
ABD, ACD,
BAD = DAC, and

angle BDA = ADO. Hence, BDA and ADC are
proves at the same time that the angle

that the
Therefore, the line
right angles.
drawn from
the vertex
the middle point of the base,
is
of an isosceles triangle to
perpendicular to the base, and divides the angle at the
vertex into tioo equal parts.
In a triangle which
is
either side for the hose,
the angle whicb
is
we
celes triangle,
not isosceles,
we
and then
vertex will belong to
its
opposite to the base
take indifferently
while in an
take the side for the base which
equal to either of the other
not
sides.
XHI.
Proposition
isos-
is
Thkoeem.
If two angles of a triangle be equal,

those angles will also be equal,
and
tJie
sides opposite to
the triangle will be
isosceles.
Let
the
ABC = ACB,
angle
will the side
AC
then
be equal to the side
AB.
For,
AC be not equal to AB, let

AB to be greater' than AC.
BD = AC and join DC. The
if
uS suppose
angle
DBC
is,
"c Take
by hypothesis, equal
to
ACB;
the two sides
BOOK
DB, BC,
AC and CB
are equal to
would be equal
ABC
Pboposition XIV.
sides
DBC
But the part canand hence, AC and AB cannot
be unequal, and the triangle
Of two
then, the triangle
ACB.
to the triangle
not be equal to the whole
21
I.
is
^Theoeem.
of a triangle, that side
and
opposite to the greater angle ;
therefore isosceles.
is greater
which
lies
conversely, of two angles
triangle, the greater angle is opposite to the greater
of a
1.
Let the angle C
>
AB,
B, then will the side
opposite
the angle C, be greater than the side
AC, opposite the angle B.

Make the angle BCD=B; then, in
the triangle BDC, we shall have BD =
DC. (Prop. XIII.) But the right line
AC is shorter than AD + DC, and AD
+ DC = AD+DB=AB.
2.
Let the side
AB,
posite the side
the side
AB > AC
then will the angle C, op-
be greater than the angle B, opposite
AC.
it
would
follow, from
has just been demonstrated, that
AB <
AC, which
C = B, we
should have
For,
if
were
less
than B,
trary to the supposition.
AC
AB
Hence,
AC.
greater than
is
(Prop. XIIL), which
Hence, as the angle

the angle B,
it
must
If
is
con-
AB =
less than,
nor equal
to,
be greater.
XV. TufeoKKM.
given point without a right
pendicular can
what
also contrary to the hypothesis.
winnot be
Pboposition
From a
is
line, cnlij ktne
he let fall iipon that line.
per-
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETET.
22
Let
lis
we could let fall

CD, viz., AE, AB produce one of them AE to A', making
EA'= AE, and join A'B. The tri-
suppose that, from the point A,
two perpendiculars on the
angle
line
AEB
A'EB,
is
for the angles
are right angles
AEB, A'EB,
the side
A'E, by construction
BE common. Hence,
;
ABE
EBA'; hut
the angle
EBA'
ABE
is
AE =
and the
the
side
angle
a right angle, by
But
two right angles,
the line ABA' must be a right line, and we shall then have
two right lines drawn between the points A and A',' which
is impossible.
Hence, only one perpendicular can be
drawn from A to CD.
supposition
if
therefore,
the adjacent angles
ABE
Pboposition
Iffrom a point
pendicular
EBA'=
XVI.
Theorem.
without the right line
AB he drawn
AE, AC, AD,

1.
a right angle also.
is
-!-
(&o., to
to this line,
and
DE,
the per-
the several lines
the different points
The perpendicular will
le
of this line
shorter than any oblique
line.
2.
sides
BE,
3'^
Any
two oblique lines
AC, AE, drawn on
different
of the perpendicular, and at equal distances,
BC,
will be equal.
Of
two oblique
lines,
AC
and AD, or
AD, drawn
at will, that
AE
and
which
is
farther from the perpendicular will

be the longer.
Produce the perpendicular
AB
BF = AB, 'and join EC, FD.

1. Tlie triangle BCF is equal to
the triangle BCA; for the right
until
BOOK
23
t.
CBF = CBA, the side BC is common,

BF BA therefore, the third side CF is
angle
side
the third side
AC.
and the
equal to
(Prop. V.)
But the right line ABF is shorter than the broken line
ACF; and AB, the half of ABF, is shorter than AC, the
half of
ACF.
Hence,
than every oblique
1, thqj
perpendicular
we suppose BE = BC,
we have AB common, the
2. If
for,
and BE = BC.
two oblique
2,
will
is
shorter
the triangle
right angle
Hence, the sides
ABE = ABC
ABE ABC,
AE AC, are
lines equally distant
equal
and
from the perpendicular
be equal.
3"^.
less
AB
line.
In-
the triangle
DFA,
the
sum
of the lines
AC, CF
AC,
the half of the line
ADF
consequently,
3,
which
the oblique line
is
farthest
from the perpendicular will be the longer.

Corollary I. The perpendicular measures the true
tance of any point from a right line, since
any oblique
From
the same point
three equal right lines to the
same
we
it is
dis-
shorter than
line.
Corollary IT.
possible,
is
AD, DF (Prop. VIH.) and

ACF, is less, than AD, the half of
than the sum of the sides
same
line
we cannot draw
;
for, if this
were
should have two equal oblique lines on the
side of the perpendicular,
Pkoposition
which
is
impossible.
XYH. Theorem.
middle point C of the right line A, we

erect the perpendicular EF1, each point of the perpendicular will he equally distant from the two extremities of
the line
; 2, any point situated outside of the perpenIf,
from
the
AB
dicular will he unequally distant from the same extremities
and B.
For, 1, since
AC =CB,
the two oblique lines
are equally removed from the perpendicular
AD,
DB
and are
24
The same is true of

AE, EB, and of
therefore equal.
the two oblique lines

the two
AF, FB, &c. HencQ,
point of the perpendicular

distant
2.
is
from the extremities
every
1,
equally
A and B.
Take any point
I outside of the
we
join lA, IB, one
perpendicular
if
of the lines will cut the perpendicular

at
D, and drawing DB, we shall have
DB = DA.
shorter than the broken line
ID
+ DA = lA
therefore,
IB
But the
+ DB,
ID
< lA
point outside of the perpendicular
from the extremities

RemarTc.
and
and hence,
is
IB
is
ID + DB =
2,
every
unequally distant
and B.
A geometrical locus
which possess a
right line
common
is
a line,
all
the points of
property not possessed by
all
the
other points of the plane.
The
line
EF
is
the geometrical locus of the points equally
distant from the points
PEOPOSiTicftj
Two
and B.
XVIII.
Theorem.
right-angled triangles are equal
when
and a side of the one equal

cnuse and a side of the other, each to each.
the hypothenuse
Let the hypothenuse
DE
The equality of
the third side
to the
hypoth-
and the side
then will the right-angled triangle
the right-angled triangle
if
AC = DF
they have
ABC be
AB =
equal to
DEF.
these two triangles will evidently exist,
BC
is
equal to the third side EF.
Let us
BOOK
suppose,
BC
if possible,
that these, sides are not equal, and that
the greater.
is
ABG is
triangle
25
I.
BG = EF,
Take
and join
DEF
AG. The
for,
the right
and E are equal, the side AB =:DE, and the side

BG = EF. Hence, the two triangles are equal (Prop. V.),
and we have AG = DF. But, by hypothesis, DF = AC.
Hence, AG = AC. But the oblique line AC cannot be
angles
AG (Prop. XVI.), since it is farther from the perAB therefore, is impossible that BC should
unequal to EF and hence, the triangle ABO is equal
equal to
pendicular
be
it
DEF.
to the triangle
'a'
XIX.
Peoposition
Two
^Thkoeem.
rightrangled triangles are equal
when
they have the
hypothenuse and an angle of the one equal to the hypothenuse and an angle of the other, each to each.
Let
AC = DF,
A = D. Place the triDEF on the triangle

ABC, so that DF shall
and the angle
angle
coincide
AC.
D=
will take the direction
CB
perpendiculars to the line

point
with
Since
A, the
take
the
and
at the
equal
its
angle
the
line
DE
direction
will
AB,
FE
same time
we should have two

AB, from the point C. The
otherwise,
will therefore fall on B,
and the two triangles
will
coincide and be equal.
Peoposition
1.
Every point
AD,
is
M taken
Theoekm.
on the hisectrix* of an angle
equally distant from, the sides of this angle.
* The Haectrix of au angle

equal parts.
XX.
is tlie
line
which divides the angle
into
two
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETE^'.
26
2.
Every point
M taken in
distant from the sides
BAD, and equally
the angle
AB, AD,
is
a point of the hisec/rix
of that angle.
1. Draw, from the point M, the right lines
MC, respectively, perpend icnlar
AB
and
right-angled
the
MAD, MAO
MA
MAD, MAC
Hence,
esis.
2.
MAD, MAC
pothenuse
MA
AD
triangles
common, and the

by hypoth-
equal,
MD = MO.
Reciprocally, if the perpendiculars
MO
MD,
triangles
and
to
are equal, for they have
an hypothenuse
angles
MD
equal, the right-angled
are
be
will
still
common, and the
equal, having an hysides
MO
MD,
equal,
MAD
= MAC.
Hence, the angle
There results from this, that any point taken in the angle
BAD, outside of the bisectrix AM, will be unequally distant from the two sides.
by hypothesis.
Scholium.
The bisectrix of an angle
is
the geometrical
Ipcns of the points situated in the interior of this angle,
and equally distant from
its
two
sides.
THEOEY OF PAEALLELS.
Proposition
Two
XXL
right
Theoeem.
lines,
are perpendicular
line,
IB
to
the
same right
are parallels.
For,
if
they meet each other in
for example,
AC, BD, which
we
M,
should have two per-
pendiculars drawn from the same point

to the line CD, which is impossible.
BOOK
I.
27.
PROPOSITtON XXII.
ThKORKM.
Through a given point we way always draw a parallel

a given right
to
From
draw
line.
AB perpendicular to BO, and

AB the two perpendiculars,
the point A, draw
AD
perpendicular to
AD
and BC, being both perpen-
AB,
dicnlar to
We
place,
will be parallels.
admit, in
will
the second
an evident proposition,
as
that through a given point
only draw one parallel to a given right
Pkoposition XXIII.
If two right
line,
FH,
dicular
CD, AB,
perpendicular
to the other,
It is at first
we
lines.,
Theoeem.
are parallel, every right
one of them,
to
we can
line.
AB,
is
perpen-
CD.
evident that
FH
must meet CD, otherwise
CD
could draw two parallels to
through the point F.
CD
Finally,
FH;
lar to
CD were
is
for,
perpendicuthe line
if
oblique to
FH, we
might erect a perpendicular

and
to FH, at the point
we
should thus have two right lines passing through the
point
H,
Two
AB, which
is
impossible.
PKOPOsmoN XXIV.
Theorem.
parallel to
right lines
AB, CD,
>
parallel
^
point
M,
to
are parallel
For,
if
a third
to
the
line,
EF,
each other.
lines
AB,
CD
a point M,
met each other
miglit draw two parHllcls
to tlie right line EF, thmugh
in
we
tlie
wliicli is iinpossible.
28
DEFINITIONS.
When two right lines, AB, CD, are cut by a transversa],

EF, there are eight angles formed at the points of intersecThe four angles
tion G and H.
Ijing
between the
(S),
(1), (4), (5),
and
CD,
are called
lines
AB
right
interior angles
the four others
are called exterior angles.
The two angles

I
(1)
and
(5), sit-
uated on different sides of the
and not adjacent,
secant, interior
are called a^fernafe-iMferior angles.
The two angles
(8)
and
(2),
same
situated on the
side of
the secant, one interior, the other exterior and not adjacent,
are called corresponding angles.
Finally, the angles (2) and
(6),
situated on different sides
of the secant, exterior and not adjacent, are called alternateexterior angles.
Peoposition
XXY.Theoeem.
Two parallels form with

1.
2.
3.
i.
a transversal
Equal alternate-interior angles.

Equal alternate-exterior angles.
Equal corresponding angles.
Interior angles on the same side of the
sum
is
equal
secant,
to
whose
two
right
angles.
1.
Let the parallels
AB,
From
of
lar to
AB
this line will
The right-angled
triangles
CD
GH.
be cut by the transversal
the point O, the middle
EF, draw
OM
perpendicu-
be also perpendicular to CD.
MOE, ONF
are equal
for.
BOOK
the hypothenuse
construction
OE
vertical angles,
these triangles,
are
We see,
these
angles
are
MEO,
OFIST.
The
2.
that
the
equality of
the alternate-interior
are equal.
BEF, EFC,
also, that the angles
angles
FO!N", being opposite
From
equal.
also
hypothennse OF, by
to ihe
MOE,
we conclude
MEO, OFN,
angles
29
I.
equal
is
and the angles
;;;
GEB,
alternate-exterior angles
are equal
tor
supplements* of the
respectively the
CFH
are equal
they are" the opposite vertical angles to the equal

angles MEO, OFJST.
for,
3.
GEB
4.
EFD
The corresponding angles GEB,

is
equal to
are equal
for
AEF, and AEF = EFD.
EFD is equal to two right

AEF = 2 right angles, and
The sum of the angles BEF,
angles
for,
we have BEF
4-
AEF = EFD.
XXVI.
Peoposition
Theoeem.
make with a transversal

Equal alternate-interior angles;
Equal alternate-exterior angles
Equal corresponding angles ;
Interior angles on ihe same side of the secamt, whose sum
Reciprocally^ if two right lines
is
equal
to
two right angles
These right lines will he parallels.
-^^
-ô^
^^^
-Lgi. ^jjg
j,jgj^j ^j^,gg
^^g^
CD be cut by the transversal GH

^
we might draw through
if
the
alternate-interior
AEF, EFD
are equal,
be parallel
to
the point
* The supplement of an angle

two right angles.
is
angles
AB
will
CD. Otherwise,
line EI parallel to
the difference between this angle and
;;
30
CD
but, in
case, the
tliis
AEF =EFD,
EFD, would be
angles lEF,
equal, as alternate-interior angles
and
as, bj'
AEF = lEF,
wo should have
hypothesis,
which
is
ab-
surd.
2. If
the alternate-exterior angles
AEF,
the opposite vertical angles
CFH are
GEB,
EFD
are also equal
AB will be
and, from what has just been demonstrated,

parallel to
3. If
CD.
the corresponding angles
GEB is
Hence, AB
is
4. If the
parallel to
sum
right angles, as
AEF
AEF, we
equal to
as
that
==
BEF,
BEF -f AEF =
EFD
EFD are equal,

AEF = EFD.
have
EFD
equal to two
is
2 right angles,
AB is parallel
and hence,
GEB,
shall
CD.
of the angles
Proposition
Two
equal,
XXVII.
we conclude
to CD.
Theorem.
angles which have their sides parallel are equal or
supplementary.
1.
Let
parallel
ABC, DEF be two
and lying
the
in
Â
jj
angles whose sides are

same direction. These angles
will be equal.
In fact, the
angles
DLC,
DEF
are equal, as
corresponding angles.
But, for
DLC = ABC;
ABC = DEF.
a like reason,
hence,
Let the two angles
2.
MEN,
have their
and
ABC,
sides parallel,
but lying in a contrary direction

tor
MEN
3.
is
equal to
Finally,
sides parallel,
while the sides
if
the
BA
DEF, and
these angles will be equal
DEF = ABC.
two angles
ABC,
DEM
have
ED lying in the same

BC and EM lie in a contrary
and
their
direction,
direction,
feoot
then will the angles

for,
DEM
ABC
Pkoposition
If two
DEM
and
the supplement of
is
SJ
f.
be supplementary;
DEF, and
XXYIII.
DEF = ABC.
^Theorem.
angles have their sides perpendicular, each
to
each, these angles will he equal or supplementary.
Let
BAC, DEF be two
angles,
whose
tively perpendicular to each other.
sides are respec-
Draw through
point
AI
the
the line
perpendicular
AH
AB, and
to
perpendicular
to
AC; the right lines
AH,
AI,
will
be
respectively paralto
lel
lie in
to
the same direction.
DEF;
we have
but
and BAC + HAB

lAH = BAC.
Scholium.
line
If
we
FEG
is
consider the angle formed
The sum of the
XXIX.
three qngles
is
equal
right angle,
by the
right
shall see that the
BAC.
the supplement of the angle
Pkoposition
right
one right angle; therefore,
EF, and the prolongation of DE, we
angle
lAH
Hence, the angle
LAH + HAB = one
also equal to
the
DE, EF, and
lines
Theoehm.
of a triangle
is
equal to two
right angles.
Draw AE
parallel to
BC,
AC to D. The
angles ACB, EAB are equal,
and produce
being corresponding angles
formed by the parallels BC,

AE, cut by the transversal AC.
ELEMENl'S OP GEOMETRf
32
The angles CBA,
BAE
are also equal, being alternate-
BC and AE, when cut by

sum of the three angles of the
sum of the three angles CAB,
interior angles of the parallels

tlie
secant AI^: hence, the
triangle
is
equal to the
BAE, EAD, formed around

of the line
AC.
But
two right angles;

of the triangle
is
of these angles
sum
therefore, the
is
side
equal to
of the three angles
In any triangle, there can only be one

a right angle
and, for a greater reason,
there can only be one angle that
Corollary II.
Corollary III.
is
an obtuse angle.
In every right-angled triangle, the
of the two acute angles
gle, or
same
the point A, on the
sum
equal to two right angles.
is
Corollary I.
angle which
tlie
is
sum
equal to one right angle.
When we know
may
simply their sum, we
two angles of a
fiiid
trian-
the third angle,
by
sum from two right angles.

Corollary I V. The exterior angle BAD, formed by the
side BA and the prolongation of AC, is equal to the sum
taking the
of the two interior angles
CBA, BCA..
Pkoposition
Tke sum of the

equal
to
as
XXX.
interior angles of any convex polygon is
many times
two right angles as the polygon has
sides, less two.
Through one of the vertices A, draw the diagonals AC,

The polygon will thus be divided into as
AD, AE, AF.
many
triangles as there are sides
in the polygon, less
triangles
ing for a
A, and
two
for,
these
may be considered as havcommon vertex the point
for bases the different sides
of the polygon,
triangles
the two
ABC, AGF,
extreme
containing,
each,
two
sum
of the angles of these trian-
sides of the polygon.
The
fiook
33
i.
gles
IS
evidently equal to the
polygon
and
sum
as the
sum
of the angles of the
of the angles of the triangles
is
gles, the
many times two right angles as there are triansum of the angles of the polygon will be equal to
many
times two right angles as the polygon has sides,
equal to as
as
two.
less
we represent by n the number of

sum of the angles will be
If
the
2 X
- 2)
(tj,
XXXI.
Peoposition
The opposite
gram
and
sides
or 2
71
sides of the polygon,
4.
^Theokem.
opposite angles
of a parallelo-
are .equal, respectively.
BD
have the common side BD
Draw
the diagonal
the two triangles
besides, since
allels,
ADB, DBG
AD, BC
the angle
XXVI.), and
(Prop.
are par-
ADB = DBG
because
CD are parallels, the angle

ABD = BDC hence the two
triangles ADB, DBG are equal
AB,
(Prop. VI.)
opposite the angle

the equal angle
AD is equal
ADB,
DBG
and the side
equal to the side
is
DC,
AB,
opposite
and, in like manner, the third side
to the third side
BG
therefore, the opposite
sides of the parallelogram are equal.
In the second place, from the equality of the same trianangle A is equal to tlie angle C,
gles, it follows that the
ADC,
composed of the two angles

ADB, BDC, is equal to the angle ABC, composed of the
two equal angles DBG, ABD, hence the opposite angles
and
also tlie
angle
of the parallelogram are equal.
Corollary
I.
Two
between two other
AB, CD, comprehended

AD, BG, are equal.
parallels,
parallels,
2*
34
ELEMENT^
Corollary II.
Two
OF*
GEOMETEY.
equidistant through-
parallels are
out their whole extent.
CD
For,
and
AB
being par-
perpendiculars IIF,
the
allel,
and GE to AB, drawn through

H and G, are parallel also, and
will be equal, as lying between two
parallels.
Peoposition
XXXII.
ABCD,
any quadrilateral
so that we have
If, in
AB =
equal,
Theorem.
equal sides will be parallel,
the opposite sides are
CD, and
and
AD BG,
the figure will he
the
a paral-
lelogram.
For, drawing the diagonal
BDG
will
BD,
the angle
side
AB,
DBG,
is
side
manner,
ABCD
is
AB
is
parallel to
ADB
they
and
opposite the
equal to the angle
opposite the equal side
GD, hence
like
ABD,
the two triangles
have the three sides equal, each to each

will therefore be equal
(Prop.
XXVI.)
AD is parallel to BG.
CD, and the
tho
Jn
quadrilateral
a parallelogram.
PEOPOsrrioN
XXXIII.
If two opposite sides, AB, CD, of a quadrilateral are

and parallel, the two other sides will he equal and
parallel also, and the figure
equal
ABCD
will
he
a parallelo-
gram.
Draw the
AB
is
diagonal
parallel to
ternate-interior
DB
CD,
angles
since
the
al-
ABD,
BOOK
EDO
DC,
XXVt) besides, the side AB =

DB common hence, the triangle ABD is
the triangle DBG (Prop. Y.) and we shall have
AD = BO, the angle ADB = DBO, and conse-
are eqnal (Prop.
the side
equal to
the side
quently
35
I.
is
AD
is
parallel to
BO, and the
figure
ABQD
is
parallelogram.
XXXIV.
Peoposition
The two diagonals AG,
'
^Theoeem.
DB of a parallelogram, divide
each other into two equal parts

For, comparing the triangles
side
ADO, OOB, we
find the
AD = OB, the angle ADO ^ OBO (Prop. XXY.) and

the angle DAO =
;
OOB
hence, these
triangles are equal
side opposite the angle

site
the equal angle
Scholium.
BO
ADO,
OBO
and
we have AO,
the
equal to the side 00, oppo-
and we have
also
DO OB.
In the case of the rhombus, the sides
being equal, the triangles
AOB =
AOB, OBO
AB,
h3,ve the three
and are therefore equal hence,

BOO, and the diagonals will intersect
sides equal, each to each,
the angle
(Prop. VI.);
each other at right angles.
36
BOOK
II.
THE CIRCLE AND THE MEASURE OF ANGLES.

DEFINITIONS.
I.
The circumference of a
circle is a
curve
line, all
the
points of which are equally distant from a point within,

called the centre.
The
circle is the portion of the
plane bounded by the
circumference.
Every right
II.
line
CA, CE, CD,
centre to the circumference,
&c.,
such as
line,
drawn from the

and every
called a radius ;
is
AB, which
through the centre, and
passes
is
minated on both sides at the

cumference,
is
Hence, there
number
cle,
number
ako be equal, and each
infinite
will
HL An
arc
is
may
and there
will
be an
of radii in the
of diameters in the
cir-
called a diameter.
and they are
other
ter-
same
all
infinite
same
cir-
equal to each
may
be also an
circle,
and they
be double of the radius.
any portion of the circumference,
sucli as
FHG.
The chord of an arc is the right line FG, which contwo extremities of an arc, and subtends the arc.
IV. The segment is the surface or portion of the circle
embraced between the arc and the chord.
N. B. The same chord FG will always correspond to
nects the
two
arcs,
FHG, FEG,
and also to two segments
but
ref-
BOOK
erence
37
II.
always made to the smaller, unless otherwise
is
expressed.
Y.
A sector
DE
an arc
is
the part of the circle comprised between
and the
CD, CE, drawn
radii
to the extremities
of this arc.
VI.
right line is inscribed in a circle,
An
when
and
its
vertex
in the circumference,
is
sides are chords.
inscribed triangle, such as
has the vertices of

the
ex-
its
angle is inscribed in a circle,
its
An
when
AB.
tremities are in the circumference, as
its
ABC,
three angles in
circumference, and
its
are
sides
chords.
In general, an inscribed ^polygon is one, the vertices of

whose angles are in the circumference, and M'hose sides
are chords.
A secant
Til.
two points
VIII.
mon with
point
is
AB
a line which cuts the circumference in
is
is
a secant.
tangent
is
a line which has only one point com-
the circumference
CD
is
a tangent, and the
called the point of contact.
IX. In like manner, two circumferences are tangent to

each other, when they have only one point common.
X.
polygon
is
circumscribed about a circle when
sides are tangent to the circumference.
we say
In the same
its
case,
also that the circle is inscribed in the polygon.
38
N. B. In general, we call a tangent to any curve the
which a secant AB takes in turning
limit of the positions
around the point A, until the second

point
of intersection, B,
If the curve
is
B',
&c.,
A,
unites with the first
re-entrant, as the
and cannot be intersected by

a right line in more than two points, it
circle,
evident that
is
when the
points of in-
tersection are united in a single point,
the line will only have one point
common with the curve, and we

might therefore define a tangent to
a curve as a right line which has
only one point in common with the
in
But the
curve.
all
the
first definition suits
curves; and even limiting

circle,
has the
it
to
advantage of
pointing out remarkable analogies
between many theorems.
Peoposition
Every diameter
I.
AB divides
Theobem.
the circle
and
its
circum-
ference into two equal parts.

if we apply the figure AEB
AFB, keeping the line AB com-
For,
to
mon, the curve
line
AEB
exactly on the curve line
must
AFB,
fall
other-
wise there would be points in the circumference unequally distant from

the centre of the circle, which
is
con-
trary to the definition of the circle.
BOOK
Proposition
Every chord
is
39
II.
Theokem.
II.
smaller than the diameter.

For,
chord
the extremities of tho
at
if
AD, we draw
CD, we
shall
the radii
AC,
have the right
line
AD < AC + CD,
or
AD < AB.
Corollary. Hence, the diameter
is
the longest right line that can be inscribed in a circle.
Peoposition hi.
A right line
^Thkoeem.
cannot meet a cirournference in more thO/n
two points.
For,
if it
met the circumference
in three points, these
points would be equally distant from the centre
we should
then have three equal right lines drawn from the same
point to the same right line, which
impossible (Book
is
I.,
Prop, xyi.)
Proposition IV.
'
In
the
same
circle or
Theoeem.
in equal
circles,
equal arcs are
subtended hy equal chords / and, reciprocally, equal chords

are subtended by equal
The radius
AC
a/rcs.
being equal to the radius EO, and the
AMD
arc
ENG,
will
to
the arc
the chord
AD
be equal to the
^chord EG.
Foi",
AB
the diameter
being equal to the
ameter EF, the

the semicircle
semicircle
ENGF, and
AMDB
may
di-
be applied to
the curve line
AMDB
will
id
ex:ietly eciiucide
with the curve line
AMD
the portion
sii|)[)osed
to
ENGF.
be equal
But we have
to
the portion
EXG then, the point D will fall on G; and the chord

AD will be equal to the chord EG.
Reciprocally, supposing AG = EG, if the chord AD =
;
EG, we
have the arc
shall also
AMD
equal to the arc
ENG.
For, drawing the radii
CD, OG,
ACD,
the two triangles
EGG will have the three sides equal, each to each, to wit,'
AC = EG, CD = GG, and AD = EG hence, these triangles are equal (Book I., Prop. XL)
and the angle ACD =
;
EGG.
EGF,
radius
fall
on
But
in placing the semicircle
since the angle
ACD = EGG,
on
its
equal
evident that -the
CD will fall on the radius OG, and the point D will

G hence, the arc AMD is equal to the arc ENG.
;
Proposition Y.
is
ADB
it is
Thboeem.
In the same circle or in equal circles, the greater chord

subtended hy the greater arc, and, reciprocally, the greater
arc is subtended by the greater chord ; the arcs which are
considered being always

For, suppose the arc
AMD = ENG, the
less
than a sem,i-circufnference.
AH >
chords
the arc
AD, EG
ENG
will
take the arc
be equal.
Draw
DC, CH;
the two sides AC,
CH, of the trithe radii
angle
ACH,
are
equal to the two

sides
AC,
CD
of
the triangle ACD;
ACH greater than ACD hence,

AH will be greater than the third side AD
the angle
side
is
greater than
is
the third
and
AH
EG.
Eeciprocally,
if
the chord
AH >
the chord
EG,
the arc
BOOK
41
II.
AMH
will be greater than the arc ENG

for, if
were equal to ENG, the chord
would be equal to the
chord EG, which is contrary to the hypothesis and if the
AMI!
AH
arc
AMH were
smaller than
EN6,
the chord
be smaller than the chord EG, which
AH would
also contrary to
is
the hypothesis.
Soholium.
We
have supposed that the arcs were less

If they had been greater, the
than a semi-circumference.
opposite property would have existed, that

arcs
would have been subtended by
is,
the greater
and
less chords,
re-
ciprocally.
Theorem.
Pkoposition VI.
The radius CG, perpendicular

the
chord and
to
a chord
AGB,
subtended arc
its
AB,
divides
each, into two
equal parts.
Draw
the radii
CA, CB these radii are, with

CD, two equal oblique lines
respect
to the perpendicular
hence
they are equally distant from the perpendicular (Book
I.,
Prop. XVI.), and
AD = DB.
Since AD = DB, CG
we have
2.
pendicular at
AB
is
equally distant
froiii
the
(Bpok I., Prop.

one of these points, and hence
extremities
The point G is
But if the chord
AG = BG.
AG
AG
and
is
equal to the chord
will be equal to the arc
GB,
the arc
and
therefore, the radius
AB,
a per-
the middle point of
hence, every point of this per-
pendicular
XVII.)
is-
GB
(Prop. IV.)
CG, perpendicular to the chord

by this chord into two
divides the arc subtended
equal parts at G.
Scholium.
The
right line
CG passes through the
centre,
through the middle of the chord, and through the middle
ELEMENTS OF GEOStETBY.
42
of
arc.
tlie
It
also perpendicular to the chord.
is
But
two of tliesc conditions are sufficient to determine the position of a right line
two of
tliese
and hence every right
conditions will necessarily
line
fulfil
which
fultils
the other two.
Thus, the perpendicular to the naiddle of the chord will

pass through the centre of the circle, and through the
middle of the arc
and so on.
Theorem.
Peoposition VII.
Through three points A,B, C, not in the same right line,

we may always pass a circumference, and only one.
Join AB, EC, and through the middle points of these
These two perlines draw the perpendiculars DE, FG.
pendiculars
were
will
meet;
through the point
for,
if
they
EA, BC, drawn
parallel, the lines
perpendicularly
would be in the prolongation of each other, which is conto these parallels,
trary to the hypothesis.
Now,
two
pendicular
and
'
lar
DE,
is
the point of meeting, O, of the
lines
DE, FG, being on
the per-
equally distant from the two points
and the same point 0, being on the perpendicnis

equally distant from the two points B and C
FG,
;
hence,
three distances
tlie
OA, OB, 00,
the circumfei;ence described from
are equal, and
as a centre,
and with
a radius OB, will pass through the three points A, B, 0.

2. ISTo
other circumference can pass through these three
at the
same
right lines
Corollary
is
possible, its centre
time, on the lines
I.
AC,
DE
The perpendicular
erected at the middle
through the point 0, since this

equally distant from the points
and C hence,
point of
point
were
would be found,
and FG, and these two
can only intersect each other in one point.
points, for, if this
will pass
BOOK
43
II.
the perpendiculars erected at the middle points
of a triangle
of the sides
same point.
intersect in the
Corollary IT. Two circumferences cannot have more

than two points common, without coinciding, one with
the other.
Peoposition VIII.
Theoeem.
Two equal chords are equally distant from, the centre /

and, of two unequal chords, the smaller is at a greater
distance from, the centre.
Let the chord
1.
AB = DE.
Divide these chords into
two equal parts by the perpendiculars CF, CG, and draw the radii
CA, CD. The right-angled triangles
OAF, DCG have the hypothenuse
CA==CD.
Besides, the side
the half of
DG,
AB,
the half of
is
DE
hence, these
triangles will be equal (Bk.
I.,
XVIII.), and the third side

equal to the third side
chords
DE
Prop.
CF
is
two equal
therefore, 1, the
are equally distant from the centre.
AH greater than DE, the arc AKH

DME (Book II., Prop. V.)
the arc AKH, the part ANB = DMB draw the
Let the chord be
2.
will
AB,
CG
AF,
qual to the side
be greater than the arc
Take, on
chord
AB, and
let fall
on
this
chord the perpendicular
CF, and also CI perpendicular to AH. It is evident that

CF > CO, and CO > CI; hence, a fortiori, CF > CL But
CF = CG, since the chords AB, DE are equal therefore,
we have CG>CI; hence, of two unequal chords, the
smaller is at a greater distance from the centre.
;
Pkoposition IX.T/ie perpendicular
CA,
radius
is
^Theoeem.
BD, drawn
a tangent
to the
at the extremity of the
circumference.
For, every oblique line
CE
is at
a greater distance from the perpen-
CA
dicular
hence, the point
BD
has no other point but
A in
Hence,
For,
all
BD
is
the circumference.
a tangent.
The radius CA, drawQ
Reciprocally.
BD,
is
at the point of
perpendicular to this tangent.
the points of this line, except the point
exterior to the circumferences, the radius

shortest line that can
right line
BD, and
is
line
circle,
common with
contact of the tangent
and the
without the
CA
A, being
will be the
be drawn from the point
to the
consequently will be perpendicular to
this line.
Corollary.
Through a point
A taken
on a circumfer-
ence, only oneAangent can be drawn.
Pkoposition X.
Theorem.
Two parallels, AB, DE, intercept
equal arcs,
MN, PQ,
on the circumference.
There
may be
three cases.
two parallels are sedraw the radius CH per-
1. If the
cants,
_B pendicular to the chord

will, at the
MP;
it
same time, be per-
pendicular to
its
then, the point
parallel
H will be,
NQ
at the
same time, the middle of the

arc MHP, and of the arc NHQ.
(Book II., Prop. VI.) And we shall have the arc
=
HP, and the arc
= HQ. Hence,
= HP
- HQ
that
is,
NH
MN = PQ.
MH
MH NH
BOOK
2". If
is
one of the parallels
45
II.
is
a taugent, wliile the other
a secant, at the point of contact of the parallel tangent
draw the radius
CH
this
radius will be perpendicular to

the tangent
DE, by
the preced-
ing proposition, and also to
MP.
parallel
But, since
CH
the point
HP, comprehended between
is
MP,
perpendicular to the chord
Ilvc
its
is the middle of the

Hence, the arcs MH,
MHP.
AB, DE,
the parallels
are
equal.
3.
gents,
DE,
AB we
Finally, if the two parallels
draw the
parallel secant
IL, are both tanshall have,
from
MH = HP, and MK =
KP and, therefore, the entire arc HMK HPK; and we
-what has just been demonstrated,
;
see, further, that
each of these arcs
is
a semi-circumference.
Theorem.
Pkoposition XI.
A outside of
If two circumferences have a common ^poird

the line 00',
which connects
their centres, they have a sec-
AB
ond point A' situated on the perpendicular

to 00',
and at the same distance from the line as the point A.
For A'B being equal to AB, the right lines CA, CA'
will
be
equal,
lines equally
being
distant
oblique
from the
foot of the perpendicular
0-^
->C'
circle described
through the point A'.
the circle described from
to
from the point
C, as a centre, with
dius, will pass
CB
Hence, the
the right line AA.'.
We
CA
as a ra-
also see, that
C as a centre, and CA as a ra-
must pass through the point A'.

When two circumferences
Oorollary 1.
dius,
which
middle of the common chord.
line
connects their centres
is
intersect, the
perpendicular at the
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETEY.
46
Corollary II.
If
point of contact
is
two circumferences are tangent, the

for, if not,
on the line of the centres;
the circumference would have a second point
and
tliey
Two
common,
would, therefore, intersect.
circumferences can only occupy, with respect to
They may be
each other, five different positions.

or interior
or, finally,
may be tangent
may intersect.
they
they
Peoposition XII.
If two circumferences are
exteiior
exteriorly or interiorly
Theorem.
exterior the distance lietween

.^
their
centres
greater
is
sum of the
than the
ra-
dii.
For,
CA +
Hence,
CC ^
we have
C'A'
AA'.
CC > CA +
CA'.
Proposition XIII.
If two circumferences are
Theorem.
interior, the distance between
their centres is less than the di'ffer-
ence of their radii.

A.
For,
AA'.
we have CC'=
CC < CA Proposition
XIV.
C'A'
equal
to the
CA'.
Theorem.
If tv)o circumferences are tangent

lietween, thei/r centres is
CA -
Hence,
exteriorly, the distance
sum of the
radii.
fiooK
47
ii.
For, the point of contact
A, being on the
centres,
we
CC'
Proposition X"V
= GA + AC'.
Thkoeem.
If two ciroumferenoes are tangent interiorly,

ietween their
cent/res is
line of the centres,
If two circumferences
their centres will he, at the
and
to the dif-
on the
is
and we have CC'=
C'A.
Peoposition
the radii,
the distance
equal
ference of their radii.

For, the point of contact
CA -
line of the
have, evidently,
XVI.
Theorem.
intersect,
distance ietween
the
same time,
less
sum of
than the
greater than their difference.
For, joining the centres with one of the points of inter-
A, we
section
will
form a
which the line

of the centres CC, and the
triangle, in
radii
three
seen
CA, C'A
sides.
that,
one side
is
in
will be
the
But we have
any triangle,
less
than the
sum
of the other two, and greater than their difference.
The
reciprocals of the five preceding propositions are
and may be demonstrated in the same manner.

example, if the distance between the centres is
true,
For
less
48
than
tlie
sntn of the radii, and greater than
tlieir differ-
ence, the circumferences intersect each other; for,
if
they
were exterior or interior, the distance between tlieir centres

would be greater than the sum of their radii, or less than
their difference
and if they were tangent, the distance
;
between the centres would be equal to the sum of the

radii, or to their difference.
Pkoposition XYII.
Theorem.
In the same circle, or in equal circles, equal angles A CB,

I)CE, whose vertices are at the centre, intercept equal arcs
Reciprocally, if the arcs AB,
on the circumference.
DE
are equal, the angles

For,
1, if
ACB,
the angle
DCE will
ACB = DCE,
placed one on the other
and
he also equal.
these angles
may be
as their sides are equal,

is
evident
point
that
it
the
will fall on
D, and the point B

on E. But then the
arc AB must also fall
-jT'^
on the
^^
if
these
DE
ai-c
two
for,
arcs did
not coincide, there would be, in one or the other of them,
which
points unequally distant from the centre,

sible.
2.
angle
Hence, the arc

If
AB =DE,
DCE;
for, if
AB =DE;
ACB
the angle
will
is
impos-
be equal to the
these angles are not equal, let
ACB
and let ACI = DCE we shall have, from

what has just been demonstrated, AI = DE but, by
hypothesis, the arc AB = DE.
Hence, we shall have
AI = AB, or a part equal to the whole, which is impos-
.be the greater,
sible.
Therefore, the angle
ACB = DCE.
BOOK
Peoposition XYIII.
In
the
same
circle^
49
II.
Theorem.
or in equal circles^ the angles at the
centre are to each other as
tlie
arcs intercepted hetnoeen their
sides.
ACB,
Let
DCE
be two angles at the centre of equal
circumferences. Suppose
that the
DE
AB
arcs
have
and
common
measure, and that this
measure
times in
in
DE, the ratio of AB to

If we join the several
DE
ACB
will
DCE
If the
arcs
AB
two
two circumferences, we
see
be divided into Y angles, which
will contain
ratio of the angles
times
will be \.
will be equal to each other, as lying
the angle
contained 7
points of division of the
ares with the centres of the
that the angle
is
AB, and 4
upon equal
arcs
4 of these equal angles.
and
The
ACB and DCE will therefore be \ also.

and DE are incommensurable, divide
DE into 3 equal parts, for example and suppose the

AB to contain 4 of these parts, with a remainder
KB smaller than one of these parts. The ratio of AB to
DE is greater than f and less than f.
the arc
arc
If,
now, we join the centres C,
vision of the arcs,
we
with the points of
see that the angle
DFE
into three equal parts,
the angle
ACB
also, therefore,
ratios of
ACB
and
contains 4
of these
parts, with a re-
mainder
KCB smaller than
one of them the

'^_^'^ the angles ACB,
;
"K
di-
divided
is
ratio of
DFE
is
comprised between | and f. Hence, the

to DFE, and of AB to DE, are both com-
prehended between | and
Now,
|-.
dividing the arc into
60
10,100,1000... parts,
that these ratios are
numbers of
we could prove, in like manner,

embraced between two consecutive
tenths, hundredths, &c.; therefore, these ratios
we have just proved that they are comprehended between numbers whose difference may be made
are equal, for
as small as
we
please.
Measure of Angles.
The measure
know
of
any magnitude
is
known, when we
the ratio of this magnitude to a unit of measwre of
the same species.
The right angle

angles, so that the
used as the unit of measure for all

measure of an angle becomes the ratio
is
of this angle to one right angle.
But the preceding tlieorem shows, that we may substitwo angles at the centre, the ratio of
tute for the ratio of
the arcs included between their sides.
Thus, instead of
comparing directly an angle with a right angle, we may

compare the arc included between its sides with the fourth
part of the circumference and it is in this sense that the
;
angle at the centre has for
between
its
measure the arc included
its sides.
To facilitate this comparison, we divide the circumference into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree into
60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds, &c.
If the arc included between the sides of an angle at the
centre contains 24 degrees, the measure of this angle will
bp î or -*-
Scholium.
Repeating,
the preceding theorem,
taken in equal
by
literally,
the demonstration
we might prove
circles, are to
that
two
of
sectors,
each other as the arcs included
their sides.
Pboposition XIX.'
An
inscribed angle
of the arc
BAD
BD included ly
Theorem.
has for
its sides.
its
measure the half
BOOK
51
II.
Let us suppose the centre of the

within the angle
BAD
radii
terior to the triangle
the
be situated
circle to
draw the diameter AE, and the

CB, CD. The angle BCE, ex-
sum
ABC,
equal to
is
of the two interior angles,
(Book I., Prop. XXIX.)
CAB, ABC.
BAC being isosceles,

CAB = ABC. Hence, the
BCE is double of BAC. The
But the
triangle
the angle
angle
angle
arc
BCE,
BE.
as
an angle at the centre,
BAC will
Hence, the angle
By
BE.
the half of the arc
like
measured by the
have for its measure
is
reasoning, the angle
CAD will have for its measure the half of ED.

BAC + CAD, or BAD, will have for a measure
the half of BD.
of BE + ED that
Hence,
the half
is,
Let us now suppose that the centre

of the angle
BAD
C is
;
situated outside
then, drawing the
diameter AE, the angle
BAE will
for its
measure the half of
angle
DAE,
the half of
their difference,
BAD,
BE
DE.
will
have
and the
Hence,
have
for its
measure the half of BE, minus the half

of
ED
or the half of
Hence, every inscribed angle

arc included by
Corollary
I.
is
BD.
measured by half of the
its sides.
All the angles, BAC.BDC, &c., inscribed

in the
each
is
same segment, are equal; for

measured by the half of the
same arc
Corollary
II.
Every
angle
scribed in a semi-circumference
right angle
for it has for its
inis
measure
the half of the semi-circumference, or
the fourth of the circumference.

Corollary ///.Every angle
BAC
inscribed in a seg-
52
meiit greater than a semicircle,
measure
is
the half of the arc
an acute angle, for
is
BOC, which
less
is
its
than a
seuii-circumference.
Every angle inscribed in. a segment smaller than a semian obtuse angle for its measure is the half of the
arc BAG, which is greater than a semi-circumference.
circle, is
XX.
Proposition
The angle
BAG, formed
Theorem.
ly a tangent and a chord,
is
AMDC, included hy its sides.

contact, draw the diameter AD
the
angle BAD is a right angle. (Bk. II.,
measured hy half of the arc
At
the point of
Prop. IX.)
It
is
measured by half
the semi-circumference
AMD
the
DAG measured by half the

are DG then, BAD
DAG = BAG,
angle
is
-f-
be measured by the half of
will
AMD
plus the half "of
DG,
or the
AMDG.
GAE is measured
half of the whole arc

It might also be shown that the angle
by half of the arc AG.
XXI.
Peoposition
The angle
whose vertex
BA C, formed
is
Theorem.
ly the two secants
BE,
A C,
in the interior of the circumference,
measured hy the half of

hy
the
sum of the two
its sides
and
is
arcs included
the prolongation
of its
sides.
For, the angle
BAG,
exterior to the
AEG, is equal to the sum of

angles AEG, AGE, which have for
triangle
the
b\
Yo
their measures, respectively, the half of
the arcs
BC
and DE.
BOOK
53
11.
Peoposition XXII.
Theorem.
The angle BAC, formed by the two secants AB, AC,

whose vertex is outside of the circumference, is measured hy half the difference of the arcs intercepted hy its
sides.
For, the angle
A is equal
to the difference of the angles
BDC, ABD, which
are measured, the
by the half of EC, and the second by the half of DE.

The proposition is also true, when
first
one of the sides of the angle, or when

both, are tangents to the
ence
and
same
the
circumfer-
demonstration
applies.
Corollary
I.
The arc of the
circle
BA
is the
For,
1,
2,
every angle
the interior of the segment
is
we produce
at
CMB
whose vertex
CM
N, and join
MNB = CDB.
CMB >
smaller than
is
in
for, if
the angle
CMB,
MNB, is greater
MNB
but the
Hence, we have
CDB.
"We might, in
that every angle CGB, whose vertex
3.
is
is
to the circumference
ISTB,
than the interior angle

angle
CDB
greater than
exterior to the triangle'
segment,
BAC
every inscribed angle in the segment
CDB
sides
C and B.
pass through the points

equal to
geometrical
CDB, whose
locus of the vertices of all angles equal to
like
is
manner, show
exterior to
the
CDB.
Proposition XXIII.
Theokem.
In every inscribed quadrilateral

angles are supplementary.
ABCD,
the opposite
54
For, the opposite angles
ADC, ABC, have together,

ABCD.
for
a measure, the half of the circumference

A
Eeciprocally,
if,
any quadrilateral,
in
two opposite angles are supplementary,

this quadrilateral may be inscribed in a
circumference.
For, draw a circumference through the
three points A, D,
the angle
ADO is
measured by half the arc AMC hence,

is the supplement of the first, is
measured by half the remaining arc ADC that is, it is
equal to each of the angles inscribed in the segment
;
ABC, which
the angle
AMC
arc
which could not be unless the point
was on the
AMC.
PEOBLEMS KELATING TO THE TWO FIEST

BOOKS.
PEOBLEM
To divide a
From
right line,
the points
AB,
into two equal j/arts.
and B,
greater than the half of
I.
AB,
as
centres, with a radius
two
describe
each other in
D;
arcs, cutting
tiie
point
JSfD
be equally distant from
Lay
off,
line
AB,
also,
Ve
will
above or below the
the points D, E,
line
and B.
a second point E, eqnally
_R distant from
The
and B.
Through
draw the
line
DE will divide
the line
DE.
AB
two equal jjarts at the point C.

For, the two points D and E, being each equally distant
from A and B, they must both lie on the perpendicular
But only one right
erected at the middle point of AB.
into
iOOK
line
can be
line
made
DE
the line
AB
will
into
55
II.
to pass through two given points hence,

be the perpendicular which divides the
;
two equal parts
at the point C.
PROBLEM
n.
Through apomt A, on a given

pendicular
line
SO,
to erect
a per-
to this line.
Take the points B and C, at equal distances from A

from the points B and C as centres, and with a radius
D
greater than BA, describe two arcs,
cutting each other in D draw AD, it
:
will be the perpendicular required.
For, the point D, being equally distant from
and C, belongs
pendicular erected at the middle point of
AD
is
hence,
that perpendicular.
Scholium.
^The
a right angle,
line
to the per-
BC;
same construction may be used to make

at any point
of a given right
BAD,
BC.
PROBLEM
From a point
A taken outside
fall a perpendicular on this
From
in.
of a right line
BD, to
the point A, as a centre, and with a radius
ciently large, describe
suffi-
an arc which shall cut the line
in the
let
line.
two points
and
BD
then,
take a point E, equally distant from
and D, and draw AE. The right

line AE will be the perpendicular
required.
For, the two points
and
are,
each, equally distant from the points
and
the line
and, therefore, the line
BD,
at its
middle point.
AE
is
perpendicular to
^
56
PEOBLEM
At
to
the point
A, on
IV.
AB,to make an
the line
angle equal
a given angle K.
the vertex K, as a centre, and with any radius,

the
arc IL, terminated at the sides of the angle;
describe
From
from the point A, as a centre, and with a radius
BO
describe the indefinite arc
o D
AB = KI,
at the point B, as a cen-
tre,
with a radius equal to
the chord LI, describe an
then will the angle
DAB
they
be equal
are, therefore,
hence, the angle
cutting
BO,
at
to the
BD, LI have equal
For, the two arcs
chords
arc
arc
equal (Book
the
indefinite
D; draw AD;
given angle K.
radii
II.,
and equal
Prop. IV.)
BAD = IKL.
PROBLEM
V.
To divide an angle or an arc into two equal parts.

To divide the arc AB into two equal parts. At the
points A and B, as centres, with the same radius describe
two arcs, intersecting each other at D
through the point D and the centre C,
draw CD. The right line CD will divide the arc AB into two equal parts
1.
at the point E.
For, the two points

each, equally distant from the extremities
chord
AB
middle of
hence, the line
this
chord
AB into
2.
and
two equal parts

To divide the angle
CD
it
at E.
is
C and D are,
A and B of the
perpendicular at the
divides the subtended arc
(Book IL, Prop. VI.)
ACB into two equal parts. From
the vertex C, as a centre, with any radius, describe the

arc
AB
the arc
angle
the line
AB
ACB
into
into
CD, already
two equal
two equal
constructed, which divides

parts, will also divide the
parts.
58
Draw
DEF
the indefinite line
-'""'^
quired third angle
make two
angles taken together
PROBLEM
Ha/oing given two
sides,
make
the angle DEC = A, and the

angle CEH = B the remaining angle HEF will be the re-
I,
^^
at the point E,
for,
these
right angles.
vin.
B and G,of a triangle, and the

angle
A included
sides,
describe
to
hy these
the
tri-
angle.
Draw
make
the angle
EDF = A
GH DGH will
draw
at the point
DG = B, DH = C,
take
and
be the triangle required.
PEOBLEM
Having given one
the indefinite right
DE
line
IX.
and two
side
angles of a triangle, to
describe the triangle.
.The two given angles
will
be either both adjacent to
the given side, or one will be adjacent,
In the
angle,
and the other opposite.

last case,
find the third
by Prop. YII.
we
shall
then have the two adjacent angles.
Draw
DE
the riglit line
the points
DE
ing with the line
of the adjacent angles

sect
each
equal to the given side.
and E, draw the
other
DF
From
and EG, mak-
angles respectively equal to each
the two lines
H, and
at
lines
DEH
DF, EG,
will
will inter-
be the required
triangle.
PEOBLEM
The
three sides,
X.
A, B, C,of a
describe the triangle.
triangle beiny given, to
BOOK
Draw
DE
59
II.
From
equal to the side A.
the point E, as
a centre, with a radius equal

the second
to
scribe an arc
side B,
de-
and from the
point D, as a centre, with a
equal to the third
radius
side C, describe another arc,
cutting the
DF,
EF DEF
:
will
F draw
first at
be the triangle required.
In order that the problem
may be
possible,
it
is
neces-
sary that the circumferences described from the points
and E,
as centres, shall intersect each other.
that the side
DE
be
shall
than the
less
This requires
sum
of the two
other sides, and greater than their difference.
(Book
II.,
Prop. XVI.)
PKOBLEM
Having given two

the angle
XI.
A and B, of a
sides,
opposite one of the sides,
B,
triangle,
and
to describe the
triangle.
There
may be two
cases
angle, or an obtuse angle,
the
C = a right
EDF equal to.
take DE = A
the angle
1, if
make
the angle
angle
from the point E, as a centre, and

with a radius equal to the given
side B, describe an arc cutting
the line
DEF
DF
will
at
F; draw EF:
be the triangle re-
quired.
It is
necessary, in the
first case,
that the side
than
for,
B be greater
the angle C,
being a right angle, or an

obtuse angle, is greater than
either of the other angles
of the triangle.
side opposite to
Hence, the
it
must
also
60
be the greatest side.
B >
A,
tlie
C be
angle
the
2. If
same construction
will apply,
and
and
acute,
DEF
is
the
triangle required.
But
if
the angle
be acute, the side
B <
A, then the
EF =
angle described from E, as a centre, with a radius
B, will cut the side
DF
F
two
in
points,
and G, situated
on the same side

of
DEG, which
cases, if the side
on the line
B<
there will,
be two
triangles,
DEF,
problem.
will satisfy the
The problem
Scholium.
therefore,
be
will
impossible,
than the perpendicular
in
let fall
all
from
DF.
PEOBLEM Xa.
To find the centre of a
Take any three

nr
in
circle,
points.
or of a
gwen
arc.
A, B, C, in the circumference,
right lines
AB,
divide these lines into
two
them by the
the given arc; join
BC
equal parts by the perpendiculars
DE,
FG
which these
tersect,
the point
O, in
perpendiculars
be the
will
in-
centre re-
quired.
Scholium.
The same construc-
tion applies, if
it
were required to
pass a circumference through any three given points. A, B, C;
and also
angle
to
draw a circumference
ABC. shall be
If the three given points
problem
AB,
BO
is
in
which the
sriven tri-
inscribed.
be in the same right
line,
the
impossible, since the perpendiculars to the lines
will be parallel.
BOOK
PEOBLEM
61
II.
Xin.
Through a given pmnt draw a tangent

If the given point
A be
to
a given
CA; AD,
radius
circle.
on the circumference, draw the
perpendicular
CA,
tangent
(Bk.
II.,
to
the
be
will
required.
Prop. IX.)
If the point
be
the
join
the
circle,
line
CA
divide the line
CA
without
point
centre
by the
equally, at
and the
right
from the
point O, as a centre, with the radius OC, describe a
cir-
and
cumference intersecting the given circumference in
D AB
:
and
AD
For, the angle
the semicircle,
Hence,
AB
and
and CD; and
We
is
will each be the tangent required.
CBA,
or
CD A,
a right angle.
AD
being inscribed in the
(Book
II.,
Prop. XIX.)
are perpendicular to the radii
CB
are, therefore, tangents.
two
They
are equal, for the right-angled triangles CBA, CDA have
the hypothenuse CA common, and the side CB = CD.
see, that
equal tangents
when
may
the point
is
without the
circle,
be drawn through the point A.
Hence, they are equal (Book I., Prop. XYIII.) and we

have AD = AB, and at the same time the angle CAD
;
CAB.
PEOBLEM
XIV.
a given triangle ABG.

Draw the bisectrices AO, BO, of the angles
Inscribe a circle in
these right
lines
intersect each
A and B
other at the point O,
equally distant from the three sides
AB, AC, BC.
If,
62
from the point 0, we
let
fall
tlie
OD,
perpendiculars
OF, OE, on the
sides of
the triangle, these perpenwill

be equal,
and the circumference de-
diculars
A'
scribed from the point O,

^^ as a centre, with
as a
^^p'^^
OD
radius, will be tangent to the three sides of the triangle.
The point 0, being equally distant from

I.
BC, AC, belongs to the bisectrix of the angle C.
Remarli
the sides
Hence, the three
hisectrices
of the angles of a triangle meet
in the same point.

ItemarTt II.
If we draw the bisectrices

terior angles
of the two ex-
MBG, BON,
their point of
meeting O' will be the centre of a
circle
tangent to the side BC, and to the other

sides
In like man-
produced outwards.
we may
ner,
of the two
find the centres 0", O'",
other
tangent
circumfor-
ences to one of the sides of the triangle.
and the prolongation of the other two sides.

Four circumferences may, therefore, in
drawn tangent
to three
given right
general,
be
lines.
PEOBLEM XV.
On a
right line AB., describe a segment capable of con-
taining a given angle

angles inscribed in
Produce
it
C;
that
is,
a segment such, that
all
shall be equal to a given angle C.
AB towards D make, at the point B, the angle

DBE = C; draw BO perpendicular
to BE, and GO perpendicular at the
middle point of AB from the point
;
jlT of
meeting 0, as a centre, with a
dius
will
OB,
describe
circle
ra-
AMB
be the segment required.
'
For, since
BF
is
perpendicular at
fiooK
63
It.
OB, BF is a tangent, and the

by half of the arc AKB (Book
the extremity of the radius
angle
II.,
ABF
is
Prop. XX.)
measnrei'd
;
besides,
tlie
AMB = ABF = EBD =
inscribed in the segment
AMB is
Scholium.
If the
AMB
inscribed angle
measured by half of the arc. AKB.
is
also
Hence, the angle
and, therefore, every angle
equal to the angle C.
given angle be a right angle, the re-
quired segment would be the semicircle described on
AB
as a diameter.
PROBLEM
XTI.
Draw
a common tangent to two circumferences...

Suppose the problem solved and let AA' be the
common tangent exterior to the two circumferences.
1.
Draw
CA,
the radii
C'A', to the points
of contact, and the

line C'JB parallel to
The
AA'.
CA,
perpendicular to the parallel C'B
radii
being
C'A',
perpendicular
to
AA',
be'
will also
and hence, C'B
will
be
tangent to a circumference described from the point C, as

a centre, with a radius
We
CB = CA
C'A'.
deduce, therefore, the following construction
de-
from the point C, as a centre, with

C'A', and draw through the point
scribe a circumference
a radius equal to
CA
Knowing the point

we draw the line CBA, and the line C'A', parallel to
CA, and join AA' AA' will be the tangent required.
C' a tangent to this circumference.
B,
The construction shows

the problem, since Ave
cumference
we have
CB
that there
and the problem
CC > CA -
aj-e
may draw two

C'A', or
is
two solutions of
tangents to the
cir-
only possible when
CC = CA -
C'A',
or, in
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETER.
64
other words,
when
the circumferences are not interior to
each other.
Let
2.
it
now be proposed
to
draw a common interior

CA, CM,
tangent to two circumferences, whose radii are
and
let
AM'
quired line
radii
1
be the
CA, CM',
to the
points of contact,
and
CB
par-
The
line
the right line

allel to
AM'
the
to
lar
AM'.
being perpendicu-
CA,
radii
CB will be perpendicular to these radii also
CM',
re-
draw the
it
will
therefore be tangent to a circumference described from
CB = CA + AB,
the point C, as a centre, with a radius

or
CA -f
To
CM'.
construct the problem,
having
we
describe a circumference
and with a radius equal to the sum
as its centre,
of the radii 6f the two given circumferences
through the point
a tangent
CB
The remainder of the construction
we draw
to this circumference.
the
is
same
as in the
preceding case.
This problem also has two solutions
sible
when
when
CC > CA + CM,
or
and
only pos'
it is
= CA + CM
that
is,
the circumferences are exterior, or tangent exte-
riorly.
PEOBLEM xvn.
To find
lines
the greatest
AB, CD, and
The
greatest
common measure
their
numerical
common measure
to
greater than the less of the two lines

A
01
JpHD
to
two given right
ratio.
two
CD
E equal to
lines
but
CD,
cannot be
it
would be
if this line
was exactly contained in

the greater line AB.
Lay
feooK
oP
65
li.
CD on AB, and suppose that we
same
two
as that of the
lines
CD
AB = 20D + IB
AB and CD, is the
have
common measure between
the greatest
and IB.
common measure of AB and CD, dividing

divide AI
and dividing AB, it will be ex-
Indeed, every
CD,
will also
actly contained in the remainder IB, and will therefore be
common measure
of
CD
and IB.
common measure
Eeciprocally, every
of
CD
and IB
AI and IB, and consequently AB and

will therefore be a common measure of AB and CD.
Thus, all common measures of AB and CD are the common measures of CD and IB. Hence, the greatest common measure will be the same for both.
Lay off IB on CD, and suppose that we have CD =
IB + KD we may prove, as before, that the greatest
common measure of CD and IB is the same as that of IB
and KD.
Lay off KD on IB, and suppose that we have IB =
2KD KD will be the greatest common measure of the
will also divide
two
lines
We
AB
and CD.
deduce from
AB = 8KD
CD is |.
3KD, and
AB
and
Remark.
"We
of operations
the
;
preceding
equalities
CD =
hence, the ratio of the two lines
have supposed'above, that
we have a remainder
in the series
equal to zero.
two
We will
have a common measure and that when they are incommensurable, we

arrive at remainders smaller than any assignable quantity.
prove that
this is
always
so, if
the
lines
For, let A,
B be
cessive remainders
tients.
the two lines;

;
j',
g",, q-i,
/"i, r-,,
q^, qi,
We shall have
A = Bg-i n
B = r^q2 + Ti
n = r^3 + n
^2 = nSi + î,
/-j,
r-^,
&c., the suc-
&c., the several quo-
-I-
&c., &c.
ELEMENTS OF
66
But,
r, is less
than
than
if
and
We shall
We see
;for, ifB<^-j7-,
a fortiori^
B^^^, then,?'i=A B;
have
that
GEOME^TE'^.
if
is
hence,?*! ""CTo"*
^5
<;^
tence,
r^
<^ -.
r,
<^ -
hence,
r-,
<^
^-g,
&c., &c.
the operation be indefinitely extended,
if
there
remainder equal
less
also,
is
to
remainders smaller
we
we
common measure, we shall have a
zero otherwise we should fall upon
than the common measure, which is
shall arrive at remainders as small as
sequently,
ry
please; and, con-
evidently absurd, from what has been said before.
When
the lines are incommensurable,
number
certain
we
might, after a
of operations, neglect the last remainder
may then be taken as
the preceding remainder
common measure, and
will give
the greatest
an approximate value for
the ratio.
PKOBLEM
Two
angles,
and
JB,
XVIII.
being given to find their
tneasure, if they have one,
and
Describe, with equal radii, the arcs

to
measure these angles.
/\
/
s
CD, EF, which
serve
Proceed then to compare the

arcs CD and EF, as in the
preceding problem
for, an
common
their ratio in numbers.
arc
may be
arc, as
laid off on
a right line
obtain the
is
an
laid off
common measure
BOOK
67
II.
of the arcs, if they have one, and their ratio in numbers.
This ratio will be that of the given angles (Book

XVIII,), and
DAO will
if
DO
be the
common measure
II.,
Prop.
of the arcs,
be that of the angles.
If the two arcs are incommensurable, the angles will be
incommensurable
also,
and we might obtain, as before, an
approximate value for the
ratio.
68
BOOK
III.
OF THE MEASUEE AND SIMILAEITY OF

POLYGONS.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
that
The area
(if
the ratio of
is
its
magnitude to
the unit of surface.
Two
II.
of a figure
figures are said to be equivalent,
when they
have the same area.
Two
may be equivalent, although

may be equivalent to a
figures
lar: thus, a circle
very dissimisquare, or a
triangle to a rectangle.
Figures are said to be equal, when, being applied one

to the other, they coincide in all their points: such are
two
circles
with equal radii
two triangles whose three
sides are equal, each to each, &c.

III.
The
altitude of a parallelogram
j,
is
the perpendicu-
EF, which measures the

distance between the two opposite sides AB, CD, taken as
lar
(3
iases.
IV. The altitude of a triangle
is
the perpendicular
drawn from the vertex
AD
of an
angle A, on the opposite side
EC, taken
V. The
ezoid
is
as the hase.
altitude of a trap-
the perpendicular
drawn between its two

lel sides AD, CD.
EF,
paral-
BOOK
Proposition
69
III.
Theorem.
I.
'
and equal
Parallelograms, whioh have eqxial bases
alti-
tudes, are equivalent.
AB be the common
ABCD, ABEF; since they
Let
^lO
base of the parallelograms
have the same
altitude, tlie
f upper bases DO, FE, will be situated on

the
same
line parallel to
But we
AB.
have, from the nature of a parallelo-
BC, and AF = BE for a

we have DC = AB, and,
==
=
then,
DC
FE
and
AB
subtracting DC and FE
FE
from the same line DE, the remainders CE and DF will
gram,
AD =
reason,
like
be equal.
It follows
from
this,
DAF, CBE, have

and they are consequently
that the triangles
their sides equal, respectively
equal.
But,
if
ABED,
we
take the triangle
ADF from
from the same quadrilateral

triangle
CBE,
hence, the
ABEF
ABED, we
and
if,
take the equal
ABCD
there remaiins the parallelogram
ABCD, ABEF,
which have
the same base and the same al-
parallelograms
titude,
equivalent.
are
Every
Corollary.
gram
ABCD
parallelo-
equivalent to the
has the
same base and the same
altitude.
Pkoposition
ABC is
Every triangle
which has
the
For, the triangles
ABC,
ABCD,
is
ABEF, which
rectangle
XX XL)
the quadrilateral
there remains the parallelogram
II.
Theorem.
the half
of the iMrallelogram
same lase and
the
ACD are equal.
same altitude.
(Book I., Prop.
ELEMENTS OF CliOMETuy,
.0
Corollary
The
I.
ABC
triangle
is
half of the rectangle
has the same base BC, and the same
BCEF, which
D tude
AC
/ BCEF
for,
is
equivalent
to
the
ABCD.
parallelogram
Corollary
alti-
the rectangle
Triangles,
II.
which have equal bases and

equal altitudes, are equivalent.
Proposition
Two
rectangles
Theorem.
III.
of the same altitude are
to
each other as
their hases.
Let
ABCD, AEFD,
be two rectangles, which have

for
their
common
AD
altitude
they will be to each other as

their bases,
AB, AE.
Let us suppose, in the

place,
AE,
divide
AB
into
7 equal parts,
numbers 7 and
AE
first
AB,
and
If
4.
will contain i of
we
form 7 partial rectangles,

be equal to each other, since they have equal
lar to the base:
will
bases
Erect at each point of division a perpendicu-
these parts.
which
the
are commensurable,
that they are to each other as the
we
that
bases and the
same
shall thus
altitude.
The rectangle
ABCD
will
contain 7 of these partial rectangles, while the rectangle
AEFD
tlie
will contain 4.
rectangle
AFED,
Hence the
rectangle
ABCD
AB
as 7 is to 4, or as the base
is
to
is to
AE. If the bases AB, AE are incommensurable,

we might prove, by the same reasoning applied (Book II.,
Prop. XVIIL), that the proposition is true.
the base
BOOK
Let R,
r,
be the areas of two rectangles B, H,. the two

iirst
h, h, the two dimensions of the
;
dimensions of the
second
base
we
assume a third rectangle R', which has the same

first, and the same altitude h as the second
as the
shall have,
and dividing the two terms of the

have
Measure of a
rectangle.
-R'
Multiplying these two proportions,
To
consists in finding its ratio to
member by member,
first ratio by R', we
measure a rectangle H,
r, which
a certain rectangle
taken as a unit of measure.
The preceding theorem shows that we may obtain this

ratio, by finding the number of times the lines B, H, h, h,
contain the same unit, and then dividing the product
B X H by the product J x A.
= 4 feet, J = 3 feet, A = 2 feet, we
Let B =^ 6 feet,
shall
have
x2 =
=r
4.
Thus,' the rectangle

^
tains the rectangle r, taken as a unit,
Ordinarily,
we
con-
4 times.
take, as the unit of measure, the square
whose side is equal to the ^Mlit of length. Reducing, then,

the numbers h and A to unity, the proportion (1) becomes
R_ B xH
r
We
'
by the preceding theorem,
is
71
III.
see, therefore, that the ratio of the rectangle to the
square, whose side

bers which express
is 1, is
equal to the product of the num-
how many
times the base and altitude
of the rectangle contain the linear unit.
This
is
always
ELEMEl^TS OF GEOMETRY.
72
expressed, wlieri
we
its
base by
Pkoposition Y.
product of
is
equal
is
equivalent to the rect-
to the
hase hy its altitvde.
For,
tlie
parallelogram
angle
ABEF, which
J'
its altitude.
Theoeem.
The area of any parallelogram

its
measure of a rectangle
saj, that the
equal to the product of
is
ABCD
AB, and
has the same base
the same
But the area of
the rectangle has for its measure
AB X BE hence the area of the
])Hrallelogram is equal to AB x
BE, that is, to its base multi
c altitude
BE.
;
plied
by
its altitude.
Corollary.
Parallelograms of the same base are to each
other as their altitudes
and parallelograms of the same
altitude are to each other as their bases
ing any three dimensions whatever,
we
for
A, B, C, be-
have, generally,
A xC ^ A
~
B
X C
B"
*
Peoposition VI.
The area of a
Theoeem.
triangle is equal to the product of its hase
hy the half of its altitvde.

For, the triangle
ABCE, which
ABC
is
the half of the parallelogram
has the same base BC, and the same

tude
AD. But
alti-
the area of the parallel-
BC
X AD, by the preceding

theorem hence that of the triangle =
I BC X AD, or BC x \ AD.
ogram
is
Corollary.
bases,
Two
triangles
of
the
same altitude are to each other as their

and those of the same base are to each other as
their altitudes.
Book
Theorem.
Proposition VII.
A BCD is
The area of a trapezoid
EF, rmdtiplied hy half

CD.
73
iti.
the
sum of
equal
to its altitude
parallel
its
lyases
AB.,
Through the middle point I, of the side CB, draw KL

AD, and produce DC nntil it meets KL in K.
K In the triangles IBL, ICK, we have
c
D K
the side IB = IC; by construction,
the angle LIB = CIK, and tlie angle
IBL = ICK, since CK and BL are
parallel to
(Book
parallel
E
are
(Book
equal.
ABCD
for its
is
B therefore
I.,
tlie
Prop. VI.)
Hence
equivalent to the parallelogram
measure
EF
XXV.);
IBL and ICK
Prop.
I.,
triangles
the trapezoid
ADKL,
and has
x AL.
But we have AL = DK, and since the triangle IBL =

KCI, the side BL = CK then, AB' + CD = AL + DK =
2AL, and hence AL half the sum of the two bases AB,
CD. Therefore, the area of the trapezoid ABCD is equal
to the altitude EF multiplied by half the sum of the bases
AB, CD, which maybe expressed thus: area ABCD==
:
Scholium.
we draw IH,
also
If
through the point
parallel to the base
be the middle of AD,
lelogram, as well as
parallel;
IL
we have
tlie
TTT
Ime HI
n-
therefore, the area of tlie trapezoid
by
EF
X HI;
that
is,
is
BC,
H will
point
AHIL
and Dil
BIL = CIK
DH.
remark that
tlie
a paral-
since the opposite sides are
AH = IL,
IK, since the triangle
We may
the middle of
for tlie figure
DHIK,
then
I,
AB,
by the
4
IK.
therefore,
But
AH =
AT = AB+CD
= AL
^
may
also be expressed
altitude of the trapezoid
ELEMENTS OF
74
aEOMETR'S'.
multiplied by the line joining the middle of the sides
which are not
parallel.
Pkoposition YIII.
If a
line
AC he
Tiieokem.
divided into two parts, AB, BC, the

will contain the square on
square on the whole line
AC
BC,
one of the parts AB,plus the square on the other part

and
plus twice the rectangle of the two parts
AB
that
BC
',
is,
+ BC)=' = Ab' + BC' + 2AB x BC.

take AF = AB, draw
Construct the square ACDE
The square
parallel
to AE.
and
BH
FG parallel to AC,
The
parts.
four
ji p ACDE is divided into
AC
or
(AB
1-
first,
ABIF,
AF = AB
is
the square on
the second,
AB,
IGDH,
since
is
the
AC =
AE, and AB = AF, the difference AC AB is equal to the difference AE AF,
BC = ,EF. But on account of the parallels,
squar.e
on
BC
for, since
we have
"'^
wliicli
gives
BC, and DQ^=f,%: hence, HIGD is equal to the

sijUiire on BC.
These two parts being taken from the
wliole square, we have the two rectangles BCGI, EFIPI,
each of which lias for its measure, AB x BC. Hence the
IG
square
<iii
AC,
Scholium.
&c., &c.
Let a and J be the numbers which represent
the two parts of the line
AC
the algebraic multiplication
gives the equality

{a
and,
if
we suppose
+ by = a' + l' + 2ab;

the measure of the rectangle known,
this equality gives a
second demonstration of the above
theorem.
like
theorems.
remark may be made on the two following
<
BOOK
If the
line
on
Theorem.
AC he the differenoe of two lines AJ5, BG,

AC will contain the square on AB, plus the
square on BC, minus
That
we
is,
Aif
or
15
III.
Pkoposition IX.
the square
tioice the rectangle
of
AB and BG.
shall have
(AB
Construct
tlie
- BCf = rf + Ec' - 2AB x BC.

square ABIF take AE AC, draw CG
;
HK parallel to AB, and
parallel to BI,
complete the square
EFKL.
GLED,
The two rectangles CBIG,

have each for a measure,
we
if
for its
measure
square
ACDE.
x BC;
take these rectangles from the
ABILKEA,
whole figure
2
AB
AB + BC
which has
2
,
evident there remains the
it is
Hence the square on the line
AC,
&c.,
&c.
Scholium.
may be deduced from
This proposition
algebraic formula
(a
hf a' +
b'^
2ab, as in
the
the pre-
ceding theorem.
Peoposition X.
The
rectangle on the
AB, BG,
is
That
(AB
Construct
equal
is,
we
^Theorem.
sum and
to the difference
difference
of two
lines
of the squares of these
shall have
+ BC)
on AB
X (AB
and
AC
BC)
= AB' -
the squares
produce
AB
until
Bc'.
ABIF,
ACDE
BK =
BC, and
H L complete the rectangle AKLE.

The base AK, of the rectangle, is
the sum of the two lines AB, BO;
its
-'^
gle
altitude
the same
AKLE = (AB -F BC)
AE,
lines.
x (AB
is
the difference of
Hence, the rectan-
- BC).
But the
reetan-
7C
gle
composed of the two parts
is
BHLK is equal
= DE, and BK = EF.
BII
EDGF.
But these two
minus the square

therefore
theiirems,
{a
(AB
V)
- BG) = AB' - BCl

in the
two preceding
the algebraic formula the
{a \-h)
Proposition XI.
avgle
for
form the square ABIF

which is the square on BC;
we may deduce from

:
and
EDGF,
AKLE = ABHE +
Hence,
In the same manner as
same proposition
The
rectangle
parts
DHIG,
+ BC)
(AB
Scholium:
the
to
the part
ABHE +BI1LK;
= a^ &l
Theorem.
on the hyjpothenuse of a right-angled triequal to the sum of the squares on the two sides.
xquar'e
is
Let the triangle
ABC
Having
be right-angled at A.
constructed the squares on the two sides, let
fall
from the
right angle on the hy-
potbenuse the
AD
to E,
diagonals
angle
ABE is
composed
and
ABC
CBF
angle
right
the angle
produce
and draw the

AF, CH. The
of the angle
the
perpen-
AD;
dicular
CBH
is
com-
posed of the same angle
ABC
gle
angle
of
tiic
same square; and
fore, the triangles
two including
for a like
an-
hence,
the
ABE = HBC.
But
AB=BII, being sides

reason BF = BC there:
ABF, HBC, having
sides in each
and the right
ABH;
an angle and the
equal, are equal.
(Book
I.,
Prop. Y.)
Tlie triangle
the
ABF
is
half the rectangle
same base BF, and the same
altitude
BDEF, having
BD.
(Book
II.,
BOOK
Prop.
II.)
AH
for,
The
77
III.
HBC is also half of the

BAG and BAL being right
triangle
the angles
square
angles,
AC
and AL form one and the same right line parallel to

HB. Hence, the triangle HBC and the square AH,
which have a common base BH, have also a common altitude AB, and therefore the triangle is half of the square.
We have already proved that the triangle ABF is equal
the triangle
to
HBC
double of the triangle
AH, which
is
the rectangle
therefore,
ABF,
double of the equal triangle
HBC.
We might demonstrate, in the same manner,

lectangle CDEG is equivalent to the square AI.
BDEF, CDEG,
BCGF. Hence, the
pothenuse,
is
equal to the
that the
But, the
taken together, make up
two rectangles
the square
BDEF,
equivalent to the square
is
square
sum
BCGF,
on the hy-
of the squares
A.BHL,
ACIK, on the two other sides.

As a square has for its measure the square of the
number which represents its side, we have the equality
BC = AB + AC
which shows that the square of the

number which represents the hypothenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the numbers which represent the
two
sides of the right angle.
The square
Corollary I.
right angle
is
minus the square of the other
side
that
is,
we have
Ab'=BC'- Ac'.
ABCD be a square, AC its diagonal
the triangle ABC being rectangular and
Let
Corollary II.
of one of the sides of the
equal to the square of the hypothenuse,
also isosceles,
we
shall
have
AC =AB +BC =2AB.

Hence,
the square
of a square
square on
its
side
AB.
is
on the diagonal
AC
double
the
equal
to
78
Since
AO = -2
AB ^
,
we
have, extracting the square root,
AC ^v^2
AB ~ l'
Hence, the diagonal of a square
is
incommensurable with
its side.
Corollary
We have
HI.
shown
that the square
AH
is
equivalent to the rec-
BDEF;
tangle
in
consequence
the
common
but
of
altitude
BF, the square BCGF

is
the
to
BDEF
BC is
BD;
rectangle
as
the
base
to
the
base
then,
BC
AB
CB
2
BD
Hence, the square
on.
the hypothenuse, is to
the square
the sides
of the right angle., as the hypothenuse

segment of the hypothenuse adjacent to this side.
Corollary
IV.
Tlie rectangles
is
BDEF, DCGE
same altitude BF, are to each other as

CD. But these rectangles are equivalent
the
on one of
to the
having
their bases
to
BD,
the squares
_J2
AB AC
,
Hence,
AB
AC
BD
DC
Or, the squares on the two sides of the right angle are
to
BODE
111.
each other as the segments of the hypothenuse adjacent
to
these sides.
DEFINITION.
The
projection
of
any any right
AB, on
CD, is the
por-
CD
com-
line
other line
tion ab of the line
anj'
prehended between the feet

perpendiculars let
of the
fall
from
and
Peoposition XII.
its
extremities
on the line CD.
Theoekm.
In every triangle, the square on a side opposite an acute

equal to the miin of the squares on the two other
twice the rectangle of one of the sides contain-
angle
is
sides,
minus
and the projection of the other upon it.

be an acute angle in the triangle ABC draw
ing the acute angle
Let
AD
perpendicular to BC, and
we
shall
have
AB =AC +BC - 2BC x CD.

There
may
perpendicular
ABC, we
be two
falls
cases.
1. If the
within the triangle
shall have
and consequently,
BD = BC - CD,
+ Cd' - 2BC X CD. (Book III, Prop. IX.)

Adding AD to each member, and observing that the
right-angled triangles ABD, ADC give AD -f BD = AB
AC
we shall have AB = BC
and AD 4- DC = AC
Bd' = Bc'
- 2BC
X CD.
80
2- If the
perpendicular
AD
without the triangle
falls
ABO, we
BD = CD -
have
shall
EC, and consequently (Book
III.,
Prop. IX.),
BD =lJD +BC -
2CD
Adding Ad'
X EC.
members, we
shall
AB ='B0 + Ac' - 2BC
x CD.
Theorem.
Pkoposition XIII.
In mery obtuse-angled
both
to
have
triangle^ the square
on the side
of the squares
rectangle of one of the
opposite the ohtuse angle is equal to the sum.
on
the two other sides,
plus twice
the
sides containing the obtuse angle hy the projection
other
upon
Let
AB
of the
it.
be the side opposite the obtuse angle

triangle
ABC
pendicular
draw
toBC
of the
AD
per-
then we shall
have
AB =AC +BC +2BC

The
fall
it fall
at E, for
cannot
perpendicular
within the triangle
example, the triangle
ACE
x CD.
for, if
would have,
at
same time, the right angle E and the obtuse angle C,

which is impossible. Hence, it must fall without, and we
the
BD = BC + CD. From
Cd" + 2BC X CD. (Book II.,
have
this results,
Bd'
Prop. VHI.)
=^ +
Adding Ad'
both members, and making the reduction, as in the

preceding theorem, we shall have
to
Ab'
= Bc'+ AC + 2BC
X CD.
BOOK
The right-angled triangle
Scholium.
in
81
III.
is
which the sum of the squares of two
the only triangle

sides
is
equal to
the square of the third side.
For,
sum
side
of their squares
;
by
the angle included
if
and
if
is
the angle
the vertex
is
acute, the
greater than the square of

is
obtuse,
Peoposition
Jf from
these sides
XIV.
third
Theorem.
of a tnangle
AEto tlie middle point of the
tlie
will be less.
it
ABC, we
dravi a line
base, twice the square <f this
with twice the square of half the base, will

of the squares of the two other sides of
line, togetlier
he equal to the sum,
the triangle / that
is,
we
have
shall
=AB +AC.
perpendicular AD on the
2AE +2BE
Let
fall
the
triangle
AEG
Prop. XII.),
BO;
the
(Book
II.,
base
will give
AG = AE + EC -
2EC xED.
The
E
triangle
AB = AE + EB + 2EB
Adding
ABE
by
x ED.
these equations together, and
EB = EC, we
will give,
the preceding theorem.
shall
remembering that
have
AB + AC = 2AE + 2EB
Peoposition
XV.
Theoeem.
In every quadrilateral, the sum of the squares of the

four sides is equal to the sum of the squares of its two
4*
82
dinqonalx, })luH
four times
the centres
ilie
square of the line joint n (J
of these diagonals.
Let AC,
BD
be the diagonals of
and G
the quadrilateral ABCD;
the centres of the diagonals;

the lines
We have,
draw
BO, DO, OG.

from the preceding
tiieoJ
rem, in the triangle
jj
= 2B0'+2A0, and in
2D0 + 2AO. Adding
ABC, AB + BC
ADC,
the triangle
AD+DO =
these equations together,
member
by member, we have
AB +'BC + Ad'+ DC'=

But, in the triangle 1>0D,
2(B0'
+ DO) + 4Ao!
we have
+ DO = 2 BG + 20G:.
Hence,
Ab'+ Bc'+ Ad'+ DC = 4BG + 40g'+ 4Ao';
and since AC = 4A0, aftd BD = 4BG, we have, finally,
A B + BC + AD + DC = 40G + BD + Ac!
"bo
Corollary.
right line
the.
of
GO
If the quadrilateral
be a parallelogram, the
becomes zero; then,
in every parallelogram.,
sum of the squares of its four

the squares
The
of
its
sides is equal to the
sum
two diagonals.
reciprocal of this last theorem
is
also true.
OF PROPORTIONAL LINES AND SIMILARITY

OF FIGURES.
Peoposition XVI.
If a
line be
drawn
^Theorem.
jparallel to one
of the sides of a
angle, it will divide the two other sides proportionally.
tri-
BOOK
Join
BE
DC;
and
DEC
BDE,
83
III.
the^two triangles
DE;
have the same base
they have also the same altitude, since

the vertices
and
the base
allel to
are in a line par-
hence, these triangles
are equivalent.
The
'^
and are
we have
tude,
to
ADE, BDE,
triangles
common
with the
vertex E, have the same
each other as their bases
AD,
DB
alti-
and
ADE _ AD
BDE ~ DB"
Th^
ADE, DEC,
triangles
have
also the
baSes
AE,
same
EC
altitude,
common
with the
and are
to
vertex D,
each other as their
hence
ADE _ AE
DEC ~ EC
But the
common
triangle
Corollary I.
and
also.
BDE = DEC
ratio in these
From
AD
AE
DB
EC"
hence, because of the
this results,
AD
AE
AD-t-DB
AEH-EC-
AD -H DB
DB
two proportions, we conclude that
AE
or
-f EC
EC
AB
84
For,
be the point in which
let
AB, CD meet in the triangle OEF, the line AC being parallel to the base EF, we shall have
the lines
0E_ AE
OF ~
CF'
OGH, we
In the triangle
D have,
T,
1 M,
"
in like
manner,
Hence, from the
common
ratio,
shall
OE GE
-=-= = ===.
we have
AE_GE
CF ~ FH"
We
might prove
in the
Peoposition XVII.
Reciprocally^ if the sides
AB,
'
-^yy, the line
jy^
Fur,
if
DE
AC of a
Miice,
triangle
so that
DE will he parallel
ABC
we have
to the hase
BC
is
not parallel to the base BC, suppose
be parallel
we
shall
then,
have
on the one
side, the
by the preceding
AD
AO
ED
OG
But, by Iiypothesis,
^should have -^^
AO,
DE,
to
rem,
&c.
Theoeem.
are cut proportionally iy the line
AD = AE
= g^,
same way, that ~r^
gp =
^^, which
antecedent
and, on the other, the consequent
therefore, the parallel to
cannot differ from
DE
g^;
AE
EC
is
is
DO
theo-
hence,
we
impossible,
greater th^n
is less
than
OC
BO, drawn through the point D,

hence DE is parallel to BC.
AE
86
Draw CG
2.
AF
parallel to
have
in the triangle
BAF, we
BF_AB
FC ~ AG*
The
AGO is isosceles,
triangle
preceding reasoning
FC ~
Corollary.
manner
to
If the point
AB
D and
to
in the plane in .such
AC
to
the bisectrices of the angles
pass through the points
be proved by the
and we have
AC
A moves
that the ratio of
must always be equal
may
as
AG = AC,
BF_ AB
hence
is
constantly equal
BAG, EAC
F; since the
will
BF
T?T)
ratios pjp)-7rp
AD, AF,
Besides, the right lines
the point A, in
all its positions, will
follows
tances
That
be on
given points
a circumference of a
>the circumfer-
From which
as a diameter.
the geometrical loans
from two
ratio, is
FD
two
Hence,
bisectrices of the
adjacent angles, are perpendicular to each other.
ence described on
always
of jpoints
and
whose
it
dis-
are in a given
circle.
DEFINITION.
Similar triangles are those which have their angles

equal,
and the homologous
sides proportional.
Those sides are called homologous which
lie
opposite to
equal angles.
In general, similar polygons are those which have their

angles equal, each to each, and the homologous sides proportional.
In polygons, those sides are called homologous -which

are adjacent to equal angles.
BOOS:
Two
87
III;
XIX.
Pboposition
Theobem.
equiangularsbriaingles have their homologous sides
jproportional.
ABO, DEF
Let
be two triangles which have their

angles equal, each to each,
viz.,
A=
then
B=
D,
C =F
E,
homologous sides be proportional, and we shall have

will the
AB_AC_BC
'^
DE
AH =
AG =
DE,
AGH, DEF,
Take
DF~EF'
DF, and
join
GH;
the
trl^
be equal, having two sides and

an included angle, in each, equal.
Hence, the angle
will be equal to the angle E.
But we have E = B
angles
will
AGH
therefore, the angle
B = AGH, and GH
and we have the proportion
Draw
HL parallel to AB
-j-^
;
we
is
parallel to
BC
xtt"
shall
have the proportion
AC_BC AC _ BC
AH BL'''aH~GH'
BL, GH are equal as parallels comprehended between parallels.
Comparing the last proportion with the preceding, we
for the right lines
deduce from
it,
on account of the
ABÂC^BC
AG AH
Corollary.
If
two
GH'
triangles
to each, the triangles will
common
ratio,
ABÂC_BC
DE " DF ~ EF'
have two angles equal, each
be similar,
in each will be equal, and the
for the third angle
triangles will be equi-
angular.
Proposition
XX.
Theorem.
I'wo triangles which have their sides proportional are

equiangular.
88
Let|^ = A? =^,
be
\.
equiangular,
to
Sence,
it
ABC, AGH,
proportion,
the
or,
'
'
what
is
.1
the
same
GH is parallel
AGH = ABC. The
follows that
BC, and consequently the angle
triangles
having
and
AB AC
=r^ = =rrr;
DE DF
AB A O
-To~ira'
DEF
A = D, B = E, C = F.
Take AG = DE, AH = DF,
we have, byand join GH
hypothesis,
thing,
ABC,
then will the triangles
being equiangular,
we
have,
by the
preceding theorem,
AB__
AC_
AG ~ AH ~
But, by hypothesis,
we have
AB AC
DE ^DF
And
since
BC
GH'
BC
ÊF"
AG = DE, and AH = DF, we have GH = EF
the triangles
AGH, DEF,
having their three sides equal,

and hence the angle
each to each, are therefore equal
DEF = AGH = ABC,

and the angle D = A.
Scholiurn
I.
We
the angle
DFE = AHG = ACB,
remark that the
eqvial angles of
two
triangles lie opposite to the proportional sides.
Scholium II.
We
see,
by the
last
two
propositions,
that, in triangles, the equality of the angles is a conse-
quence from the proportionality of the

rocally
sides,
so that, if either of these conditions
the two triangles will be similar.
This
is
and recipis
fulfilled,
not the case in
more than three sidts for, in the case of quadwe may, without cb fging the angles, vary the
or, without varying the
proportion between the sid -
figures of
rilaterals,
BOOK
89
III.
Hence, the proportionality of
sides, cliange the angles.
the sides does not necessarily follow from the equality of
the angles, and vice versa.
We see,
for
if we draw the line EF paralEC, the angles of the quadrilateral
example, that
lel to
AEFD
lateral
are equal to those of the quadri-
ABCD
but the proportion of the
sides is different
four sides
varying the
so, witliout
AB, 'EC, CD, AD, we may
cause the point
to approach to or recede
from the point D, which would necessarily

alter the angles.
The two preceding
Scholium 111.
propositions,
which
really constitute but one, joined to that of the, square on
the
hj'pothenuse,
all
are the
Taken
in geometry.
most important propositions
alone, they are nearly sufficient for
the applications of geometry, and for the solution of
all
The reason is, that all figures may be divided

into triangles, and any oblique triangle may be divided
into two right-angled triangles.
So that the general
properties of triangles contain, by implication, those of all
problems.
other figures.
Peoposition XXI.
Two
triangles^
which have an angle in each
the equal angle included
Let the angle
Theokem.
A = D,
l)y projportional
sides, are similar.
and suppose we have
^tt?
DJii
= T=rr^
Dr
ABC
then will the triangle

similar to the triangle
Take
and
equal,
>
be
DEF.
AG = DE, and draw GH

EC the angle AGH
parallel to
be equal to the angle ABC

(Book I., Prop. XXV.) and the
will
ij
F .triangle
AGH will
be equiangu-
90
AT)
lar with tlie triangle
ABC;
But, by hypothesis, =7^^
AG = DE
DEF,
hence,
= rTT"
and we
shall
and, by construction,
^y^
AH = DF.
have ttt
The two
triangles
AGH,
having then two sides and the included angle in each
equal, are therefore equal.
ABC:
ilar to
hence,
its
But the
triangle
DEF
equal
is
AGH
is
sim-
also similar to
ABC.
Proposition
Two
dicular
XXH. ^Theoeem.
tnangles which have their sides parallel or perpento
each other, each
to each,
are similar.
Let A, B, C, be the angles of one of the triangles, and

A', B',
We
lel
C, the angles
know that two
or perpendicular to each other, are equal or supple-
mentary (Book
We can
potheses
1-
of the other triangle.
angles which have their sides paral-
-I-
Prop. XXVII., XXVIII.)
make one
of the three following hy-
A 4- A' = 2
2.
I.,
only then
=2
right angles,
B + B' = 2
right angles,
B + B' = 2
right angles,
right angles.
A + A' = 2
right angles,
C = C'.
3
A = A', B = B',
But, in the
first
and consequently, C
hypothesis, the
two triangles would be equal to

In the second hypothesis, the
sum
C.
six right angles.
sum
two triangles would be greater than four right angles.

But as both of these results are impossible, the third
hypothesis
is the only one that is admissible; hence, the

two triangles are equiangular and similar.
Hemark. The homologous sides of the two triangles are
the sides which are parallel or perpendicular to each other.
BOOK
91
III.
Thkoekm.
Proposition XXIII.
A polygon being given, we
can always construct in
second polygon
stick, that the
posed of
the
it
two polygons shall ie com-
same number of similar
and
triangles,
these
triangles similarly situated.
For,
vertex
let
ABODE
be the given polygon
A the diagonals AC, AD;
draw from the
then, taking arbitrarily,
on the side AB, the point

parallel to
\q
BC, and cd
and finally, de parallel
b,
draw be
CD,
parallel to
to
DE
the trian-
gles Kbc, Acd, &c., will be respectively
similar to the triangles
ABC, ACD,
and the polygons ABCDE,

Abode, which might be placed in any manner whatever
with respect to each other, will be composed of the same
E^'
number
&c., &c.
of triangles, similar, each to each, and similarly
situated.
Peoposition
XXIV.
Theorem.
The polygons ABODE, abcde, composed of the same

number of triangles, similar, each to each, and similarly
situated (as in the last theorem), have theangles equal, each
to each,
and
and
are
For, the similarity of the
tri-
the homologous sides proportional,
tlierffore similar.
angles
ABO,
BOA = bca
abc gives the angle

the triangles
ACD,
acd, being similar, give the an-
gle
"ACD =
clude that
Besides,
acd: hence,
we
we
shall have,
on ac-
count of the similarity of
same
con-
BCD = bed, and so on.
triangles,
equal ratios
the
the
follov/ing
92
AB _ EC _ AC _ CD _ AD _ DE ^ AE_
~ be ~ ao
de,
ae
ad
cd
ah
'
two polygons have their homologous sides
therefore, the
proportional, and are similar.
Peoposition
XXV.
Theorem.
Reciprocally, two similar polygons

the
same number of
may
divided into
he
triangles, similar, each to each,
and
similarly situated.
In the polygon ABCDE, draw, from the vertex of the

same angle A, the diagonals AC, AD to the other angles.
In
other
the
FGHIK,
polygon,
draw, in like
manner, from the angle

F, homologous to A, the
î
diagonals
FH,
FI, to the
other angles.
Since the polygons are

similar, the angle
FGH,
and the
FG
sides
and
GH
equal to
is
AB, BC,
sides
from
It follows
ABC
so 'that
this,
its
homologous angle
are also proportional to the
we have
AB = BC
y^^-j.
-=^^
that the triangles
ABC, FGH, have
an angle in each equal, and these angles included by two

proportional sides they are, therefore, similar (Book II.,
;
Prop. XXI.)
BCA is equal to GHF.

GHF from the equal
hence, the angle
Taking the equal angles BCA,

angles BCD, GHI, the remaining
be equal.
,
lar,
But
we have
.
.,
are similar,
AC
^pTrr
BC
= prf
we have
BC
ACD, FHI, will

ABC, FGH, are simi-
parts,
since the triangles
and ^because the two polygons

,
CD
Qg = -^T
,
!
^''=^'
AC
pJJ
==
CD
hT"
BOOK
But we have already
hence, the triangles
93
III.
AOD =
seen that the angle
ACD, FHI,
have an angle
Fill
in each
and these angles included by proportional sides

they are, therefore, similar.
might, in the same way,
equal,
We
show the similarity of all the ôther triangles, whatever

the number of the sides of the polygon hence, two similar polygons are composed of the same number of similar
triangles, which are similarly situated.
Remwrk. The decomposition may be made in many
ways, by drawing the diagonals through any two homologous vertices. There results, therefore, that in two similar polygons, two homologous diagonals CE, HK, are to
each other, as two homologous sides for, they are the
homologous sides of similar triangles ODE, HIK, which
form parts of the two polygons.
;
Proposition
The
lines
AF, AO,
XXYI.
drawn from
dic.^
any points of the

drawn parallel
any line
parts, and we shall have
triangle to
DF
Theorem.
the vertex
to the hase into
of a
-BC and
iase, divide the iase
pr&portional
DI_J[K_KL
BF ~ EG ~ GH'
For, since
DI
is
parallel to
ABF,
BF, the
the proportion -jj=
IK
ADI,
we have
triangles
are equiangular, and
-j-=j.
Likewise,
being parallel to FG,
we have
common
^ = -rrpr
AF EG'
;
ratio,
DI
we
get
_ IK
BE ~ EG"
and, from the

'
'
;>
94
We
same manner, that =p^
in the
&c. Therefore, the line
KL
grj
IK
might show,
DE
is
divided at the points
BC,
into parts proportional to the base
I,
K,
at the points F,
G, H.
Corollary.
points F, G,
If
H,
BC
I,
the right angle
will likewise be di-
K, L.
XXVII.
Pboposition
from
DE
&c., the parallel
vided into equal parts at
If.,
parts, at the
be divided into equal
Theorem.
A of a right-am,gled triangle we
AD perpendicular to the hypothenvê

1. The two partial triangles ABD, ADC will he similar to each other, and similar to the whole triangle ABC
draw
2.
Each
AB, AC,
side,
mean proportional
will he a
BC and the adjacent segment of

or
BD
DC
hypotJienuse,
the
3. The perpendicular A D will he a mean proportional
hetween the two segments, BD DC
hctween the hypothenuse
1.
The
BAD, BAG have the angle B common,

BDA = BAG, because they are right angles.
Hence, the third angle BAD is equal
triangles
and the angle
t^ the third
angle C. The two triangles
are, therefore,
We
the triangle
angle
and
BAG.
equiangular and similar.
could prove, in like manner, that
DAG
is
similar to the
tri-
Hence, the three triangles are equiangular
similar.
2. Since the triangles BAD and

homologous sides are proportional.
small triangle
is
hotnologous to
they are opposite to
hypothenuse
BA
of
tlie
tlie
BA
BAG
The
are similar, their

side
BD
in the large,
equal angles
small triangle
in the
because
BAD, BGA
is
the
homologous
to
Book
EG
the hypothenuse
We
of the large.
torm the proportion p-^
may,
therefore,
= -^^
we have
in like manner,'
96
in.
-r-r^
AG
Therefore, 2, each of the sides
-^fr^.
BC
AB,
AC is a mean pro-
portional between the hypothenuse and the segment adja-
cent to that side.

similar triangles
3. Finally, the
their
homologous
sides, the
3, the perpendicular
Scholium.
AD
DC
the segments BD,
ABD,
proportion -^jr
is
mean
ADC
give, for
= -=rp.
Hence,
proportional between
of the hypothenuse.
The proportion -po^-op
gives,
by placing
the product of the extremes equal to that of the means,
AB=BDxBC. We have, likewise, AC = DCxBC.

Hence, AB + AC = BD x BC + DO x BC. The second
the same thing as (BD + DC) x BC = BC x
member
BC = BC Hence, AB + AC = BC which shows that
is
the square on the hypothenuse
squares on the two sides
demonstration
BC is equal to the sum of the
AB, AC.
We have
of this important theorem,
thus a second
by a
process
and we
see
that, strictly speaking, the proposition of the square
on
quite different from that pursued (Prop. XI.)
the hypothenuse
is
a consequence from the proportionality
of the sides in the equiangular triangles.

If, from any point A of the semi-circumthe two chords AB, AC to the extremdraw
we
ities of the diameter BC, the triangle
BAC will be right-angled at A. (Book
Hence, 1, the perII., Prop. XIX.)
Corollary.
ference,
pendicular
'
AD
is
a mean propor-
tional ietween the two segments of the
06
BD,
diameter
the rectangle
DO ;
BD
The chord
2.
AB is a
BO and the segment BD ;
We
also, in like
= BD
AC DC
Ab"
have
and
if
manner,
and
also,
triangles
with
BC
shall
which have
ratios
we
BC
already been determined in Cor.
Two
tJie
or,
AB
BC
Pkoposition
between
AB = BD x BC.
AC = CD x BC. Hence,
we compare
BO
BC
equal to
is
mean proportional
diameter
have
AD
other words,
or, iu
x DC.
XXYIII.
XL
and IV., Prop.
III.
Theoeem.
which have an angle in each
equal, are to
each other as the rectangles of the sides containing the

equal angle; that
ADE,
is,
ABO is to the triangle

AO is to the rectangle
the triangle
as the rectangle
AB
AD
X AE.
Draw BE
ABE,
the two triangles
common
>
Ê
tude,
and are
bases
AB,
,.
VL)
ABE
Hence,
,.,
mhke
.
ADE
having the
vertex E, have the
AD
(Cor.,
Book
AB.
-^^^= -^
manner,
same
alti-
each other as their
to
II.,
we
Prop.
,
have,
ABC AC
-j^ = -^
Multiplying these two proportions

together,
we have, omitting
^^^ ABC AB
monterm ABE,
^pg^
AC
^P^^^
the com-
BOOK
Pboposition
Two
of
their
XXIX.
similar triangles are
homologous
Let the angle
97
III,
to
Theorem.
each other as the squares
sides.
A = D, and the angle B = E.

angles
we
Since the
A and D are equal,
have,
by
the preced-
ing theorem,
ABC _ AB
DEF ~ DE
AC
X DF'
which may be written,
AC
DF'
But the two
,.
portion
triangles being similar,
we have
the
pro-
AC AB ^
^='jw- Hence,
ABC AB AB
DEF^ 'de^de
Pboposition
XXX.
AB
DE
Theorem.
The contours or perimeters of similar polygons are to

each other as the homologous sides ; and thevr areas' as the
squares of these sides.
For, 1, since, from the nature of similar figures,
AB
have
BP
CD
=^ = j^ttt = tjT
'
&c.,
we deduce, by
we
the composition
'ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY.
98
AB + BC+CD+&C.
,,,
,.
of these equal ratios,
,
demonstrates the
2.
by
^
j^q^.qh +HI
first
,.,
"''
part of the theorem.
Since the triangles
FGH
ABC,
the precedina;
^ theorem
similar triangles
AB
+&^ ^ FG'
ABP = AC
=
=v
FGH
FH
liave
from
the
ACD, FHI, we have
we
are similar,
and,
sllso,
AGD_ AC
FHI
fg'
Comparing these two proportions, and omitting the

ratio, we have
common
ABC _ ACD
FGH ~ FHI
In like manner,
we could show
that
ACD _ APE
FHI ~ FIK
and
so on, for a greater
From
this series of
number
'
of triangles.
equal ratios,
we have, by composition,
ABC + ACD + ADE
ABC ^
Ac"
FGH + FHI +FIK
FFt
yR
Ab'
=2-
FG
Hence, the areas of two similar polygons are to each

other as the squares of the homologous sides.
Peoposition
The segments of two

within a
circle,
AO_CO
DO ~
OB'
XXXI.Theorem.
chords,
AB, CD,
which
are reciprocally pi'oportional ;
intersect
that
is,
BOOK
Join
AC
and BD. The
99
III.
triangles
AGO, BOD, have
opposite vertical angles at
the angle
also,
is
the
equal;
equal to the angle
D, being inscribed in the same segment (Book II., Prop. XIX.): for a
and the
like reason, the angle C = B
;
two triangles being equiangular, are

therefore similar, and we have the proportion
AOCO
DO~OB'
this proportion, we deduce AO x

Hence, the rectangle of the injao seg-
From
Corollary.
OB = DO
X CO,
ments of one of the chords

two segments of the other.
Pkoposition
Jff',
from a point
secants OJS,
is
equal to the rectangle of the
XXXII.
Theorem.
0, taken without a circle,
OC, terminated in
we draw
the
C,
the
the concave arc
secants will he reciprocally proportional to their exterior
segments ; that
For, joining
is,
we
shall have
AC, BD,
-p^
= ^=r^.
OAC, OBD,
the triangles
the angle
B=C
(Book
II.,
equiangular, and
and
their
having
common, and the angle

Prop. XIX.), are
therefore
homologous
similar;
sides give the
proportion
OB_OD
OA
00
Corollary.
we deduce
From
OA
this
OB
==
proportion,
00
x OD.
Hence, the rectangle of one secant and

its
exterior segment, is equal
rectangle of the other secant
and
its exterior
to
segment.
the
100
We may
SeJiolium.
remark that this proposition has a

and it only differs in this,
close analogy to the preceding
that the two chords
AB, CD,
instead of intersecting within
the circle, intersect without.
Pkoposption
XXXIII.
Theobem.
from a point 0, taken without a circle, we draw a

tangent OA, and a secant OC, the tangent will he a mean
proportional between the secant and its exterior segment,
If,
and we
shall have 7=-^
For, joining
7=-=;.
OA OD
AD and AC,
O common
\v
yy^^\^"'-\
N.
AD, and
the angle
\\
measure.
Hence,
-^c
will be similar,
V\^ ^y
r
portion
OC
Scholium.
the
has the same
OAD = C
and
the two triangles being equiangular
OAD,
formed by the tangent

and chord (Book II., Prop. XX.), is
measured by the half of the arc
angle
'^
OAD, OAC
the triangles
have the angle
and give the pro-
OC OA ^
^2
^=r=r.
HencG, OA =
^y^
X OD.
This proposition
may be deduced from
the
by considering the tangent OA as the limit of

the positions which a secant takes in turning around the
preceding,
point 0.
FEOPosmoN XXXIV.
In every
A B, AC
is
triangle
equal
ABC,
the circumscribed circle,
X AD.
of the two sides

of the diameter CE of
and the perpendicular
let
the rectangle
to the rectangle
fall on the third side
CE
Theorem.
so that
AD
we
shall home
AB
AC =
BOOK
For, joining
AE,
101
III.
the triangles
ABD, AEG
angled, one
at
angle
the
Besides,
are
right-
D, the other
B =E
at
A.
hence,
these triangles are similar, and thev
give
AB
AD
-^ = -^.
..
^,
the
proportion
Hence,
AB
AC = CE
Corollary.
equal quantities
AB
AC
the
bj'
BC = CE
If
equal
multiply these
same quantity BC, we shall have

X AD X BO.
But AD x BC is
double of the area of the triangle

VI.)
we
X AD.
ABC
(Book
II.,
Prop.
hence, the product of the three sides of a triangle is

area of the triaiigle multiplied hy twice the
to the
diameter of the circumscribed

The product of three lines
circle.
is sometimes called a solid^

which will be shown hereafter. Its value is
easily conceived, by supposing that the lines are reduced
to numbers, and multiplying the numbei-s together as is
for a reason
required.
Scholium.
We
angle is equal to
radius of
tlie
may show
its
trithe.
inscj^hed circle.
For, the triangles
common
area of a
also, that the
perimeter multiplied hy half of
AOB, BOC, AOC, which have
vertex at 0, have, for
tlie
common
their
altitude, the
radius of the inscribed

circle.
of
the
Hence, the area

three
triangles
will be equal to the sun\
of the bases
AC,
by half
OD.
There-
the radius
fore, the
area of the triangle
these small triangles,
by
is
ABC, which
equal
to its
AB, BC,
multiplied
is
composed of
perimeter multiplied
half the radius of the inscribed circle.
102
XXXV.
Peofosition
If^ in
Theorem.
ABC, we divide the angle A into two

AD, the rectangle of the sides AB,
to the rectangle of the segments BD, DO
a triangle
equal parts, ly the line
AC will
"be
equal
of the third
we
side, jjlus the
shall have
BA
square of the secant
AC = Ad' + BD
AD ;
and
x DC.
Pass a circumference through the three points A, B,
produce
AD
to
circumference,
the
and join CE.
The
ilar;
triangles
for,
by
BAD, EAO,
f BAD = EAC.
B = E,
are sim-
hypothesis, the angle
the angle
Besides,
since they are both
by half of the
arc
AC
measured
these
tri-
angles are therefore similar, and the
-^ -^-~ and wo
have BA X AC =^ AE X AD. But AE = AD
DE, and
multiplying both members by AD, we have AE x AD =
AD AD X DE besides, AD x DE = BD x DC.
Hence, finally, BA x AC = Ad" + BD x DC.
homologous
sides give the proportion
-f-
-I-
Proposition
XXXVI.
Theorem.
fn every inscribed quadrilateral
of
tlie
diagonals
AC,
BD
is
equal
A BCD,
to the
the rectangle
sum of the
rect-
angles of the opposite sides ; so that
we
have
AC
ylo
BD == AB
CD
-F
AD
X BC.
Draw the right line Bl, making the

angle CBI equal to the angle ABD,
and produce it until it meets AC at I.
The angle ADB = BCI, because they
are
inscribed in the
same segment
BOOK
AOB;
proportion
ABD, IBC
The
for,
and
-^=j5^;
triangle
ABI
is
103
Hi.
ABD = OBI,
besides, the angle
by
construction;,
are similar, and give the
AD x BO = CI x BD.
(1)
BDC
also similar to the triangle
ABD being equal to CBI, if we add DBI to

shall have ABI = DBO.
Besides, the angle
the angle
both,
we
BAI = BDC, being

ABI,
the triangles
inscribed in the
DBC
same segment; hence,
are similar, and the homologous
AB = AI
sides give the proportion ^^^^
AI x BD.
-^^
AB
and
CD =
(2)
Adding the equalities (1) and (2) together, and observing that AI X BD + CI x BD = (AI + CI) x BD = AC x
BD, we shall have AD x BC + AB x CD = AC x BD.
PEOPosmoN XXXVII.
Iti every quadrilateral
circle, the rectangle
the rectangles
^Thkoeem.
which cannot
of the diagonals
of the opposite
ie inscribed in
is less
sum of
than the
sides.
For, through the three points A, B, C, pass a circumfer-
ence which will not contain the fourth vertex

the angle
gle
ABI = DBC,
BAI = BDC. The right
cannot coincide with

point
D not being
ence, the angle
BAC;
The
make
and the an-
AC,
line
AI
since the
on the circumfer-
BDC is different from
finally, join I
triangles
and C.
ABI, BDC,
equian-
gular by construction, give the proportion -jy
The
= =^
triangles
hence,
AI x
BD = AB
x DC.
(1)
ABD, IBC are also similar for, if from

ABI, DBC, we take the common angle
the equal angles
104
DBI,
DBG
because the triangles ABI,
AB
proportion
=j5-p-
^,7=;
the triangles
42 = IS
Adding
since
X (AI
ABD, IBC
the
have,
and the equal angles included
they are, therefore, similar, and
IC x
lience,
together (1) and
BD
And
sides
again,
we have
are similarj
RT
then, an angle in each equal,
by proportional
have
ABD IBC
there will remain the angle
(2),
BD = AD
x BO.
we
(2)
we have
+ IC) = AB
DC + AD
+ IC > AC, we have

BD X AC < AB X DC + AD
X BC.
AI
Scholium.
We
conclude that
rectangle of the diagonals
is
if,
X BC.
in a quadrilateral, the
sum
equal to the
of the rect-
may
angles of the opposite sides, this quadrilateral
be
inscribed in a circle.
Pboposition
XXXVIII.
Theoeem.
The diagonals of an inscribed quadrilateral are to each

sums of the rectangles of the sides which vieet
other as the
in their extremities.
The
quadrilateral
triangles
ABCD
ABC, ADC, by
may
be divided into the two
the diagonal
nating by
Prop.
AB
but, desigcir-
we have (Book
XXXIV.),
cumscribed
III.,
AC;
the radius of the

circle,
BC X AC = 4K
X ABC,
AC = 4E
X ADC.
and
AD
Adding
AC
DC
these equalities,
(AB X BC + AD X DC)
= 4R
we have
ABCD.
BOOE m.
But,
if
105
we divide the quadrilateral

BD, we should also have
into triangles,
by the
diagonal
BD
X (AB X AD + BC x DC)
= 4R x ABGD;
hence,
AC X (AB X BC + AD
X DC)
= BD (AB x AD+BC x DC),
which gives the proportion
AC _ AB
AD + BC X DC
BD~ABxBC + ADxDC"
PEOBLEMS RELATING TO BOOK

PEOBLEM
IH.
I.
Divide a given right line into parts proportional

given
1.
to
lines.
Let
it
equal parts.
be proposed to divide the line AB into five

Through the extremity A, draw the indefiA nite right line AG, and assuming any arbitrary length
on AG.
AC,
AC five times
G with the
lay off
Join the last point
--K extremity B, of the given line
the line
-
GB,
AB, by
then draw CI parallel to
GB AI will be the fifth part of the line

AI five times on
AB so that laying
AB, the line AB will be divided into
;
-M
oft'
five equal parts.
For, since
CI
is pai-allel to
cnt proportionally at
But
AC
part of
is
and
the fifth part of
GB,
I.
AG
(Book
;
AG,
the sides
II.,
hence,
AB
are
Prop. XVI.)
AI
is
the fifth
AB.
line
AB into parts
proportional to the given lines P, Q, E.
Through the
2.
Let
it
be i-equired to divide the
ELEMENTS OF GÊOMETRi^
AG, take AC = P,
CD=:Q, DE=R,join
extremity A, diiuv the indefinite line
tlie
extremities
B,
and
points C,
draw the
parallels CI,
EB;
E^*5
parts AI, IK,
KB,
of the line
AB,
E and
through the
DK,
to
the intercepted
will be proportional to
the given lines P, Q, R.
For, since CI,
DE
are
XVI.)
DK, EB
proportional
to
are parallel, the parts
KB
AI, IK,
and, by construction,
AC, CD,
(Book
DE
AC, CD,
11.,
Prop.
are equal to
the given lines P, Q, R.
PROBLEM
n.
To find a fourth proportional to three given lines

A, , C.
Draw the two indefinite lines DE, DF, making any
angle witli each other. On DE take DA = A, and DB =
'
B, on
join
DF
draw
"g point B,
B/
\x
!c
allel to
the
is
DC = C
ilie
pai-
,.
DX
BX
since
AC, we have
the proportion
but the three terms of this proportion, DA,

equal to the three lines A, B, C; hence
be
proportional
for
parallel to
,,
MX
AC DX will
fourth
required
^F
take
AC, and through
DA = DC
j^,
DB, DC,
is
are
the foui-!h
proportional to A, B, C.
Corollary.
"We could find
the two lines A,
B;
for
it
also a third proportion ,-.1 in
will be the
proportional to the three lines A, B, C.
same
as the f<.nr;h
BOOK
107
III.
PEOBLEM
in.
To find a mean proportional ietween two given Unes
A,B.
On the
indefinite line
on the whole
line
DF,
DF,
DE =: A,
take
and
EF = B
as a diameter, describe the semi-
circumference
DGF
at the point
E, erect the perpendicular
EG
on
the diameter, meeting the circumference in
G EG will be the mean

:
proportional sought.
pendicular
For, the per-
GE, drawn from a point

is a mean propor-
of the circumference to the diameter,
between the segments of the diameter DE, EF

(Book n., Prop. XXVn., Cor.);
but these segments are equal to the
given lines A and B.
tional
^'
EG
'
perpendicular to
Second Construction. Take DF =

A, DE B, and describe a circumference on DF as a diameter draw
DF, and join D and G GD will
be a mean proportional between
A and B.
Third Coîstruction. Take 00 =
A, OD = B through the points
D and C, pass any circumference
whatever, and through the point
O, draw a tangent, OA, to this
;
circumference
^'
'
the line
OA will
be a mean proportional between

and B.
PEOBLKM
IV.
Thrmigh a given point ^, in the given angle BGD^ to

draw the line BD, so that the parts AB, AD, compre-
108
liended between the point
may
and
of the angle,
the two sides
he equal.
A, draw AE parallel to CD take

BE = CE, and through the points B
and A draw BAD BAD will be the
Tlirougli the point
line sought.
AE being
1^ = ?^-
For,
^
therefore
have
CD, we
BE -
EC, and
But
AD
EC
parallel to
BA = AD.
PROBLEM
To make a square
V.
that shall he equivalent to a given
parallelogram or a given triangle.

1-
Let
AB
be the base of the given parallelogram,
and
altitude,
its
Ti
the required
DE
the side of
we must
square:
have
X^
= AB
DE
AB_ X
^''
X "DEi
X
is a mean
Hence, the side
proportional between AB and
DE.
2.
We
see, in
like
manner,
that the side of the square which

is
equivalent to a given triangle,
is
mean
between the base of the triangle and half of
PEOBLEM
To make on
AD
altitude.
TI.
a rectangle ADEX, which

a given rectangle ABFC.
the line
shall he equivalent to
proportional
its
BOOK
Let
AX
be the unknown
ADEX:
109
III.
of the rectangle
altitude
two rectangles are

assumed to be equivalent, we have
= AB X AC which gives
AD X
since the
AX
,,
the proportion
AD = AC
-^ -^
The required
line
AX,
is
therefore
a fourth proportional to the three lines
AD, AB, AC.

PROBLEM Vn.
To find two right
lines
which
shall ie in the
same ratio
as the areas of two rectangles.
Let A,
C,
D, those
be the altitude and base of the

of the second.
be chosen arbitrarily
the second line.
must have
Hence,
Therefore, the
One
let it
From
first
rectangle
of the required lines
be equal to A, and
let
may
X be
the conditions of the problem,
A xB _A
C xD X'
X A
CxD
X = C xD
B
A xB
required line X is a fourth proportional
we
to
the three lines B, C, D.
PROBLEM
VIII.
a triangle equivalent to a given polygon.

Lot ABCDE be the given polygon. Draw the diagonal
CE, cutting ofi'from the given polygon the triangle CDE
through
the point D, draw DF parallel to
CE, and produce it until it meets
To
C07i8truct
the prolongation
CF; and
the
AE
in F.
polygon
Join
ABCDE
110
be equivalent to the polygon
will
ABCF. which
has one
side less than the given polygon.
For, the triangles
CE
CDE, CFE, have
they have also the same
common
the
base
altitude, since their vertices,
D, F, are situated on the line DF, parallel to the base.

Hence, these triangles are equivalent. Adding to each
the figure ABCE, we shall have the polygon ABODE
equivalent to the polygon
We
may,
stituting
for the
AGC, and
ABCF.
off the angle B,
manner, cut
in like
by sub-
ABC the equivalent triangle

pentagon ABDE will be changed into
triangle
thus the
an equivalent triangle
GCF.
The same process will apply to every other polygon

for, by successively diminishing the number of its sides,
we will fall ultimately upon an equivalent triangle.
We
Scholium.
may always find
This
; or, in
The problem
bo
we
a square that shall be equivalent to a given
rectilinear figure.
linear figure
may
so that
have seen that every triangle
converted into an equivalent square (Prob. v.)
is
what
is
called squaring the recti-
other words, finding
its
quadrature.
of the quadrature of the circle consists in
finding a square equivalent to a circle whose diameter
is
known.
PROBLEM
IX.
To find a square which shall he equivalent

or difference of two given squares.
Let
A and B be the sides of
1.
Let
it
to the
sum
the given squares.
be required to find a square equal to the sum
of these squares
draw the two
indefinite lines
right
at
each
ED, EF,
angles to
other
take
ED=A, andEG =
B join DC DG
;
will
be the side of
the required square
fiOOS
DEG
For, the triangle
DG
equal to the
is
2. If it
sum
be required
Ill
III.
being rectangular, the square on
of
tlie
ED
squares on
and EG.
square equal to the
to find a
dif-
ference of the given squares, construct, as before, the right
FEH
angle
and
take
GE
equal to the smaller of the sides
from the point G,
and with a radius
as a centre,
GH equal to the other side, describe an arc cutting EH in

the square on EH will be equal to the difference of
the squares on the lines A and B.
For, the triangle GEH being rectangular, the hypothe*
nuse GH = A, and the side GE = B. Hence, the square
on EH is equal, &c.
Sclwlium.
of any
We may also find a square
number
of squares; for the
reduces two to one,
equal to the
sum
construction which
may be employed
reduce three to
to
two, and these to one, and the same for othera.
The same
principle
would apply
take some of the squares from the
FKOBLEM
To
construct a square
ABGD^
On
as the line
which
if it
sum
X.
shall he to
is to the line
the indefinite line
EG, take
On EG
were required to
of the others.
a given square
N.
EF = M,
FG = N.
and
as a diameter,
describe a
semi-circumference, and at the point
F, erect a perpendicular
diameter.
'
the chords
take
From
HG,
FH
the point
HE
to the
H draw
on the
first,
HK equal to the side AB of the
given square, and through the point
K draw KI parallel
Ml
p.r.el,wehave
to
EG HI will
:
be the side of the required square.

For, since the lines KI, GE are
5L=^;
112
from which
we
Hf
he'
HK
HG
get
EHG, we
But, in the right-angled triangle
(Book III, Theorem
have
also
XI.),
_ EF _ M
Sg fg n"
he'
Hence,
But
HK = AB
square on
AB
as
HI
HK
is
to
the side
gon similar
FO,
to the
is
to the
AB, to construct
ABCDJE.
a poly-
N.
PROBLEM
On
HI
hence, the square on
homologmis
XI.
to
given polygon
In the given polygon draw the diagonals
AC,
"
make
'^-""''^^
AD
at
F,
point
the
the angle
GFH =
BAG,
and at the point

G, the angle
FGH = ABC
the
GH,
will intersect
triangle similar to
AC,
ADE. The
AD,
polygon
and
Likewise, on
construct the triangle
FI, homologous to
to
each other in
ABC.
FIH,
similar to
FGHIK will be
FH,
FGH will be
FH,
ADC, and
FIK,
on
similar
the required poly-
ABCDE.
For, the two polygons are composed of the
same num-
ber of triangles similar to each other, and similarly

uated.
liomologons to
construct the triangle
gon, which will be similar to
lines
sit-
BOOK
PEOBLEM
Two
113
III.
XII.
similar jpolygons being given,
polygon which shall he equal
to construct
to their
sum
a similar
or their differ-
ence.
P and Q be the areas of the given polygons A and

two homologous sides of these polygons let X be the
area of the required polj'gon, x the side of this polygon
liomologous to A and B.
Let
Similar polygons being to each other as the squares of

the
homologous
sides,
^-%.
we
'
A^
We have also ^ ~zr''
have
^ P+Q
Hence,
B''
last proportions
shall
^^^ sibee
^'
A''
+ B^
X = P + Q, the two
have the three first terms common. Hence,
Thus, the side x
is
the hypothenuse of a right-angled
triangle, the sides including the right angle
B.
Knowing
the side x, the
problem
is
being
A and
reduced to the
preceding.
If the
polygon
X = P Q, we should
still
have the pro-
portions
P
Q
We
A^
^,.
B^"
Hence,
'"-^'
have, besides,
that a'
A^
P
p_Q
=P =: A^
A^
A^
B^"
from which we conclude
- Bl
PEOBLEM Xni.
To
construct
which shall
to a given polygon, and

polygon in the ratio of
to n.
a polygon similar
he to this
114
Let
sides
side
be
let
homologous
shall
to
A: we
p=
shall have,
of
its
t>
Hence,
by the conditions of
and, since the polygons are similar,
X=
have
-ri
We shall
A one
be the area of the required polygon, and x the
the problem,
we
area of the given polygon,
tlie
a^
-to-
A^
then determine the side x by Problem x.
PEOBLKM XIT.
to
To
construct
Q.
Let
a polygon similar
and since
Q,
we
must be equivalent
find
two squares
have
shall
M^
M'^
lines
line
P=
hence,
W = -r;
X^^
P=
^
X
A^
,2
X-
'
A^
^.
and N^ equivalent
A^
=rFr,
will then
we shall have
to ^, pr
'
The
equivalent
polygon X.
Because the polygons are similar,
we
and
be a side of the polygon P, and x the homologous
side of the required
If
to
MA
N=
to
and
:ir=
83
be a fourth proportional to the three
M, N, A.
PROBLEM XV.
To construct a rectatxgle equivalent

and the sum of wliose adjacent sides
given line
C,
as a diameter, describe a semi-circumference;
line
distance from
From
a given square
AB.
On AB,
draw the
to
shall he equal to the
ED
it
parallel to the diameter
AB, and
at a
equal to the side of the given square C.
the point E, in which
tlie
parallel
meets the circum-
BOOK
115
III.
EF AF
ference, let fall the perpendicular
and
FB will
be
the sides of the required rectangle.
sum
For, their
and
equal to
is
AF
rectangle
their
AB
x FB,
is
equal to the square of EF, or to

the square of
angle
AD
hence, this rect-
equivalent to the given
is
square C.
Scholium.
B
that
AD
the distance
ble, that
the half of the line
construct a rectangle
and
the given line
ference
shall not exceed
XVI.
which shall he equivalent to a

of whose adjacent sides shall
the difference
he equal to the given line
On
AB.
PEOBLEM
square C,
necessary, in
is
shall not exceed the radius;
that the side of the square
is,
To
It
order that the problem be possi-
AB,
AB.
as a diameter, describe a circum-
draw
at the extremity of the diameter,
AD
gent
square
the centre
DE
and
the tan-
equal to the side of the
through the point
D and
DE
draw the secant
DF
will be the adjacent
sides pf the required rectangle.
For, 1, the difference of their

sides is equal to the diameter
or
EF,
AB.
2.
The rectangle
'
DE
DF
is
equal to
will
AD
hence, this rectangle
be equivalent to the given square C.
PROBLEM
To
divide a line
AB
into
XVII.
mean and
c.rtr:me ratio
116
tltai is,
into two jparts such, that the greater shall he
and
proportional ietween the whole line
At
tlie
extremity
BC, equal
ular
of the line
to the half of
AB,
AB
a mean
the other part.
erect the perpendic-
from the point C, as a

centre, and with a radius
;
CB, describe a circumdraw AC cut-
ference
in
the
ting
circumference
AF =
AB will be
D, and take
AD
the line
divided at the point F,

in the
AC
For, produce
the second point
until
the line
manner
required.
meets the circumference in
it
AB
being tangent,
we have
the proportion
AE AB
AE - AB AB - AD
or,
AB AD'
AB
AD
But AB = DE we have then, AE - AB = AD = AF
we have, also, AB - AD = AB AF = FB.
;
And,
finally,
we have
the proportion
AF_
~~
AB
Scholium.
Let
AB = a
FB
AF'
we have AF = AD = AC CD.
But,
AC =
CD
is
/Ab'+ BC
equal to 5-
Vd' "^4
therefore,
AF = Jv5--^ = ^(^^-l).
BOOZ
BOOK
EEGTJLAR POLYGONS,
THE
117
TV.
lY.
AND THE MEASURE OF
OIEOLE.
DEFi^riTioisrs.
I.
A regular jocHygon
equilateral
There
is
one which
is
at the
same time
and equiangular.
may be
regular polygons of any

For,
if
we
number
of sides.
conceive a circumfer-
ence divided into
equal parts,
and that the consecutive points of

division. A, B, C, &c., are j oined by
sides
right lines, a polygon of
will
The
be formed.
sides of this
polygon will be equal, as chords
and the angles A, B, C will be equal inscribed

which subtend equal portions of the circumference.
of equalarcs
'angles,
The
equilateral triangle
sides, the
is
square that of four
the regular polygon of three

sides,
and
so on.
n. Isojperimetrical polygons are polygons which have

equal perimeters.
Peoposction
Two
I.
Theokem.
regular polygons of the same number of sides are
similar figures.
Take, for example, the two regular hexagons,
ABCDEF,
ELEMENTS 07 GEOMETRY.
118
sum
dbcdef; the
of the angles
is
the same in both, and
equal to 8 right angles. (Book
XXX.)
The angle
is
Prop.
the
one-
sixth part of 8 right angles,

is
the angle a.
is
I.,
and so
Hence, the angles
and a are equal, and the same is true

of the angles B, h, and C, c, &c.
Besides, since, from the nature of
these polygons, the sides
CD,
AB, BG,
&c., are equal, as well as ah, bo,
we
cd, &c.,
shall
have the propor-
tions
AB_BG_CD.
ab
be
cd
'
Hence, the two polygons have their angles equal, and their
homologous
sides proportional
The perimeter
the same number of sides are
ogous sides
and
their
they are therefore similar.
Corollary.
two regular polygons of
of
to each other as their
areas are to each
homol-
other as the
squares of their homologous sides.
Peoposition
II.
Every regular polygon may
may
be circumscribed about
Let
ABODE
Theorem.
be inscribed in
circle,
or
it.
be any regular polygon

centre,
let fall
pass a circum-
let O be its
and OP the perpendicular
on the middle of the side
ference through the three points A, B,
join AG and OD.

The quadrilateral OPOD, and
BO;
^r>
the quadrilateral
OPBA, may
placed one upon the other
be
for,
OP is common, the angle

OPO = OPB, since they are
right angles; then the side PC
the side
'E
BOOK
will coincide -with
on B.
its
119
IV.
equal PB, and the point
will fall
Besides, from the nature of the polygon, the angle
PCD = PBA. Hence, CD will take

and since CD = BA, the point D will
two quadrilaterals
OD is
the direction
fall
will entirely coincide.
therefore equal to
AO, and
BA
on A, and the
The distance
consequently, the
cir-
cumference which passes through the three points A, B, C,

will also pass through the point
we might show
that
the
but by like reasoning,
circumference which passes
through B, C, D, passes also through the following vertex

E, and so on.
Hence, the same circumference which
passes through the points A, B, C, passes through all the

vertices of the angles of the polygon, and
inscribedin the circumference.

the chords
AB, BO, CD,
circumference
they
the polygon
In the second place,
&c., are equal chords of the
are, therefore, equally distant
is
all
same
from the
(Book H., Prop. VIH.) Hence, if from the point

O, as a centre, and with a radius OP, we describe a circentre.
cumference, this circumference will be tangent to the side
BO, and
to all the other sides of the polygon, at the
point of each;
about the
and the polygon
circle, or
middle
will be circumscribed
the circle inscribed in the polygon.
Scholium I. The point 0, the common centre of the inscribed and circumscribed circles, may be regarded as the
centre of the polygon and for this reason, we call the
;
formed by the two radii

same side AB.
Since all the chords, AB, BC, &c., are equal, it is evident that the angles at the centre are equal, and that thus
the value of each angle is found by dividing four right
angles by the number of sides of the polygon.
Scholium II. To inscribe a regular polygon of a given
angle at the centre, the angle
drawn
to the extremities of the
number
of sides in a given circumference,
sary to divide the circumference into as

as the
polygon has
sides.
it is
many
only neces-
equal parts
120
Scholium III.
If in an arc
we
chords, the figure thus formed
regular polygon.
inscribe a series of equal

called'
is
a portion of a
This portion has the principal properties
of regular polygons
has equal angles,
it
may
it
scribed within or circumscribed about a circle
but
be
it
in-
only
forms a part of a regular polygon, strictly speaking, when

the arc subtended
by one of
its
sides is
an aliquot part of
the circumference.
Peoposition hi.
To
inscribe
Draw two
Pkoblem.
a square in a given circumference.

diameters,
AC, ^D,
cutting eacli other at
right angles; join the extremities
A, B, C, D, and the figure
ABCD
will be the inscribed square
the angles
equal,
AOB, BOG,
the chords
for,
&c., being
AB, BC,
&c.,
are equal.
Scholium.
The
triangle
being right-angled and
we have (Book
II.,
BOG
isosceles,
Prop.
III.),
BC_2^.
BO
l'
hence, the side of the inscribed square is to the radius as

the square root of 2 is to unity.
Peoposition IV.
To
inscribe
triangle, in
Peoblem.
a regular hexagon, and
a given circumference.
also
an
equilateral
;.
BOOE
121
IV.
Let us suppose the problem solved, and

of the inscribed hexagon
if
we draw
the triangle
let
AB be
the radii
AOB
will be equi-
For, the angle
lateral.
a side
AO, OB,
AOB is
the sixth part of four right angles
and
in taking the right angle for
unity,
we
shall
have AOB=|^=:f
The two angles ABO, BAO,

of the same triangle, are together
equal to 2 f = 4 and as these
;
angles are equal, each
Hence, the triangle
to I
fore equilateral
hexagon
It
in
will
ABO
is
equal
is
equiangular, and there-
and, therefore, the side of the inscribed
be equal
to the radius of the circle.
follows from this, that to inscribe a regular hexagon
a given circumference,
we have
only to lay off the
radius six times on the circumference, and join
by
right
lines the points of division.
The regular hexagon
ABCDEF,
being inscribed,
join the vertices of the alternate angles
we
if
we
shall inscribe
an equilateral triangle.
The figure ABCO is a parallelogram, and

rhombus, since AB = BC = CO =^ AO therefore
(Book III., Prop. XY.), the sum of the squares of the
diagonals AC and BO, is equal to the sum of the squares
Scholium.
also a
That
of the sides.
AC
-t-BO
Taking
3B0.
is,
=AB +BC +C0
BO
-+-A0
=4AB
=4:B0.
from each member, there remains
AO =
ELEMENTS OF QEOMETEf
122
Problem.
Peoposition V.
To inscribe a regular decagon in a

Suppose the problem solved, and
The angle
the inscribed decagon.
circle.
let
AB
AOB,
is
sum
of
OBA, OAB,
is
equal to -^ or to f
the two
be a side of
at the centre,
angles
the
therefore equal to 2 right angles
equal to
OBA, OAB,
angle
the bisectrix
OBA;
are each equal to J

The triangle
MBA = f
and the
must necessarily be equal
Hence,
BO _ MO
BA~AM'
equal
to
AMB,
The
whose radius
is
XVn.,
AO _ OM
OM ~ AM-
AO
ratio,
is
divided at the point
and that the greater
seg-
the side of the inscribed decagon.
Remarli.
Prob.
for the angle
the third angle,
'^^^^^'
see, then, that the radius
is
OM =
to |.
""^
M into mean and extreme

ment
therefore,
also isosceles
to |
is
MOB,
AB = BM = MO, and we have (Book IH., Prop.
xym.),
We
is
of the
MOB
angles
the
and we have,
BAM
BAM
BM,
the triangle
since
isosceles,
OBM
is
f.
Draw
MB.
Hence, each
f , or equal to |.
of the equal angles
side of the inscribed decagon, in a circle
R,
is
equal to
(Book HI.,
^^
Scho.)
Corollary I.
If
we
join the vertices of the alternate
angles of the regular decagon,
we form
the regular pen-
tagon.
Corollary II.
AL be
AB
being the side of the decagon,
the side of the hexagon
then the arc
BL
let
will be,
BOOK
123
IV.
with respect to the circumference, ^ j^ = rs- Hence,

the chord BL will be the side of the
We
regular polygon of 15 sides.

see, at the
CL
is
the
same, time, that the arc

thii-d of
Scholium.
the arcs
draw
regular
polygon
we bisect equally
subtended by its sides, and
being inscribed,
shall
CB.
tlie
if
chords of the half arcs,
we
form a new regular polygon of double the number

Thus, if the given inscribed regular polygon be
of sides.
a square, the continued bisection of the arcs subtending

the sides pf the inscribed polygons will enable us successively to inscribe the regular polygons of 8, 16, 32, &c.,
If we make
we may from it, in
sides.
use of the regular inscribed hexagon,

the same manner, form regular poly-
gons of 12, 24, 48, &c., sides
and from the decagon, deand
duce the regular polygons of 20, 40, 80, &c., sides

from the pentedecagon, polygons of 30, 60, 120, &c.,
Peoposition VI.
Having given
<&c., to
sides.
Peoblem.
the regular inscribed
polygon AJ3CD,
circumscribe a similar polygon about the same
cir-
cumference.
At
the point T, the middle point of the arc
the tangent
GH
it
will
AB, draw
be parallel to AB.
(Book XL,
Draw
tangents at
Prop. X.)
BO,
the middle of the other arcs
CD, &c.
these tangents will
form the regular circumscribed

)m polygon GrHIK, &c., which will
be similar
to the inscribed poly-
gon.
It is easy to see, in the
first
place, that the three points
O, B,
H are
in a right line
for
124
the triangles
OH, and
(Book
I.,
and the
TN
OTH,
the side
OHN have
the
OT = ON
they are therefore equal.
Hence, the angle TOH = HON;

passes through B, the middle of the arc
Prop. XIX.)
line
OH
for a like reason, the point I
common hypothenuse
OC, &c. But since GH

BC, the angle GHI = ABC
of
on the prolongation
is
parallel to
is
likewise,
AB, and HI
HIK = BCD,
to
&c.
Hence, the angles of the circumscribed polygon are equal

Again, by reason of
to those of the inscribed polygon.
the same parallels,
we have
GH_OH
HI_OH
AB~OB'
B0~
GH
AB =
Hence,
But
AB = BC
HI = IK,
HI
BC"
GH = HI.
hence,
Hence, the
&c.
is
and similar
regular,
For the same reason,
sides
polygon are equal to each other
gon
OB'
of the
circumscribed
and therefore the poly-
to the inscribed polygon.
Eeciprocally, if we have the circumGHIK, and we wish to inscribe a similar

polygon ABC, &c., it is only necessary to draw
Corollary 1.
scribed polygon
regular
to the vertices
OG, OH,
G, H,
&e., of the given polygon, the lines
I,
&c., meeting the circumference in the points
A,
B, C, &c.
Join afterwards these points by the chords
AB, BC, &c.
gon.
we
We might
also,
contact T, N", P, &c.,
we
form the required inscribed polyin the same case, join the points of
shall
by the chords
TN",
NP,
&c.
and
should equally form an inscribed polygon which would
be similar
to the circumscribed polygon.
Corollary II.
given circle
all
We may
always circumscribe about a
the regular polygons which
scribed in this circle, and reciprocally.
may be
in-
BOOK
125
IV.
Theorem.
Peoposition VII.
The area of a regular polygon
is
equal
its
to
perimeter
multiplied hy half the radius of the inscribed circle.

Let GHIK, &c., be the regular polygon. The triauglc
GOH has for its
GH
measure
the triangle Oil
x iOT;
has for
HI
measure
its
iON;
ON = OT: hence, the triangles

GOH + OHT, have for their measProceedure (GH + HI) X |0T.
but
ing in the same manner with the
we
other triangles,
of
polygon, has for
sum
of the bases
GH, HI,
see that the
sum
the triangles, or the whole
all
IK, &c.
or,
measure the
its
the perimeter of
the polygon multiplied by 5OT, half the radius of the inscribed circle.
Scholium.
of the sides
The radius
of the inscribed circle
OT,
is
the
from the centre of the circle on one

of the polygon, and is called also the apothegm
perpendicular
let fall
of the polygon.
Pkoposftion
Vin.
^Theorem.
The perimeters of two regular polygons of the same number
of sides are
to
each other as the radii of the inscribed

and their areas, as the squares
or circumscribed circles;
of these radii.
Let
AB
be a side of one of the
given polygons,
will
its
centre
OA
be the radius of the circum-
scribed circle, and

cular to
AB,
OD,
perpendi-
will be the radius of
again, if ab
be the side of a similar regular
the inscribed circle
polygon,
its
centre;
oa and od
'
126
will be the radii of the circuiiisci-ibed
and inscribed
circles.
The perimeters
of the two polygons are to each other as the
AB
A and
sides
and ah\ but the angles
being half of the angle of the polygon

h are also equal
well
as
lar,
the right-angled
as
a are equal, each

the angles
ABO,
and
abo, are simi-
ADO,
triangles
ado
therefore,
AB _ AO ^ DO
ab
do
ao
Hence, the perimeters of the two polygons are

other as the radii
also, as
The
the radii
AO, ao,
DO, do,
to
each
of the circumscribed circles, and

of the inscribed circles.
areas of tliese polygons are to each other as the
squares of the homologous sides
quently to each other,
also, as
AB,
ah
they are conse-
the squares of the radii
AO,
ao, of the circu inscribed circles, or as the squares of the
OD,
radii
od, of
in.scribed circles.
tiif
DEFINrnONS.
A variable
I.
quantity
is
a quantity which takes succes-
sively different states of magnitude.
A limit
II.
quantity
ble
reaching
III.
is
a fixed magnitude towards which a varia-
may approach
indefinitely
near,
without
it.
Arithmetic and Geometry present numerous ex-
amples oi variable quantities and of limits.

Thus, the angle of a regular polygon of
its
sides has for
value
2m -
m
But,
if
4
2 right
angles
we suppose the number of sides
of the polygon to be
indefinitely increased to infinity, the value of the angle will
continually increase
the fraction
^j
maybe
and as
?,
may become
so large that
smaller 4.han any assignable quan-
SOOK
12^
IV.
we conclude that the successive values of the variulU

angle of the polj-gon will have for a Ivnit 2 right angles.
tity,
Again,
if
we
take
c,
And we
AB.
limit
^^'
0"
^
1
the middle point of the right line
Ac, Ac',
Ac", &e., &c., will have for a
lines
miglit indefinitely multiply such illus-
trations.
lY.
niiddle of cB,
'"'^ ^'> *^^
and so on, the
|B
It is evident, that if the factors a, h,
duct have for
li7nits
c,
of a pro-
A, B, C, the product a xl x g will

have for a limit A x B x C.
V. Let ABCD be a polygon inscribed in
circumference
perimeter of this polygon

'{g
for each side
corresponding
the arcs
is less
AF, FB, BG, &c. we

;
than the
Let us take on
arc.
AB, BO, CD,
of division F, G,
the chords
the
less
than the length of the circumfer-
ence
draw
is
&c., points
H, E,
shall
&c., and
have inscribed
a second polygon, with a perimeter greater than the pe-
rimeter of the
first
polygon.
mediate points of division,
we
If
now, we take new interhave a third polygon,
shall
whose perimeter will still be greater than the preceding

and so on, indefinitely.
The perimeter
of these successive polygons will contin-
ually approach the length of the circumference, and
may
admit as a self-evident proposition, that
if
the
we
num-
ber of sides of the polygon be suiBciently great, the difl:erence between the length of the circumference and the
perimeter of the polygon will be
quantity
or,
less
in any other words.
than any assignable
The
length of the cir-
cumference will he the limit toioards icliich the jieriineter

of an inscribed polygon tends, as the number of its sides is
indefinitely increased.
128
We
may remark,
also, that the areas
polygons, which are

differ
from
it
less
and
may become
ference
less
less
of the successive
than the area of the
less
all
and,
if
we admit
circle,
that this dif-
than any assignable quantity,
we
may
conclude that the area of the circle is the limit of the

area of an inscribed polygon, the number of whose sides
increases indefinitely.
YI.
It result^
evidently from what has just been said,
that every property
which belongs
to the
perimeter or area
an inscribed polygon, what-
of
ever be the
number
of
its sides, is
equally applicable to the length
and the area of the circle. Thus, for

example, the perimeter of every
inscribed polygon being less than
the perimeter of a polygon
en-
veloping
we
may
the circumference
the
circumference,
conclude that the length of
is itself less
than the perimeter of every
circumscribing polygon.
When we inscribe in a circle regular polygons, the number of sides of which continually increase, the apothegms
increase, since the sides of the poly-
gons become smaller, and are, therefore,
more
distant
from the centre.
These apothegms have for a limit the

radius of the circle.
For, let
AB
be
the side of a regular inscribed poly-
gon,
OC
radius,
OB - OC <
its
we
apothegm, and
OB
have, in the triangle
the
BCO,
CB.
But CB, the half of AB, may become as small as we
please hence, a fortiori, OB OC may become less than
any assignable quantity.
;
BOOK
Peoposition IX.
The Gvrcwmferences of
1.
129
IV.
Theoeem.
circles are to
each other as
their radii.
The areas of circles are
2.
of
each other as the squares
to
their radii.
1. Inscribe
two regular similar poly-
gons in the circumferences whose radii

are
OB
and CA.
Let P,
be the
and deOB and
jp
perimeters of these polygons
by R and r the radii

CA, and by
and c, their circumfer-
signate
ences;
we
shall
have (Book IV., Prop.
PÊ
p r'
VIII.),
But, this proportion existing, whatever

be the number of sides of the polygon,
will
be equally applicable to limiting

we shall have
circumferences, and
2=
Let
2.
areas of
C,
c'
5. (1)
'
r
be the areas of the same circles ;
two similar inscribed regular polygons
S,
we
s,
the
shall
have
')^'
And
as this proportion is true,
of sides of the polygon,
we
whatever be the number
shall
have
for the limiting
circles
C^_E^
c'
Scholium.
From
r"'
the equality (1)
2R
we deduce
2r
Hence, the ratio of a circumference to
its
diameter
is
the
130
This
saiiK! for all circiimt'erenees.
designated by
rily
tt,
Le determined approximately.'
TT
"We
which
is
ordina-
value in decimals
Its
is
3.1415926535897932, &c.
an elementary method for calculating,
shall soon give
approximately, the value of
Knowing
ratio,
incoinmensurable, and can only
is
the value of
rr.
tt,
we
are enabled to calculate
the length of a circumference whose radius
is
known
for,
from the equality
Q
-
=
E=
Exam.ple.
value 3.14,
we deduce C
7r,
18.35
taking for
27rE.
-n,
the approximate
we have
2 X 3,14 X 18.35
115.2380
feet.
DEFINITIONS.
Similar arcs,
long
to
sectors,
and
segments, are those which he-
equal angles at the centre.
Pboposition X.
1. Sim,ilar arcs
Similar
2.
tJieir
Theoeem.
are to each other as their radii.
sectors are to each other as the squares
of
radii.
Let
AB, DE, be
similar arcs
1.
We
AC, OD,
have (Book
arc
circ.
BA _
AC
II.,
the radii.
Prop.
angle
XVII 1.),
4 right angles"
Likewise,
<
DE
arc
circ.
OB
But, since angle

arc
arc
angle
BA _
DE ~
\
'
right angles'
angle O,
circ.
circ.
we have
AC _ AC
OD ~ OD"
BOOE
2.
We
131
IV.
have, in like manner, for the similar sectors
ACB, DOE,
sect.
circ.
AGE ^
AC
angle
sect.
4 right angles'
circ.
DOE _
DO ~
angle
4 right angles"
Hence,
sect.
sect.
ACB _
DOE
AC _ CA
DO OD*
circ.
circ.
Peoposition XI.
The area of a
^Theoeem.
circle is equal to its
plied iy half its radius.

In the circle whose radius
polygon.
this
is
OA,
Let
polygon, S
cirmimference multi-
inscribe a regular
be the perimeter of
area
its
=P
But the area of a
we have
X ÔC.
circle is the limit of
the areas of the inscribed regular polygons, the

creases
number
of
indefinitely
whose
we
then the measure of the

ing the limit of the product
its
limit the circumference
sides in-
shall
P X ÔC. Now, P
OA, and OC
have
circle, in seek-
has for
has for a limit
OA
therefore,
Area
circle
OA =
circumference
Eepresent by
MemarTc.
OA
x ÔA.
the radius of the circle
we
= tR.
= 3.1415
take
we
have
Area
Application.
of circle
Let
E=
= SttE
3
feet,
and
-^
tt
have
Area circle =28.2735 square feet.

The area of a sector is equal to
multiplied by the half of the radius.
Corollary.
this sector
the arc of
132
For, the sector
ACB
to the
is
AMB
-^
is
entire circle as the arc
circumference
the entire
to
ABD (Book IL, Prop. XVIIL),

Af!
AMB X ÂC is to ABD X ^.
AMB
^
of this arc,
X ÂO.
Let
Aj)plication.
suppose the arc
AMB to
we have
But,
= ABD x 2 AO hence,
ACB has for its measure
the entire circle
the sector
or, as
AC 12 feet, and
To
contain 60.
find the length
the proportion
AMB _
arc
60
" 360'
2nR
Hence,
arc
We
27rE
AMB
60
tt
12
:47r.
have then, the sector
square
7r
360
ACB =4Tr x6 = 24:n =
75.3960
feet.
Proposition XII.
Knowing the
and the radius
side
AB
Pkoblem.
of a regular inscribed polygon,
OC of the
calculoM the side
circle, to
AG
of the regular inscribed polygon having double the number
of sides.
Let
we
AB =
a,
00 = E,
and
AC =
have, in the right-angled triangle

o
draw
AD and AO
= 2E x
01 =: CO - 01 = E - OL
AO^
But,
CAD,
= CD X
01, or
c''
01.
Be-
sides, in the right-angled triangle AOI,
we have
01
Hence,
= ^^^ - Al'= \/e^ 01
= E - sjs? - ^.
BOOK
And
consequently,
= 2K x [R y'B? ).
we may
Eeciprocally,
and
c^
133
IV.
calculate a,
when
c is
only necessary to resolve the equation
it is
respect to
a; ;
we
known
(1)
obtain for the value a in terms of
g2
To make
(1)
with
c,
(^)
application of the formula
(1), let
us suppose
a to be the side of thp hexagon a will then be equal to

E, and we shall have for the side of the regular inscribed
;
dodecagon,
To apply formula
(2),
take o equal to the side of the
decagon, and let us determine the side of the regular

pentagon.
We have (Book lY.,
Prop. V.),
v"^^"^)
;
Hence, we conclude,
5l(1:i1:^]4E^_]^::l^:^1
^,
a^=
Hence,
we have
^,
^=^(10-2 A).
for the side of the regular pentagon,
E
Remark.
By
adding the square of the radius to the
square of the side of the decagon,
E='(6-2
"'"4
that
is, is
pentagon.
v^5)
we
find that the
sum
^ Eâ0j-^2v^.
'
equal to the square of the side of the regular

Therefore, the side of the regular inscribed
134
pentagon will he the hypothenuse of a nght-angled triangle
which
has,
for
the sides containing the right angle, the
radius and the side of the decagon,
Peoblem.
Peoposition XIII.
Knowing the side of a regular polygon and the radius

of the circumscribing circle, to find the side of a similar
circumscribing polygon.
Let
AB = a,GA =
The
EF =
R, and
similarity
ACB gives the
x.
the
of
triangles
EOF,
proportion
EF_CE
,
,, ,
But
we have
AB~OA"
CE
CM
= tvftalso
CA CD
,
-^^rr-
Hence, on account of the common
_EF^CM
AB CD
'"''
'
In the right-angled triangle
CD =V'CA
__R_
~ CD"
we have
^^
ACD, we have
also,
-AD ='^W --;

4
E
X
Hence,
ratio,
"^
|/r2_^;
4
and, consequently,
^
Peoposition
2aE
v^4R^
XIV.
a'
Peoblem.
Knowing the side AB of a regular polygon of m sides,

and the radius CA of the circumscribing circle, to find the
area of the polygon.
SOOK
Let
AB = a, CA =E,
135
IV.
= area of the polygon.
(Book lY., Prop. VII.) S

But,
_ maV4:Bi'
We have a =
a'
- E^
S- BE/iE^
4
Remark.
a'.
Let us find the area of the regular hex= 6 therefore,

E,
Application.
agon.
= maX^-
CD = Vb,'-^ = ^V4R^ -
Hence
"We have
"We might
by means
also,
quantities,
SE'vT
same given
of the
calculate
the
area
of
the inscribed regular polygon of
2m
\^
Id
sides.
For, let
arc
the required polygon

to
S', is
M be the middle
AB, and draw AM

composed of
of the
the area of
2m triangles
equal
ACM.
ACM = CM
But,
Hence,
Let us
S'
find, as
= 2ot
AD Exa
4
Xa
wEflS
an application, the area of the regular
inscribed dodecagon.
= E,
7?i
=6
hence, S' ,=
Proposition
Saving given
CA = rôf a
the radius
XV.
* The radius of a polygon
ia
:3E^
Problem.
CD = E*
regular polygon,
the radius of the circumscribing
to
and
the apothegm,
calculate the radiits
R'
only an abridged method of expressing

circle.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETEt"
136
and
the
apothegm
of a regular isoperimetrical polygon,
r'
having double the number of sides.

Let BD be the side of the given polygon
of
CA
apothegm
the centre
Produce
polygon.
this
until
the
meets the
it
circumscribing circumference at
and draw BI,
ID
BID
I,
be the
will
angle at the centre of the required
polygon
If
ular
CK
on BI, and draw
the half of
polygon
^
But^ we
BD, and
IK
,
for,
now we
KE
= IC
Scholium.
the perpendic-
BD,
KE
will be
will represent the side of the
and
HI
lA CI + CA
^^
IH = -- =
-,
Finally, in the right-angled triangle
IK
BCD.
the half of
fall
let
parallel to
will be the radius,
have
it is
or,
=U+r
E -vîrx7=\/Ex^-
It is
easy to
from the formulae, that
r' is
(1)
CKI, we have
X IH,
by the
see,
new
the apothegm.
(2)
figure, as well as
greater than
r,
and
that,
on
the contrary, E'
is less than E, so that the difference

between the radius and the apothegm in the new polygon
is less
If
than in the given polygon.
we
transform, in like manner, the second polygon into
a third, then the third into a fourth, and so on,
we
shall
ultimately arrive at a polygon, in which the difference
between the radius and the apothegm will be

any given quantity.
Indeed, in the triangle BCA, we have
BC - CA < BA,
or
less
than
E r < BA.
But BA is the half of the side of the polygon, and this side
smaller than any given quantity, by doubling
indefinitely the number of its sides.
Hence E r may
be made less than any assignable quantity.
may be made
BOOK
Peoposition XYII.
To find
137
IV.
Problem.
the approximate value of the ratio
of the
eir-
cii^mf&rence to the diameter.
We have, from
And
From
V=
'
(1)

^^p
(2)
these formulae result four methods of determining
the value of
the radius
2^.
tt
has been shown that
it
Formula
1.
tt.
when we know
Formula
when
the definition,
(1) also
enables us to calculate
(1)
the length of the circumference.
gives the value of the circumference,
3. Formula (2) makes known

when we know the radius and 4.
determines the radius, when we know the
the radius
is
known.
the area of the circle,
Formula
(2)
area of the circle.
We will
in the
first
explain the two
first
methods and we propose,

;
place, to calculate the radius of a circumference
the length of which
is 4.
Let us construct a square, and taking the

square for unity,
its
perimeter will be
4.
^side of this
Let
R bo
the
radius of the circumscribing circle, and r the apothegm of

the square
we have
Now we may
gon, having the
(1)
and
transform this square into a regular octa-
same perimeter
and applying formulae
(2) of the preceding problem,
we
shall find for the
values of the radius and apothegm of the octagon,
+ vT and r' = 1+V2"

xA1-11^,
^V
^^
,
j>,
We
'2,
might, in like manner, calculate the values of Rj,
of the regulai- isoperimetrical polygon of 16 sides; and
138
continuing this operation indefinitely,
we
should arrive at
would still be equal to

which E, r would differ from each other by
a quantity less than any given quantity.
But the circumferences described with E and r as
The
radii, are one greater, and the other less than 4.
a polygon, the perimeter of which
4,
and
for
radius of the circumference equal to
4, is
therefore com-
prehended between K and / and may be calculated to

any degree of approximation desired.
;
If the values of
is
evident the
E and
common
are estimated in decimals,
it
decimals will belong to the required
radius.
If
we
limit the calculation to a
polygon of 8192
sides,
the following table presents the successive values of the

radius and of the apothegm, for polygons of 4, 8, 16, ....
8192
sides.
No. OF SlDBS.
BOOK
'
139
IV.
the radius of the circle, the circumference of which
equal to
"
= ^p
4, the
'
we
perimeter of the given square.
And
is
since
have, by eubstituting these values for
cir-
cumference and radius,

'-''''''
1.2732392
for the
3.1415926.,.
approximate value of the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter.
Archimedes found ^^- as an approximate value of tt,

and this value is often used in practice. Metius found a
nearer approximation in the fraction
Peoposition XVII.
f-^-f
Peoblem.
Having given the perimeters p, P, of two regular simir

lar inscyrihed and circumscribed polygon's, to calculate the
perimet&rs p', P', of two regular inscribed and circumscribed polygons having double the number of sides.
Let AB, EF, be the sides of the polygons, the perim-
P; and
which are respectively p,

let m be the number of
sides of
each polygon.
eters of
chord
AM,
and
AM
and
2m
P'.
From Prop.
the
draw the tangents AP, BQ

finally, draw the right line PC.
and PQ will be the sides of
the inscribed and circumscribed
sides, the perimeters of which are p'
and
polygons of
Draw
at the points
VIII.,
we have
P _ CE _ CE
p " OA ~ CM
140
CP
and since
the bisectrix of the angle
is
EOM, we have
also
FE_ CE
PM ~ CM'
Hence, from the
common
we have
ratio,
,T_ PE
^~PM'
From which, by
composition,
we
PM ^ EM
P+j9 _ PE +
2^
But the
P, P',
lines
2m
get
2PM
EM, PQ,
PQ*
are contained in the perimeters
Hence,
times.
2p
And we have for the

gon with 2m sides,
P'*
perimeter of the circumscribing poly-
2Px^
F+p
To determine
PMN, MAjD,
p',
we
remark, that the two triangles
AM_ PM
AD
lines
AM, AD,
MJSr"
are contained 2ot times in the pe-
and the lines PM, MN, are contained

times in P' and^'. Hence, we have
rimeters p' and
4m
>
are equiangular and similar, and give the
proportion
But the
= P'
P'
Corollary.
and therefore^'
Formulae
(1)
of calculating the value of
Assume
and
tt.
(2)
vP' xp.
(2)
give the second method
Let us explain this method
the radius of a circle equal to the linear unit
Inscribe and circumscribe a square to this circle.
1,
The
BOOK
141
IV.
side of the inscribed square will be ^2, and that of the
circumscribed square will be 2

and their perimeters will
be respectivelyj> = -i V2, and P 8. Substituting these
values in (1) and (2), we deduce the values of the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed octagons ; and by
the aid of the octagons, we may, in like manner, calculate
the perimeters of the regular inscribed and circumscribed
;
polygons of 16, 32, 64, &c.,
sides.
But we know
that in
this series of operations, the perimeters of the polygons
will
approach nearer and nearer the circumference of the
circle,
and by continuing the calculation
approximation desired,
we
circumference.
Dividing the length by
the value of the
number
*,
to
any degree of
shall obtain the length of the

2,
we
shall
have
corresponding with that before
found.
By similar means we might explain the two other

methods of calculating the approximate value of tt.
143
EOOK
'"--
V.
OF THE PLANE AXD EIGHT LINE, CONSIDERED

IN SPACE.
.-
'
DEFINITIONS.
I.
right line h- j)e?'pendicula?' to
pei'pendiculai- to eyery, right line
a plane,
Keciprocally, the plane
in the plane.
m- lien, it is
drawn through
pcrjpendlcular
is
the Uuti.
The foot
meet
of
Aright
perpendicular is the poipt in which the
tlie
line, \&
Reciprocally, the plane
Two planes
be produced
ai'e
is
produced indefinitely.
said to
\>q
parallel toihe line.
them
to give limits to
remembered,
both
if
they cannot meet.
IV. In the reiiresentation of planes

compelled
cannot
/plane, y;]iQn it
parallel to each other, when,
indefinite!}^,
,,
par allelioM
the plane, although both are
III.
to.
perpendicular meets the plane.

II.
foot
ii^
but
in figures,
it
must
that, unless otherwise stated,
we
are
be
alwa)',s
they must be
conceived as indefinite in extent.
Pkoposition
IFe meiy
which
Theoeem.
I.
always pass a plana throng Ji
and
intersect each other ;
Let
AB,
AC
toe
ivio right lines
can pass lut one.
be two light lines
secting each other in A.
inter-
^Ve nmy con-
ceive a plane which shall contain
AB
if,
now,
we move
around AB,
until
it
line
point C, the line

its
AC,
the
plane
this
pass through the

whicli has
two
of
points in this plane, will be entirely
in this plane,
plane will
Ik;
and the position of the

dettn-mined in space.
BDOE
Corollary
ti-i
angle
lis
V.
ABC,
not in
'tliu
A, B, 0,
or three points
same right
line, will de-
termine the position of a plane.
Two
Cor'oUahj II.
AB, CD,
"
A.^
'
'
two
and tWo
p'
"
'
'
'
'
'
must
contiiln-
cohtain
'
two points
is'to say,'tiiree'J)oi'n'ts
of a '[ilane; for ^ve

parallels are
.B
"^
tib'n
'df
not
these
kndw
planes
lines,
catiflot
each
SlVlC'e'
point of CD';
thfesame"i'ight' line.
PkOPOSITJON II.TflEOKJEM-
that
pkn'e,
ill'the'fekilie
diffei'eilt'
AB, 'and' one
ill'
parallels,
determine the posi-
al'S6
thalt
'
The intersect ion of two planes is a right -line.

For, if, among the points common to the two. planes,, we
-..
fiad. three
not. in this, right, line, the
two planes, passing
each through' these points, form one and the/same .pl^ne,
which
is
contrary, to. the supposition.
......
If a
Theoeem.
Pkoposition
in.
.....
rigTitline
AP
'
two lines
he ferjjendicular to
PS^
point of intersection in tlie plane MN, ii'will

PU, at
he perpendicular to any line PQ, drawn through its foot
iJieir
in the same plane,

pe)pe7idicidar
Draw,
line
PQ,PC
AP,
in the
Be,
and
to the
will also he
plane.
plane MlST, a right
cuttin* the three lines

:
produce
AP
until
and join the points
PB,
PA'
and A'
with the points B, Q, C. The line

PC being perpendicular to AA',
at its
middle point, the oblique
lines
CA, CA'
are equal;
144
BA = BA'.
for a like reason,
BOA'
Hence, the triangles BOA,

common side BO, and the
are equal, as they have a
other sides are equal, each to each.
BCA'
with
be revolved around BC, as an
its
equal
BCA,
the point
A'
now, the triangle
If
axis, until it coincides
on
will fall
the point
being in the axis, will remain fixed, and the line
QA.
will coincide with
Hence, since
QA'
PQ
has two of
P and Q, equally
AA', it is perpen-
its points,
distant from the extremities of the line
AA'. As the same is true for every other right

drawn in the plane MN, through the point P, the line
dicular to
line
AA'
is
also perpendicular to the plane
Pkoposition IY.
MN.
^Thkoeem.
may draw a per-
Throitgh a given point in a plane we
pendicular
1.
to this plane,
and we can draw
Let us suppose the given point
the plane
hut one.
to
be situated in
MN.
Take any
line whatever,
AB
draw two planes through

line, and in these
planes draw the perpendiculars BC, BD, to the
this
line
.c
""^--^j,
AB,
at B.
preceding
line
AB
By
theorem,
will
the
the
be perpen-
dicular to the planes of
the two lines
BC, BD.
ner, that the plane
the point
the position
^
tion
CBD
is
this figure in
shall coincide
such a man-
with the plane MIf,
upon O. The lines BC, BD, will take

OC, OD, and the line BA will take the posi-
falling
OF, evidently perpendicular
In the second place,

F,
Move
let
to the
plane
MN.
us suppose that the given point,
situated outside of the plane
Having constructed the
figure
MN.
ABCD,
as before,
move
BOOK
it
until the plane
BA
that the line
point F.
The
line
BCD
coincides with the plane
BA will
MN, only
one perpendicu-
be drawn to this plane.
lar can
we could have two, such

N OB, draw through these
if
plane, and let

tion of this
ME".
so
MIST.
the plane
-C
Through a given point 0, on
2.
MIT
same time pass tlirough the

take the position FO, and will
shall at the
be perpendicular to the plane

A
145
V.
For,
as
OA,
lines
00
be the intersecplane with the plane
OA, OB would be perpendic00, at the same point and in

the same plane, which is impossible.
Then, the two lines

ular to
In like manner,
let
is
it
impossible to
two perpendiculars upon a
fall
plane, from a point without;
FA, FB were
the triangle
angles,
which
FAB
is
would have two of
for, if
perpendiculars,
these
angles right
its
impossible.
Pkoposition v.
Theorem.
Through a given point we may draw a plane perpenand we can draw hut one.
dicular to a given right line /
1.
Let us suppose that the given
point
AB.
is
situated on the right line
Conceive any two planes to
be drawn through AB, making any

and in these
angle with each other

planes,
draw
dicular to
MD,
and CE,
CD
tlie line
and
CE
AB.
which contains
tlie
will evidently be perpendicular to
AB.
perpen-
The plane
lines
CD
ELE^fENTS QF GEOMETRY.
14(J
Xmv, any
ylaua illl, jjassing, through the
otliei'
caiiDot be perpendicular to
AB
for,
whatever drawn through the line

jilanes j\ID
and
MH,
two
in
it
it'
AB, would
right lines.
])a)-t
(\
were, any plane

intersect. the
CX, CG, which
would both be perpendicular to._AB, at the same ])oint

and in the same plane, which is impossible.
2''. Let us now suppose the point C to be situated outside of the line
Draw CD
AB.
AB, and
perpendicular to
through AB, draw
AB.
01),
in a plane passing
DE
The plane MN",
DE,
perpendicular to
of the right lines
be perpendicular to AB.
any other plane MP, passing
will
FiiialLv,
tln-diigh the
point C, cannnt be perpen-
AB for if this wero possible,

tlie plane. ABC would intersect the plane
dicular to
MP
diculars
in
a right line
CG
from
diffei'eiit
CD; we should then liBve two perpendrawn from C to AB, which is impossible.
Corollary.
All the right lines
BG,BD, BE^ drawnB of the lino
through any point
AB, perpendicular to AB,

the
same plane, which
perpendicular to
For,
lines
to
the
AB.
is
also
AB.
plane
BC, BD,
arc in
is
MN,
of
tlie
perpendicular
It is sufficient
then to
show that this plane contains all

other perpendiculars.
But if BE were not in the
plane ilX, the plane drawn through the two right Htics
AB, BE, would intersect the plane MJST in the riglit lin(>
BII and we should have two perpendiculars, BE, BII.
drawn from the same point, and in the same plane, to
;
the line
AB, whiqh
is
ijnpossible.
BOOE
147
V.
Theorem.
Proposition VI.
If from
(t
to this plane
point A, outside of tJie plane
thepcYpcndicidarAP, and
MN,
we draw
the oblique lines
AD,AC,AE
than any oblique line
T})S peipendicular is shorter
1.
.,
.The oblique lines equally distant
3"".
from
the perpen-
dicular, are equ.al;
unequally distant from the foot
Of two- oblique lines
3*^,
of the perpendicular, that which
is
farther
from
the per-
pC'iul 'ocular is the greater.
The
1.
ti'iangle'
APC
is
right-angled
at
the obIi<ûe line
P; lieuce,
AC, oppogreater
site the right angle, is
than the perpendicular
The angles APC,
2.
being right
if
we
the
tri-
angles,
suppose PC PD,
angles APC, APD
AP.
APD
will
be
equal, since thej' have two

sides
AC =
and the included angle in each equal;' hence,
AD.
,,
3^. If the distance
PE
is
PD, and joiu.AB; we
AB < AE
Corollary.
&c.,
hence,
gi'eater
shall
PB =
But
PD,
AD < AE.
All the fequal oblique lines

'
meet the plan^MN,
in
having given any point
find the point in

this plane, it is
ABj AC, AD,
the circumference described
from: the' foot of the pei-pendicular

fore,
take
AB = AD.
than
have
as a centre.
outside
There-
of a plane, to
which the perpendicular from A will meet

only necessary to take any three points,
B, C, D, on this plane, equally distant from A, and find

the; cêntre of
points
the circumference passing through. these three
this centre will
be the required point P.
.,._._ J
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRy.
14S
Thkokem.
Proposition VII.
-
Let
AP he
any perpendicular
MN^
plane
the
to
and
BC
any right line situated in this plane ; iffrom the foot

perpendicular to
of the perpendicular P, we draw
vnll he perpendicular to BC.
BC, the line
PD
AD
DB = DC,
Take
and join PB, PC, AB,
DB = DC,
PB = PC
AC;
and with respect
AP,
since
oblique
line
to the perpendicular
PB = PC,
AB = AC
Jn
the extremities
at the
the
hence, the line
AD
has two of
and
points
its
equally distant from
and C; therefore
AD
is
perpendicular
middle point of BC.
Corollary.
the plane
We
APD,
time, to the
since
two right
line
If the
DE
BC
see, also, that
BC
lines
Pkoposition
line
since
oblique line
the
is
is
perpendicular to
perpendicular, at the same
AD, PD.
VIIL
Theoeem.
AP He perpendicular the plane MN, every

AP will he perpendicular to the same
to
parallel to
plane.
Pass a plane through the parallels
AP, DE,
its
intersec-
MN will
be PD in the plane MN draw
tion with the plane

;
BC
join
PD, and
perpendicular to
AD.
By
the corollary of the pre-
ceding theorem,
BC
is
hence,
the
angle
perpen-
APDE
BDE is a
dicular to the plane
BOOK
right angle
AP
is
therefore, the line
DP, DB, and
is
Corollary I.
DE
149
V.
EPD
but the angle
is
PB, and
perpendicular to
is
;;
a right angle also, since
DE
is
perpendicular to^lheir plane.

Reciprocally,
if
the right lines
MN,
are perpendicular to the plane
AP
this parallel will
DE
AP,
they are parallel
they are not, draw through the point
if
AP
parallel to
perpendicular to the two lines
for,
a parallel to
be perpendicular to the plane
MN
two perpendiculars would

be erected to the same plane, which is impossible.
Corollary II. Two lines A and B, parallel to a third
then through the same point
line C, are parallel to each other; for conceive a plane
perpendicular to the line

allel to
the lines
A and B being
C, will be perpendicular to the same plane
by the preceding
par-
hence,
corollary, they will be parallel to each
other.
It is
understood that the three lines are not in the same
plane, as this condition has already been examined.
Pkoposition IX.
Through any point
drawn
Theorem.
A in space, only one parallel can he
CD.
CD, drawn through
to the right line
For, a parallel to
the point A,
is
situated in the plane passing through
and the right
this point
we know
D
allel
line
CD
and
that in a plane only one par-
can be drawn to a given line
through a given point.
PjiOPOsmoN X.
If the
line
plane MN',
For,
if
^Theorem.
AB is parallel to the
it
line
CD, drawn in
the
will he parallel to this plane.
the line
AB, which
is
in the
plane
ABCD, met the
150
plane MJf,
CD,
it
could only meet
some point of the
in
it
common
the
line
intersection
of the two planes
cannot meet CD, since

parallel to
it.
it
is
Therefore,
it
cannot meet the plane MIST, and must be parallel to

-
Corollary
MN,
sect
MN"
the line
MN,
ABCD
CD
in the line
For, the lines

if
AB
which
is
AE
If a right line
I.
every plane
is
will inter-
AB.
AB, CD, being in the same plane ABCD,

line CD, it would meet the plane
met the
contrary to the hypothesis.
Corollary II.
If,
through a point
draw
CD
AB, we
parallel to this line, this
parallel will
be in the plane
through the line
and the point
C would intersect MN in a line

AB, and we should thus have two parallels
drawn through the same pouit

is
AB
MN.
drawn
For, otherwise, the plane
parallel to
MN,
on a plane
parallel to the right line
CE
it.
parallel to a plane
drawn through AB,
parallel to
AB
but,
to a
given right
which
line,
impossible.
PKOPOsrrioN
Two planes,
line
AB,
For,
if
MN, PQ,
are parallel
to
they intersect,
^
-;^
XL
Thkoeem.
perpendioular
to the
same right
each other.
be one of the points of their
let
common intersection, and

OA, OB; the line AB,
join
per-
""""
pendicular to the plane
is
perpendicular to
OA, drawn through

in
^'^
this plane.
reason,
AB
is
the
its
MN,
line
foot
For the same

perpendicular
, ;
fioo V.
to
Bo
ulars
line,
PQ
therefore,
OA
OB
and
ISI
would be two perpendic-
drawn from the same point O to the same

which is impossible. Hence, the two planes
cannot meet, and
intersections
PQ,iy
MN
are, therefore, parallel.
Proposition XII.
The
right
Thboeem.
EF, GH^ of the parallel planes Mlf,

EG, are parallel.
a third plane
For,
in the
EF, GH, situated
the lines
if
same
plane, are not parallel,
they will meet,
if
produced
PQ,
then,
which they
are situated, will also meet, and could
not, therefore, be parallel, which is
the planes MN",
in
Theorem.
Peofosition XIII.
Through a point A we may draw a plane pwrallel to the

j and we can draw hut one.
1. From the point A, draw AB perpendicular to
\F through the point A draw the plane PQ
MN
plane
MN
perpendicular to
be
AB
the plane
PQ will
MN.
parallel to
be a second plane,
A, and parany plane whatever drawn
2^. If there could
such as
\jj allel to
through
-^
MIST,
PQ, AF,
lines
AG,
BD
parallel planes
AF passing through
MN,
AB
would
in the right lines
are parallel
by a
would be parallel
to
as
intersect the planes
BD, AG, AE.

the
intersections
Bat the
of two
third plane; for a like reason
BD, which
is
absurd.
AE
ELEMENTS OP GEOMETRY.
152
Proposition XIV.
The
Theorem.
AB, perpendicular to the plane MN, is perpenthe plane PQ, parallel to MN.
line
dicular to
Draw any
line
AD in the plane MIST, and through AB

and AD pass a plane BAD this plane
;
!^N
^
line
PG
otherwise,
through A, two parallel planes to
PQ
would be drawn.
BC
of the planes
AD
to the
BAD
and PQ,
will be
But
(Prop. XII.)
plane
MN,
is
the
perpendicular
also perpendicular to its par-
is
it
The' intersection
AD.
parallel to
AB, perpendicular
to the right line

allel
will intersect the plane
BC.
We
also see that
line passing
AB
through
be perpendicular
will
in the plane
its foot
to
PQ
any right
and ia,
;
therefore, perpendicular to this plane.
XV.
Proposition
Two
planes.
A, B, parallel
parallel
Draw
to
DF
this
Theorem.
to
a third plane C, are
each other.
perpendicular to the plane
line
is
perpendicular
the
to
planes
rem
hence, these planes are parallel,
and B, by the preceding theo-
since they are perpendicular to the
same
right line.
i
Proposition XVI.
Theorem.
The parallels EG, FH, comprehended between two parallel planes MN', PQ, are equal.
BOOK
153
V.
EG, FH, pass
Throngli the parallels
EGHF, intersecting the

parallel planes in EF and GH.
The
lines EF and GH are parallel to each
the plane
other (Prop. XII.), as well as the lines
EG,
H
FH
Corollary.
It
pendicular to the two planes
EG
if
MN, PQ,
FH
and
If two angles CAE,

their sides parallel
he equal,
Take
and
DBF,
and
Theorem.
not in the same plane, have
lying in the same direction, they
their planes will he parallel.
AG = BD, AE = BF,
EF.
and join CE, DF, AB, CD,

Since AC is equal and
parallel to
is
BD, the figure
a parallelogram
EF
a like reason,
parallel
also
AB
to
CD
equal
ABCD
CD is
hence,
eqnal and parallel to
fore,
are per-
they will be paral-
each other, and are, therefore, equal.
PsoposriioN XVII.
wiU
is
AB.
DF
equal, each to each
and we have
and parallel
BDF
for,
there-
paral-
BDF have their sides

CAE = DBF.
ACE is parallel to the
CAE,
suppose that the plane parallel
through the point A, met the
lines
and H, diflerent from the points
CD, EF,
to
BDF,
at points
and E, then (Prop.

would be eqnal. But
lines AB, GD, FH

AB, CD, EF are equal
XVI.) the three

the three lines
to
In the second place, the plane
plane
For
equal and
EF. The figure CEFD is,

a parallelogram, and the side CE is equal and
lel to
is
follows from this, that two parallel planes
are evei^ywhere equidistant ; for,
lel to
EGHF
EG = FH.
hence, the figure
a parallelogram, and
hence,
CD = GD,
'
154
and
is
FH
EF, which
parallel to
BDF.
Corollary.
If
is
absurd
therefore, the plane
two parallel planes
two other planes. CABD,
EABF,
MN, PQ
are
ACE
met by
CAE, BDF,
the angles
formed by the intersections of the parallel planes, will be

equal for, the intersection AC is parallel to BD, and AE
;
to
BF
hence, the angle
CAE == DBF.
Thkokem.
Pkoposition XYIII.
Two
right lines, included ietween three parallel planes,
are cut proportionally hy these planes.
Suppose
PQ
KS,
at
the line AB meets the parallel planes MN,

A, E, B, and that the line CD meets the same
tliat
planes in C, F,
Mr
lO
we shall
then
have
AE_
BE
CF ~ FD'
7^
Draw AD, meeting
the plane
PQ, in G, and join AC, EG,

GF, BD the intersections EG,
BD, of the parallel planes PQ,
;
KS, by the plane
ABD,
are parallel (Prop. XII.)
hence,
AE_AG
EB ~ GD
Again, since the intersections AC, GF, are

have
Hence, from the
AG_
CF
GD
FD
common
ratio,
AE_
EB ~
'
we have
CF
FD"
parallel,
we
BOOK
156
V.
DEFINITIONS.
The prelection of a poini on a plane,
is
the foot of the
perpendicular let
fall
point en the plane,
from
this
a, tn, h are
the projections, respectively, of

the points A,
M, B, on
the plane
MN.
The
projection of a line
on a plane,
is
AMB
the line amb, formed
by joining the projections of

the points of the line
XIX.
Peoposition
The projection of a right
From any
dicular
Aa
point
all
AMB.
A of
line
Theokem.
on a plane
the line
AB,
is
a right
let fall the
line.
perpen-
lines
AB,
Aa, draw the plane BAa,
cut-
on the plane ES, and through the

ting the plane
ES
in ah.
K, through the points

of the
ifec,
line
AB,
M, N,
perpen-
diculars be let fall on the plane
RS, they will all be parallel to

Aa, and will be situated in the
plane BA<z; they must, therefore,
meet the plane RS,
in the line ab.
Peoposition
The
its
acute angle
projection
Ba
XX.
Thkoeem.
ABa formed hy the right line AB, with
on the plane
MM,
is less
than the angle
ABD, formed
hj the same line with any other line
drawn through
its foot
Take
BD = Ba,
BD
in the plane.
and join
AD
the two triangles
ABa,
156
ABD,
have the side
AB
conmion: besides,
construction
of the
fii-st
third side
but the
triangle
AD
line
ri-lit
is
Aa
side
than the
less
since
Ka is perpendicular to the plane
MN,
and
the angle
the
tliird
of the second triangle,
AD
an oblique line
is
ABa
Ba = BD, by
less
is
than
ABD.
Scholium I. The acute angle which

makes with its projection on a plane, being
minimum
angle, the obtuse angle
the
is
maximum.
The acute angle which a right line makes

projection on a plane, by reason of the property
Scholium II.
with
its
of the right line with
just demonstrated, is called the angle

the plans.
Peoposition
XXI.
Theokkm.
Having given two right lines AB, CD, not in the same
1, we may draw to them a common perpendicular ; 2^, we can only draw one perpendicular ; 3, this
plane,
perpendicular
is the shortest
distance ietween the two lines.

1.
A
7N
of
Through 'a point

the
line
AL
CD
and through the
lines
AB, AL, draw
the plane
lel to
parallel
MN,
From any
DH on the
plane
MN,
to
paral-
CD.
taken on
the perpendicular
AB,
draw
point D,
CD,
let fall
and through the
draw HF parallel to CD finally, through the

draw FC parallel to DH FC will be a common
perpendicular to the two lines.
point
point
For,
FC
being parallel to
DH,
is
perpendicular to the
BOOK
plane
M'N
lar to
AB
and FH, and therefore
2.
FC
is
(Prop. VIII.)
the only
it is,
common
167
V.
consequently, perpendicuto
CD
parallel to
perpendicular
FH.
for, if
IK
were another perpendicular to AB and CD, it would also

be perpendicular to KP parallel to CD hence, it would
;
be perpendicular
DH,
parallel to
we
plane MIST.
to the
is
perpendicular to the same plane, and
should have two perpendiculars
point to a plane, which
FC
3.
is
let fall
from the same
impossible.
is
the shortest distance between the two lines
be another line meeting
for, let IK.
draw IG
MN, and
Besides, the line IG,
parallel
will
to
DH,
it
will
AB
and CD.
If
we
be perpendicular to
But IG
be shorter than IK.
= FC,
hence
FC < IK.
ANGLES FOKMED BY PLANES.

DEFINITIONS.
I.
When
two planes meet or intersect each other, the

is formed at their common intersection is
Mgure which
called a diedral angle.
The
intersection of the
two planes
is
called the edge of
the diedral angle; and the two planes which form the
angle, are called the faces.
A diedral angle is
designated by means of four letters

which
represent
the edge, and the two others the
two of
two faces. Care must be used to put the
letters which designate the edge between the
two
others.
II.
when
Two
diedral angles are said to be eqi;al,
their faces can
The angle
be made to coincide.
NAP,
formed by the perpendiculars NA, AP, and drawn in the two

faces of the diedral angle PMAN, at the same point of
III.
158
the edge
MA,
the plane angle corresponding to the di-
is
edral angle.
The plane
angle, thus formed,
of the edge; for,
angle
CMB,
if,
is
at the point
the same for
M, we form
points
MC, KS. will be parallel, because

same plane, and perpendicular to
MB
parallel to AP
hence, CMB =]SrAP.
the lines
MA
situated in the
is also
all
the plane
When
a plane
PB meets another
it
plane MIS',
two adjacent
PABM,
PABK
forms with
it
diedral
angles,
If these
adja-
cent angles are equal, the plane
PB
is
MN
said to
be perpendicular
to
and the equal diedral angles
are called right
angles.
be demonstrated that
It will
all
right
line
AB,
diedral angles are equal.
Proposition XXII.
Thkorem.
Through any right

'^-
situated in the plane JifJV,
may draw a plane
p/
ular
to
MN;
we
perpendic-
and we can draw
iut one.
Corollary.
All right diedral
angles are equaj.
The
of
this
theorem and its corollary correspond with that given in Book

I.,
demonstration
Prop.
I.
It is left as
an ex-
ercise for the pupil.
Peoposition XXIIIi
Mery plane
Theorem.
which meets another plane, forms with

sum of which is equal
twA adjacent diedral angles, the
two Hght angles.
it
to
BOOK
If one plane
Gorollai'y.
the second
is
159
V.
be perpendicnlar
also perpendicular to the
to another,
(Book
first.
I.,
Prop, ni.)
XXIV. Theorem.
PEOPOsrrioN
GEFR
are equal, their

If two diedral angles CABD,
plane angles OBD^ GFM will be equal.
For, lay the second diedral angle on the first, so that
EF fall on AB, the point F on B, and the plane EFG
ABC
with
coincide
EFG, ABC
the angles
being right angles, FG

BC; and on
account
of the equality of the

diedral
plane
angles,
the
EFH will coinABD are right
ABD; and since EFH and

FH will coincide with BD.
Corollary. A right diedral angle has for its plane angle
cide with
angles,
a right angle.
For,
when one plane
perpendicular to another, the
is
adjacent diedral angles are equal

are adjacent to
each other;
the plane angles which
correspond to them are also equal
but these plane angles
they are therefore right
angles.
PfioPosnioN
Two
diedral angles
as their plane angles
XXV.
Theobem.
OABD, OEFH
are
to
each other
CBD, GFH.
Suppose that the two diedral angles have a common

measure, and that
parts,
GEFH
in
dividing
CABD
into three equal
contains' four of these parts;
CABD ^
GEFH ~
3
4'
we
shall
have
160
Draw
CBD, GFH, respectively perpendicuAB, EF these planes will intersect the
the planes
lar to tlie
edges
intermediate planes in
^C~---^
EC,
the lines
FE
FG, FP,
BM
.
I'e-
spectively perpendicular to
AB and EF:
the plane angles
MEN
.
'^
the diedral angles

angles,
and
GFH
besides,
GFP,
PFR
are equal, as cor-
responding angles
CPD
contains four
but
CBM,
of
contains three of these
we
have, therefore,
BOOK
MN,
plane
lines
EC,
be perpendicular
will
PD
PA, PD,
each of the two right
formed by the two
common intersection BP,

two planes AB, MN. Hence,
at the
measures the angle of the

since this angle
to
APD,
but the angle
perpendiculars
161
V.
a right angle, the two planes are per-
is
pendicular to each other.
Scholium.
When
three right lines
DP
AP, BP,
are
perpendicular to each other, each of these right lines
is
perpendicular to the plane of the two others, and the three

planes are perpendicular to each other.
XXYII.
Pboposition
Theokem.
AB
is perpendicular to the plane MW, and

If the plane
we draw, in the plane AB, the line PA perpendicular to
the
common
to the plane
For,
if in
intersection
PB,
PA
will he perpendicular
MN.
the plane
MN we
PB,
PD perpendicular to
APD will be a right
draw
the angle
angle, since the planes are perpendicular to each other.

is
Hence, the
line
AP
perpendicular to the two lines PB,
PD, and
is
therefore perpendicular to
their plane Ml!^.
Corollary.

the plane
ME",
AB, we
MN,
let fall
If the plane
AB
is
per-
and through the point
A of
a perpendicular on the plane
this pei-pendicular will
be
iu
the plane
AB
for, if
we might draw in the plane AB a perpendicular AP

to the common intersection BP, which would, at the same
and we should
titne, be perpendicular to the plane ME
not,
then have two perpendiculars drawn from the same point
A to the plane MN,
which
is
impossible.
162
XXVIII.
Proposition
If two planes
AB,
AD
Theorem.
are perpendicular to
MN,
plane
tersection AP will
dicular
For,
to this
he
in-
perpen-
third plane.
from
if
a third
common
their
point
A,
taken on the intersection, we

let
fall
MN,
AD.
Hence,
it is
on
must
perpendicular
be found at the same time in

the plane AB, and also in the
''^
plane
this perpendicular
the
common
intersection of these
two planes.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
solid angle, or a polyedral angle,
is
the figure
formed by several planes intersecting each other in a com-
mon
point.
The
II.
intersections of the planes are called the edges
of the solid angle

is
and the point
the verttx of the solid angle.
in which the edges tneet

The angles formed by tlie
edges are called the faces or plane angles of the solid

angle.
III.
triedral angle
is
a solid angle formed by three
plane angles.
IV. Tliose solid angles only are considered, which are
same side of their faces, when produced.

Such angles are called convex solid angles.
V. A solid angle SABCD being given, if we produce
beyond the vertex A, we form a new
the edges SA, SB
solid angle SA'B'C'D', which is said to be symmetrical
situated on the
with the
It
is
first.
evident that this
new solid
angle has the same piano
angles and the same diedral angles as the
first.
Neverthe-
BOOK
less,
163
V.
these two solid angles cannot, in general, be placed
one upon the other, so that they
make
its
may
equal
coincide
D'SA'
the face
ASD,
for, if
we
coincide with
so that the edges of
two solid angles may be situated

on the same side of the common face,
we see that setting out from the edge
SD, and making the revolution of
the two solid angles, the plane angles
^ and the diedral angles will be found
the
in an inverse order.
pEOPosrrioN
Two
XXIX.
Thkoebm.
triedral angles are eg[ual in all their parts
they have a diedral angle in each equal,
including the diedral angle equal, each
Let
ASB = DTE, BSC = ETF,
and
when
the two faces
each.
to
and the diedral angle
SB
equal to the
di-
edral angle TE.
Place the angle
ASB
DTE
on
;
its
edral angles
TE
equal
since the di-
SB and
are equal, the
plane
ETF may
be
applied to the plane
BSC, and
TF
as the angles
ETF
will therefore coincide,
and
SC
BSC
and be equal
If the equal faces of the
two
are equal, the edge
the two triedral angles

in all their parts.
triedral angles
were
in-
versely situated with respect to the equal diedral angles,
we might apply
anffle
the triedral angle
SABC, and we should be
on the symmetrical
led to the
same conclusion.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMTCTRY.
164
Peoposition
Two
XXX.
^Theorem.
when
and the included face of the
angles and the included face of
triedral angles are equal in all their parts
they have two diedral angles
one equal
to
two diedral
the other, each to each.
Let
ASC = DTF,
the diedral angle
SA =
TD, and the
diedral angle
B'
SC
TF.
Place thefaeeDTF
on
its
equal
ASC;
since the diedral angles
SA and TD are
eqnal, as well as the
diedral
angles
SO
and TF, the, planes
DTE, FTE may be respectively applied to the faces ASB,

CSB hence, the edgeTE will coincide with SB, and the two
;
and be equal in all their parts.

were inversely disposed, with
respect to equal faces, we might apply the triedral angle
T to the symmetrical of the triedral angle S, and the same
result would be reached.
triedral angles will coincide
If the equal diedral angles
pBOPOsniON
If two
XXXI.
^Theorem.
triedral angles have their faces equal, each to

each, the diedral angles
equal
opposite
to
faces
will
the
he
equal, also.
Let ASB = DTE,

ASC = DTF, BSC =
fETF.
Take the
six
equal lengths SA, SB,
SC, TD, TE, TF, and
BOOK
lines
triangles
SAB,
DTE
The
isosceles
are equal, since they have an angle in
each included by equal
sides,
equal
the same equality
SBC, TEF, and the trifrom the equality of these

the triangles ABC, DEF having their sides equal,
also exists
between the
SAC, TDF.
triangles,
165
V.
AB, AC, EC, DE, DF, EF.
draw the
angles
triangles
Finally,
are also equal.
Now, through any point M on the edge SA, draw, in

SAB, SAC, the perpendiculars MN, MP to SA
these perpendiculars will meet the sides AB and AC, since
the triangles SAB, SAC, being isosceles, the angles at the
finally, draw NP.
bases, SAB, SAC, are acute
Let us now take DG = AM, and repeat, in the second
the faces
triedral angle, the
preceding construction.
The right-angled
they have tlie side
= GDK
also,
hence,
that
triangles
AMN, DGK
are equal, since
AM = DG, and the acute angle MAN"

AN = DK, and MN = GK. "We see,
MP= GH, and AP = DH.
We see,
also, that the triangles
PAN, HDK,
having an
angle included between equal sides equal, are equal
NP = KH.
Therefore, the triangles
the three sides equal, each to each
is
hence,
K'GH, have
hence, the angle
wliich measures the diedral angle SA,
KGH,
NMP,
NMP,
equal to the angle
which measures the diedral angle TD.
Scholium.
If the
two
solid angles have, besides, their
faces similarly disposed, they will be equal by superposition
,'
if
the faces are not similarly situated, the solid
angles will be symmetrical.
PKOFOsrrioN
XXXII.
Theokem.
through any point F, taken on the edge of a diedral

angle AB, we erect a perpendicular, FG, to the face AC,
If,
ABC
ABD
as the face
on the same side of the plane
; and
a perpendicular FE, on the same side of
to the face
ABD
166
plane
the
ABD
as the face
ABC,
EFG is the
the angle
supplement of the plane angle which measures
the diedral
angle.
For, the perpendiculars
EF, FG,
AB, determine a
AB, "which
to
plane perpendicular to
two
will intersect the
FH,
also perpendicular to
the angle
IFH
ABC, we have GFI
the plane
EFH = one right angle
GFI + EFH = two
FI,
and
being perpendicular
We
equal to one right angle.

for a like reason,
AB
measures the diedral
FG
But
angle.
to
faces of the di-
right lines
the
angle in
edral
have,
we have
hence,
EFG + IFH =
right angles, or
two
right angles.
Proposition
If, at the vertex
XXXIII.
Thkoeem.
SABC, we
of a triedral angle
erect
each face, on the same side of the plane

of this face as the third edge, the triedral angle thus
perpendicular
formed
Note.
the
to
will he supplementary to the given triedral angle.
Two
triedral
''I
1^
of the
Let
other.
SC
the face
be perpendicular to
ASB, on
"1
iinally, let
same
also,
as the
edge
SB perpendicular
to the
face
ASC, on
face
ASC
SA' be perpendicular
is
perpendicular
of this
the same side of the
as the
to the
side of this plane as the edge
The line SC
on the same side
1-
SC
the same side
ASB
of the plane
is
when
angles are supplementary,
plane angles of the one are supplements of the angles

which measure the diedral angles
edge SB; and
plane
CSB
on the
SA.
to
the plane
plane as the face
CSB
ASB, and
;
the line
BOOE
SA'
the
is
perpendicular to
same
is
plane CSB, and
tlie
situated on
is
ASB
hence, the
the supplement of the angle corresponding
to the diedral angle

is
167
V.
side of this plane as the face
angle C'SA'
CSB'
We
SB.
see, also, that
the angle
the supplement of the angle which corresponds
SA, and that the angle A'SB' is the

supplement of the angle which measures the diedral angle
SC. Hence, 1, the plane angles of SA'B'C are the supto the diedral angle
plements of the diedral angles of
The
2.
CSB,
is
line
perpendicular to
CSA,
to the plane
SC
is
SABC.
SA', being perpendicular to the plane
SC
the line SB', perpendicular
SC
perpendicular to
is
hence, the line
perpendicular to the plane A'SB'.
being perpendicular to the plane
Besides,
ASB, and being on
SC
the
same side of this plane as SC, the angle CSC is acute

and since SC is perpendicular to A'SB', and makes an
acute angle with SC, we conclude that SC is on the same
side of the plane A'SB' as SC.
In like manner,
plane
A'SC, and
we
is
see that
SB
is
on the same side of
this
plane as SB',
and that SA is perpendicular to the plane CSB', and is

on the same side of this plane as SA'; in other wordî, the
triedral angle SABC has been constructed by means of
SA'B'C, just as the triedral angle SA'B'C has been constructed
SABC
by means
of
SABC.
Hence
the plane angles of
are supplements of the diedral angles of
Proposition
If two
XXXIV.
SA'B'C.
^Thkoeem.
triedral angles have their diedral angles ngual,
they have also equal faces.

Let S and S' be the two given triedral angles
each
to ea^h,
T and
T' their supplementary triedral angles.
Since S and S' have their diedral

triedral angles T, T'
have
angles equal, the
their faces equal, each to each,
168
and consequent!)', their diedral angles are equal.

triedral angles T, T'
tlie
Finally,
having their diedral angles equal,
the triedral angles S, S' will have their faces equal.
Scholium.
If the equal faces of the
two
triedral angles
are similarly disposed, the triedral angles will be eqnal,
by
sujaerposition ; otherwise, they will be symmetrical.
fEOPOsiTioN
XXXV.
Theorem.
If a solid angle is formed iy three plane angles, the sum

of any two of these plane angles will he greater than the
third.
Let the solid angle S be formed by the three plane

angles
ASB, ASC, BSC, and
us suppose that the angle
let
ASB
is
three
the greatest angle of the
then
we
have
shall
ASB <
ASC + CSB.
ASB, make
In the plane
angle
right
SD,
"c"
The two
SC
the angle
BSD, BSC
BSD = BSC
are eqnal,
AB < AC + BC
join
AC, BC.
BS, SD, are equal
sides
two
to the
hence, the two
BD =
and
the
BSD = BSC. Draw the

line ADB, and taking SC =
BC.
But,
sides
BS,
triangles
we have
BC
taking BD from one side, and its equal

from the other, there will remain
< AC. The
two
s-ides
AD
third side
angle
we
AS,
AD
ASD <
shall
SD
have
are equal to the two sides
is less
ASC.
than the third side
Adding
ASD + BSD,
Proposition
or
AS, SC
AC
the
hence, the
BSD = BSC, to each

ASB < ASC + BSC.
side,
XXXYT. Theoeem.
The sum of the plane angles which form, a convex solid

less than four right angles.
angle is always
BOOK
Intei-sect the solid
meet
all
the edges
101
V.
angle S by a plane
ABODE,
from a point O, taken
draw
to the vertices
so as to
in this plane,
A, B, C, D, E,
OA, OB, 00, OD, OK.

The sum of the angles of the
triangles ASB, BSC, &e., foi-ined
the lines
around the vertex
sum
Dumber
the
S,
of
AOB, BOG,
triangles
&c., formed around the
But
ABO, OBC,
vertex 0.
sum
of the
which,
taken
at the point B, the
angles
equal to
is
of the angles of an equal
make the angle ABC, is

ABS, SBO (Prop. XX XV.)
together,
less
than the
sum
of the angles
we have BOO + OCD < BOS + SOD

and the same for all the angles of the polygon ABODE.
Hence, the sum of the angles at the bases of the triangles
which have for a common vertex O, is less than the sum
also, at
the point C,
of the angles at the bases of the triangles which have
common
their
sum
than the
But
vertex at S
tlie
angles
angle S
sum
sum of
the angles around
hence, the
is less
sum
1.
is
greater
In every
The
triedral angle, the
and
a, b, c
;
equal to four right
sum of the
three diedral
greater than two ri^ht angles.
smallest diedral angle,
triedral angle
is
XXXYII. Theorem.
angles, is greater than the
Let
of the angles which form the solid
than four right angles.
angles is less than six
1.
hence, by compensation, the
of the angles formed around the point S.
Pkopositiou
2-
of the angles formed around the point
augmented hy two right
sum of the
other two.
be the three diedral angles of the given
and
let
A, B,
8
be the faces of the sup-
170
=2
A,
C hence, by
addition, a + h-\-c = Q right angles (A + B + C).
Farther, the sum A + B + C is greater than o, and less
less than
than 4 right angles hence, the sum (a + & + c)
triedml angle,
]ilt'iiii;ntary
=2
B,
right angles
we have a
= 2 right
right angles
angles
is
6 right angles and greater than two.

2. a,
i, c,
being the diedral angles of the given triedral
angle, and a the smallest, the faces of the supplementary
angle will be respectively 2 right angles
triedral
right angles
5,
glesa, will be tlie

Theorem XXXV.,
2 light anj^les
+a + a
adding
angles,
we have
<
to
&
'2
In order
both
that the
angles,
that
sum of
and
a,
sides,
of
5 + 2 right angles c;
and subtracting 2 right
2 right angles
XXXVIII.
we may form a
plane faces,
o,
right angles
+c<
Proposition
three yiven
which 2 right angreatest; hence, we shall have, by
2 right angles
it is
+ a.
Theoebm.
solid triedral a7)gle with
necessary
and
it is siijficicnt
the three faces shall he less
that the greatest face shall
he
than 4 riyJU
less
than the
sum. of the other two.
We
sary
have already seen that these conditions are necesto prove that they are sufficient
we have now
Let BSC,
ASB, DSC be
the three
given faces, which are supposed to
be placed on the same plane

let
BSC
From
and
be the greatest.
the point S, as
a centre,
with any radius SA, describe a ciicumference, and draw the perpendiculars
and
D to the lines SB and SC.
greatest of the three,
BC
Aa, 'Dd, from the points A

The angle BSC beiu'j- the
will be greater than either of the
HOOK
BA, CD
between
and since Ba = BA, we see that the point

and C, and the same with d.
arcs
is
Besides,
we
171
V.
BSC < ASB + CSD
have, by hypothesis,
and, consequently,
BC < AB + CD.
Hence, since Ba
= BA, and Qd =
BC, on
the arc
Finally, the
CD,
the point a
is
on
the right of d.
sum
of the three given faces being less than
four right angles, the point
will
be situated beyond the
point C, on the circumference passed over from the point
A in
the direction
The
point
ABC.
the point a between
between
and a, and
hence, the chords Aa, D<Z
will then be situated
d and D;
will cut each other in the interior of the circumference.

If,
we
now, at the point
the plane
BSC, and
erect a perpendicular
plane
in the
lOM
ference from I as a centre, and with
OM
the point
in
SBMC
M, and
join
AI
MS
OM to
describe a circumas a radius, cutting
the triedral angle
be formed with the three given faces.

For, join MI, MK," the triangles ASI, MIS are right
angled at I they have SI common, and AI = IM hence,
they are equal and we have the angle ASI = ISM. The
will
triangles
MSK
and
common, and the

to each other
Sclwlium.
DSK are
sides
also equal, for the side
SD, SM, both equal
hence, the angle
To form a
MSK =
to
SK is
S A, are equal
DSK.
triedral angle with three given
necessary and it is sufficient that

between
2 right angles and 6, and that
their sum shall be
the smallest, augmented by 2 right angles, shall be greater
diedral angle$ a,
J, c, it is
than the sum of the other two.
"We know already that these conditions are necessary

and further, they are sufficient for we see that when these
;
conditions are fulfilled,
we
can construct the supplementary
triedral angle with the faces 2 right apgles
angles
5,
2 right
angles c
struct a triedral angle with
tlie
hence,
a, 2 right
we may
diedral angles
(?,
also con5, c.
ELEMENTS OF GKOMETRT.
173
BOOK
VI.
POLYEDKONS.
DEFINITIONS.
I. A polyedron is a solid terminated by plane faces.
The plane faces are necessarily terminated by right lines.
The tetraedron is a polyedron oi four faces.
The hexaedron is a polyedron of six faces the dodecaethe icosaedron, one
dron, one which has twelve faces
;
wliicli
has twenty, &c.
The tetraedron
is
the simplest of
all
polyedrons, for three
planes are required to form a solid angle, and a fourth
plane
is
necessary to close this solid angle so as to form
the polyedron.
The common
II.
polyedron
III.
is
intersection of the adjacent faces of a
called the edge of the polyedron.
regular polyedron has
polygons, and
all its solid
its
equal regular
faces
angles equal to each other.
There are only five regular polyedrons.

1.
If the faces are equilateral triangles,
we may form
each solid angle of the polj'edron with three angles of these

triangles,
or with ybw/", or with
the three regular polyedrons,

cdron, and the
number with
icosaedron.
have
cannot form a greater
j-ight angles,
If the faces are squares, their angles
bined three and three, and
edron or cuhe.
shall
We
would be equal to four

tiierefore, form a solid angle.
2.
and we
the tetraedron, the octa-
equilateral triangles, for six angles of these
triangles
not,
_y?we /
viz.,
we should
and could
might be com-
thus form the hexor
BOOK
Four angles of square
and cannot form a
angles,
S. Finally,
faces
thus
if
1Y3
VI.
equal to four
faces are
right
solid angle.
the faces are regular pentagons, their
might be combined, three and three, and we should

fiii'm
We
the regular dodecaedron.
cannot go further; for three angles of regular hex-
agons are equal to four right angles, and three of heptagons are greater.
Hence, the only regular polyedrons are the

with equilateral triangles,
thi-ee
formed
one with squares, and one with
pentagons.
IV. A prism is a solid whose faces are parallelograms,

and the faces terminated by two equal parallel polj'gons.
To construct this solid, let ABODE be any polygon
whatever, and MN" a plane parallel to ABODE. Through
tlie point A draw the right line AF, meeting the plane
in F; then, through the
points B, C, D, E, draw parallels to AF, and produce them
until they meet the plane MN.
Finally, join the points in which
MN
they meet this plane by the right

lines
FG, GH, HI, &c.
The
solid included between the two
polygons
prism.
and parallel
like
reason,
hence,
all
AEGF
is
ABODE, FGHIK
For,
a parallelogram.
ABODE, FGHIK
their sides are equal
and
Tlie equal
is
equal
For a
are
equal, since
parallel.
and parallel polygons
are called the bases of the
FGHD,
EG are
the other lateral faces are parallelograms.
The two polygons

V.
AF,
prism ; the
ABODE, FGHIK
AFGE,
lateral faces
&c., taken together, constitute the convex surface
of the prism.
The
edges of the prism.
lines
AF, BK.
CI, &c., are called the
174
VI. The altitude of a prism is the distance between its

and is equal to the perpendicular let fall from any
bases,
point of the upper base upon the lower base.
A prism
VII.
BK,
then each
In
a right prism, when the edges AF,
is
&c., are perpendicular to the planes of the bases;
all
is less
is
than
VIII.
equal to the altitude of the prism.
other cases, the prism

tlie
A prism
is
IX.
oblique,
and the
altitude
triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal,
hexagonal, &c., according as

lateral,
is
edge.
base
its
is
a triangle, quadri-
pentagon, hexagon, &c.
When
the prism has a parallelogram for

all its
is
base,
its
faces are parallelograms,
and
right
parallelopipedon
edges perpendicular to
its
has
base.
base of the parallelopipedon
is
X.
Among
is
its
If the
a rec-
tangle, all the faces are rectangles,
the parallelopipedon
it
called a parallelopipedon.
and
said to be rectangular.
the rectangular parallelopipedons, the most
important
t
I
is
the regular hexaedron,
or cube, the faces of
which are
six
equal squares.
XI. Tlie pyramid is a solid formed by joining any point S with the
vertices of
any polygon
The polygon
ABODE.
ABODE is called the
base of the pyramid, the point
S is
and the triangular faces
ASB, BSO, &c., taken together, form
its
vertex,
the convex or lateral surface of the
pyramid.
is
XII. The altitude of the pyramid

the perpendicular let fall from
the vertex of the
plane of the base, produced,
if
pyramid upon the
necessary.
BOOK
XlII. The pyramid,
according as
XIY.
its
base
is
18
175
Vl.
triangular, quadrilateral, &c.,
a triangle, quadrilateral, &c.
A pyramid
polygon, and
is regular, when its base is a regular

when the perpendicular from the vertex on
the plane of the base passes through the centre of the
The
base.
the base
is
right line joining the vertex with the centre of

called the axis of the pyramid.
XV. The diagonal of
solid angles
the right line which

which are not adja-
The polyedrons which we propose
to consider are such,
joins the vertices of
a polyedron
two
is
cent to each other.
that
if
the plane of any face be produced, the polyedron
will be situated altogether
polyedrons
aa-e
on one side of
Such
this plane.
called convex polyedrons.
Peoposition
I.
Thkoeem.
Two prisms are equal, when the three plane faces which
form a solid angle in one prism are equal to the three plane
faces which form a solid angle in the other, each to each,
and
are similarly situated.
Let the base
ABODE
be equal to the base ahcde,
let
the parallelogram
ABGF
be equal
to the
parallelo-
gram
oibgf,
and
the parallelogram
BCHG
equal to
the parallelogram
hchg
then
the prism
will
ABCI
be equal to the
prism
alci.
For, place the base
these two bases will coincide
which form the
solid angle
ABODE
on
its
equal abode,
but the three plane angles
B, are equal to the three plane
EL-EMENTS OF GEOMETRY.
176
whicli form the solid angle
ariirl'^-
ahf, AB(.T
dbg,
and
5,
each to each,
GBC = ghc;
ABO
viz.,
besides, tliese angles
Hence, the solid angles B and b are
are siniilai'ly situated.
equal, and consequently the side

see, also, that since the
BG
on
will fall
ABGF,
parallelograms
We
hg.
aigf are
its equal
gf, and GH will
Hence, the upper base FGHIK will
coincide with its equal fgMk, and the two solids will coincide throughout, and are therefore equal.
GF
equal, the side
fall
on
Two
Corollary.
and equal
= ab,
altitude
to the
rectangles
right j>ris7ns
altitudes are equal.
and the
be equal
will fall on
equal gh.
its
the solid angle b
bghc
AB
will
the rectangle
same
true of the
is
thus, the three planes
which form
are equal to the three planes which form
hence, the two prisms are equal.
Peoposition
In,
bases
ABGF
BG = JA,
rectangle abgf\ the
BGHC,
the solid angle
which have equal
For, having the side
Theorem.
II.
every parallelopipedon the apposite faces are equal
and parallel.
From
EFGH
the definition of this solid, the bases
lel
it
remains
the same
lateral
4/
L I
is
ABCD
like reason,
DAE
AE
is
is
now
BG,
is
AEHD,
equal and
since the figure
a parallelogram
equal and parallel to BF.
equal to the angle
prove that
such as
Now AD
is
to
true for two opposite
faces,
BFGG.
parallel to
angle
ABCD,
are equal parallelograms, and their sides are paral-
CBF
for a
Hence, the
(Book Y., XVII.),
DAE is parallel to CBF hence, also, the

parallelogram DAEH is equal to the parallelogram CBFG.
and the plane
In like manner,
ograms
ABFE,
we
could prove that the opposite parallel-
DGGH are
equal and parallel.
BOOK
Corollai'y.
177
VI.
Since the parallelopipedoa
a solid com-
is
posed of six planes, whose opposite faces are equal and

parallel, it follows that
any face and
its
opposite ma}- be
taken for the bases of the parallelopipedon.
Scholium.
AD,
Having given
AE,
three right lines, AT3,
passing through the same point A, and making with
each other any given angles, we

parallelopipedon.
may
construct on iliom a
It is only necessarj- to
the extremity of each

the other two lines
line,
that
draw through
a plane parallel to the ]ilane of
through the point B, a plane
is,
DAE and through the point D, a plane paralBAE and through the point E, a plane parallel to
parallel to
lel to
BAD.
The mutual
intersection of these planes will
form
the required parallelopipedon.
Peoposition
Theorem.
III.
The diagonals of a parallelopipedon mutually divide

each other into two equal parts.
Fur, let the diagonals EC,
AG
be drawn
equal and parallel to CG, the figure
ogram.
and
AEGC
since
is
AE
is
a parallel-
Hence, the diagonals
EC
AG of this parallelogram divide
each other into two equal parts.
We
might prove,
that the diagonals
manner,
in like
EC
and
Tide each other equally.
DF
di-
Hence,
the four diagonals divide each other
mutually into two equal

the
same
point,
which may be considered
parts, at
as the centre of
the parallelopipedon.
Peoposition IV.
eve^'y prism,
In
dec,
made
ABCI,
Theorem.
the sections
NOPQR, STVXY,
ly parallel planes, are equal polygons.

8*
178
Fur, the sides
lels
NO, ST
NS, OT, which
are included between the paral-
are edges of the prism
For
ST.
PQ, QE,
NO =
hence,
OP,
a like reason, the sides
NOPQR,
&c., of the section
are equal, respectively, to the sides
TV, YX, XY,
STVXY.
being at the
same time
first section,
tions
sides
parallel,
it fol-
NOP, OPQ,
&c.,
are equal, respect-
STY, T7X,
&c.,
Hence, the two
sec-
ively, to the angles
of the second.
section
the
equal
the
lows that the angles

of the
of
&c.,
Besides,
NOPQR, STVXY
equal
are
polygons.
Corollary.
Every section made
parallel to the base of the prism, is
Pkoposition v.
The plane which

Z>ir,
by a plane
in a prism
equal to the base.
Theoeem.
through the opposite
jpasses
AG,
eiUji s
J^,
divides the parallelopip-
of
don into equivalent triangular prisms.
Through the vertices B and F, draw the planes Bar/f,
Yigh perpendicular to the edge BF, meetin[ the three
other edges
AE, DH, CG,
;f
the tûine
parallelopipedon, in the points a,

c,
for
one plane, and
The
e,
^/,
A, g, for the
Yehg will
They are
be equal parallelograms.
equal, because they are made by
planes perpendicular to the same right
line, and consequently parallel
they
othi'i'.
sections Bac?c,
two opof the same sec-
are parallelograms, because

posite sides, aB, dc,
tion,
allel
planes
ABFE,
are the intersections of two par-
DCGH with
the same plane.
BOOK
For a
179
VI.
like reason, the figure
BaeF
BadcFehg.
is
Hence,
this solid is a
a right prism, since the edge
prism
BF
is
a parallelogram,
is
as well as the latei-al faces BFgrc, cdhg,
adhe of the
;
and
this
solid
prism
plane of the base.

If,
now, we divide the right prism
triangular prisms aBdeFh, BdcFAg,
BA
the oblique triangular prism
ABDEFH
to the right triangular prism
oBdeFh.
These two prisms having a

will
be
sufficient to
Since
two right
common
will
be equivalent
part,
ABDAeF,
prove that the remaining parts,
BaADd, FeEHA,
ABFE, aBYe are
the solids
into
by the plane BFHD,
it
viz.,
are equivalent.
parallelograms, the sides
AE,
which are both equal to their parallel BF, are equal to

each other
and taking away the common part Ae from
each, there remains Aa Ee.
We might prove also that
DJ = HA.
ITow, place the two solids BaKDd^ FeEHA, one on the
other, 60 that the base FeA shall fall on its equal Bad:
then, the point e falling on a, and the point A on c?, the
edges eE, AH will fall on their equals aA, ^ZD, since they
Hence, the
are perpendicular to the same plane Ba^.
two solids will coincide in all their parts,"and the oblique
ae,
prism
We
prism
BADFEH
is
equivalent to the right prism
BadYeh
could prove, in a like manner, that the oblique
BDCFHG is 'equivalent
to the right
prism Bi^cFA^.
But the two right prisms Ba^^FcA, Bdc?hg are equal
to
each other, since they have the same altitude BF, and
their bases Bad^ Bdc are halves of the same parallelogram.
Hence, the two triangular prisms BADFEH, BDCFHG
being equivalent to equal prisms, are equivalent to each

other.
Corollary.
Every triangular prism
half of the parallelopipedon

solid angle
AG,
ABDHEF
is
the
constructed on the same
A, with the same edges AB,
AD, AE.
180
Theorem.
Peoposiiion VI.
If two parallelopipedons AG, AL have a common iase

ABCD, and their upper bases in the same plane and
between the same parallels, they will he equivalent.
llie triangular
lar
prism
BFKCGL.
prism
AEIDHM is equal to the trianguAE = BF, being opposite sides
For,
of
parallelogram
same reason
for the
AI = BK:
finally, the
EAI,
angles
having
FBK,
their
parallel,
are
sides
equal.
Hence, the triangles
EAI,
The parallelograms
AH, BG
faces of a parallelopipedon
are equal,
for EH = FG,
EI
FBK
are equal.
are equal, being opposite
the parallelograms IH,
= FK,
and the angle
GK
HEI =
GFK.
The
three faces which form the solid angle at the point
E, are therefore equal to the three faces which form the

solid angle at
their
F:
besides, the solid angles E, F, having
plane angles equal,

are
situated,
BFKCGL
But,
if
equal.
each to each,
Hence,
the
and similarly
prisms
AEIDHM,
are equal.
the prism
AEM
be taken from
tlie
solid
AL,
take the
AIL; and if from

prism BFL, there will remain
AEG.
Hence, the two parallelopip-
there will remain the parallelopipedon

the
same
solid
we
edons AIL,
AEG are
equivalent to each
Peoposition YII.
otiier.
Theorem.
Two parallelopipedons having

same altitude are equivalent.
the
same base and
the
BOOK
Let
edons
ABCD be
AG, AL
;
upper bases
the
VI.
181
common base
of the two parallelopip-
since they have the
EFGH, IKLM,
will
be
same
altitude, their
same
in the
plane.
Further, the sides
EF
and
AB
eqnal and
lel,
as well as the
sides
IK and
hence,
and
are
paral-
AB
EF is equal
parallel to IK;
for a like reason,
GF
is
equal and
parallel
to
LK.
Let the sides EF,
HG, and
by
the sides
LK, IM, be produced,
NOPQ;
their intersections, the parallelogram
dent that
bases
tliis
EFGH, IKLM.
as its
If,
are in
FN.
evi-
npper base,
now, we. conceive a third paralsame lower base ABCD, with

this third paralleh)pipedon will
AG (Book YL, Prop.
be equivalent to the parallelopipedon
YL),
it is
parallelogram will be equal to each of the
lelopipedon, having the
NOPQ
until they form,
having the same lower base, the upper bases

the same plane, and between the same parallels CQ,
For a like reason, this third parallelopipedon would
since,
be equivalent
to
parallelopipedons
AL
AG, AL, which have
the
hence, the two
same base and
the same altitude, are equivalent to each other.
PEOPosmoN
VIII.
Mieiy parallelopipedon may
be
Thkoeem.
changed into an equiva-
lent rectangular parallelopipedon, which shall have the

same altitude and an equivalent hose.
Let
AG be the given
A, B, C, D,
parallelopipedon
drawAL BK,
CL,
DM,
from the points
182
plane of the base
AL
we
shall thus
which
will
be rectangles.
a rectangle,
AL
will
faces of
is
form the parallelopipedpn

AG, and the lateral
equivalent to the parallelopipedon
which will be equivalent
AG.
But
now, the base
ABCD
to the given parallelopipedon
AO and BN
OQ and NP perpendicular
ABNOIKPQ will be formed, which
ABCD
if
If,
bo the rectangular parallelopipedon
is
not a rectangle, draw
perpendicular to CD, and then

to the base
a solid
be a rectangular parallelopipedon
will
base
tion, the
ABNO,
and the opposite
for,
by
face,
construc-
IKPQ,
are
rectangles; the lateral faces are also rectangles, since the
edges AI,
base
don.
OQ,
&c., are perpendicular to the plane of the
hence, the solid
AP
is
a rectangular parallelopipe-
But the two parallelopipedons AP, AL, may be

ABKI, and the same
considered as having the same base

altitude
AO
they are, therefore, equivalent: hence, the
parallelopipedon
AG, which had
an equivalent parallelopipedon
first
AL,
is
been changed
now
an equivalent rectangular parallelopipedon

the
same
altitude AI,
and the bases
into
converted into
AP, which
ABNO, ABCD
has
being
also equivalent.
Pkoposition IX.
Theoeem,
I'wo rectangular parallelopipedons
same iase
AE,
AL
ABCD,
AO, AL, having
the
are to eaoh other as their altitudes
SOOE
VI.
l83
18i
The parallelopipedous
dimensions a and
and
J,
and P", having two common
are to each other as their altitudes c
and we have
c',
J__c_
P"
For a
like
c'
reason, we have
P^_^
P'
Multiplying these proportions together,
and dividing the two terms of the

we have
ber,
P'
We- know,
also, that
5'
c^
member by memfirst ratio
by P",
^^
the bases B, B', of the two parallel-
opipedous, are to each other as the products 5 x
V X
c'
c,
and
hence,
PBOPosrrioif XI.
Any two
Theorem.
rectangula/r parallelopipedons are to each other
as the product of their, bases iy their altitudes, or, as the
product of their three dimensions.

Let PI be the altitude of the parallelopipedpn P, a and
i the two dimensions of its base B.
Let H' be the altitude of the parallelopipedon P', and

a' and b' the two dimensions of its base B'.
Let
P" be
altitude
,
a third parallelopipedon, having
and B'
for its
for its base.
The parallelopipedous P, P", having the same altitude,

by the preceding theorem,
and we have
are to each other as their bases,
P"
B'*
SooE
The
P" and
pai-allelopipedons
185
VI.
P',
having the same base,
are to each other as their altitudes (Book VI., Prop. IX.),
P"
^,
and we have
H
=
Multiplying these proportions together, and dividing the

two terms of the first ratio by P", we have,
?-=?-^
We
know,
also, that the bases
xi;
the products a
(1)
^'
B'xH'"
P'
B, B' are to each other as
hence,
BxH
_ axbx
B'xB.'~
a'
xb' X B''
and we conclude that
axh
P
P'
X
xh' X H'
a'
(2)
MEASURE OF THE EECTANGULAE PABALLELOPIPKDON.
To measure a rectangular parallelopipedon P,

its ratio to
is
to find
a certain rectangular parallelopipedon P' taken
for unity.
But, the proportion

it is
(2)
shows, that to obtain this ratio,
necessary to determine the value of
a, i, iZj a', h',
S',
compared with the same linear unit, and to divide the

product of the three first numbers by the product of the
as
three others.
The
calculation
unit of volume
is
much
simplified if
P', the cube whose edge
for, in this case,
the
is
we
take for the
the linear unit
numbers whicli represent a', h', H'

(2) becomes
are
reduced to unity and the proportion

^
P _
P'~
from which we
see, that the
axlxR
1
'
measure of a rectangular jtaral-
lelqpipedon is equal to the jproduct of its three dimensions.
l86
remark that the product a
"VVe ina}'
times the base
xl
shows how many
of the parallelopipedon
contains the
square constructed on the linear unit.
The measure
fore, also
of a rectangular parallelopipedon
its
base by
is,
there-
altitude;
its
taking for the unit of area the square constructed as the

linear unit,
and
on the same
for the unit of
volume the cube constructed
unit.
Applications.
1.
Let a
= 2.51
feet, 5
= 3.25 feet, H =
2.45 feet, the measure of the rectangular parallelopipedon

will be
2.
P=
2.51
Let
B=
25.51 square
3.25
X 2.45
feet,
19.985875 solid
and
H =12.5
feet.
linear feet,
the rpeasure of the rectangular parallelopipedon will be
P=
25.51 X 12, 5
Peoposition
= 318.875
solid feet.
XIL Theorem.
The measure of any parallelopipedon, and, in general,

measure of any prism, is equal to the product of its
the
hase hy
its altitude.
For, 1, any parallelopipedon
equivalent to a rec-
is
tangular parallelopipedon which has the same altitude and
equivalent base. (Book VL, Prop. VIIL) But the

measure of the rectangular parallelopipedon is equal to
ati
base multiplied by
its altitude
hence, this measure
any parallelopipedon.
2. Every triangular prism is the half of the parallelopipedon which has the same altitude, and a base equivits
also applies to
(Book VL,
But the measure of the parallelopipedon is
the product of its base by its altitude hence, the
alent to double the base of the triangular prism.
Prop. V.)
equal to
measure of the triangular prism

its
base (which
its altitude.
is
is
half of that of the parallelopipedon)
by
BOOK
3.
many
Any
VI.
may
prism whatever
187
be decomposed into as
triangular prisms of the same altitude as
we may
form triangles from the polygon which is its base. Eut the
measure of each of the triangular prisms is equal to the
product of
base by
its
the same for
is
all, it
its
altitude
and, since the altitude
follows, that the
sum
prisms will be equal to the sum pf
tial
of all the par-
all
the triangles
which form tlieir bases, multiplied by the common altitude.

Hence, the measure of any prism is equal to the product
of its base by its altitude.
If, we compare two prisms which have the
Corollary.
same altitude, the product of the bases by the altitudes
hence, two prisms of the same altiwill be as their bases
;
tude are to each other as their bases y and, for a like reason,
two prisms of the same base are
each other as their
to
dli{-
tudes.
PBOPOsmosr XIII.
If avyram.id
its
base
10.
The
edges
SABCDE be
Theoeem.
cut by a plane parallel to
SA, SB, SC,
a7id the altitude
SO,
and o ;
will be divided proportionately at a,b, c
2. The section abode will be a polygon similar to the
.
base
ABODE.
For, 1, the planes
ABC,
dbo, being parallel, their inter-
sections
SAB,
AB,
db,
by a
will be parallel
Prop. XII.)
SAB, sah,
third plane
(Book V.,
are similar, and
the proportion
we have
188
And
Hence,
SO on for all the triangular faces of tlie pyramid.

all
&c.
same proportion
have
SA, SB, SO,
the edges,
all}' at a, b, c,
The
at o
altitude
for,
BO
SB
Ho
ab'
SB
is
also divided in the
and bo are
S0_
"
&c., are cut proportion-
SO
parallel,
and we
BOOE
For, the polygons
abode
Hen ce,
189
ABODE, ahcde, being similar, wo have
ABODE
But,
VI.
AB
190
TA
Let
be the
common
altitude of the pyramids.
If
these pyramids are not equivalent, let sabc be the smaller,
and
Ax
let
be the altitude of a prism, which, constructed
on the base
ABC, will be equal to their difference.

common altitude AT into equal parts,
Divide the
of which
parts
through the points of division of the altitude draw
planes parallel to the plane of the bases:
made
in the
GHI
the sections
two pyramids by these planes will be equiv-
alent (Book yi., Prop. XIII.), viz.,

def,
each
smaller than Aa;, and let h be one of these
is
On
to ghi, &c.
DEF
the triangles
&c., as bases, construct the exterior prisms

their edges the parts
AD,'DG, GK,
equivalent to
ABC, DEF, GHI,

which have
&c., of the edge
and, likewise, on the triangles def, ghi,
Mm,
for
SA;
&c., taken
as bases, construct, in the second pyramids, the interior
prisms, having for their edges the corresponding parts of

the edge sa
all
of these partial prisms will have h for
common altitude.
The sum of the exterior
their
is
prisms of the pyramid
greater than this pyramid;
prisms of the pyramid sabo
is
the
sum
SABC
of the interior
smaller than this pyramid
sum of the exterior and

must be greater than the
hence, the diiference between the

the
sum
of the interior prisms
difference between the
two pyramids.
Now, commencing with the bases ABC, abc, the second exterior prism DEFG is equivalent to the first interior prism
defa, since their bases are equivalent and they have the
same altitude Ic. For a like reason, the third exterior prism
GIIIK is equivalent to the second interior prism ghid, the
;
fourth exterior to the third interior, and so on, to the last in

both.
Hence, each of the exterior prisms of the pyramid
SABC,
with the exception of the
first
ABCD,
has
its cor-
pyramid sohc. Therefore,"

the ditferciice between the sum of the
I'csponding interior prism in the
the prism
ABCD
is
exterior prisms of the
pyramid SABC, and the sum of the
BOOK
191
VI.
pyramid sdbc; but the difference

between these two sums is greater than the difference
between the two pyramids hence, the prism ABCD taust
be greater than the prism ABCX but this is impossible,
since the prism ABCX, having the same base ABC, and
an altitude Ao; greater than k, must be greater than the
prism ABCD. Hence, the supposed inequality of the two
interior prisms of the
pyramids cannot
exist
and
therefore,
two pyramids with
equivalent bases, and equal altitudes, are equivalent.
Pkoposition
XV.
Theoekm.
Every triangular pyrarmd is the third part of tlie tripnsm which has the same hose and the same
angular
altitude.
Let
SABC
be a triangular pyramid, and ABODES a

triangular prism, having the same base
and the same altitude.
If the pyramid SABC be taken from
the given prism, there will remain the
solid
SACDE,
which
may
be consid-
ered as a quadrangular pyramid with

its
vertex at S, and which has for
the diagonal
OE
the
its
ACDE;
draw
plane SCE, drawn
base the parallelogram
through CE, will divide the quadrangular pyramid into two triangular pyramids SACE, SDCE.
These two pyramids have for a common altitude the perpendicular let fall from the vertex S on the plane ACDE
;
they have equal bases, since the triangles ACE, DCE are
the halves of the same parallelogram ; tlierefore, the two
pyramids SACE, SDCE are equivalent but the pyramids

SDCE, SABC have equal bases, ABC, DES they have
;
same altitude, for this altitude

tween the two parallel planes ABC,
also the
is
the distance be-
DES
hence, the
192
two pyramids SABC, SDCE are equivalent but we have

shown that the pyramid SDCE is equivalent to the pyrami(i SAGE; hence, the three pyramids SABC, SDCE,
;
SACE,
of which the prism
alent to each other.
ABD,
the third part of the prism
and the same
ABD is composed,
are equiv-
pyramid SABC is
which has the same base
Therefore, the
altitude.
The measure of a triangular pyramid
Corollary.
equal to the third part of the product of its hasehy

tude, or to the product of its hose hy one third of
is
its alti-
its alti-
tude.
XVI.
Peoposition
Theoeem.
ABODE
has for its rneasure the third

Every pyramid S
part of the product of its base hy its altitude ; or, the product of its iase hy one third of its altitude.
For, drawing the planes SEB, SEC through the diago-
EB, EC, we
nals
will
divide the
SABCDE
polygonal pyramid
into triangular pyramids,
which
will all
titude
SO.
have the common
al-
But, by the preceding
theorem, the measure of each of these
pyramids
the bases
is
obtained by multiplying
ABE, BCE, CDE by

SO hence,
third of the altitude
sum
the polygonal pyramid
SABCDE,
the polygon
;
sum
of
ABE, BCE, CDE,
or,
ABODE, multiplied
by
the triangles
therefore, every
the
of the triangular pyramids, or
^ will have for a measure the
^SO
the
pyramid has
for its measui'e the
its base by its altitude.

Every pyramid is the third part of the
prism having the same base and the same altitude.
third part of the product of
Corollary
I.
BOOK
Two pyramids
Cm'ollary II.
193
VI.
to each other as their bases;
of the same altitude are
and two pyramids having
the same base are to each other as their altitudes.
We may
Scholium.
calculate the solid content of any
polyedral body by decomposing
decomposition
sirnplest
may
methods
be made
is
into
it
pyramids
in several ways.
and
One
this
of the
to pass planes through the vertex of
we shall then have as many pyramids as there are faces in the polyedron, except those
which form the solid angle through which the planes are
the same solid angle
drawn.
These pyramids might themselves be decomposed into

triangular pyramids,
by dividing
their bases into triangles.
DEFINITION.
I.
truncated pyramid
cluded between
its
\s.
that part of a
base and any section
pyramid
in-
made by a plane
cutting the pyramid.
When
the cutting plane
is
parallel to the base of the
pyramid, the truncated pyramid
pyramid.
n. The
is
called a
frustum of a
of the frustum of a pyramid is the

perpendicular distance between the planes of its parallel
altitude
bases.
Peoposition XVII.
Theorem.
If a pyramid be cut ly a plane parallel to its base, the

measure of the frustum of the pyramid is equal to the
sum of three pyramids which have for their common oLtifude the altitude of tlie frustum, and for their bases, the
upper hase of 'the frustum, the lower base of the frustum,
and a mean proportional between the two bases.
Let SABCDE be a pyramid cut by the plane abd, drawn
parallel to its base
let
TFGH
9
be a triangular pyramid
ELEMENTS OF (JEOMETKY.
194
witli
an equal altitude and equivalent base to those of the
pyramid
SABCDE.
"We may suppose the two bases situated in the same

plane, and then the
plane ahd
will,
if
produced,
deter-
mine
trian-
gular
in the
pyramid
section fgli at the

'F
same distance from

the
common
plane
of the bases; there-
fgh
fore, the section

is
as the base
FGH is to the base ABD
to the section ahcdo
(Bk, VI., Prop. XIII.)
and since the bases are equivalent, the sections will be
The pyramids Sabcde, Tfgh, are therefore equivalent,

they have the same altitude and equivalent bases.
whole pyramids
same reason
SABCDE, TFGH
hence, the frustums
are equivalent, and, therefore,
it is
also.
since
Tlie
are equivalent, for
tin;
ASDdab, and YGYLhfy

only necessar/ to provii
the proposition in the case of the frustum of a triangiibir
pyramid.
Let FGHA/"^ be the frustum of a triangular pyra-
through the points F,

mid
draw the plane FiyH,
g, H,
;
cutting off
from
the frnstuin
the triangular pyramid ^FGII.
This pyramid has for
its
base
the lower base of the frustum
and for
its
altitude the altitudi;
^)h of the frustum, since the vertex

is
in
the plane of the upper
base fgh.
Taking
away
this
pyramid,
there will remain the quadrau-
'
BOOK
galar pyramid
195
VI.
ÂHF,
the vertex of which is g. and

Through the points /", ^, H, draw the plane
/g'H, dividing the quadrangular pyramid into two triangular pyramids J'F/'H, gfKB.. The pyramid g/"/iH has for
and for an altiits base the upper base of the frustum
yAHF its base.
tude the altitude of the frustum, since

the lower base.
of
we have two
Thus,
which the frustum
is
its
vertex
"We have now
composed.
is
in
of the three pyramids

to con-
sider the third, g'fK.
we draw ^K
If
amid
to
base, the
F/H;
tices
fF, and
parallel to
be formed with
conceive a
pryamids/THK, g^f^
will
K are situated on the line ^K parallel to F/", and
g and
pyramids are equivalent.

be considered as having
have the same

a
mean
side equal,
hence, these
But the pyramid ./FKH may

its
vertex at f, and
altitude as the frustum.
FHK, fgh
FK =fg-
We have also
But the
Its
it
will then
base
FKH
proportional between the bases FGrB[,/Â;
tlie triangles
pyr-
they will also have the same altitude, since the ver-
consequently parallel to the plane of the base
is
new
and F/"!! as its

have the same base
as its vertex,
have an angle equal,
for,
F f, and
We have, therefore,
FHK FH
fgh
fh-
FHG
FHK
FG
FK
similar tiiangles
FGH, fgh
FG
fg
give the proportion,
FG^FH
j
fg
Hence,
fh'
FGH _ FHK
j^gg ~ 'fyT'
FHK
is a mean proportional between

hence, the measure of a frusand
FGH,/^/i,
bases
the two
is equivalent to three pyrapyramid
triangular
tum of a
Therefore, the base
196
mids which have for their common altitude the altitude of

the frustum, and for their bases, the upper base of the
frustum, the lower base of the frustum, and a
portional between the
Peoposition XVIII.
which
ABC,
is
to its base, the solid
results, will be equivalent to three
D, E,
S,
pro-
Theorem.
If a triangular jprism whose iase

plane DJES, not parallel
vertices are
mean
two bases.
and whose common
Through the three points
be cut ly
ABGDES,
pyramids whose
base is
ABO.
A, C, pass the plane SAC,

cutting off from the truncated
S,
prism
ABODES the triangular

SABC this pyramid has
pyramid
for its
vertex the
ABC for its
point S,
and
base.
Eemoving
the pyramid
SABC,
there will remain the quadrangular
for
its
base.
S, E, C,
SACDE, which
pyramid
vertex and
ACDE
has S
for its
Through the three points
draw the plane SEC, dividing
the quadrangular
pyramid into .two triangular pyramids SAGE, SCDE.

The pyramid SAEC, which has the triangle AEC for its
base and the point S for its vertex, is equivalent to a pyramid EABC which has AEC for its base and the point B
For, these two pyramids have the same
for its vertex.
also the same altitude, since the line BS,
have
base; they
being parallel to each of the lines AE, CD, is parallel to
Hence, the pyramid SAEC is equivtheir plane ACE.
alent to the
having
The
for,
pyramid
EABC, which may be considered

and the point E for its vertex.
as
ABC for its base

third
pyramid
changed into A8CD

same base SCD they
SCDE may be
these two pyramids have the
BOOK
Lave
also the
same
197
VI.
AE
altitude, since
is
parallel to the
Hence, the pyramid SCDE is equivalent to

ASCD. "We may now change the pyramid ASCD into
ABCD, for these pyramids have the common base ADD
they have also the same altitude, since their vertices S and
plane
SCD.
are situated in a plane parallel to the plane of the base.
SCDE,
Hence, the pyramid
ABCD
equivalent to
ASCD,
is
also
and the last may be considered as

having ABC for its base, and the point D for its vertex.
Therefore, the truncated prism ABCDES is equivalent
to the sum of three pyramids which have for a common
equivalent to
base
ABC, and
D, E,
for their vertices, respectively, the points
S.
If the edges
Corollary.
to the plane of the base,
altitudes of the three
cated prism
CD
are perpendicular
pyramids which compose the trun-
so that the measure of the truncated prism
ÂBC x AE + ÂBC x BS +
which may be reduced to JABC X
may be
expressed by
-J-ABC X
CD;
(AE
AE, BS,
they will be at the same time the
or
+ BS + CD).
SYMMETRY OF
Two
when
points are
this
plane
is
FIGUEES.
symmetncal with respect
to a plane,
perpendicular at the middle point of
the right line which joins these two points.
This plane
is
called the plane of symmetry.
Two
figures are symmetrical with respect to a plane,
when every
point of one of the figures has
its
symmetrical
point on the other figure.
Pkoposition
right line
right line.
AB
XIX.
^Theorem.
has for a symmetrical line anotlier
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETKY.
198
Take on the given right

determine
tlieir
two points
line
and B, and
symmetrical points A', B', by drawing
from the points
ducing these
AC, BD,
Draw A'B' and
equal to
distances
CD.
To show
that every point
AB
of the line
has
its
rical point on A'B',
If
an
we
to
MN,
and produce
revolve the quadrilateral
axis, until it coincides
A'CD
and
like
being right angles,
it
until
CA = CA', the point A will

reason BD will coincide with DB'
angles,
01
CD
around
CA'
and
For a
on A'.
fall
AB
as
ACD,
take the direction
since
coincide with A'B'.
meets A'B'.
it
ACBD
symmetdraw 01
with CA'B'D, the angles
CA will
per-
and pro-
perpendiculars,
respectively.
perpendicular
and
MN,
pendiculars on
will then
Further, since OIC, O'lC are right
10'
and the point 0,
as
it must be found at the same lime on A'B' and on 10',

will fall at 0'.
We have then 01 = 10' and hence, O'
is symmetrical with 0.
;
Corqllwry.
AB, which
The same demonstration proves
A and
connects two points
right line A'B',
which connects
PEOPOsrriON
The angle of two
B,
is
that the line
equal to the
their symmetrical points.
XX.
right lines
Theokem.
AB,
angle
AG
is
equal
formed hy
to the
their
sym-
metrical lines A'B', A'O'.
We
remark, in the
first
place, that the point of meet-
ing A, of the two lines
AC,
lias for its
point,
the
AB,
symmetrical
point A', since
the symmetrical of
must
BOOK
vr.
19
be found at the same time on A'B' and on A'C. Take, on

and AC, two points B and C, and let B' and
be
their symmetrical points
draw BC, B'C.
AB
The
triangles
to each
ABC, A'B'C have
their sides equal, each
BAG = B'A'C
PROPOSITION
XXI.
Theorem.
A plane has for its symmetncal

and
two planes
symmetry.
these
AB
Let
form
surface another jplane^
equal ajigles with the plane of
MAB with the
be the intersection of the plane
plane of symmetry
ABC, and draw through AB a plane

ABM', which shall form
with the plane of symmetry the same angle as
MAB.
the plane
required
every point
P,
ABM,
has
plane
It
prove
to
of
its
is
that
the
sym-
ABM'.
Draw Yp perpendicular to ABC, and produce
metrical on
it
ABM' in
P'
then
drawÎ
until
it
meets the plane
perpendicular to
AB, and join
PI, P'l.
The two
right lines PI, P'l are perpendicular to
and the angles Pip, P'lp are equal,

diedral angles
as
MABC, M'ABC.
AB
measuring the equal
The
right-angled
tri-
angles PI^, P'lp, are therefore equal, since they have the
side \p
P'j9.
common, and an acute angle equal
Therefore P'
RemarTc.
symmetry,
ABC, and
is
hence, P/?
symmetrical with P.
If the given plane

its
is
parallel to the plane of
symmetrical plane will be also parallel to
at the
same distance from
it.
200
Proposition XXII.
is
Theoeem.
The dledral angle formed hy two planes ABC, ABD,

to the angle formed ly their symmetricals A'B'C\
equal
A'B'D'.
We remark, in the first place, that the common interAB of the two planes ABC, ABD, has for its sym-
section
common
metrical the
section
inter-
A'B' of the two planes
A'B'C, A'B'D'.
At
the point B, form the
plane
angle
CBD, which
measures the diedral
Form
AB.
B', the
angle
also at the point
symmetrical of B,
angle C'B'D', measuring
tlie
tlio
diedral angle A'B'.
The
ABD,
will
have
for its
line
BD,
in the plane
symmetrical a right line passing
through the point B' and situated in the plane A'B'D'.

Besides, since
BD is perpendicular to AB, the right line

BD will be perpendicular to A'B'. (Book
symmetrical with
VI., Prop.
We
XX.)
Hence, B'D' will be this symmetrical.

B'C is symmetrical with BC and
will see, also, that
therefore the angle
CBD = C'B'D.
Proposition XXIII.
Two
(Book VI., Prop. XX.)
Theorem.
polyedrons symmetrical with respect
luive, 1,
to
a plane,
their faces equal, each to each I 2, their homolo-
gous solid angles symmetrical.

1.
Let A, B, C,
the polyedrons
C, D'
be the vertices of a face of one of
we know
are in the
same
that their symmetricals A', B',
plane.
(Book VI., Prop. XXI.)
BOOK
Further, the polygons
Vl.
201
ABCD, A'B'C'D' are equal
for they
have their angles and

equal, each to
sides
(Book
VI., Pr9p. XX. and XIX.)
2. Two homologous solid
angles B and B' have their
,
each.
faces equal. (Prop.
XX.) Their
diedral angles are also equal,
each to each.
(Prop. XXII.)
now, we make the face
A'B'E' coincide with its equal
If,
ABE,
so that the other edges
of the two solid angles
face,
we
fall
on
common
the same side of the
observe that the other
plane angles of the two solid angles are disposed in an

inverse order.
Hence, the
B'
solid angle
symmetrical
is
with B.
Corollary 1.
"We conclude, that a polyedron
a single symmetrical.
For, let P' and
P"
P has only
be two sym-
metrical polyedrons of P, constructed with respect to two

different planes of
symmetry; the
faces
of these poly-
edrons are equal to each other, as being respectively equal

to the faces
of the polyedron P.
Besides, their solid
angles being symmetrical with the solid angles of P, will
be equal to each other.
may be
Hence, the polyedrons P' and
P"
placed one upon the other, so as to coincide
throughout
they are therefore one and the same poly-
edron.
Corollary II.
If
we decompose
angular pyramids, which have
a polj'edron
all for
into
common
tri-
vertex
one of the vertices of the polyedron, a symmetrical pyramid may be formed, in the symmetrical polyedron P',
which
will correspond
to
each of the pyramids in the
given polyedron.
9*
202
We
two symmetrical polyedrous may be

number of tetraedrous which will
see, thus, that
divided into the same
be symmetrical, each to each.
Two polyedrons wliich have their faces equal,
Scholium.
each to each, and their solid angles symmetrical, are always
whatever be the position they have
called symmetrical,
with respect to each other: but
symmetry
that the
exists
proper
it is
to
remark,
no further than in the form of
the solids.
Homologous
Note.
tices are
solid angles are those
XXIV.
Peoposition
Two
whose
ver-
symmetrical.
Theorem.
symmetrical polyedrons are equivalent.
For, two symmetrical polyedrons

into the
may
be decomposed
same number of sym-
metrical tetraedrons ; and
it
only
remains to prove that two symmetrical tetraedrons are eqniv}^ alent.
Let
SABC
construct
be a tetraedron
symmetrical, tak-
its
ing as the plane of symmetry
one of the faces
XXIIL,
Cor. L);
SABC, S'ABC are equivalents, for

same base ABC, and their altitudes SO, S'O
traedrons
Two
points
'
'
which
A and
A
^
are equal.
to a
O, called the centre

third point
i
'
of
joins these points
at the point O.
(Prop.
two tethey have the

the
A' are symmetrical with respect
"
ABC
symmetry, when the right line

divided into two equal parts
is
BOOK
Two
203
VI.
figures are symmetrical with respect to a point 0,
when every
point of the one has
symmetrical in the
its
othePi
We may establish for
symmetry with respect to a point,

which have just been explained.
similar theorems to those
These are
left as
an exercise for the pupil.
0 THE SIMILAErrr OF FIGTJEES.
Similar polyedroiis are those which are bounded by the

same number of faces, similar each to each, and whose
Homologous solid
homologous solid angles are equal.
angles are those which are formed by similar faces.
The homologous lines of two similar polyedrons are
those which connect homologous vertices.
Pkoposition
If the
edges
XXV.
TF, TG, TH, of
Theoeem.
the ietraedron
fff}
fK
similar
ff^j
^^ joined, the ietraedron
TFOE,
le
and the lines

Tfgh thus formed is
divided in the same ratio at the^pointsf
g, h,
to the first.
For, the triangles Tfg,
TFG
are similar, having an angle
and the
in each equal,
sides includ-
ing the equal angle proportional
TÂ
for a like reason,
TGH, and T/A
to
is
similar to
TFH.
Besides,
the lines fg, gh, being parallel to

and GH, respectively, the plane
FG
fgh
is
parallel to the plane
and the triangle yÂ

^ the triangle
Prop,
FGH.
is
FGH,
similar to
(Book VI.,
xm.)
Finally,
the
two homologous
for,
solid angles G, g, are equal
are
angles
equal.
faces are similar, their plane
;
since
theii-
'
20i
and these plane angles are similarly situated
eacli to each,
hence, the tetraedrons have their faces similar, and their
liomologons solid angles equal, and they are, therefore,

similar.
Wq
Scholium.
may remark
that
two similar
tetrae-
drons have their homologous edges proportional.

Eeciprocally,
when two
tetraedrons have their edges
proportional, and similarly disposed, they are similar
for,
from the proportionality of the edges, we deduce at once

the similarity of the faces and the faces being similar and
;
similarly situated, the
homologous
solid angles are equal,
since they have their plane angles equal, each to each, and
similarly situated.
Peoposition
.Two tetraedrons
XXVl.
SABC,
Theoebm.
TDEF are
when
similar^
they
have a diedral angle in each equal, and their equal angle

included
lyy
similar faces, similarly situated.
Suppose the diedral angle
SB = TE
the triangle
similar to
SAB
TDE, and
SBC similar to TEF.

The
and
solid angles
are
since they
equal,
have an
equal diedral angle

in each, included
two equal
faces,
similarly
situated.
Hence, the
Further, since the triangles
and
also
SBC
angle
ASC-DTF.
ASB. and DTE are similar,
and TEF, we have the proportions
SB_ AS
TE ~ DT'
by
and
SB_SC.
TE ~ TF
BOOK
205
VI.
AS^SC
Hence,
The
triangles
DT ~ TF"
ASO, DTF are therefore
similar,
an angle in each equal, included by proportional
We
and
might
manner, that the solid angles
see, in like
are equal, and that
ABC
is
similar to
DEF.
Fi-
and C are respectively equal to

and F, having the plane angles equal,
nally, the solid angles
the solid angles
having
sides.
each to each, and similarly situated
hence, the tetraedrons
are similar.
Peoposition
Two nmilar
XXVII.
polyedrons
may
Theorem.
ie
decomposed into the
same numier of similar tetraedrons, similarly situated.

Decompose into triangles the faces of the polyedron
SEFGDABO, not adjacent to the vertex S; these trian-
be the bases of the tetraedrons, which will have S

for their common vertex, and will together form the given
gles will
polyedron.
Decompose,
in like
manner, the faces of the polyedron
sefgddbc, not adjacent to s, the homologous vertex to S,

and join the point s with the vertices of these triangles;
this second polyedron will be decomposed into tetraedrons
required to show that these tetraedrons are respectively similar to those which form the iirst polyedron.
it is
206
If
the
we compare the tetraedrons SDCA, sdoa, we see that

triangles SDA, CDA are respectively similar to the
EDAS, edas
triangles sda, cda, since the faces
and
also the faces
DA
is
CDAB,
cdab
are similar,
besides, the diedral angle
equal to the diedral angle da, since the faces of the
two polyedrons are equally inclined hence, the two tetraedrons SDCA, sdoa are similar, having a diedral angle
;
in each equal,
and the equal angles included by similar
faces, similarly situated.
If
we
SDC,
similar tetraedrons
polygons
angles
SDCF,
pass to the tetraedrons
the triangles
FDC
FEDC, fedc
FDCA,
diedral angles
is
we
see that
also similar to fdc, since the
are similar.
SDCA,
Further, the diedral
by hypothesis
fdca, are equal,
similarity of the
sdcf,
sdc are similar, as homologous faces of
and the
sdoa are equal, on account of the
tetraedrons
SDCA,
sdca
hence, the
diedral angles FDCS, fdcs are equal, being the differences

between equal diedral angles. Hence, finally (Book VI.,
Prop.
and
XXVI. ),
SDCF,
the tetraedrons
sdof
a,ve
similar;
so for all the others.
Remarh I. "We remark that the preceding decomposimay be effected by beginning with any two homolo-
tion
gous vertices.
Remark
"We deduce from the theorem just demontwo similar polyedrons, two right lines A, a,
which join homologous vertices, are proportional to two
homologous edges B, i of the two polyedrons. We shall
II.
strated, that in
have, then,
=
a
Besides, in the similar polyedrons, the
homologous edges
are proportional, on account of the similarity of the faces
we have
and
also,
finally,
= -^
CO
~~
T'
BOOK
vi.
XXVIII.
Proposition
Theokkm.
Two polyecLrons^ composed of the same number of similar

tetraedrons, similarly situated, have their faces similar,
each
to each,
and
their homologous solid angles equal,
and
are consequently similar.
SABC, SADC, SDCF
Let
... be the pyramids of which
the first polyedron is composed

mids -which form the second.
The
1.
triangles
sahc, sadc, sdcf, the pyra-
DCA, CAB, which
form a face of the
polyedron, are respectively similar to the triangles
firet
doa, cab in the second, on account of the similarity of the
Besides, the triangles
teti-aedrons.
DCA, CAB
being in
the same plane, the triangles dca and cab are also in the
same
plane.
SCAD
For, since the tetraedrons

as well as
SCAB
scab
SABC
sum
hence, the
similar,
angles
SCAD,
similar, as
of the
sum
first
is
equal to two right

is also
equal to two
DCBA,
dcba are
being composed of the same number of similar
triangles, similarly situated;
the other faces, taken
We see,
BA, which
two
of the last two
Therefore, the polygons
right angles.
2.
and scad are
sdbc, the diedral
are respectively equal to the diedral angles scad,
but the
angles
and
is
and the same
is
true with
two and two.
in the second place, that the diedral angle
the
sum
of
tlie
diedral angles
CSAD, CSAB,
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRT.
208
is
equal
to
sum
the diedral angle a, the
of the diedral
angles csad, csdb, respectively equal to the first; and that,

in general,
two homologous diedral angles of the two polysums of homologous diedral
edrons are equal, as being the

angles of similar tetraedrons.
Hence, the two homologous solid angles A and a are

have their faces equal, each to each, simi-
equal, for j;hey

larly situated,
and equally inclined.
The demonstration which has just been

the 'definition which has been given of
Scholium.
made,
justifies
similar polyedrons
which
shall
for
we may always form
be composed of
polyedrons
same number of
tjie
similar
tetraedrons, similarly situated.
SABDEFG into
For, decompose the polyedron
pyramids,
lar
triangu-
having S for
common vertex and let

SBDC, SADB, SDAE ... be
their
the tetraedrons of which the
polyedron
If
we
is
composed.
divide the edges, be-
ginning at S, proportionally,
at the points a, 5,
c,
d, &c.,
the tetraedrons shdo, sadh
be
will
respectively
(Book YI., Prop.

the tetraedrons
SBDC,
situated
sum
their
SADB
XXV.)
to
be similarly
and
compose the second
will
will, therefore,
similar
polyedron, which will be similar to the
first,
by the
pre-
ceding theorem.
This second polyedron might then be placed in any
.
position
whatever with respect to the
first.
Peoposition
Two
their
XXIX.
similar tetraedrons are
homologous edges.
to
^Theoeem.
each other as the cubes of
B00
209
VI.
we may
Since the tetraedrons are similar,
place the
smaller on the greater, in
a manner that they
common
solid angle
ABC
the bases ale,

lel,
since the edges
such
may have
S
will
and
the
tlien
be paral-
SA, SB, SC
are divided proportionally at the
points ,
5, c.
Draw SO
ABC.
plane of the base

angles
ABC,
The
tri-
are similar, and
dibc
give the proportion
ABCÂB^
(1)
ahc
oh
We have also,
AB_SA
^^^'
sa^
ah
Hence, on account of the
SO
common
Multiplying the proportions

first ratio
ABC
by
3,
But
S5c.
SA
sa
ratio,
(1)
we have
and
(2),
and dividing
we have
X ISO
ahc X ASo
SABC
__
so
4?-(')
so
the terms of the
SO
AB
ah
ABC
X ^SO is the measure of the tetraedron

and ahc x ^So is the measure of the tetraedron
Hence, two similar tetraedrons are to each other
as the cubes of their honjologous edges.
Peoposition
Two
their
XXX.
Theorem.
similar polyedrons are to each other as the cubes of
homologous edges.
210
For, the two similar polyedrons

into the
same number of similar
may
be decomposed
tetraedrons.
Let T, T', T", &c., be the tetraedrons which form the

polyedron P;
A"
t,
t',
t"
the tetraedrons of ^: let A, A',
... be the edges of the tetraedrons T,
t, if,
t",
&c.
T
And
We
T',
homologous edges
shall have
in
A"
A"^
a, a', a", &c., the
A'
V
T'
il
/3'
T"'
i'lZ
T", &c.
and
the tetraedrons
^"3' *-
since the homologous edges of similar polyedrons
are proportional,
we
shall
T _
T'
have
T"
t~ t'~ t'"
T + r + T", &c. _ P _ A'
BOOK
VII.
BOOK
211
YII.
THE SPHEEE.
DEFINITIONS.
L The
sphere
is
a solid terminated
all
by a curved
surface,
the points of which are equally dis-
tant from a point within
called
the
cent/re.
We
may consider the sphere to be

generated by the revolution of the semicircle
DAE about its diameter DE for

by the curve DAE
;
the surface described

will
have
of
all
its
points equally dis-
tant from the centre C.
n. The radius of the sphere
is
a right line drawn from
the centre to a point of the surface

is
th^ diameter or axis
a right line passing through the centre, and terminated
on both sides at the surface.
AH
radii of the
same sphere, or of equal
In like manner,
equal.
all
spheres, are
diameters of the same sphere,
or of equal spheres, are equal.
The diameter
is
double of
the radius.
m. A plane is tangent to a sphere, when

common with the surface.
IV. Two spheres are tangent, when
has only one
it
point in
their surfaces
have
only one point common.
Peoposition
Every
Let
section
I.
^Theoeem.
of the sphere made hy a plane
AMB be the section made by a plane in
is
circle.
the sphere
212
whose centre
C.
is
From
the point
C draw CO perpenAMB, and the
dicular to the plane

lines
CM, CE, CB
points of the curve
the several
to.
AMB which
ter-
minates the section.
The oblique
lines
CM, CN, CB,
are equal, since they are radii of the
sphere; they are, therefore, equally

distant from the perpendicular
Hence,
fore,
all
the lines
AMB is a circle,
the section
sphere.
its
are equal
having
CO.
and, there-
as its centre.
If the section pass through the centre of
Corollary I.
the sphere,
OM, ON, OB
radius will be equal to the radius of the
Circles
whose planes pass through the centre of
the sphere are called great circles.
sphere are called small
All other
All great
circles.
circles of the
circles of the
same sphere, or of equal spheres, are therefore
Two
Corollary II.
two equal parts
for, their
through the centre,
is
equal.
great circles divide each other into
common
intersection, passing
a diameter.
Every great circle divides the sphere

two equal parts for, if after separating the two segments, we apply them on the common base,
the two surfaces would coincide in all their points, else
there would be points on the two surfaces unequally distant from the centre, which is impossible.
Corollary I Y. The centre of a small circle and that of
the sphere are on .the same right line perpendicular to the
Corollary III.
and
its
surface into
plane of the small circle.

Corollary Y.
Small
circles
centre of the sphere are equal.
equally distant from the
Of small
circles
unequally
from the centre of the sphere, the greater is

shorter distance from the centre.
Corollary Yl. Through two given points on 'the
distant
face of a sphere,
we may
pass an arc of a great circle
at a
sur;
for
BOOK
213
VII.
the two given points and the centre of the sphere give
three points which fix the position of a plane.
If the two
given points were on the extremities of a diameter, these
two points and the centre would be on a right line, and

infinite number of great circles might be drawn through
an
them.
Corollary Yll.
surface of a sphere
of
its
The position of a small circle on the

would be determined by three points
circumference.
Peoposction
Theoeem.
II.
Eveiy jplane perpendiaular
to
a radius of a sphere at
its
extremity is tangent to the sphere.
Let
FAG
be a plane perpendicular to the radius

.jG
extremity.
its
we
If
OA,
point on this plane, such as
and join
OM
0AM will
hence,
and
OA.
M,
the angle
be a right angle
greater than
is,
AM,
OM
the distance
at
take any
and
be
will
Tlie point
therefore, outside of the sphere,
and as
this is the case
with every
FAG, it follows, that the plane

common with the surface of the
other point of the plane
has only one point, A,

sphere, and
therefore, tangent to
is,
it.
Reciprocally, every tangent plane

lar to the radius
For,
plane,
if
we
OA
be greater than the radius
exterior to the sphere.
and
is
FAG
is
perpendicu-
at the piiint of contact.
join the centre with any point
OM will
that can
(Def. 3.)
OA
is,
OA,
perpendicular
this.
is
therefore, the shortest line
be drawn from the centre to the plane
Corollary.
of
since
FAG,
to this plane.
Through a given point on the surface of a
sphere only one tangent plane can be drawn.
ELEMEKTS OF GEOMETRY.
214
Proposition
The
which
and
Theorem.
III.
intersection of two spheres is a circle^ the plane'of

is
'perpendicular
the centre
of
to the line
the circle is
on
connecting their centres,
this line.
Through the line OC, which joins the centres of the two
This plane intersects
spheres, draw any plane whatever.
the two spheres in
great
circles
intersect
each
points
at the
'which
other
and
A', symmetrical with

respect to the line
If,
circles
OC
revolve around
OC.
now, the semi-
DAE, GAH,
as an axis, these two semicircles will
generate the surfaces of the two spheres, and the point
revolution, the right line

tude,
and
is all
AI
Further, in this
will describe their line of intersection.
does not change
the time perpendicular to
OC
its
magni-
hence, the
two surfaces is a circumference, the

and the radius AI, and the plane of
which is perpendicular to OC.
Remark. The two spheres will be exterior or interior,
intersection of the
centre of which
is I,
they will be tangent exteriorly or interiorly, or finally

secants, according
as the
two
circles
DA A', GAA'
are
exterior or interior, tangent exteriorly or interiorly, or

secants.
There will then exist for each of these positions of the
two spheres, the same relations between the distances of

the centres, and the radii of the spheres, as between the
corresponding positions of two
circles.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
The angle
'between
two arcs of great circles
is
the die-
BOOK
dral angle formed
2l5
vir.
by the planes
The
of these circles.
arcs
of great circles are the sides of the angle, and the intersection of these arcs
II.
is
the vertex of the angle.
spherical triangle
sphere bounded
by
a portion of the surface of the
is
the arcs of three great circles.
These arcs form the sides of the spherical triangle, each

is always supposed to be less than a semi-circum-
of which
The angles formed by
ference.
these arcs are the angles
of the triangle.
III.
spherical triangle
is
rectangular, isosceles, equi-
same cases as a rectilinear triangle.

lY. A spKencdL polygon is a portion of the surface of
the sphere bounded, by the arcs of great circles. The arcs
of the great circles form the sides of the spherical polygon.
lateral, &c., in the
A spherical triangle
is
a spherical polygon of three sides.
Convex spherical polygons only are considered
these
are such, that the plane of each side leaves the polygon
on the same side of
its
direction.
PEOPOsmoN IV.
In every
the
spherical triangle
sum of the
Let
Theorem.
ABC,
either side is less than
other two.
be the centre of the sphere, draw the radii
OB, OC.
COB
be supposed
to
7^ these radii, they will
OA,
AOB, AOC,
If the planes
be drawn through
form
at
a solid
angle,
COB
will
sides
and the angles AOB, AOC,

have for their measures the
AB, AC, BC of the spherical triangle

ABC. But each of these plane angles
which form the
the
solid angle
of the other two
side of the triangle
the
sum
sum
of the other two.
ABC
is less
than
hence either
is less
than
216
PEOP<'>srrioN
Theoeem.
V.
The sum of the three sides of a spherical t/riangle is less

than the circumference of a great circle.
Let ABC be any spherical triangle produce the sides
;
AB, AC,
until
The
they meet again in D.
ACD
arcs
ABD,
be semi-circumferences, since two great circles

always divide each other equal(Book YII., Prop. I.) ^But
ly.
will
BCD, we have
in the triangle
BC < BD + CD
the side
(Book
AB + AC to both members, we
have AB + AC + BC < ABD + ACD, which is less than
VII., Prop. IV.)
adding
a circumference.
Hernarh.
In order to construct a spherical triangle with
three given sides,
the
sum
it
is
necessary and
is
it
sufficient that
of the three sides be less than a circumference,
and that the greatest side be less than the sum of the other
two for, these are the conditions necessary to construct a
;
solid angle, the three faces of
which have
for their
meas-
ures the three given sides.

If
we
place the vertex of this solid angle at the centre
of the sphere, the faces of the solid angle will form on the
surface of the sphere the required spherical triangle.
Theorem.
Proposition VI.
The suin of the

polygon
is less
sides of a spherical
than a circumference
of a great circle.
Let ABCDE be a spherical polygon.
From
the centre of the sphere
0, draw the
OE we
;
shall
radii
OA, OB, 00,
form at
OD
O a convex solid
BOOK
sum
&c.,
AB, BC, CD, &c.
measures the arcs
is less
hence, the
sum
have
But, the
of the plane angles which form the solid angle
than i right angles

&c.,
AOB, AOC,
plane angles of wliich,
atigle, the
for their
217
is less
AB, BC,
of the arcs
than a circumference.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
The pole
of a circle of the sphere
is
the extremity of
the diameter perpendicular to the plane of the circle.

II.
Every
m.
circle of the sphere has
poles.
have the same poles.
parallel,
Theoeem.
Peoposition VII.
Every point of the circumference

sphere is equally distant
F*']-, if
ference
two
All circles of the sphere, the planes of which are
we draw
FNG, and
from
the radii
FWO of a circle of the
the pole
of this
OF, ON, OG,
also the right lines
DF,
DG, the
DOF, DOl^,
DIST,
right-angled triangles
DOG,
circle.
in the circum-
&c., will be equal
DO
have the side

the lines
for they
common, and
OF, ON, OG are equal,

same circle ; hence,
as radii of tlie
DF = DN=DG.
We see, also, that the arcs of the
great circles
FD,
DIST,
DG
are
equal, because they are subtended
by equal
chords, and the planes of these great circles are
perpendicular to the plane of the circle FJSTG, for they

pass through the line
plane of this
DO,
whicii
is
all
circle.
The reasoning given
for the circle
FNG is
plicable to the pole of the great circle

case, the right angles
AMB
DCA, DCM, DCB,

10
evidently ap;
but, in this
being at the
ELEMENTS OF GEOME'TET.
21S
centre of the great circles
DM, DB
DAE, DME,
&c., the arcs
DA,
are quadrants.
Scholium.
The properties
of the poles enable
us to
trace on the surface of the sphere arcs of a circle with the
same facility as on a plane surface.

For this purpose we use a pair of dividers, called spjierical compasses, and such a disposition is given to the two
legs as permits them to be inclined under any angle.
one of the points of the compasses
It is evident that if
be placed at D, and the other at F, while the latter moves

around D, the extremity F will describe the circumference
FNG.
If
we wished
to describe a great circle
from the point
D, as a pole, it would be necessary to make the distance

between the two points of the compasses equal to the
chord of a quadrant and to have this chord we must
;
know
the radius of the sphere.
PfiOPOsiTioN VIII.
Peoblem.
Having given a sphere, to find its radius.

With any arbitrary opening of the compasses
AC
de-
scribe on the surface of
the sphere a circumfer-
ence
ODE
points C, D,
mark the
on
tJiis
circumference, and measure with the compasses
the rectilinear distances
CD, DE, CE;
CE,
finally,
construct, on
a plane,
a triangle with
CD, DE,
as its sides; the radius of the circle circumscribing
this triangle will
Now,
be the radius of the
conceive a great circle
circle
CDE.
ACBE to be passed
through
BOOK
the diameter
CO
AB, and
are drawn.
know
219
VII.
that the right lines
CA, CB, and
CAO, we
In the right-angled triangle
the hypothenuse
AC
then construct on a plane a

besides, the line
CB
and the side

ti'iangle
CO we
C'A'O' equal
to
A'C,
CAO
to
CA,
being perpendicular to
draw CB' perpendicular
might
the line A'B'
if
we
= AB will
be the diameter of the sphere.
Pkoposition IX.
To
trace
on
Problem.
of a sphere the circumference

of a great circle that shall pass
through two given points
and B.
the surface
From
the points
and B,
as
an opening in the com-
poles, with
passes equal to the chord of a quadrant, describe
two great
tersecting each
point
of
will
P;
the
be the pole of the arc
great circle
the
circles, in-
other in
AB, and
will
serve to describe this arc.
Peoposition X.
From
a point
on
Problem.
the surface
of a sphere,
to
draw a
great circle perpendicular to a given great circle.
From
the point
as a pole,
with an opening in the compasses

equal to the chord of a quadrant,
describe a great circle cutting the
circle
CMD in
S.
Then, with the
point S as a pole, with an opening
SA, describe the great

it
(Eook YIL, Prop. YII.)
circle
will be perpendicular to
AM
CMD.
220
Theoeem.
Proposition XI.
shortest path
The
from
the point
B on
point
to the
of a sphere is the arc of a great circle less than

a semi-circumference joining these points.
The demonstration of this theorem is founded npon the
the surface
two following lemmas, which we will first explain.

Lemma I. The shortest path from the pole of the cirto any point of this circumference, is also
cumference
to any other point of
the shortest path from the point
ABD
same circumference.
For, draw through the pole
the
PA, PB,
the arcs of great
to the points
circumference
circleef
A and B of the
ABD;
and
PGB
let
kD be the shortest path on the surface
of the sphere from the point
to
the point B.
If the
hemisphere which
right of the great circle
volved about
circle
circle
PAE,
and the hemisphere

isphere
still
PBEHA
PBE
Lemma
be
the
until
PBEHD
re-
great
coincides with the great
will coincide with its equal

will coincide
AP,
with the hem-
but in this position, the line
represent the shortest path from
therefore, equally
each
PB
the arc
PE
on the
is
PBE
to B,
be the shortest path from
PGB will
and
to
it
will,
A.
AO
Let AB,
he two arcs of great
II.
than a semi-drcumference; and let
circles.,
AC < AB,
less
the shortest
less
For,
from
AMB
and B.
from
describe
as
at a point I
CI
path from
than that
to
to
will he
B.
circumference
a pole, cutting the arc
between
and
CM
AB
and
let
be the shortest line between
This line will meet the circle
in a point
M, and
the line
AM will
BOOK
221
VII.
be the shortest path from

to
shorter path between these points,
shortest path
from
Besides, from the preceding
path from
A to M
since
Now,
let
AC = AM,
A to
AM < AB.
and
lemmas
to apply these
AB
lemma, the shortest

path from A to C.
C is less than that from
also the shortest
Hence, the shortest path from
A to B,
not be the
contrary to the hy-
is
pothesis.
is
there were a
AMB would
B, which
to
if
for,
enunciated theorem,
to the
be the arc of a great
circle,
circumference, joining the points
less
than a semi-
and B; and suppose
that there exists, outside of this arc, a point
on the shortest
the
arcs
AC-f CB.
have (Book VII., Prop. IV.) AB <

Taking AD = AC from both, there
DB < BC.
from
shortest path
A to
and B. Draw
AC, BC, and take
between
of great circles
AD = AC.
We shall
remains
line
Lemma
But, by
A to D
the
is
same
the
I.,
as that
Hence, since the point C belongs to the

shortest line from A to B, the distance from C to B must
be shorter than that from D to B, which is absurd, from
from
Lemma
C.
II.,
since
shortest distance
arc
AB
BC > BD.
between
hence the arc
Hence, no point of the
A and B can
AB
is
Proposition XII.
The angle
^Theorem.
BAC, formed hy the

has for
arcs of two great circles,
its
measure the arc of
B C, described from
the great circle
be outside of the
the shortest path.
as a pole,
and
limited hy the
sides
of the angle.
For, draw the
the
arcs
radii OB, 00
AC, AB, being quad-
rants, the angles
AOB, AOC,
be right angles
and
BOC
will
will
be
the plane angle corresponding to
222
the diedral angle
DBAC
but the angle at the centre
BOO
Hence, the arc BO is also the

measare of the diedral angle DBAC, which is the angle
of the two arcs of great circles.
The angles of spherical triangles may be
Corollary.
compared with each other, by comparing the arcs of great
circles described from their vertices as poles, and limited
is
measured by the arc BO.
by the
is
Thus,
sides of the spherical triangles produced.
easy to
make an
it
angle equal to a given angle.
The opposite
Scholium.
angles
each
)|b
is
planes
vertical
AOO and BOJST, are equal
for,
the angle formed by the two
ABC,
OOK
We see, also, that the sum of the two

adjacent angles
AGO, GOB, formed
by the intersection of two

equal to two right angles.
arcs,
is
DEriNITIONS.
K from the vertices A, B, 0, of a spherical triangle ABO,

as poles, the arcs of three great circles
described,
these
second triangle
EF, FD,
arcs
will
DEE, which
the polar triangle of the
DE be
form a
is
called
triangle
ABO.
The vertex homblogous to A, is
by the intersection of
determined
the
arcs
as poles.
tersect each other in
is,
These
and 0,
arcs, it is true, in-
two points, but it is only necessary

on the same side of the side BO that
and the same with the other vertices,
to take that
described from
which
is
SOOE
^%%
tti.
Thkoeem.
Pkoposition XIII.
If
ABC has DEF for polar

ABO will he the polar triangle of
the spherical triangle
triangle, reciprocally,
its
DEF.
For, the point
tance
AE is
A being the pole of
a quadrant
DE,
arc
quadrant
the arc
the point
EF, the
CE
the distance
hence, the point
dis-
heing the pole of the

is
'also
at a
is
quadrant's distance from each of the

points
and
in
the
polar triangle of
We might show,
that D is the pole
like manner,,
arc
EC, and
of the arc
AB
therefore, the
it is,
AC.
pole of the arc
hence,
the pole of
ABC
is
the
DEF.
Peoposition
Having given two polar
XIV.
Theorem.
triangles
ABC, DEF,
the meas-
ure of an angle in either of these triangles will he a semicircumference, minus the side opposite to it in the other
triangle.
Produce,
meet
EF
in
if necessary,
and H.
the sides
AB, AC,
Since the point
have
for its
is
until they
the pole of
will
measure the arc
GH.
GH,
the arc
the angle
But the arc EH is a quadrant

well as GF, since E is the pole
AH,
and
hence,
ference
the arc
GH
EH
but
same thing
as
of
AG
the pole of
GF =^ semi-circum-
is
EH +
as
-f
GF
EF -f GH
which measures the angle
semi-circumference minus the side EF.
is
is.the
hence,
equal to a
In like manner,
224
the angle
have
will
aud the angle C, I

This property
is
for
circf.
its
measure ^
circf.
DF,
DE.
reciprocal in both triangles, since each
Thus,
is described in the same manner, one by the other.
MI
but
arc
MI
+
the angle D has for its measure the
EC = MC + BI = ^ circf. hence, the arc MI, which measures the angle D ^ circf. BC. In like manner, the
measure of E will be ^ circf. AC, and that of F will be
;
circf.
- AB.
Scholium.
If
from the centre of the sphere radii be
drawn to the vertices of the triangles ABC, DEF, we shall

form two triedral angles, the plane angles of which have
for measures the sides of the splierical triangles, and the
diedral angles of which correspond with the angles of the
given triangles.
-But,
it
results
from the theorem which has just beeu
demonstrated, that in these two triedral angles, the diedral

angles of one are supplements of the plane angles of the
other,
and reciprocally;
triedral angles
therefore, these
are supplementary.
DEFINITIONS.
Let
ABCD
be any spherical polygon
draw from the
centre of the sphere radii to the vertices of this polygon,
and produce them until they meet

the sphere on the opposite side at
A', B',
C,
D', and describe the arcs
A'B', B'C, A'D',
The
CD'.
solid angles
symmetrical
formed
at
consequently,
are
their
plane angles and their diedral an-
Hence,
A'B'C'D' have their parts
Still, these polygons cannot be placed one upon
gles are respectively equal.
the spherical polygons

also equal.
the other
for, if
we
ABCD,
place the side
CD'
on
its
equal
CD,
60 that the other sides of the
the same side of
CD,
two polygons
the point D' will
shall fall
on
and
in
at C,
fall
following the polygons in the same direction,
commencing
with C, the sides and angles will be presented in an
in-
verse order.
These spherical polygons are called symmetrical, whatever positions be given to them on the surface of the sphere.
Peoposition
Two
XY.^Theoeem.
spherical triangles, on the same sphere, or on equal
spheres, are equal in all their parts,

sides
and
and
the included angle
the included angle
Let the side

gle
AB =
BAG = FEG.
of
of the
EF, the
The
when
they have two
the one, equal to two sides
other, each to each.
AC = EG, and the anEFG may be applied to

the triangle ABC in the
side
triangle
same manner that plane

have been applied which had two
triangles
sides
angle
Then
the triangle
EFG will
ABC
shall
have
angle
ACB = EGF.
that
is,
and the included

in
all
each
the
equal.
parts
besides the parts supposed to be equal,
BC = FG,
of
be equal to those of the triangle

the angle
two
ABC = EFG,
we
and the
were inversely
we might
the symmetrical of ABC, and we should
If the equal sides of the
triangles
disposed with respect to the two equal angles,
apply
EFG
to
have the same
result.
Proposition
Two
triangles,
XVI.
^1'heoeem.
on the same sphere, or on equal
are equal in all their parts,
wh^n
10*
spheres,
they have two angles
and
226
the included side
of the
one, equal to
two angles
and
tlie
included side of the other, each to each.

For, one of these triangles may be applied to the other,
or to
its
(Book
I.,
symmetrical, as plane triangles were applied.
Prop. VI.)
Peoposition XVII.
If two
triangles,
on
the
same
sphere, or
have three sides of the one equal
mch
to each, the
Theoeem.
on equal
to three sides
of
spJieres,
the other,
angles opposite equal sides will also he
equal.
Join the centres 0, O' of the spheres with the vertices

of the two triangles
we
shall thus
form two triedral
angles, the plane an-
of which
gles
being
measured by the sides

of the spherical
respect-
ively equal.
But we
have shown that

this
in
case the diedral
Hence,
angles opposite to equal faces are equal.
two spherical
tri-
are
angles,
in the
triangles, the angles opposite to the equal
sides are equal.
Peoposition XVIII.
Jn every
Theoeem.
isosceles spherical triangle the angles opposite

.
to the
equal sides are equal.
Let *the side

the angle
AB AC
C = B.
For,
if
we shall have
from the vertex
the middle point
;
A we draw the arc AD to

D of the base, the two triangles ABD,
ADC will have the three sides equal, each
to each
viz., AD common
BD = DC,
;
BOOK
and
AB = AC.
triangles will
227
VII.
Hence, by the preceding theorem, these

shall have B G,
have equal angles, and we
The same demonstration proves
DAG, and
that the angle
that the angle
BDA = ADC.
BAD =
BDA
Hence,
and ADG are right angles therefore, iffrom the vertex

of an isosceles spherical triangle an arc he drawn to tht
middle point of the lase^ it will ie perpendicular to the
base, and will divide the vertical angle into two equal
:
parts.
Scholium.
It follows,
from
theorem, that the sym-
this
metrical of an isosceles spherical triangle
is
qual to
it
by
superposition.
Pkoposition
Jf two angles of a
XIX.
Theokem.
spherical triangle ie equal, the sides
opposite the equal angles are also equal.
Let the angle

side
AB is
B=G
AG = AB for, if the
let AB be the greater
take
then will
AG,
AC, and
not equal to
BO =
BO, BC
BC.
join
The two
OC.
sides
are equal to the two sides
The angle
OBC
is
equal to
AC,
ACB.
Hence, the triangles BOG, ACB have their

other parts equal (Book VII., Prop. XV.)
and we have the angle 0GB = ABC.

But the ailgle ABC = ACB, by hypothehence, we shall have OOB = ACB, which is impossis
Therefore, the side AB cannot be different from
sible.
:
AC.
Hence,
AB, AC,
are equal.
Peoposition
In every
XX.
^Teceoeem.
spherical triangle, the greater side lies opposite
to the greater
angle i
and
reciprocally, the greater angle
lies opposite to the greater side.
;
:
228
have
BAD = B we
But AD +
DC is greater than AC
substituting DB for its
A > B make the

AD = DB, by the last
Let angle
1.
shall
angle
theorem.
AD, we
equal
or
BC > AC.
2.
we suppose
If
BC > AC,
BAC will
ABC.
be greater than
shall
DB + DC > AC
have
For,
if
BAC
angle
the
were equal
ABC, we should have BC = AC and if we had

BAC < ABC, we should have BC < AC both of which
to
results are contrary to the supposition.
Hence, the angle
BAC is greater than ABO.

Peoposition XXI.
If two
triangles on the
same
Theokem.
sphere, or on equal spheres,
have the three angles of the one equal to the three angles of
the other, each to each, the sides which lie opposite to the
equal angles will also he equal.
Let
A and B be the two
given triangles,
and
Since the angles in the triangle
polar triangles.
their
are
respectively equal to those of the triangle B, the sides in
the polar triangle
will
be respectively equal to the

(Book VII., Prop. XIY.)
and Q have their sides equal,
sides of the polar triangle Q.
But
if
the polar triangles
each to each, their angles will also be equal (Book VII.,

Prop. XVII.) ; and finally, if the polar triangles P and Q
have their angles equal, each
A and B will
to each, the sides of their
be equal, each to each

(Book Vn., Prop. XIV.), which was to be proved.
polar triangles
Scholium.
triangles
also
This proposition does not hold good in plane
for, in
plane triangles,
the sides are proportional,
when
we can
only conclude that
the angles are equal, each
BOOK
The reason
to each.
triangles
229
VII.
between rectilinear
and spherical triangles may be readily accounted
for this difference
In this proposition, as well as in Prop. XV., XVI.,
for.
XVII., and XX.,
it
is expresslj'^
stated that the given
tri-
angles are traced on the same sphere, or on equal spherei^
But
similar arcs are proportional to their radii.

Hence, on
two equal spheres, two triangles cannot be similar without
being, at the same time, equal. It is not, therefore, surprising tliat the equality between the sides should result
from the equality between the angles, in two spherical
triangles.
It
would be otherwise,
unequal spheres
if
the triangles were traced on
for then, the angles being equal, the tri-
angles would be similar
and the homologous sides would
be to each other as the radii of the spheres.
Proposition XXII.
1.
The sum of
greater than tv:o

2.
the angles
and
less
Theoeem.
of a spherical triangle
is
than six right angles.
The smallest angle augmented hy two right angles
sum of the other two.

measure
of an angle of a spherical triangle
For, the
is a semi-circumference minus the opposite side of the polar
(Book VII., Prop. XIV.) Hence, the sum of the
triangle.
is greater than the
1.
three angles has for a measure three semi-circumferences
minus tlie sum of the three sides of the polar triangle.

But this last sum is greater than zero and less than a circumference; taking
ences, the remainder
it,
then,
will
be
from three semi-circumferless
than three semi-circtim-
ferences and greater than one semi-circumference.
the
sum
Hence,
is less
than six
may have two
or three
of the angles of a spherical triangle
and greater than two right angles.

Corollary.
A spherical triangle
ELEMEKTS OF GEOMETBY.
230
of
angles right angles, or "two or three of
its
angles obtuse angles.
its
ABC have two of its angles

B and C, the vertex A
right angles,
and the
will be the pole of the base BC
Such
quadrants.
sides AB and AC will be
If the triangle
viz.,
a triangle
If the triangle has
all
is
called a U-reotangular triangle.
three of
is
it
Each
angle.
triangle
MN
angles right angles,
its
called a tri-rectangula/r tri-
of the sides of this
a quadrant.
is
is
When
AMN
a quadrant,
is
trl-rectangnlar triangle.
The
tri-rectangular triangle is
contained eight times in the surface of the sphere.

2; Let
of the triangle, and
A<B
and
A, B, C be the angles
<
The
C.
B, 180
-C
180
Adding
sides of the
A, 180
be respectively 180
(Book VII., Prop. IV.) but we have
triangle will
polar
- A < 180 - B + 180 -
A +B +C
to
C.
we have
both members,
B + C<180 + A.
"With three angles A, B, C, which
enunciated in this theorem,

angle
for, these
fulfil
we may form
the conditions
a spherical
tri-
conditions are necessary and sufiScient to
construct a triedral angle with A, B,
as the three diedral
angles.
Scholium.
"We have supposed that the spherical
tri-
angles have always their sides less than a semi-circumference.
We may
triangles
remark, however, that there are spherical
some of the
sides of
which are greater than a
semi-circumference, and certain angles greater than two

right angles.
For,
ACE,
if
we produce
BOOK
VIl.
231
the side
AC
an entire circumference
that portion of the hemisphere which remains, after
yf"
taking
^\
\
ABC,
triangle
is
which may also be

designated by ABC, and of which
the sides are AB, BC, and AEC.
"We see that the side AEC is greater
than a semi-circumference
and the
opposite angle B > two right angles.
We exclude such cases as this from
a
/
AL__Jg
new
away the
triangle
the definition of spherical triangles, because the resolution

of such triangles, and the determination of these greater
sides
and angles,
may
always be reduced to the resolution
of triangles, which are embraced in the definition.
"We
we know the angles and sides of the

angle ABC, we shall know the angles and sides of
triangle which remains when ABC is taken from
the
see, also, that if
tri-
the
hemisphere.
DEFmmONS.
1.
A lune
is
that portion of the surface of the sphere
bounded by the semi-circumferences of two great circles.

n. A spherical ungula or wedge, is that portion of the
volume of the sphere bounded by two semi great circles,
and having the lune formed by the same circles for its
A spherical jpyramiid
is that portion of the volume

bounded by the planes of a solid angle,
having its vertex at the ceiitre, and the base of which is
the spherical polygon formed by the same planes.
"When two spherical polygons coincide, the pyramids to
which they belong will also coincide.
IV. Symmetrical spherical pyramids are those which
have symmetrical spherical polygons for their bases.
in.
of the sphere
232
Theokem.
Proposition XXIII.
The surface of a lune
is to the
surface of a sphere as the
angle of the lune is to four right angles ; or as the arc

which measures this angle is to the circumference.
Let us suppose,
mensurable with
in the first place, that the arc
MNPQ,
and that
in
MN is com-
dividing the
cir-
cumference into 48 equal parts,

the arc
MN
parts.
The
contains 5 of these
ratio of the arc
MN
to the circumference is -^.
Pass through
AB
diameter
the
and the points of division
a series of planes;
we
shall
thus form on the surface of the
sphere 48 lunes,
each other, as having the same angle

will
be contained
in
AMBN.
The
equal to
ratio of the lune
to the surface of the sphere will therefore
be the same as that of the arc
all
and 5 of these
MN
to the
be
-f-^,
luneS;
AMBN"
and will
circumference
MNPQ.
If the arc
ence,
MN be incommensurable with the circumfer-
we might
prove,
bj known course of reasoning, that
the surface of the Inne will always be to the surface of the

sphere, as the arc
MN
is to
the circumference.
Measure of the Lune. Let L, L' represent the surfacea

of two lunes, having A and A' as their respective angles,
and S be the surface of the sphere to which they belong.
We have, by this theorem,
A
L
-=_,
Hence,
If,
therefore,
j-,
we wish
and
L'
g^
j,-
(1)
-.
= A'
to estimate the value of the sur-
BOOK
face of any lune
233
vii.
by comparing
with that of an assumed
it
lune taken as the unit of measure,

proportion, that
it
we
see,
by the aboTe
only necessary to find the ratio
is
between the angles of these lunes.

If we take the lune whose 8(ngte
anit of measure, proportion
E'
(1)
is
a right angle for the
becomes
=r
(^)
Thus, the ratio of any lune to the right luê,

the ratio of
the
its
angle to a right angle
measure of any lune
If
we
is
equal
helice,
is
equal to
when L' =1,
to its angle.
take for the unit of measure of any portion of the
spherical surface the tri-rectangular triangle T, which
half of the right lune,
we
shall have,
by
substituting
is
2T
^ = ^.
for L', in (2),
Hence, multiplying each member by
2,
we conclude
that
L_2A
T~ 1
"Which shows that the ratio of the surface of a lune
of the tri-rectangular triangle,
is
to that
equal to the ratio of
double the angle of the lune to one right angle
or, ia
other words, the measure of the surface of the lune is equal

to
double
its
angle multiplied hy the tri-rectangular
angle / or simply double the angle,
when the
tri-
tri-rectangular
triangle is counted as unity.
We
see, also, that the volume of a spherical

volume of the sphere as its angle is to four
right angles, and that the ungula has for its measure thje
angle of the ungula, in taking for the unit of volume the
right ungula, and for the unit of angle the right angle
Scholium.
ungula
or, in
is to
the
other words, double of
its
angle, in taking for the
unit of volume the tri-rectangular pyramid which
is
half
the right ungula, and for the unit of angle the right ^nglj.
ELEMENTS OF GllOMETR'?.
S84
XXIV.
Pkoposition
Thkokem.
Two symmetrical spherical triangles a/re equal in surface.

ABC be a spherical triangle, and A'B'C its sym-
Let
metrical.
Take the pole
small circle passing
of the
through the points A, B)C. The
cir-
cumscribing circle to the triangle
ABC must be
sphere, for if
the
three
would be
a small circle of the
were a great
it
sides
in the
circle,
AB, BC, AC,

same plane, and
the triangle be reduced to one of
The
its sides.
circles
PA, PB, PC,
are equal.
arcs of the
Draw the
great
diameter POP',
and the arcs of the great circles P'A', P'B', P'C.

The angles POA, P'OA' are equal, because they are
For
opposite vertical angles hence, the arc PA = P'A'.
=
=
P'C; and since
a like reason, PB
P'B', and PC
PA = PB = PC, we have P'A' = P'B' = P'C.
The triangles APC, A'P'C have the three sides of the
;
one equal
to the three sides of the other,
Hence, they
they are also isosceles.
on the other, and are equal.
We
see,
each to each
be placed one
in like manner, that
the triangle
CPB
is
equal to the triangle CP'B', and
the triangle
APB
is
equal to A'P'B'.
ABC, which
is
is
the
sum
may
of the triangles
tliat
Hence, the triangle
APC, CPB, APB,
A'B'C, which is the

A'P'C, CP'B', A'P'B'.
"We see, in like manner, that two symmetrical
equal, in surface, to the triangle
sum
of the triangles
Remark.
spherical pyramids, which have
ABC, A'B'C
for their
bases, are equivalent.
Pkoposition
XXV.
Theorem.
OB, COD intersect each other on

If two great circles
the hemisphere AOCBD, the sum of the apposite tria/ngles
BOOK
be
AOC, BOD
BOD for its angle.
loill
235
VII.
equivalent
OB,
For, in producing the arcs
]Sr,
to the
OD
until they
meet at
the other hemisphere,
in
OBN
lime which has
be a semi-circum-
will
AOB takOB from each, we have

BN = AO. For a like reaference, as well as
ing
son,
DN
= CO, and
Hence, the two
AOC, BDIST have
we have
BD = AC.
triangles
sides
their
each
each
equal,
to
sym-
besides, they are
Hence, they are equal in surface (Book VII.,

Prop. XXI-Y.), and the sum of the triangles AOC, BOD
metrical.
is
equivalent to the lune OBISTDO, whose angle
Scholium.
also evident, that the
It is
pyramids whicb have
BOD
will
which has
BOD.
for their bases the triangles
AOC,
be together equivalent to the spherical ungula
BOD for its
angle.
XXVI.
Pboposition
of the sum of
^Theorem.
triangle has
The surface of a spherical

the excess
is
two spherical
for
its
measure
three angles above two right
its
angles multiplied hy the tri-rectangular triangle.
Let
ABC
be the given
triangle.
^^
ACj
'
Complete the great
AB, and produce
circle
BC
until they
meet
the
arcs
this great
We have, evidently,
ABC + BCE = Lune A,
ABC-f ACD=LuneB;
circle.
and by the preceding theorem, we

have
ABC -h DOE ^
Lune
C.
286
Adding
and observing that the sum of

tlie hemisphere by twice the
have
these equations,
these six triangles exceeds
triangle
ABC, we
2ABC + ^
Hence, taking
2-, we have
shall
sphere
= Lune A + Lune B + Lune
J sphere from each
Lune A + Lune B + Lune

-p^
ABO2
.
Dividing each
member by
we have
C.
member and dividing by
h sphere
T, the surface of the
tri-
rectangular triangle,
ABC _ Lune A + Lune B + Lune C

~T
Lune
-p
'
^ sphere
2T
A _A
^T ~ V
VIL, Prop. XXIIL)
Lune
and
B Lune C
~2f
T'
~W~
i-^ =
2.
C
^'
^^^^^
Hence,
t^ = î+l+C_:i_?andABC = (A + B + C-2)xT.
Hence, a spherical triangle has
face the excess of the
angles multiplied
T=
1, is
sum
by the
of
for the
its
measure of
its sur-
angles above two right
tri-rectangular triangle; or
equal to the excess of the
sum
of
its
when
angles above
two right angles.

Scholium I. If the angles of the triangle are given in
degrees of the arcs which measure them, we take 180*^
from their sum, and the ratio of -this difference to 90 will
show what paii of the
tri-rectangular triangle, taken as the
unit of measure, the given triangle
is.
= 70 10', B = 60 20', and C =

Let
79 30'. Taking 180 from the sum of these arcs, we find
the difference to be 30, and to obtain the ratio of 30 to
90, we reduce the degrees to minutes in both cases, and
Application.
BOOK
we
have,
jfffff
g-,
by dividing
the
237
VII.
number by the
first
in terms of the tri-rectangular triangle.

5-
second,
as the value of the area of the spherical triangle

It
therefore,
is,
of the ti'i-rectangular triangle.
We
might show, in the same manner,

pyramid has for its measure the
excess of the sum of the angles of its base above two right
angles multiplied by the tri-rectangular pyramid or, tak-
Scholium
II.
that a spherical triangular
ing for the unit of volume the tri-rectangular pyramid, and

for the unit of angle the
excess of the
sum
right angle,
of the angles of
equal to the
it is
its
base above two
right angles.
Peoposition
XXYn.
Theorem.
The surface of a spherical polygon has for
meas-
its
ure the excess of the sum of its angles above two right
angles taken as many times as the polygon has sides less
two, multiplied iy the tri-rectangular trianyl
From
polygon
the vertex
ABODE
AD
draw the diagonals AC,
will be divided into as
many
the
triangles
as the polygon has sides less two.
But
is
the measure of each triangle
sum
the excess of the
of
its
above two right angles
angles
multiplied by the tri-rectangnlar

;
sum
all
of
angles
angles of the polygon.
polygon
is
and
triangle
is
it is
clear that the
the angles of the
equal to the
sum
tri-
of the
Hence, the area of the spherical
equal to the excess of the
sum
of
its
angles
above two right angles, taken as many times as the polygon has sides less two, multiplied by the tri-rectangular
triangle.
ELEMENTS OF GEOHETBY.
23S
Calling
angles,
the area of the polygon,
and n the number of
its
sides,
S the snm of its

we have for the
measure,
p=
If
|S
2 (n
2)
= (S - 2n + 4) X T.
value of P becomes
X T
be taken as unity, the
P = (S _ 2>t + 4).
239
:606k; viii.
BOOK
VIII.
THE CYLESTDEE THE CONE THE MEASURE

OF THE SPHERE.
DEFraiTIONS.
I.
A cytmder
a rectangle
the solid generated
is
ABCD
around one of
In this revolution, the sides
perpendicular to
its
by tke revQlutjon of
AB
sides
AD, EC
as
an
axis.
being constantly
AB, describe the equal circles BPH,

CGQ, called the hoses of the cylinder,
and the side
surface:
CD
and the fixed
CD
generates the laieraZ

called the generatrix,
is
line
AB
is
called tke
(^^
of the cylinder.
Every section KLM, made in the cylinby a plane perpendicular to itg axis,
der
is
a circle equal to each of the b^ses:
for,
while the rectangle
ABCD
revolves
around AB, the perpendicular
IK
scribes a circle equal to the base;

this circle is the section
section
the axis,
is
PQGH
made by
a rectangle which
is
and
made by a plane
perpendicular to the axis, through the point
Every
de-
I.
a plane drawn through
double the generating
rectangle.
II.
A cone
is
the solid generated by the revolution of
the light-angled triangle

as an axis.
SAB
around one of
its
sides
SA
240
In
revolution, the
this
side
AB
describes the circle
BDCE, which
cone,
is
the base of the
SB
and the hypothenuee
generates the lateral surface of

the cone.
The point S
of
the cone,
titde,
and
is
SA
SB
called the vertex

the axis or alti-
the slant height or
apothegm.
Every
section
HKFI made
by
a plane perpendicular to the axis,

is
SDE made by
celes triangle,
III. If
and every section

is an isos-
circle;
a plane passed through the axis
which
is
double of the generating triangle.
from the cone
SGDB we
formed by a plane parallel
take the cone
to the base, the solid
a frustum of the cone.

This frustum of the cone
SFKH,
CBHF
is
called
may be
conceived to be gen-
erated by the revolution of the trapezoid

the angles
and
ABHG, in
which
are right angles, around the axis
AG.
The fixed line AG is called the axis or altitude of t\i& frustum; the circles BDC, HFK are the bases; and BH is its
slant height or side.
IV.
Two
cylinders or two- cones are similar,
when
their
axes are to each other as the diameters

of the bases.
Y.
If,
in the circle
base of a cylinder,
ABODE,
and on
we
this
A CD, taken
as the
inscribe a polygon
polygon, as a base,
construct a right prism having the
same
altitude as the cylinder, the prism is said

to
be inscribed in the cylinder, or the
cylinder circumscribed about the prism.

It is
CH,
evident that the edges
AF, BG,
&c., of the prism, being perpendicu-
BOOK vra.
241
lar to the plane of the base, are included in the lateral
Hence, the prism and cylinder
surface of the cylinder.
touch each other along these edges.
We may
number
admit, as a self-evident proposition, that
if
the
of sides of the inscribed polygon be indefinitely
increased, the difference between the lateral surface of the
cylinder and the lateral surface of the prism will

less
than any assignable quantity;
the lateral surface
of a cylinder
is the limit
surface of an inscribed prism, the
become
in other words,
or,
of the lateral
number of whose faces
inG7'eases indefinitely.
We may
volume of a cylinder is the

prism, the nutnber of
also admit, that the
an
limit of the volume of
insc7'iied
whose faces increases indefinitely.

Let ABC be a circle forming the base of a cone, and
ABCD
Construct on the polygon
an inscribed polygon.
ABCD as
S
a base, a pyramid, having
for its vertex
SD
the edges SB, SC,
of this pyramid, are in the lat-
eral surface of the cone
pyramid
is
and
this
said to be inscribed in
the cone, or the cone circumscribed
about the pyramid.
We may
admit, as a self-evident
proposition, as before, that the laf'

eral surface of the cone is the limit
of the
lateral
surface
number of whose faces
pyramid,
and also, that the volume of
limit of the volume of the same pyramids.
the
scribed
increased;
PeopositIon
I.
its altitude.
in^
the cone is the
Theorem.
The volume qf a cylinder has for

duct of its hose by
of an
is indefinitely
its
measure the
pi'O'
242
Inscribe a regular polygon in the base of the cylinder,

and construct on this polygon, as a base, the right prism,
having an altitude equal to that of the

cylinder.
Let
V its
prism,
B=
area of the base of the
H = altitude
We have
volume, and
the cylinder or prism.
V=B
of
X H.
Bat, the volume of the cylinder
is
the
volume of an inscribed prism,

the number of whose sides is indefinitely
increased.
We shall, therefore, have the
limit of the
volume of this cylinder by taking the limit of the product

B X H. But the area B of the inscribed polygon has for
a limit the area of the circle which forms the base of the
cylinder, and the factor
Hence,
is constant.
Vol. cylinder
x H.
area circle
Cylinders of the same altitude are to each
Corollary I.
other as their bases
and cylinders of the same base are
to each other as their altitudes.
The volumes of
Corollary II.
similar cylinders are to
each other as the cubes of their altitudes, or as the cubes

of the diameters of their bases.
For, the bases are to each other as the squares of their
diameters
and
since the cylinders are similar, the diam-
eters of the bases
are
as the altitudes
are as the squares of the altitudes
multiplied
by the
ders, are as the
Scholium.
H=
be
hence, the bases
therefore, the bases
volumes of the
Let
R = radius
of the base of the cylinder,
the area of the base of the cylinder will
and the volume of the cylinder will be
H == ttE^H.
cylin-
cubes of the altitudes.
its altitude,
ttR^,
altitudes, or the
ttE^
BOOK
Pboposition
The
2i3
VIII.
Theorem.
II.
of a right prism has for its measure

of its iase multiplied by its altitude.
lateral surface
the perimeter
For, this surface
is
equal to the
sum
of the rectangles
AFGB, BGHC, CHID,
&c., of which
composed but the altitudes of these
it is
rectangles
AF, EG, CH,
&c., are equal
to the altitude of the prism
their bases,
taken together, make the perimeter of

the base of the prism.
sum
Hence, the
of these rectangles, or the measure
of the lateral surface of the prism,
equal to the perimeter of

tiplied
by
its
is
base mul-
its altitude.
Corollary.
If
two right prisms have
the same altitudes, the areas of their

lateral surfaces will
be to each other as the perimeters of
their bases.
PEOPosrrioN ILL
^Theoeem.
2^ lateral surface of a cylinder has for its measure the

circumference of
its base
multiplied by
its altitude.
Inscribe in the base of the cylinder a
regular polygon, and construct on this
polygon, as a base, a right prism, having

the same altitude as the cylinder.
P = the
= measure
of
the lateral surface of the prism, and
Let
the
common
prism.
We
perimeter, S
altitude of the cylinder
But the
is
and
have
=P
X H.
lateral surface of the cylinder
the limit of the lateral surface of an inscribed prism the
..
2i4
of whose faces increases indefinitely hence, we

have the measure of the surface of the cylinder by
number
shall
taking the limit of

eter
is
x H.
But the
limit of the perim-
the circumference of the base of the cylinder,
and the factor
is
constant
therefore,
S = circumference of the base x H.

Scholium. Representing by R the radius of
the measure
may
the base,
be expressed
2:rR x
H.
Peoposition IV.
The volume of a cone has for

its
Thkokem.
measure
its
the product
of
hose hy one-third of its altitude.
Inscribe in the base of the cone a
regular polygon, and construct a pyr-
amid having the polygon for its base,

and the vertex of the cone for its verLet
tex.
polygon,
and
B area
of the inscribed
V = volume of the pyramid,
H = the
altitude of the cone
TT
we have
V =B
But the volume of the cone is the

volume of the inscribed pyramid, the number
of whose faces is indefinitely increased. The area B of the
base of the pyramid has for a limit the area of the circle
limit of the
TT
which forms the base of the cone, and the factor
is cono
Btant.
Hence,
TT
V = Vol.
Corollary.
of cone
A cone
= area of
base x
is
one-third of the cylinder, having
the same base and the same altitude.
Hence,
it
follows:
BOOK
245
VIII.
That the volumes of cones of equal altitudes are to
1-
each other as their bases.
That the volumes of cones of equal bases are
2.
to
each
other as their altitudes.
That the volumes of similar cones are
3.
to each other
as the cubes of the diameters of their bases
or as the
cubes of their altitudes.
Let
Scholium.
H=
= radius
II
of the base of the cone,
volume of the cone
altitude, the
its
DP,
its
the
as the radii of
measure \-nOV
Let
TFGH
frustum of a cone, having
its iases,
(AO
x ^H, or
Theokem.
Peoposition Y.
The volume of
= ttR^
and
PO
+ DP + AO
its altitude,
AO,
has for
x DP).
be a triangular pyramid having the same

as the cone
altitude
SAB, and whose
FGH
is
base
equivalent to
the base of the cone.
Let the bases be supposed
to
be placed on
the same plane
then
the vertices S and

will
be at equal
dis-
tances from the plane

of the bases, and the
plane
will
make
section
the section
IKL
is
IKL
EPD
in the pyramid.
equivalent to the upper base
produced
Now,
DE
for,
the
the
AB, DE are to each other as the squares of the radii

AO, DP, or as the squares of the altitudes SO, SP. The
bases
triangles
FGH, IKL
the same altitudes.
other as the triangles
are to each other as the squares of
Hence, the
circles
FGH, IKL.
AB,
DE
are to each
But, by hypothesis, the
ELEMENTS OF OEOMETEY,
246
circle
AB
equivalent to the circle
DE.
triangle
FGH is equivalent to the
triangle
IKL is
Now, the base AB x 3SO is

SAB, and the base FGH x |S0
therefore, the
volume of the cone

the volume of the pyr-
the
is
amid TFGH hence, since the bases are equivalent, the

volume of the pyramid is equivalent to that of the cone.
For a like reason, the pyramid TIKL is equivalent to the
cone SDE. Hence, the frustum of the cone ADEB is
equivalent to the frustum of the pyramid FGHIKL. But
the base FGH, equivalent to the circle whose radius is
;
AO,
has for
its
measure
tt
AO
2
;
and we have
also for
the measure of the base IKL,

portional between
rr
AO
tt
and
tt
DP and the mean prox DP is

x AO x D.
;
tt
Hence, the volume of the frustum of the pyramid, or

that of the frustum
ÔP
X (ttAo'+ttDP
same
thing,
^tt
OP
of
77
the cone, has for
AO
x (Ao'
lateral surface
or,
+DP' + AO
Peoposition VI.
The
X DP),
measure
its
what
is
the
x DP).
Theorem.
of a regular pyramid SAB CD has

for its measure the perimeter of
its hase multiplied by half the
apothegm* SI.
For, the lateral surface of the
regular pyramid
is
composed of
the equal isosceles triangles
SBC, SAB, &c.
SOD,
But we have
SOD = CD
SI
2
The apothegm
of the Bides of
tjie
is
SBC = BC
SAB = AB
the perpsflcJiciJ^r drawn
base,
fj-oift
SI
SI
,
&c.
the vertex S to one
BOOK
247
VIII.
Hence, we have, by addition, for the measure of the lateral

surface of the pyramid (CD + BC + AB + AE + ED) x
Peoposition
The
lateral surface
circumference of
its
Vn.
^Theoeem.
of a cone has for its measure the

base multiplied by half its slant
height.
Inscribe in the base of the
cone a regular polygon
ABCD, and
construct on
the point S for
Let
it,
as a
pyramid having
base, the regular

its
vertex.
be the perimeter of the
polygon, S the lateral surface of

the
pyramid, and SI the slant
we
apothegm;
height or
shall
have
But S has
P has
=P
for its limit the circumference

its
EI may become
number of sides
ciently great.
Hence,
that
Lateral surf, cone
radius of
its
Let
base
L be
;
we
"
less
and
it is
SE - SI <
easy to
EI, and
than any assignable
of the polygon be
= circf. OE
suffi-
SE
the slant height of the cone,
R the
shall have for the measure of
lateral surface of the cone, in
the base, 2ffR x ^ L, or
OE
limit SE, for
quantity, if the
Scholium.
S^
for its limit the lateral surface of the cone
see that SI has for
we know
nE x
tlie
terms of w, and the radius of

L.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRT.
248
Theorem.
PROPOsrnoN VIII.
The
for
its
lateral surface
measure
SAB
circumference which has
draw
AD multiplied hy the half
circumferences of
In the plane
AF
slant height
ADEB has
its two bases AB, DE.

which passes through the axis 80,
perpendicular to SA, and make it equal to the
sum of the
draw
its
of the frustum of a cone
AO
for its radius
join SF, and
DH parallel to AF.
Since the triangles
SAO, SDC
AO
have
are
we
similar,
shall
SA
= "SD'
triangles SAF, SDH
AF _SA
D(5
and because the

have
DH
Hence,
by
DC.
Now, the
But,
are similar,
we
shall
SD"
AF _ AO circf. AO
DH~ DO circf. DC
construction, AF = circf. AO
hence, DH =
;
circf.
measure
AF x
equivalent to the lateral surface of the cone
SAB,
^SA, is
which has
triangle
measure
for its
reason, the triangle
face of the cone
SAF, which has
SDH
SDE.
is
circf.
for its
AO
x|SA.
For a
like
equivalent to the lateral sur-
Therefore, the measure of the
249
fioofi viii.
lateral surface of the
frustum
measure of the trapezoid

(ATi'
ADEB is
ADHF.
-+
T)TT\
)
face of the frustum of the cone
AD
multiplied
equivalent to the
But the measure of the

;
hence, the lateral sur-
ADEB has for its
by half the sum
measure
of the circumferences of
two bases.
its
Through the point I, the middle of AD,

draw IKL, parallel to AB, and IM parallel to AE. We
might prove, as above, that IM = circf. IK. But the
trapezoid ADHF =: AD x IM ^ AD x circf. IK.
Hence,
we have also for the measure of the lateral surface of the
frustum of a cone, its slant height multiplied hy the circumference of a section made at equal distance from the
Corollat'y.
two
bases.
If a line AD situated on one side of 00, and

same plane, revolve around 00 as an axis, the surface described by AD will have for its measure
Scholium.
in the
AD
.
or
AD
circf.
diculars let fall
/circf.
X (-
AO + circf. DC \
),
IK, the lines AO, DO, IK being perpenfrom the extremities, and from the middle
AD, on the axis 00.

if we produce AD and 00
of the line
For,
is
until they
evident that the surface generated by
frustum of a cone of which
OA
and
AD
DO
meet
is
in S, it
that of the
are the radii of
the bases, S being the vertex of the cone.
Hence, the
by AD will have the same measure.

This measure would still hold good when D coincided
with S, which would change the frustum into the whole
cone and also, when AD is parallel to the axis, which
would give a cylinder. In the first, DO would be zero
surface generated
and
in the second,
DO = AO = IK.
11*
Elements
250
Geometry.
oi*
Peoposition IX.
^Theorem.
The surface generated hy a portion, of a
ABCD
FG,
revolving about a diameter
regula/r polygon
has for
its
meas-
ure the circumference of the inscribed circle multiplied by

th projection
of the perimeter of the polygon on the
MQ
diameter
FG.
The point
AB, and IK being a

I, we have
I being the middle of
perpendicular to the axis
FG
from the point
measure of the surface
for the
AB,
generated by
Surface
AB = AB
AX
Draw
axis
circf.
parallel
the triangles
have their sides perpendicular, each to each.

they are similar, and give the proportion
01
IK
therefore.
MN
circf.
01
circf.
IK'
IK = MN X
Surface
AB = MN
In like manner,
we
Surface
and,
_
"
circf.
AB X
Hence,
And
AB _ AB _
Surface
circf.
the
ABX, OIK
will
AX
to
IK.
Hence
01.
01.
circf.
shall have,
BC ^NP X circf. 01;

CD = PQ x circf. 01.
Hence, by addition,
Surface
ABCD = (MN + KP + PQ) X
MQ
Remarh
AC,
BC,
"We are
to
circf.
circf^
understand by surface
&c., the surfaces generated
01
=:
01.
AB,
surface
by the revolution of AB,
&c., around a given axis.
Corollary.
number
If
we
consider a regular polygon of an even
of sides, and that the axis
FG passes
through two
BOOK
251
VIII.
generated by the
opposite vertices, the entire surface
revolution of the semi-polygon
FACG,
will
multiplied
be equal to
by
of the inscribed
axis
FG
is,
its axis
the circumference
This
circle.
at the
same time,
the axis of the circumscribing

circle.
DfiFTNITIONS.
I.
ji spherical sone
is
a portion of the surface of the
sphere included between two parallel planes.
made by
tions
The
sec-
these planes on
the surface of the sphere form

the bases of the zone.
may be
planes
sphere
and
One
of the
tangent to the
in this case the zone
has but one base.

II.
The
altitude of the zone is
the distance between the planes
two bases.
While the semi-circumrevolving around the diameter DE, geneof
its
III.
ference
DAE,
rates the surface of the sphere, the arc
EH,
revolving
around the same axis, generates the surface of the zone.
PBOPosmON X.
The area of a
spherical sone is equal to its altitude mul-
tiplied hy the oiroumference
of a great
Let the zone be generated by
AB
^Theoeem.
about the diameter
Inscribe inthe arc
circle.
the revolution of the arc
MN.
AB
a portion of a regular polygon
252
ADCB,
and designate by S the surface generated by

ADCB revolving around MN; we
shall have,
= circf.
But we may
01 X EF.
admit, as a self-evir
dent proposition, that the surface generated
by
the arc
AB
the regular
number
of
polygon,
inscribed
whose
indefinitely.
the limit of
is
by a portion of
the surface generated
sides
is
Hence, we
the
increased
shall
have
the measure of the surface of the zone
by taking the
But
EF
is
circf.
01 has
for its limit circf.
Surface zone
I.
OM, and
01 X EF.
the factor
Hence,
constant.
Cmollary
limit of circf.
AB = circf. OM X
EF.
In equal spheres, two zones are to each
other as their altitudes.
The
Cmollary II.
diameter
may be
surface of the sphere
garded as a zone the altitude of which
is
re-
equal to the
and hence, the measure of the surface of the

circumference of a great circle mul-
sjphere is equal to the
tiplied hy its diameter.
Let
R = radius of the sphere we shall have

Surface sphere = 2TrE X 2R = 4TrRl
;
Hence, the surface of the sphere
is
equal to four great
circles.
Corollary III.
'
The
surface of the spnere being thus
estimated in terms of the square constructed on the linear

unit,
we may
readily determine the measures of lunes,
spherical triangles, and spherical polygons, in terms of the
same unit
since
we have
already found, in
Book VH.,
their values in terms of the tri-rectangular triangle,

is
the eighth part of the surface of the sphere;
which
BOOK
253
VIII.
XL
Pkoposition
Thkohkm.
The volume of the solid generated ly a triangle revolving

around an axis in the same plane and passing through one
of the vertices of the triangle, has for its Tneasure the sur'face described hy the side opposite to this vertex multiplied
by the third of the altitude corresponding to this side.
1-
Let us suppose,
in the first place, that the triangle
CAB
revolves about one of
CB.
The volume
generated by CAB is equivasides
its
lent to the
sum
of the cones
generated by the right-angled
ADB
CAD,
triangles
we
have, therefore.
Vol.
CAB = ittAD
CD + iff
^ttAD X CB.
But
if
ad
DB =
(1)
we draw CG perpendicular to AB, we have
AB = CB
AD
double area of the triangle
CG X
two products measure the
for these
CAB
substituting in equation
CG X AB for its equal AD X CB, we have

Yol. CAB =l7rAD X CG X AB -= ^CG x ttAD
(1)
But ttAD
X AB
is
the measure of the
x AB.
lateral surface of
the cone generated by
AB.
Hence,
Yol.
2.
CAB surface
AB X iCG.
Let us
now suppose
that the triangle
CAB
re-
volves about a right line
CD
of
its
and
vertices
let fall the
produce
AB
until
perpendicular
CE
it
passing through
one
meets the axis
on AB.
at
254
We shall
have
But
aDd
CAB = vol. CAD - vol. CBD.

vol. CAD = surf. AD x ^CE
vol. CBD = surf. BD x ^CE.
vol. CAB = (surf. AD - surf. BD) x ^CE
vol. CAB = surf. AB x ^CE.
vol.
Hence,
and
finally,
3-
The preceding demonstration supposes
AB
that the side
CD
meets the axis
now examine
these lines are parallel.
AE
BD
and
the axis
Draw
perpendicular to
CD, and CF perpendic-
AB we shall have,
CAB = vol. CAE + vol. ABDE - vol. CBD.
Itt X AE X CE.
vol. CAE
vol. ABDE
X AE X ED.
vol. CBD = in X Ae' X CD.
ular to
vol.
But
'
Adding
let us
the case in which
the two
first
TT
equations and subtracting the third,
we have
CAB = 77AE '(J-CE + ED - J-CD).

And since CD = CE + ED, we have,
vol. CAB = n TEx fED = ÂE x 27r x AE
vol. CAB = iCF X surf. AB.
vol.
Bemark.
"We indicate bj
vol.
CAB,
vol.
x ED.
CAD, the
CAB,
volumes generated by the revolution of the triangles

CAD about an axis.
Theorem.
Proposition XII.
If a polygonal
diameter
FG,
sector
A ODA
on the same aide of the
revolve about this diameter as
solid generated will have
erated iy the jperimeter

the apotJiegm 01.
for
its
A BCD
an
axis, the
measure the surface genmultijolied ly one-third of
BOOK
255
VIlI.
For, the volume generated by the sector
AOD
sum
lent to the
is
equiva-
of the vol-
umes generated by the equal

isosceles
triangles
AOB,
BOC, COD. But the volume AOB = surface AB x

iOl (Book
XL);
and
BOC = surf. BC x iÔI.

COD = surf. CD x ^01.
vol.
vol.
Hence, by adding,
vol.
AOD =
Theorem
YIII.,
we have
01
(surf.
AB + BC -f CD)
surf.
ABCD.
^01 X
DEFINITIONS.
I.
A spherical sector
is
lution of a circular sector
the solid generated
FCH
by
the revo-
around the diameter DE,
while the semicircle
DHE
generates the
sphere.
The
spherical sector
is
zone generated by the arc
bounded by the
FH.
segment of a sphere is a part of the

volume of the sphere included between the
sections made by two parallel planes.
The
sections form the iases of the segment and
the altitude of the segment is the perpendicular distance between the planes of its bases.
II.
Peoposition
A spherical
forms
sector
^Theobem.
has for its measure the zone which

by the third of the radius of the
its base, rriultiplied
sphere.
Xni.
256
Let
AOB
be the circular sector which generates the
spherical sector in
its
MN.
revolution around
AB a
ADCB
portion
arc
Inscribe in the
of a regular polygon
and
V the volume generated by the
call
poly-
ADCBO we shall have

V = surf. ADGB xÔI.
gonal sector
But we may admit,
as a self-evident
that the
volume of the
proposition,
spherical
sector
the
is
limit
of the
volume generated by the polygonal
when the number
sector,
of sides of
the portion of the polygon inscribed

in the arc
We
shall find, therefore, the
tor,
by taking the
^01
and
OM
but surface
is
ADCB
spherical sector
Scholium
I.
increased indefinitely.
limit of the expression, surface
has for
limit the zone
its
sec-
ADCB
x
AB,
Hence,
the limit of 01.
spherical sector
AB is
measure of the spherical
zone
AB
If the circular sector
become equal
x ÔM.
which generates the

volume
to a semicircle, the
generated will be that of the sphere
the zone which forms the base of the
but
in
this
spherical
case
sector
becomes the surface of the sphere. Hence, the measure of

the volume of a sphere is equal to its surface multiplied
hy one-third of its radius.
Scholium II. Let R be the radius of
tlie
sphere,
H the
which forms the base of the spherical

the
zone
sector
has for its measure 27rR x H. Hence,
the spherical sector has for its measure 2TrE x
x ^K =
7rE^ X H.
altitude of the zone
:
In the case in which the spherical sector becomes the
volume of
the^ sphere,
we have
H=2R.
Hence, the
257
fiOOK VIII.
measure of the volume of the sphere becomes ItR^ x
2E = AttEI
D
D
R =-^.
If
becomes
represent the diameter of the sphere,
Hence, E'
D^
we have
and the vplume of the sphere
= ^ttD'.
I^tt
Pkoposition
Tlie surface
XIV.
of the sphere
^Thkoekm.
is to the total
circumscriiing cylinder, including

3.
two
its
surface of the
hoses, as 2 is to
The volumes of these two bodies are to each other in

same ratio.
Let MPNQ be the great circle of the sphere ABCD
the
tlie
circumscribing square.
the
If
semicircle
PMQ,
and the rectangle PADQ, revolve

around the diameter PQ, the semicircle will generate the sphere
and
the rectangle the cylinder circumscribing the sphere.
The
is
altitude
AD
of this cylinder
equal to the diameter
PQ
the
base of the cylinder
is
great circle, since
the diameters
AB
and
MN
equal to the
are equal.
the lateral surface of the cylinder has for
its
Hence,
measure the
circumference of the great circle multiplied by its diamBut this measure is the same as that of the surface
eter.
of the sphere (Book YIII., Prop. X.)
face of the sphere
therefore, the sur-
is equivalent to the lateral surface of
th^ circumscribing cylinder.
But the surface of the sphere

circles.
is
equivalent to four great
Hence, the measure of the
circumsci-ibing cylinder
is
lateral surface of the
also four great circles.

17
If
we
ELEMENTS OP GEOMETRi?.
&58
add
measure the two bases of the cylinder, which
to this
are equal to
two great
circles,
cumscribing cylinder will
the total surface of the
he equivalent
six
to
cir-
great
Hence, the surface of the sphere is to the surface

of the circumscribing cylinder as 4 is to 6, or as 2 is to 3.
circles.
In the second place, since the base of the circumscribing cylinder
is
equal to a great
circle,
and
its
altitude to
the diameter, the volume of the cylinder will be equal to
by the diameter.
the great circle multiplied
But
the volume of the sphere
cles multiplied
Prop. XIII.)
by
-3-
by the
is
equal to four great
third of the radius
which reduces
to
of the sphere
as 2
is to
is
(Book VIIL,
one great circle multiplied
Hence, the
of the radius, or | of the diameter.
ume
cir-
to that of the
vol-
circumscribing cylinder
and, therefore, the volumes of these bodies
are to each other as their surfaces.
Soholium.
If
we suppose
a polyedron
having
faces tangent to the sphere, this polyedron
sidered as
all
of
its
might be con-
composed of pyramids having all their vertices

and for their bases the different
at the centre of the sphere,

faces of the polyedron.
amids
will
the sphere
have
;
It is
for their
so that each
evident that
common
pyramid
of the polyedron wliich forms

third of the radius.
will
be equal
its
all
of these pyr-
altitude the radius of

will
be equal
to the face
base multiplied by one-
Hence, the volume of the polyedron
to its surface multiplied
by
one-third of
tlie
radius of the inscribed sphere.
We see
by
this,
that the volumes of polyedrons circum-
scribing a sphere are to eacli other as the surfaces of those
polyedrons.
Thus the property

scribing cylinder
is
just demonstrated for the circum-
common
to
an
infinite
number
of other
bodies.
We might also remark

cumscribing the
that the areas of polygons cir-
circle are to
each other as their perimeters.
BOOK
XV.
Proposition
The
259
VIII.
^Thkobem.
solid generated by the circular segment
volving around
a diameter
A CG exterior
BM.D
to this
re-
segment,
has for its ineasure the sixth part of the circle which has
its radius the chord JBD of the segment, multiplied by
for
ihe projection
EF of the chord BD on the axis AC.

we have
CDB.
For,
vol.
But
And
vol.
CDMB
vol.
CDB
since surf.
we have
Taking equation
vol.
(2)
vol.
vol.
from
BMD =
|7T
hence,
vol.
Scholium.
is
CI
BD
EF is
to iTT
we
(1),
BD
27r
|7r
surf.
DB.
x CI x EF,
x~Cl' x EF. (2)
have,
EF (CB - CI ).
we
BD
or, as
have,
BD =
solid genei-ated
iCI X
CDB =
BMD = frr x EF
The
BD
=BI = -p
4
to the sphere which has
^ttxGB xEF(1)
DB =
Besides, in the triangle CBI,
CB -
BMD = vol. CDMB -
by
Itt
BD
x EF.
the segment
BMD
for its diameter, as ^Tt
EF is
to
BD.
260
Peoposition
XVI.
^Theorem.
Emry segment of a sphere included hetweeu two paralsum of its bases mullel planes has for a measure the half
ilplied hy its altitude,
plus the solidity of the sphere whioh
has this altitude for a diameter.

Let BE, DF be the radii of the bases of the segment,
EF its altitude we have, from the preced;
ing theorem,
vol.
f
BMD =
We have also
vol.
Itt
X BD' X EF.
(Book YIIL, Prop. V.),
BDFE =
It:
BE X
EF X
(Be'
+ 151^ +
DF).
Hence, the segment of the sphere -which

the sum of these two volumes has for its measure
-Q
is
^TT
EF
X (2BE
But, drawing
BO
+ 2DF + 2BE x DF + BD
parallel to
EF, we
shall
DO =DF - BE =D0 = DF - 2DF

and
).
have
BE + BE
also,
BD = BO +D0 = EF + DF - 2DF
Substituting this value of
segment,
we
BD
x BE
+ BE
in the expression of the
shall have, after reduction, for the solidity of
the segment,
i77
EF X (3Be'+ 301^+
Ef'),
an expression which may be decomposed into two parts
^77
EF
X (3Be'+ SDf")
or,
EF
( BE +
TT
one.
DF
)
BOOK
is
the half
sum
the segment
of the bases multiplied
the other, ^n EF
the sphere which has
theorem
is
261
VIII.
EF
by the
altitude of
represents the solidity of
for its diameter.

.
Hence, the
proved.
Corollary.
If one
of the bases reduces to zero, the
above measure reduces to
EF x
(-
IttEF
which
shows, that the solidity of a spherical segment with one

hose is equivalent to half the cylinder with the same hose
and
the
same
altitude,
altitude for its diameter.
^lus the sphere which has
this
262
PRACTICAL EXERCISES FOR THE STUDENT IN

PLANE GEOMETRY.
THEOREMS,
1.
The
figure
formed by joining the middle points of the
sides of a quadrilateral
2.
If
by right
lines, is
a parallelogram.
from a point, taken within an equilateral triangle,
sum of these
Examine the theorem, when
perpendiculars be drawn to the three sides, the

perpendiculars
the given point
is
is
constant.
without the triangle.

3.
If
through the point of con-
tact
of
two tangent
we draw any two
circles
secants BE',
CO', prove that the lines BC,
B'C
4.
are parallel.
In every quadrilateral
cumscribing a
two opposite sides is equal

sides.
The reciprocal is also
sum
the
cir-
sum
of
of the two other
true.
be tangent
If a circle
5.
two
to the
circle,
sides of a given angle
the tangent
BEG
to the
A, and
be drawn, termin-
ated in the two sides of the angle

prove, 1, that the perimeter of the"
triangle
AEG
is
constant, at what-
ever point of the arc the tangent
MEN
BOG
6.
be drawn
is
2, that the angle
also constant.
If the feot of the
three
alti-
tudes of a triangle be joined, two
and two, a new triangle will be formed,
in
which the
bi-
sectrices of the angles are the altitudes of the first triangle.
263
PeactiCal exercises.
The
?.
points of
and the middle
feet of the altitudes of a triangle

its
three sides are on the same circumference.
8. Having given a quadrilateral, if tangent circles be

drawn to three Consecutive sides, the centres of the four
circles thus drawn will form a quadrilateral which may be
inscribed in a circumference.
The
9.
formed by the opposite

which may be inscribed in a cir-
bisectrices of the angles
sides of a quadrilateral
cumference, intersect each other at right angles.

10. If
from any point of a
triangle perpendiculars be
circle circumscribing a
drawn
given
to the three sides of the
triangle, the feet of the perpendiculars will
be in the same
right line.
11. If
we
AB, BC, of a triABC, any parallelograms

ABFE, BCDL, and produce
construct on the two sides
angle
,,?-...
J.
*V
'
^^^\^
/C
e/ /
Ar~~
EF
/'^^^
^^
^"^v.^^^
-^
until they
meet
struct a parallelogram
with
the
adjacent
'h
on AC,
side
AGHC
parallelogram
12.
The three
common
13.
The
AG
will be
sum of the two others. Deduce from

theorem that of the square upon the hypothenuse.
equivalent to the
in a
in
equal and parallel to OB, the
G'
and LD,
O, and join OB, and thus cou-
this
altitudes of a triangle intersect each other
point.
lines
which connect the
vertices of a triangle
with the middle points of the opposite sides intersect each

other in a
common
point.
The common point of intersection of the altitudes of

a trianffle, and of the lines drawn from the vertices to the
middle of the opposite sides, and the centre of the circumscribing circle, are in the same right line and the distance
14.
between the
two
last.
first
two points
is
double of that between the
ELEltElfTS OF GEOltii'fftr.
264
15. If
from a given point
we draw
to a circle
cants which are perpendicular to each other, the
two
se-
sum
of
the squares of the chords will be constant.

16.
When
three circles intersect each other, two and
two, the three chords of intersection intersect each other

in the
17.
same
point.
from the point A, the middle of the arc BO, we
draw the two secants AFD, AGE, the

four points DFGE are on the same
p/
circumference.
\n
18.
When
three circles are tangent,
two and two, the tangent drawn
at
the points of contact intersect in a
common
19.
point.
The sum of
diagonals of a quadrilateral
is
the squares of the
double the sum of the
squares of the lines which join the middle of the opposite

sides.
we draw a series of parallels to the

draw diagonals to each of the trapezoids
20. If in a triangle
base,
and
also
thus formed, the points of intersection of these diagonals

will be on the right line which connects the vertex of the
triangle with the middle point of the base.
21.
Prove that
in
an inscribed quadrilateral the product
of the perpendiculars let fall
ference
upon two opposite
the perpendiculars let
fall
from a point of the circum-
sides
is
equal to the prorduct of
from the same point
to the other
sides.
22. If
from a point, taken within a regular polygon of
m sides, we draw perpendiculars to all

of -these perpendiculars
is
equal to
the sides, the
sum
times the radius of
the inscribed circle.

23.
from
all
the vertices of a regular polygon
draw perpendiculars on any
right line
the centre of the polygon, the
sum
we
passing through
of the perpendiculars
PRACTICAL JEXMCISES.
which
fall
on one side of this line
the perpendiculars
Prove that
24.
which
Pj]5
equal to the
is
which are on the other
sum
of
side.
a circle be revolved in another circle
if
fixed in position, and
which has a double radius,

the circles being constantly tangent to each other, any
is
point of the
circle will describe in this revolution a
first
right line.
25.
Prove that the three right
which connect the
lines
vertices of a triangle with the opposite vertices of the equilateral triangles constructed
on the three
sides, intersect
each other at the same point.

26.
Prove that the sum of the perpendiculars
let fall
on
the sides of a triangle from the centre of the circumscrib-
ing circle
equal to the radius of this
is
circle,
plus the
radius of the inscribed circle.

27.
Prove
sum
that, in a trapezoid, the
of the diagonals
is
sum
equal to the
of the squares
of the squares of the
opposite sides not parallel, plus twice the rectangle of the

parallel bases.
28.
Prove that
if,
in a triangle
ABC,
drawn from
'
vertices
we have
OD
OE
OF _
~
ad''"be ''bf
29.
Two
that the
sum
of the squares of the distances of any point
of the diameter of the other
Two
'
concentric circumferences being given, prove
whatever of one of the circumferences
80.
Inter-
each other in the same point
sect
O,
')
three right lines
the
quadrilaterals
diagonals are equal, and
is
are
equivalent
make equal
other.
12
to the extremities
constant.
when
their
angles with each
ELEMESftS OS GiJOtfETEf
S()6
GEOMETRICAL
LOOT.
Find the locus of points such that the sum of th^

them to two given right lines shall bef
equal to a given line.
2. Find the locus of points such that the difference of
the distances of each of them from two right lines shall be
1.
distances of each of
icgual to a given line.
3.
Find the geometrical locus of the centres of
circles
paesimg through two given points.

4. iBiiivd
the geometrical locus of the centres of circles
having, a tjofwen radius and tangent to a given
circle.
JUraw ^.arallel lines through all the points of a given

'ii?flQmferenee, and take on each parallel a given length-:
.S.
tfind the locus of the extremities of these lines.

6.
,
Find the locus of the middle points of the chords of

through a given point.
Find the locus of points such that the feet of perpen-
circle passing
7.
diculars let fall
from each upon the three
angle shall be on the same right
sides of a
tri-
line.
8. Find the locus of points from which the tangents

drawn to a circle intersect each other under a given angle.
9. Find the locus of points the distances of which to
two right
lines shall
be in a given
ratio.
Find the locus of points 'such that the sum or the

difference of the squares of their distances from two given
points shall be equal to a given square.
10.
11.
Having given two
circles, iind
the locus of points
such that the tangents drawn from

these points
shall
12.
to
the two circles
be equal.
Draw
a right line
through the point
AM,
the circumference
terminating in
;
this line at the point
and divide
N, in such
PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
a manner that
we have
AM = m
A^
find the locus of the
points N".
AM
13. Having drawn the line

through the given point
A, and terminating in the circumference 0, take on this
AM
such that
x AN = K^ find the locus
N.
Solve the two preceding problems, substituting for the
line a point
of the points
cii'cumference a right line.

14.
Through a point A, draw the
line
AB
in the given line
terminating
XT
such that the angle
be equal
AB, m
we have -r-p^ =
A(J
n
AC =
K^
shall
given angle, and
to a
or
AB
find the locx^s of the
^ points C.
Solve the problems
draw AO
BAC
that
when
XY is
replaced by a circum-
ference.
Find the locus of the points from which two given

circles are seen under a given angle.
16. Let a right line of a given length slide on two right
15.
lines taken at right angles to.
each other
find the locus of
the middle points of the hypothenuses of the triangles thus
formed.
17.
Having given an
equilateral triangle, find the locus
of points such that the distance of one of them from one

of the vertices of the equilateral
triangle shall be equal to the
of the distances from the
sum
same point
two other vertices.

Through a point A, taken in
the plane of a circle O, draw a
secant AC; and at B and C draw
to the
18.
the
tangents
BD, BC;
find
the
2fiS
locus of the points D.
The
locus
DE
a right line
is
per-
pendicular to the diameter passing through A.

]
9.
Find the locus of points such that the sum of the
squares of their distances from the vertices of an equilateral triangle shall

20.
be equal to a given square.
Solve the last problem, replacing the equilateral
by any regular polygon.

squares of their distances from the sides of a regular polygon shall be equal to a given square.
triangle
21.
AB
22. Let
be a diame-
BO
terôf the circle
the secant
BCD, and
CD = BC.
take
Join the point
the centre of the
-with
and the point
circle,
draw
the point
of the point
with
find the locus
of intersec-
AC, OD.
From any point A
tion of the lines
23.
BD
on the diameter
pro-
draw the tangent

AC, and the bisectrix of
the angle CAO, and let fall
duced,
the perpendicular
AN
24.
of the
hypothenuse
right-angled
ABC,
DOE;
OBE,
OCD
two
BC
of
triangle
draw any
draw the
of the point
these
on
M.
Through a point
point
the
OM
find the locus of the
secant
circles
find the locus
in
which
circles meet.
PRACTICAL EXEECTSES.
26a
ELEMENTS OF aKOMETRT.
270
2.
Passing through two given points.

Passing through one point and tangent to a right
3.
Tangent
1.
line.
to
two right
lines.
and oirclo.
Passing through a point and tangent to a circle.
6. Tangent to two circles.
Draw in a circle a right line through a given point,
Tangent
4-
to a right line
5-
7.
and such that the intercepted chord shall be equal to a

given
line.
Describe a
8.
eii'cle
tangent
to a circle
and a right
line
at a given point.
Construct a circle tangent
9.
and passing through a given
to
a circle at a given point,
point.
10. Construct a triangle equal to a given triangle, the
through three given points.
sides of whicli shall pass
Having given two circumferences which
11.
intersect
each other, draw, through one of

their points of intersection, a right
line MIST, such that 'the distances
MN,
comprised between the two
points of intersection of this right

line
with the two circumferences,
shall be equal to a given right line.

12.
that
Draw
through the uoint
the right line
MAN,
so
the right line
MAN,
so
AM = AN.
13.
Di'aw through the point
MA = m
that
-.-Ti.
AiST
14.
Having given two circumferences, draw a secant

sum of the chords shall
parallel to a given line, so that the
be equal to a given
15.
line.
Construct a quadrilateral, knowing two opposite
angles, the diagonals

16.
and the anglobutween the diagonals.
Having given two
circles, find a
point such that the
"
PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
2Yl
tangents drawn to this circle shall be equal and
make a
given angle.
17.
Having given the
arc
CD
and the diameter AB,
find on the circumference a point P,
such that drawing the lines
we
shall
18.
have
OM =
PD, PC,
ON.
Construct a triangle, knowing
the three lines drawn from the vertices
~p
of
the
angles
to
middle
the
points of the opposite sides.
knowing the three altitudes.

Construct a triangle, knowing the angles and the
19. Construct a triangle,

20.
perimeter.
and the
ratio
knowing the
between the two other
base, the altitude,
sides.
knowing the base, the

and the rectangle between the two other sides.
23.
Two
altitude,
right lines being given, produced until they
meet, draw through a given point a right line to the com-
mon
point of intersection.
24.
Find in a triangle a point such that joining
it
with
the three vertices, the triangle will be divided into three
equivalent triangles.
25. Describe a circle passing
gent to two given
circles.
26. Describe a circle
given
through a point, and tan-
which
shall be tangent to three
circles.
27. Construct a trapezoid,
knowing the angles and the
diagonals.
28.
struct
Having given three concentric circumferences, cona triangle similar to a given triangle, whose three
on these circumferences.
-point on an angle, draw a right
Ime so tliat the product of the segments comprised between
the point' and each of the sides of the angle shall be equal
vertices shall lie

29.
Through a given
to a given square.
272
30. Through a given point, in the plane of a circle,

draw a right line, so that the distances from this point to
the points of intersection of the right line and circle shall
be
each other in the ratio of
to
m to n.
31. Through a given point and the centre of a circle,

pass a circumference so that the common chord shall be
equal to a given right
line.
>
PEACTICAL EXERCISES IN GEOMETEY OF
THEEE DIMENSIONS.
THEOREMS.
1.
If a right line
be perpendicular to a plane, every
plane parallel to this line will be perpendicular to this

plane.
2.
Two
parallel right lines
make equal
angles with the
same plane.
3. If,
in a triedral angle,
two of the plane angles are

and re-
equal, the opposite diedral angles will be equal,

ciprocally.
4.
In a triedral angle, the greater face
lies
opposite the
greater diedral angle, and reciprocally.
The three planes perpendicular to the faces of a tridrawn through the three bisectrices of the
plane angles of this triedral angle, intersect in the same
5.
edral angle,
right line.
6.
The three planes drawn through the edges of a
tri-
edral angle, perpendicularly to the opposite faces, intersect
each other in the same right

7.
line.
The three planes through the edges of a
triedral
angle and the bisectrices of the opposite faces, intersect

each other in the same right line.
8.
If
through the vertex of a triedral angle a perpen-
Practical exercises.
dicnlar be
drawn
273
in each lace to the opposite edge, these
three perpendiculars wiLl he in the same plane.
In every tetraedron, the lines -which join the middle
9.
points of the opposite edges mutually divide each other

into
two equal
10.
Two
parts.
tetraedrons which have a solid angle equal, are
to each other as the
product of the edges which comprise
the equal solid angle.

11
The plane which
bisects a diedral angle of a trian-
gular pyramid, divides the opposite edge into two seg-
ments proportional to the adjacent

12. If a tetraedron contains a
faces.
tri- rectangular
solid angle,
the square of the opposite face will be equal to the
sum
of the squares of the three others.
The volume of a truncated parallelopipedon has for

measure the product of its base by the perpendicular
let fall from the centre of the upper base upon the lower.
14.. In a tetraedron, the lines which join each vertex
13.
its
with the point of intersection of the lines drawn from the

vertices of the angles of the opposite faces to the sides
opposite will intersect in the

15.
The perpendicular
same
let fall
point.
from the common
section is the last theorem on a plane,

tional
is
the
mean
inter-
propor-
between the perpendiculars let fall from the four

on the same plane.
vertices of the tetraedron

16.
Every plane passing through the middle of
tlie
two
opposite edges of a tetraedron divides this tetraedron into
two equivalent parts.

17. Through four points not in the same plane we may
draw the surface of a sphere, and we can only draw one.
18. "We may inscribe a sphere in every tetraedron.
19. When three spheres intersect each other, two and
two, the planes of the three circles of intersection intersect each other in a right line perpendicular to the plane
of the three centres.
elemejSTts of
274
When
20.
oeometeY.
three lines, at right angles to each other, in-
tersect a sphere,
and pass through the same point, the
of the squares of the chords formed
is
sum
constant.
GEOMETEIOAL LOCI AND PKOBLKMS.
we have
In plane geometry,
to
be a
ing a comriion property.

dimensions,
we
So likewise in geometry of three
define a geometrical locus to be the series
ofpoints in space which
satisfies
This geometrical locus
tions.
defined a geometrical locus
line containing all the points of the plane possess-
Thus, the sphere
one or two given condi-
may be
a line on a surface.
the geometrical locus of points
is
uated at the same distance from a given point

perpendicular drawn to the plane of a circle at
is
sit-
and the
its
centre
the geometrical locus of points equally distant from
all
the points of the circumference.

1.
Find the locus of points equally distant from two
given points.
2.
Find the locus of points equally distant
froin three
given points.
3.
Find the locus of points equally distant from two
given planes.
4.
Find the locus of points equally distant from three
given planes.
5. Find the locus of points in space equally distant from
two right lines situated on the same plane.
6. Find the locus of points in space equally distant
same plane.
tances of each from two given planes shall be equal
fi-om three lines in the

7.
given
dis-
to a
line.

squares of the distances of each from two given points
shall be equal to a given square.
8.
9.
Find the locus of points such that the
diflFerence of
PRACTICAL EXEEaSES.
275
the squares of the distances of each from two given points

shall
be equal to a given square.
10. If
two
by
sected
right lines, not in the
same plane, be interdrawn
a series of parallel planes, and lines be
joining the points of intersection of the planes with the
given
lines, find
the geometrical locus of the points, which
divides all the lines
which connect the points of
tion, in the ratio of
m to
11.
Having given two
intersec-
n.
right lines at right angles to each
and not in the same plane, let lines of a given length

be drawn between the two given lines find the geometrical locus of the middle of these lines.
12. Calculate the volume generated by the revolution of
other,
a regular hexagon around one of its sides.

13. Find the volume generated by the revolution of a
regular semi-decagon whose side
is
a around the diameter
of a circumscribing circle.
Find the surface of the earth in square feet.

Find the measure of a pyramid, when we take for
the unit of volume the sphere which has for its radius the
linear unit, and for the unit of surface the circle which
14.
15.
has for
16.
58
its
radius the linear unit.
The angles
18',
64
8',
of a spherical triaugle are respectively,
82
4',
the radius of the sphere
6 yards
is
determine the surface of the spherical triangle in square

yards.
17.
Find the volume of a spherical segment, with one

feet, and situated on a
base, having an altitude of four

sphere whose radius is nine feet.
18.
The
radii of the bases of a frustum of a cone are 3
yards and 5 yards, and its slant height 7 yards find the
convex surface of the frustum, and the volume of tlie frus;
tum.
ELEMENTS OF fiÔMETRT.
276
ArPENDIX TO BOOK
III.
THEOEY OF TRANSVERSALS.
A
of
Transversal
many
is
a right line which intersects a system
lines.
THEOREM
If
the three sides
I.
triangle, produced if necessary,
of a
arc cut hy a transversal, each side will
segments,
and
divided into two
lie
the six segments of the three sides will le so
divided, that the product of the three segments which have
no com,mon extremity, will he equal
product of the
to the
three other segments.
Let
ABC
be the given triaLgle,
and DEF the

^^
the point
^ the side
it
lar ti-iangles
ADE, EGO,
transversal. Throuffli
C draw CG
AB, and
parallel to
jiroduce
meets the transversal.
it
until
The
simi-
give the proportion
AD which
= -QQ
gives
AE X GG = GE X AD. (1)
AE
-Qg
The
'
^"'^^'
CF
Multiplying the equations

the
common
factor
AE
and
X BF.
BD = AD
GGF,
(2)
(2),
and dividing out
BF
X CE.
CG, we have
CF
give the proportion
BD = CG
(1)
similar triangles
FBD,
GF
QO
BF ^ BD
APPENDIX TO BOOK
THEOREM
277
III.
n.
Reciprocally, if three, points taken, in even number, on

the sides
of a
triangle, and, in
uneven number, on the pro-
longations of the sides, determine six segments, such that

the product
the
of three which are not consecutive is equal to

product of the other three, the three points will he on
the
same right
line.
Let
ABC
and D, E,
taken, that
be the given
AD
we have
CE = BD X CF X AE.
Then
E,
DE
for, if the right line
different
AD
X BF' X CE
factors,
(1)
(1)
D,
be on the same* right line
meet the
= BD X
by
x BF x
will the three points
line
from F, we should have, by the
Dividing equation
mon
triangle,
the three points, so
(2),
BC
in a point F',
theorem,
last
CF' x AE.
(2)
and suppressing the com-
we have
Hence,
a proposition which
is
evidently absurd, unless the point
F' coincides with the point F.
Hemarl:.
This theorem enables us to recognize, in a
very simple manner, when three points are on the same

right line, as we shall illustrate by an example.
LEMMA
Two
circumferences
I.
A and B being given,
if two paral-
drawn in the same direction, the right

iry, which joins their extremities, will meet the line
of their centres at a point C, which will be the same whatlel
radii A2f, -SiV he
line
ever he the direction of the parallel radii
AM,
JSJV.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETKr.
278
For, the similar triangles

tion
AMC, BNC
AC_AM
BC~
Hence,
AB,
hence
BN'
AC - BC _ AM -EN
BN
BO
and
But,
give the propor-
BO
AB
AM - BN
BO
BN
'
AM BN,
will also
and BN, are constant quantities

have a constant value.
The point C is called the centre of direct similitude of

the two circumferences, and its position on the line of the'
centres
is
AC = AM
"rn^'
determined by the proportion -^^
see, also, that this
section of the
exterior tangents.
II.
Having given two circumferences

two parallel radii
C,
which
radii
point coincides with the point of inter-
common
LEMMA
right line
'
AM, BN,
MN will meet
and , if we draw
in opposite directions, the
the line
of tlie centres at a point
will he the same, whatever le the direction
of the
AM, BN.
For, the similar triangles
AMC, BNC
tion
AC_AM
CB ~ BN'
give the propor-
APPENDIX TO BOOK
ill.
The point C divides the line AB in the ratio of the two

radii
and hence this point is constant.
The point C is called the centre of inverse similitude
of the two circumferences. "We see, also, that it is the
;
point of intersection of the
common
interior tangents.
THEOEEM m.
The centres of direct similitude of three

two and two, are on the same right line.
Let
A,'
R", their
B,
radii
he the centres of the three

;
and
let
M, N,
taken
circles,
circles
R, R',
be the centres of direct

similitude of these
E'
taken two
and two. "We have
circles,
AM_E
BM ~ R"
BP_R'
CP R'"
CN_'Rr
Aisr
Multiplying these proportions,
member by member, we
have
AM
Hence,
BM
AM
X
X
BP X CN
CP X AN
BP
X R' X R"
R" X R
R' X
ON .= BM
CP x AN.
280
But the
lines
ABC,
angle
extremity
same
AM, BP,
lo the tri-
having a common
duct of the three

last,
are on the
its sides,
and BM, CP, AN form three segments of the

which are not consecutive and since the pro-
sides
the three
with respect
CIST are,
three segments of
first
segments
we conclude
same right
M, N, and
that the points
line.
THEOEEM
is
rV.
of a plane polygon, produced if necessary,

a transversal, there will he formed on each
side two segments such that the product of tlie segments
which' have not common extremities will he equal to the
If the
sides
he intersected hy
product of
all the others.
Let there be, for
example, the penta-
ABODE;
gon
let it
by the
mnpqr
transversal
then
An
't
Cm xDq xEt = Bn
X Br X
shall
x Cr x
For, draw from one of the vertices
diagonals to
all
and
be intersected
we
have
Dm
x Eq x At.
of the polygon
the other vertices, and produce them until
they meet the transversal.
The
as cut
triangles
by the
ABC, ACD,
AED
considered separately,
transversal, give
An X Br X Gp = Bn
Ap X Cm xDs Qp
A X D^ X
'
Ei!
X Cr x Ap.
x Dm x As.
Ds X E^' X A;;.
Multiplying these equations, and suppressing the com-
mon
factors,
An X Br
we have
Cm
Dq
x Et
Bn
X Cr x
Dm
Eq
y At.
APPENDIX TO BOOK
THEOREM
281
III.
V.
If the different portions of a right line he projected on a

plane, each projection loiil be equal to the corresponding
portion of the line multiplied h/ a constant nurnber.
Project on the plane MIST, the portions
right line
AE, and
let ah,
AB,
CD
cd be these projections
DF
and
of
BH parallel
The
similar
CDF, ABEL
tlie
draw
to
Ew.
triangles
give the pro-
portion
DF_BH
DC ~ AB'
And
dc
since
= BH,
dc _ ah
DC~AB*
gives dc = DC
DF, and
la
dc
Tlien, if
=^ = m,
which
x m, we
shall
have.
-^ = m, and ah = AB
THEOEEM
x m.
VI.
sides of a warped polygon, produced if necessary,

hy a transversal pla/ne, there will he on each side two
If the
he cut
segments, such that the product of all those segments which
have
nx>t
a common
extremity
equal
of
will
he
to the product
all
tJie
others.
{A warped polygon
is
a polygon whose
sides are not in the
saine plane.)
Let abcde be the given polygon, and let m, n,
o,
p be
282
the points in which the sides db,
Project this
transversal plane.
and ea meet the

polygon on a plane per-
io, cd, de,
pendicular to the transversal plane.
Let
ABCD be
this projection,
and
let
SN
be the
section of the plane of projection with the
inter-
transTersal
plane.
If
meet
we produce the sides of the polygon ABCD

SN", we shall have, by Theorem IV.,
until they
AExBLxCMxDE=:BExCLxDMxAK.
But
AE
and
BE
are the projections, on the
of the segments am,
Im
(1)
same plane,
of the given polygon
we
have,
therefore (Theorem Y.),
AE = am
We have,
in like
X C
BE =
Jwi
C.
manner,
BL =
5n X
CM=
CO
DE =
<?^
GL = cnx C.
X C";
X C"
DM=
;
(?o
X C".
C".
AE ^ apx
Substituting in equation (1) the values of the segments
AE, BE, BL, &c., and

C", C", we have
am x
which was
to
in
"X-
CO
dividing both
X dp
= hm X en
members by
C,
C,
X do X ap ;
be demonstrated.
THEOEEM Vn.
If we join a point 0, taken in
the plane of a triangle

with the three vertices of this triangle, these lines
determine, on the three sides of the triangle or on their pro-
ABC,
longations,
six
segments,
BD X CE of three
equal
to the product
such that the product
AFx
segments which are not consecutive,
FB, DO,
AE of the three others.
is
APPENDIX TO BOOK
283
III.
For,
the
ABD,
triangle
cut by the transversal FC,

gives
AF X EC X DO =
BF X DC X AO. (1)
Likewise,
ADC,
al
cut
Multiplying
AF
and
(1)
common
X
(2),
factors,
BD
triangle
transvers-
BE, gives
AO
OD
pressing
the
by th
X
X
X EC =
BC X AE. (2)
BD
naember by member, and sup-
we have
EC = BF
DC
X AE.
THEOEEM Vm.
Reciprocally, if three points F, D, E, in an uneven
number, on the sides of a given triangle ABC, and in an
even numier on their prolongations, are such that the product of the three segments which are not consecutive,
AFx
BD X EC, is equal
to the product
of the three
BC, AE,
right
the
which connect
with
the
For,
if
these points
opposite
wiU meet in
BE,
others,
the
vertices
same point.
the line
AD
does
not pass through the com-
mon
point of intersection
of the lines CF,
BF, draw the
line
AO, meeting BC
We
shall liave,
by the
D ceding theorem,
AF X BG
But, by hypothesis,
EC = BF X GO X AE.
(1)
in G.
pre-
284
BD
X EC
(1)
and
(2),
AF
Dividing
= BF
DC
X AE.
(2)
member by member, we have,
]BG_GC
BD ~ DC
EG _BD
^'
DC
GC
whicli could not take place unless the point
G coincided
with D.
Corollm-y.
The
of a triangle
ABC
For
AD
AD, BE, CF,
bisectrices
of the angles
intersect each other in the
ED ÂB
= -r-^
DC AC'
=--=^
same
point.
BAG, we have
being the bisectrix of the angle
and we have,
in
like
manner,
AF
AC CE
AE
.
FB^ EC
Multiplying,
'
EC
AE-
member by member,
we have
BD X AF X CE = 1: or,
DO X FB X AE
BD X AF X CE = DC X FE X AE.
Hence, the bisectrices must meet in a common point.
We might prove, in like manner, that the three altitudes
of a triangle
meet
true with the lines
in a
common
point
which connect the
and that
this is also
vertices of the
tri-
angles with the middle points of the opposite sides.

DEFIOTTIONS.
I.
A line AE
is
divided harmonically at the points
and Q, when
II.
'
'
We deduce from
AP_AQ
PB
BQ
the above proportion,
AP _ FB
AQ~BQ-
APPENDIX TO BOOE
And
points
the line
PQ
is
and
harmonioally
also divided
at the
A and B.
Q
ni. The four points A, B, P,
285
III.
IV. If
are called harmonics
are called conjugates, as well as
we join
and Q.
the four harmonic points, A, B, P, Q, with
the point S,
we
shall
have a
sys-
tem of four right lines, SA, SB,

SP, SQ, which takes the narae
of
harmonic pencil.
It is evident that
line apbq, parallel to
every right
APBQ,
will
be divided harmonically by the
pencil.
THEOREM
Every right
SAPBQ,
is
line
IX.
aMNH which cuts an harmonic pencil
divided harmonically hy this pencil, and we
have
MN
For,
through
draw aq
the
parallel to*
point
AQ
we
have, for the triangle alSh, cut
by the
B
aM x^5
aM.
hence,
tj-ansversal S/>,
X SN"
= MN
x apx^h;
pb
S5
The same
triangle
a^h, cut by the transversal ^q, gives
a'RxhqX^'E =
hence,
'
NR
:jnpY7
aq
NE
=
Sb
1.
x aqx^J,-^
(2)
^
^
286
Comparing
(1)
and
we have
(2),
oR x^lxSN
''l^R"aq" Sb'
But, the line ab being divided harmonically, at the
points J? and
hence,
q,
we have
J)b
_bq
op
aq
'
oM _ oR
DEFINITION.
If
we produce
until they
meet
right line
MN
diagonal
and
the
ABOD
the
opposite
a quadrilateral
sides of
in
called the third
is
of the
quadrilateral,
simple
quadrilateral
when united
quad-
to the
DMBIS^, which
rilateral
ABCD
and N, the
convex, forms what
is
not
is
called a
complete quadrilateral.
THEOREM
Saah diagonal of a complete

harmonically by the other two.
I.
quadrilateral is divided
Let
ABCDMN
beacompleteqnadrilateral
AC,
let
BD, MN, be
its
diagonals, then will
the diagonal
MN,
example, be cut
harmonically
by
for
the
other
the points
two
at
and
APPENDIX TO BOOK
Q.
For, the triangle
DMN,
cut
28T
111.
by the
transversal
ACQ,
gives
QM X NO X DA = QN X CD X AM;
QM^NC^DA
QN^CDÂM =
^'''''^
...
1-
(')
In the same triangle, the lines
from the
vertices,
PD, CM, NA, drawn
and intersecting each' other
in
B, give
PM X NC X DA = PlSr X CD X AM
PM NC DA
,,
pj^^cDÂM^l- ^'^
,
hence,
Comparing
(1)
and
(2)
we
deduce,
PM_QM
PN "
We
onals
might prove, in
AC,
BD is
like
QN"
manner, that each of the diag-
divided harmonically
by the other two.
GEOMETRY.
ELEMElSfTS OF
1>fi'^
OF THE POLE AND OF THE POLAR LINE,

WITH RESPECT TO A SYSTEM OF TWO RIGHT
LINES.
THEOEEM
XI.
Two right lines Oy, Ox leing given, and also a point

P, if we draw, through this point, a secant line PBA,
and determine the conjugate harmonic Q of the point P,
with respect to the line AB, the geometrical locus of the
point Q, in making the secant
vary, %aill ie the
fourth iranch of the harinonic pencil, of which OP, OA,
PBA
OB
are the three first.
For, if we draw
OP, OQ, the figure
forms
cil.
an
the lines
OPBQA
harmonic
pen-
Every secant Yhqa
will
therefore be divided harmonically
by the pencil
hence,
every point of the locus
is
found on the right line OQ.
The right
line
P, with respect
OQ
is
to the
called the polar line of the point
two right
lines Oy, Ox, and is the

locus of the conjugate harmonics of the point P, with respect to these two lines.
THEOEEM
XII.
Two right lines Oy, Ox, leing given, and a point P, if

we draw, through this point, two secants PBA, PB'A',
and the lines BA', B' A, the locus of the point of intersection Q of these two lines, when we cause the secants to vary,
will he the right line OQ, which is the polar line
of the
point P, with respect to the lines Oy, Ox.
AfrPENBiX TO fiOOE
For,
let
III.
us consider the com-
OBQA,
quadrilateral
plete
B'A', the diagonal B'A' will
be cut harmonically by the

two others OQ, AB hence,
the four lines OP, Oy, OC, Ox,
;
form an harmonic
the
harmonically; and the line
line
OC
is
pencil, since
PB'C'A'
divided
the polar line of the
point P, with respect to the two lines Oy, Ox.
point Q, of the geometrical locus,
is
But, every
OC
situated on
is
therefore, the geometrical locus sought is the polar line of
the point P, with respect to the two right lines Oy, Ox.
We
Scholium.
deduce from
this
theorem the means of
resolving, with the ruler only, the following
Having given a
line, to
right line
AB, and
problem
a point P, on
find the conjugate harmonic of
this
with respect
to
AB.
For
this purpose, join
point whatever, such
any
as
S,
with the three given points
c/
^
line
SO
will intersect
results evidently
"
draw through the point P

any line PDC; draw AD
and BC intersecting each
other in 0, and join SO the
:
AB
in the required point Q.
This
from the theorem which has just been
demonstrated.
13
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRT".
290
OF THE POLE AND THE POLAR LINE WLTH,

EESPECT TO THE CIRCLE.
THEOEEM
If^
any
XIII.
through a point P, tahen in the plane of a
PAB
secant
he
Q, of the point P, he
circle,
drawn, and the conjugate harmonic

determined with respect to AB, the
_
gemnetrical locus of the point Q,
when
the secant
PAB is
varied, is a right line.
(The right line which forms the geometrical locus of the

point P,
is
of the point
called the polar line
to the circle,
and the point
is
P with respect
called the pole.)
Draw
the diameter Vh, and
construct the conjugate har-
monic q of the point P, with

respect
join
to
the diameter ah
Qq, and draw
pendicular to
OM
per-
AB.
The four harmonic points

P, A, Q, B, give the proportion
PB^QB
PA
QA'
Hence,
-f PA _ QB + QA
PA ~
QA
QB -f QA = AB = PB - AP,
PBjI-PA ^ PBj-PA
PA ~
QA
PE
And,
since
And by
composition,
we have
PB-fPA ^
2PB
we have
PA
_ PA
PA-fQA PQ"
^^
APPENDIX TO BOOK
But, the point
291
III.
M being the middle point of AB, we have

PA + PB = 2PM.
And
the proportion (1) becomes
2PM
PA
2PB
PQ'
PM
PA
PB ~ PQ-
or.
'
Hence,
PQ
We
might prove, in
PM = PB
like
X PA.
P^ X PO = Pa X
P5.
But
PA
PB = Pa
X PJ.
Hence,
PQ
PM = P^
x PO.
PQ_ PO
Or,
P^
The two
~ PM"
triangles PQg',
PMO,
included between proportional
PMO
since the angle
also a right angle
by
(2)
manner, that
the point
point
is
is
having an equal angle P

be similar, and
sides, will
a right angle, the angle Pg'Q
is
hence, the geometrical locus described
a right line perpendicular to Pa5 at the
q, the conjugate harmonic of the point
P with
respect
to ab.
Corollary.
The
position of the point
is
determined by
the equation
P^ X PO = Pa X
P5.
(2)
But,
Pa X PJ = (PO + Oa) (PO - Oa) - Po'-"0^

Besides,
P^
= PO -
O^.
Therefore, the relation (2) becomes
(PO - 0^)
Or,
PO = Po'_ W;
PO X 0^ 3= Oa.
This relation shows that
if
PO
become equal
to Oj-.
;;
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY
292
PO
0(2 will be equal to
two points
therefore, the polar line of the
or q passes through the other point.

It follows also from this relation, that if the point
approach the point
PO
if
a,
becomes equal
the point q approaches
Oa,
to
Oq
it
also
will be equal to
and
also
hence, the polar line of a point on the circumference is the
tangent at this point.'
PO
If
becomes smaller than Oa, Oq becomes greater
than the radius, and the polar line

finally, if
PO =
Oq becomes
O,
exterior to the circle
is
infinitely great.
THEOEEM
When a point
line
line
of this
ST.
XrV.
moves on a right line ST, the polar

point passes, always through the pole of the
Draw
the line
mine the point Q,
OP, and
OQ X OP = OA
The
line
QN,
deter-
so that
.
perpendicular to OP,
be the polar line of the point

P, and it will also contain the pole
will
'of the line ST.
OM perpendicular to ST, cutting NQ in N the

quadrilateral MNQP may be inscribed in a circumference,
Draw
since
two opposite angles are right angles.

OM x ON = OP X OQ.
We
shall
have then
And
we
since
shall
have
OP x OQ = OA^,
OM x ON" = OA.';
Hence, the point

Corollary
if the line
line will
I.
"We
ST revolve
always
Corollary II.
of two right
is
the pole of ST.
by the above demonstration, that

around the p)oint P, the pole of this
see,
le found
The
on the polar line of the point P.
right line
which connects
lines is the polar line
the poles
of their point of inter-
APPENDIX TO BOOK
For, from Corollary
section.
]93
III.
the pole of this right line
I.,
same time on the two given lines.

Corollary III. If two polygons ABCD, abed, having
the same number of sides, drawn in the plane of a circumference, are such that the vertices A, B, C, D are the
must be found
at the
poles of the sides of the others

a, i, c,
first.
reciprocally, the vertices
of the second will be the poles of the sides of the
By
virtue of this property, the two polygons are
called reciprocal polar lines to each other.
THEOREM XV.
If through a point P, taken in the 'plane of a
draio a secant PAB, and the tangents AM,
circle,
BM
points
and B,
we
at the
the geometrical locus described hy the
point 21, when the secant

point
varies, will he the polar line
of the
For, the tangent
AM
the polar liue of the point
is
BM is
the tangent
of the point B.
r
It follows
point of intersection
tangents
is
that the
of the two
the pole of the line
But the point
is
also the polar line
on the line
AB.
AB
hence, the polarline of this point passes
through the point M.

Corollary
point
M, taken without
the circle,
AB
The polar
I.
is
of a
of the angle which has this
point for
its
vertex.
Corollary II.
ABCD
cle,
line
the chord of contact
the polygon
polygon
the
MXPG,
ed by joining the
points
If
circumscribe
cir-
form-
consecutive
of contact, will be the
reciprocal polar line of the poly-
gon
ABCD.
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETHY.
294
THEOREM
If,
through a point P, taken in the plane of a
PAB, PCD
secants
BD,
le
drawn, and we draw
and
intersecting each other in If,
intersecting each other in
points
is
XVI.
N,
tlie
circle, the
AC,
BG, AD,
the lines
the lines
geometrical locus of the
MandN, when iJie secants PAB, PCD are varied,
a right
line,
which
is the
polar line of the point P.
Draw
AB
the line
and
reason
CD
MN,
a and
in
MANB,
AB, CD
will
be cut harmonically, the
first
CD,
the secants
~~~'"
t)
By
c.
of the theorem of the
complete quadrilateral
/'^^^'"cf^l^
cutting
at P, a,
and the second
the line ac
at P, c
the
therefore,
is,
But
polar line of the point P.
M and N are on this

of the points M and N
the points
line; hence, the geometrical locus
is
the polar line of
Remark
tlie
point P.
If the given point
I.
IST
be exterior
to
the
AD,
cumference, in drawing any two secants CB,
cir-
then
AC, BD on one side, and AB, CD on the other,

would be required to find the geometrical locus of the
point M, or of the point P but this locus would always
be the polar line of the point N. For, we have just seen
joining
it
that
tlie
point
i-eason, the
point
is

is
the point of intersection of the lines

of the line
MN
PN.
MN, PN,
is
for a like
Hence,
the pole
PM.
Remark
The preceding theorem furnishes the

II.
method of constructing the polar line of a point by means
of a ruler only.
If the point
line
MN
is
is
exterior to the circumference, the polar
the chord of contact of the circumscribed
APPENDIX TO BOOK
angle whose vertex
with the
circle will
tangents which
is
at P.
The
295
III.
intersection of this line
determine the points. of contact of the
we may draw to the
circumference through
the point P.
THEOEBM
XVII.
In every inscribed hexagon., the points of intersection of

the
ojyposite sides are
in the
same
Produce the three sides BC,
DF, AE, which are not conright line.
secutive; these sides determine,
by
their intersections, the
tri-
QKP, which is cut by

transversals EFM, ABL,
angle
the
DCN
we
have, therefore,
by
theorem of
the fundamental
transversals, the equalities
X EM X
QA X KB X
QE
PF =EE x PM
PL = RA X PB
QNxEC xPD=ENxPC
x QF.
x QL.
x QD.
Multiplying these equalities together, and noting that
QE
wehave
QA = QF X QD, PF x PD
EB X BC = EE X EA,
PB
X PC,
EM xQN xPL = EN xPM x QL.
Hence, the three points N, L,

line,
which
is
are in the
the transversal of the triangle
same right
QEP.
Remark I. The preceding theorem would be equally

convex.
true, if the inscribed hexagon were not
ELEMENTS OE GEOMETRY.
296
RemavTc
II.
The theorem, holding good wliatever be

the magnitudes
the sides,
is
ot"
equal-
when
any of the sides of
the hexagon reduce to zero. But,
ly applicable
in this case, they
must be replaced
by tangents to the
circumference.
From this
many other
rems, which the pupil
We
may
may
result
theo-
readily enunciate and prove.
limit ourselves to the following
If a triangle he inscribed in a
section of the tangents
posite sides are in the
drawn
same right
THEOEEM
circle, the
points of inter-
at each vertex with the opline.
XVIII.
In every circumscribed hexagon,
the diagonals
wJdch
connect the opposite vertices intersect each other at the same

point.
Let
GHLMNO
be the circumscribed hexagon
join the
consecutive points of contact
we
shall
form an
scribed hexagon
which
line of
is
in-
ABCDEF,
the reciprocal polar
GHLMNO.
The point of intersection

BO, EF, which
of the sides
we will designate by P, will

be the pole of the diagonal
HIST; likewise, the point of
intersection of the sides
ED, which we will
AB,
designate
BOOK vin.
by R,
will
be the pole of the line
of intersection of the lines
GM.
29ir
Finally, the point
AF, CD, which we
nate by S, wil' be the pole of the line GL.

points P,
polar lines
point.
11, 'o
are in the
HN, GM, OL
same right
line
will desig-
But the three

;
hence, their
intersect each other in the
same
:
;
298
APPENDIX TO BOOK
IV.
DEFINITIONS.
I.
A maximum quantity h
same
of the
species
the greatest
minimum,
is
Thns, the diameter of the circle

all lines
those
all
is
the
maximum among
which connect two points of the circumference
and the perpendicular
is
drawn from a given point

II.
among
the smallest.
minimum among
to a
given
right lines
all
line.
Isoper'imetrlcal figures are those
which are equal
in
perimeter.
Pkoposition
Of
all
triangles
I.
Theoeem.
formed with two given
sides malcing
maximum
with each other an arhitrary angle, the
is that
in which the two given sides maJce a right angle.
Let the two triangles
common, and the
side
BAC,
BAD
AC = AD
right
AB
BAC is a
BAC will
have the side

the angle
if
angle, the triangle
be greater than the triangle
which the angle

For, the base
A
AB
the two triangles
BAD
each other as the altitudes
but the perpendicular
AC.
DE
AD,
are fo
AC,
is
DE
shorter
or its equal
Hence, the triangle
smaller than
in
being the same,
BAC,
than the oblique line
BAD,
acute or obtuse.
is
BAD
is
BAC.
1-
Pkoposition
The
circle is greater
equal perimeter.
ILTheoeem.
than any plane figure having an
APPENDIX TO BOOK
1.
It
number
at
is,
evident that there
first,
299
IV.
may be an
infinite
of figures having a given perimeter, which have
different forms
and
diflferent areas
but
we
see, also, that
these areas cannot be indefinitely increased.
There
are,
among
therefore,
may
one or more which
eter,
2^.
Every
figure
given perimeter
For, let
figures of a given perim-
be maximum.
maximum
which encloses a
area in a
convex.
is
AMBlSr be an enclosed
line not
convex
cause the re-entrant part
volve around the points

that
it
figure
occupies the position
AM'BlSr
rimeter as
if
we
AMB to reA and B so

AM'B,
the
have the same pethe first, and will enclose a

will
greater area.
3-
Let
AMBN
be a
maximum
eter
figure under a given

which divides the periminto two equal parts, will
also
divide the area into
perimeter: every right. line
AB
equivalent parts
ANB
tion
for, if
were
about
AB,
so
than
greater
AMB, when ANB
two
the por-
revolves
that
tabes
it
AN'B, the figure

same perimeter as AMBIT, and
the position
AifEN
would have the

would have a greater area:
a
AMBN would
not, then,
be
maximum.
It follows, also,
be a
we
AB
maximum
from what has been
figure,
AN'BN
said, that if
maximum
AMB!N"
also
and
see that in this last figure, every perpendicular ITN' to

is
divided by this line into two equal parts
the triangles
ANB, AN'B
This being established,
not
is
I'ight
angles,
if
we might
area of the triangles
so that
are equal.
ANB,
the angles
ANB,
AIST'B are
enlarge simultaneously the

AJSF'B without changing the
300
magnitude of the sides

nitude of the segments
common
AB
alone would change.
But, by this
the area of the figure would
be augmented
base
variation,
AN, NB, AN', N'B, or the magAPN, NQB, AP'N"', N'Q'B; the
without any change being

is
made
N'
are right angles
the curve
ANB.
and furthermore, the point
Hence,
curve
this
which
in the perimeter;
Hence, the angles
and
is
on
a semi-circumfer-
is
ence.
Thus we see that if a line divides a maximum figure

two equal parts, each of these parts will be a semicircle.
Hence, the whole figure is a circle.
into
Pkoposition hi.
Theorem.
Among aU plane figures which
have ihe same area, the
circle has the smallest perimeter.
For,
if
any figure whatever, whose area
is
A, had a
smaller perimeter than the circle with the same area,
might, by the preceding theorem, transform
with the same perimeter, and with an area
it
we
into a circle
B > A.
This second circle would have a greater area than the

first,
and a
less perimeter,
which
Theorem.
Peoposition IV.
Every polygon of
sides
area in a given perimeter,

For, let
AEDCFB
is
absurd.
is
maximum
which contains a
convex.
be a polygon of
m sides,
which con-
tains a re-entrant angle
AED.
make
AED
the re-entrant part
around the
the
line
position
AE'DCFB
will
ter as the first,
polygon
AD,
AE'D,
If
we
revolve
so that it takes
the
polygon
have the same perime-
and a greater area
AEDCFB
the
cannot, therefore,
APPENDIX TO BOOK
maximum among
be
the same
number
all
those of the
Lemma.
ABODE which
Every polygon
may
same perimeter and
of sides.
Peoposition V.
angle,
301
IV.
contains a re-entrant
transformed into a polygon with a greater

area, and having the same perimeter, and one side less.
For,
if
he
we produce AB, and

B
join
the points of this
all
produced with the point D, the
line
sum BI
ID
will
We
+ ID =
thus obtain a polygon
ABIDE
I,
CD.
evidently greater than
has the same perimeter,_ and one side
ABODE, which
less.
Theorem.
Peojposition VI.
Of all
therefore,
is,
where we have BI
a point
BC +
increase, continu-'
There
ouslj, to infinity.
isoperimetrical polygons of the same
number of
sides, the regular polygon is the greatest.
We
will
prove successively that,
sides equal
its
imum among
ber of
1.
let
and
a polygon has not
if
angles equal,
its
it
cannot be a max-
the isoperimetrical figures of the same
num-
sides.
Suppose that the polygon
AB <
BO.
Take on
BO
ABODE
the point
has
m sides;
and
M sufficiently near
we have always AB <

Make afterwards AMB'
BAM: ,take MB' = AB, and join
C
BM.
to
AB'.
that
The
triangle
to the triangle
We
ABM
is
equal
AB'M.
conclude from
might substitute
this, that
for the
we
polygon
ELEMENTS
302
ABODE
-\-
being
and
sides,
without changing the
new polygon would have
only this
angle;
a re-entrant
besides,
BM, we have
than
less
GEOMETEY.
0.?
AB'MCDE,
the polygon
perimeter or the area

in
the angle
for,
AB
BMA < BAM
or
B'MA.
But
polygon may be transformed into another with

having the same perimeter and a greater area.
this
sides,
ABODE
Hence,
among
same numhei-
isoperimetrical figures of the
enough
greater
take
AB'
angle
also, the
MAB'
polygon
is
M near
MAH be
Take a point
B.
to
= MB,
of sides.
polygon AIÔDII of ?n
B that
than AMC.
Make,
)c
in the
A>
-we have the angle
maximum polygon
be the
not
Let us sujipose that
2sides,
could
the angle
angle
MAB' = AMB
and join MB'.
The triABM, and the

has the same ai-ea
equal to
AB'MCDH
and the same perimeter as ABODII: but

it has
+ l sides and a re-entrant angle;
for,
the
angles,
sum AMC + AMB being equal to two

we have MAH -f MAB' > two right angles.
right
Hence, the polygon might be transformed into another

m sides, and of the same perimeter and a greater area;
and therefore ABODH would not be a maximum.
of
Peoposition VII.
Of
all the
Theorem.
polygons having equal areas and the same
nuviher of sides, the regular polygon has the least perimeter.
For,
had a
if
an irregular polygon of
less
area and of the same

it
number
of sides,
into a regular isoperimetrical
an area
m sides, whose
area
is
A,
perimeter than the regular polygon of the same
B>A
this
we might
polygon of to
transform
sides,
second regular polygon
having
would then
APPENDIS TO BOOS:
iiave the
same number of
sides as the
perimeter and a greater area, which
Pjroposition YIII.
is
303
if.
first, witli
a less
absurd.
Thkoeem.
Of two regular polygons of equal perimeter, that which

has the greatest number of sides is the greatest.
For, let ABCDEF be a regular polygon of 6 sides. If
we take a point I on one of the
we may consider this polygon
the same perimeter.
as
an
which
the sides IC, ID would make an
angle equal to two right angles
but this polygon is less than the
regular polygon of 7 sides, and of
irregular polygon of 7 sides, in
sides,
Hence, &c., &c.
304
APPEiNDIX TO BOOKS
AND
VI.
VII.
REGULAE POLYEDRONS.
COJSrSTKUCTION OF
Peoposition
Peoblem.
I.
Having given one of the faces of a regular polyedron,

only
its edge, to
or
construct the jpolyedron.
This problem presents five cases, which
may be
solved
ABC
be the
successively.
1-
Let
Construction of the tetraedron.
equilateral triangle forming one of the faces of the tetra-
At
edron.
the point 0, the centre of
perpendicular
this triangle, erect the
OS
to the
ABC:
plane
let this per-
pendicular terminate at the point S,

so that
AS = AB
the pyramid
and
join SB, SC,
SABC
be the
will
re-
quired tetraedron.
OA, OB, OC
are equal, the oblique lines SA,

removed from the perpendicular SO,
and are therefore equal. One of them SA = AB hence,
the four faces of the pyramid SABC are triangles, which
For, since
SB,
SC
are equally
ABC.
are equal to the given triangle
Besides, the solid
angles of this pyramid are equal to each other, since they

are formed each with three equal plane angles
jj
fore the
2.
'Let
pyramid
Construction
ABCD
ABCD
base
is
and therc-
a regular tetraedron.
of the
hexaedron.
On
be a given square.
.
construct
having an altitude
AE
a right
equal to
It is evident that the faces of this
are
equal squares,
and
AB.
prism
its
solid
other,
each
tliat
angles are equal to each
the
prism
;:
Appendix to books
and
vi.
being formed with three right angles.

is a regular hexaedi-on, or cube.
Construction of the octoedron.
S*^-
equilateral triaugle.
On AB
30S
vii.
Hence,
Let
prism
this
AMB be
describe the square
a given
ABCD
at the point O, the centre of
square, erect
this
TS
pendicular
per-
tlie
to its plane,
terminated above and below

plane at
this
that
T and
S,
OT = OS = AO
so
join,
SA, SB, TA, etc. The solid

be formed, composed of two quadrangular pyramids SABCD, TABCD, having ABCD for a
common base this solid will be the regular octoedron re-
SABCDT
will
quired.
For, the triangle
the
as
AOS
AOD
triangle
right-angled at O, as well
is
the
edges
OD
are
Hence,
AS
AO, OS,
equal: therefore, these triangles are equal.
= AD.
we might prove
AOT, BOS, COT,
In like manner
angled triangles
triangle
AOD
that the other right&c., are equal to the
therefore, the edges
AB, AS, AT,
&c.,
and consequently the solid

SABCDT is comprised under eight equal triangles, each
equal to the given equilateral triangle ABM. Besides,
the solid angles of the polyedron are equal to each other
are
equal to each
other;
for example, the angle
For,
angle
it is
is
equal to the angle B.
clear that the triangle
DAC,
and
also the angle
therefore, the figure
SATC
is
SAC is equal to the triASC is a right angle
a square equal to the square
But if we compare the pyramid BASCT with

pyramid SABCD, the base ASCT of the first may be
ABCD.
tlie
placed on the base
beino- a
ABCD
common
wi'l coincide
of the second
centre, the altitude
then, the point
OB
of the
first
with the altitude OS. of the second, and the
306
two p3'ramids
8
will be identical
SABCDT is
therefore, the solid angle
equal to the solid angle
is
and hence, the
solid
a regular octoedron.
Scholium.
If the three equal lines
AC, BD, TS
are
perpendicular to each other, and intersect each other at
middle points, the extremities of these lines will be
their
the vertices of a regular octoedron.

4.
Construction of the dodecaedron.

a
given
Let
regular
ABP, CBP
ABODE
pentagon
be
let
be two plane angles,
equal to the
angle
ABO
with
these plane angles form the solid
angle B, and
inclination of
Form, in
like
K be the mutual
two of these planes.
manner, at the points
let
0, D, E, A, solid angles, equal to
the solid angle B, and situated in
manner.
like
The plane
plane
BOG,
the plane
to
OBP
will
be the same as the
since they are both inclined the same quantity
We
ABOD.
may, then,
PBOG, describe the pentagon BCGFP

tagon ABODE. If we do the same in
planes GDI, DEL, &c., we shall have
PFGII,
&c.,
composed of
each inclined to
K.
its
in the plane
equal to the pen-
each of the
a convex
othei-
surf'iieo
six regular equal pentagons,
adjacent pentagon the same quantity
Let pfgh be a second surface equal to PFGH, &c.

may be joined in such a manner as to
these two surfaces
form a single continuous convex surface.

opf, for example,
BPF,
in
to
doing
make
may
the solid angle
this there will
the planes
BPF, BPO,
OPB,
equal to the angle B, and
be no change in the inclination of

since this inclination
required to form the solid angle.

that the solid angle
For, the angle
be joined with the two angles
is
But
is
at the
formed, the side
such as
is
same time
pf will
be ap-
APPENDIX TO BOOKS
plied to
solid
equal PF, and the point
its
with the three plane angles

angle equal
to
AND
VI.
PFG,
will
307
VII.
be found united
pfe, efg^ which form a
each of the angles already formed.
This will be done without any change taking place in the

n
state of the angle P, or of that
of the surface efgh, &c.
planes
PFG, efp^
the
already united
make with each
at P,
for,
other the
given angle K, as well as the

planes
faces
see that the
will
mutually
ing a
Continuing
efp.
efg,
we
thus,
to
two
each other, form-
sini^le .continuous surface, re-entrant
on
composed of twelve equal regular pentagons, and

6.
of
its
this
itself;
surface will be that of a regular dodecaedron, since
solid angles are equal to
sur-
themselves
adjust
it
is
all its
each other.
ABC
Let
be one
Construction of the icosaedron.
it is necessarj', in the first place, to form a
faces
solid angle
with five planes equal to the plane
equally inclined, each to

pose, on
B'C, equal
to
its
adjacent plane.
ABC, and
For
this pur-
BC, construct the regular pentagon
B'C'H'I'D'; at the centre of this pen-
tagon
perpendicular
erect
to
its
plane, terminating in A', so that B'A'
= B'C';
join
and the
solid angle A',
five
A'C, A'H', AT, A'D',

formed by the
planes B'A'C, C'A'H', &c., will
be the required
oblique
equal; one of them, A'B',
hence
all
lines
is
solid angle.
A'B',
A'C,
For, the
&c.,
equal to the edge
are
B'C;
the triangles B'A'C, C'A'H', &c., are equal to
each other and to the given triangle ABC.

Furthermore, it is evident that the planes B'A'
',
308
C'A'H', &c., are equally inclined,

each to
angles
adjacent;
its
&c.,
B',C',
for,
are
each other, since each
is
the
solid
equal
to
formed by
two angles of equilateral triangles

and one angle of a regular pentagon.
Let us designate by K the inclination
of the two planes in which the equal
angles exist the angle K will be, at the same time, the
inclination of the planes which compose the solid angle
;
A', each to
Now,
equal each
face
adjacent plane.
its
we make,
if
DEFG,
at the points
the angle A',
to
we
A, B, C, solid angles
have a convex sur-
shall
composed of ten equilateral triangles,

its adjacent, the angle K; and the angles
&c.,
each inclined to
D, E, F, &c., of its contour will unite alternately three

and two angles of the equilateral triangles. Let us now
suppose a second surface equal
these
two
surfaces
to the surface
DEFG,
&c.
might be mutually adapted by joining
each triple angle of the one to the double angle of the

othor
otliei-
and since the planes of these angles make with each

K necessary to form a quintuple solid
the inclination
angle equal to the angle A, there will be no change effected
by
junction in the form or relative position of either
this
surface
and the two thus united
will
form a single con-
tinuous surface, composed of twenty equilateral tiiangles.
This surface will be that of the regular icosaedron, since,

besides,
it
has
all its solid
angles equal to each other.
Proposition
To find
II.
Peoblem.
the inclination of two adjacent faces of a regular
polyedron.
This inclination
is
deduced
directlj''
from the construe-
APPENDIX TO BOOKS
AND
VI.
which has just been given of the
tion
edrons
to -which
five regular poly-
necessary to add this problem of
it is
descriptive geometry,
309
VII.
by which, having given the three
we determine the
make with each other.
plane angles which form a solid angle,

angle which two of these planes
Jn
the tetraedron.
Each
by
find,
make with each
it is
the problem referred
these planes
formed by three
solid angle is
angles of equilateral triangles
therefore necessary to
the angle which two of
to,
other
this angle will
be the
two adjacent faces of the tetraedron.

hexaedron. The angle of two adjacent faces
inclination of
In
the
is
right angle.
In
the ootoedron.
Form
a solid angle with two angles
of equilateral triangles and a right angle
the inclination
of the two planes in which the angles of the triangles are,
be that of two adjacent faces of the octoedron;

Each solid angle is formed with
the dodecaedron.
pentagons
regular
thus, the inclination of
three angles of
;
will
In
the planes of two of these angles will bd that of two ad-
jacent faces of the dodecaedron.
In
the icosaedron.
Form
a solid angle with two angles
of equilateral triangles and an angle of a regular pentagon
the inclination of the two planes in which the angles of

the triangles are, will be that of two adjacent faces of the
icosaedron.
Peoposition
m.
Peoblem.
the edge of a regular polyedron, to find

of the inscribed sphere and that of the circum-
Having given
the radius
scribed sphere to the jpolyedron.

It is necessary, in
regular polyedron
also
the
may
first
place, to prove that every
be inscribed in a sphere, and
be circumscribed about a sphere.
may
310
Let AB be the
common edge of two
and
jacent faces; let
CD,
of these two faces, and
pendiculars
the
ED
AB
the per-
from their centres on
let fall
common edge AB, which
the edge
ad-
be the centres
meet
will
the middle point D.
at
The two perpendiculars CD, DE make

with each other a known angle, which
is equal to the inclination of the two
adjacent faces, determined by the pre-
problem.
cedilla:
to
to
But,
perpendicular
EO
AB, we draw the indefinite perpendiculars CO and

CD and ED, intersecting in 0, the point will be
centre
of the second
first
being OC, and that
DE
are equal, and the
OA.
For, since the apothegms
hypothenuse
DO
common,
CD,
OC
is
CDE,
the plane
CDE,
is
CDE,
or
CDE
to
the perpen-
CD,
CDE, ABC
ABC. For a
hence,
perpendicular to the plane
CO, EO, drawn
ABE
to
ABC is
CO,
besides,
the
AB
But,
the plane
ABC;
perpendicular to
tersection of the planes
pendiculars
ODE, and
equal to the perpendicular OE.
being perpendicular to the plane

perpendicular to
CDO
equal to the right-angled triangle
dicular
the
the inscribed sphere and that of the circnm-
.'if
Bcrihed sphere, the radius of the
is
CDE,
the plane
if in
common
CO
is
like reason,
in
in-
per-
EO
is
two perthe planes of the two adtherefore, the
jacent faces through the centres of these faces, intersect in

a
common
ABC
and
point,
and are equal.
ABE
the apothegm
CD
Let us
now suppose
will
remain always of the same magni-
tude, as well as the angle
CDO,
the half of
CDO
and
equal for
all
that
represent any two other adjacent faces:
its
the faces of the polyedron
the point 0, as a centre, and with
OC
CDE
CO
edge
hence,
as a radius,
be
from
will
therefore, if
we
de-
APPENDIX TO BOOKS
VI.
AND
311
VII.
scribe a sphere, this sphere will be tangent to all the faces
of the polyedrons at their centres, for the planes
ABE
ABC,
be perpendiculars at the extremity of a radius,
will
and the sphere
be inscribed in the polyedron, or the
will
polyedron circumscribed about the sphere.
OA, OB
Join
OA, OB,
are equal
since
CA = CB,
two oblique
the
lines
being equally removed from the perpendicular,

;
this will
from the centre

hence,
all
be the case with any two lines drawn
same edge
to the extremities of the
Therefore,
these lines are equal.
point 0, as a centre, and with a radius
if
OA, we
from the
describe a
spherical surface, this surface will pass through the vertices
of
the solid angles of the polyedron, and the sphere will
all
circumscribe the polyedron, or the polyedron inscribed in

the sphere.
This being assumed, the solution of the given problem
may be
culty,
effected without
as follows:
any
diffi-
Having given
the edge of a face of the polyedron,

construct this face, and let
its
apothegm.
Find,
CD
by the
be
pre-
cedina; problem, the inclination of
two
adjacent faces of the
edron, and
make
the angle
poly-
CDE
equal to this inclination.
to
Take
DE
CD
and
point 0,
CD, draw CO and EO perpendicular

ED these two perpendiculars intersect in a
and CO will be the radius of the sphere inscribed
equal to
;
in the polyedron.
On
the prolongation of
DC,
take
CA
equal to the ra-
dius of the circle circumscribing a face of the polyedron,
and
OA will
be the radius of the sphere circumscribing
this polyedron.
Scholium.
tions
miny
.We may draw from
consequences.
the preceding proposi-
313
1. Every regular polyedron may be divided into as

many regular pyramids as the polyedron has faces the
common vertex of these pyramids will be the centre of the
;
polyedron, which
is
at the
same time the centre of the
in-
scribed and circumscribed spheres.

2-
The
solidity of a regular
surface multiplied
polyedron
is
equal to
by one-third of the radius of the
its
in-
scribed sphere.
3.
Two
tional
regular polyedrons of the same
and
name
are sim-
homologous dimensions are proporhence, the radii of the inscribed and circumscribed
ilar solids,
their
spheres are to each other as the edges of these polyedrons.
we inscribe a regular polyedron in a sphere, the

drawn through the centre and the different edges
4. If
planes
of the polyedron will divide the surface of the sphere into

as
many
equal and similar spherical polygons as the poly-
edron has
faces.
THE END.

Legendre PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Legendre PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

*^MM?fl;.

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the text.

^LISVE OF THE POLTTECHNIO SCHOOL; DIBEOTOK OF STUDIES OF SAIKTE-BABBE,

TRANSLATED FEOM THK ELEVENTH FRENCH EDITION,

AND PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS

IIILITABT INSTITUTE, LEXINGTON, VIRGINIA.

Entered accoiding lo Act of Congress, in the yenr 1867,

THE VIRGINIA MILITARY INSTITUTE,

THEIE FRIEND AND FORMER PRECEPTOR,

considered to form the real

foundation of mathematical instruction.

ance with Arithmetic and Algebra usually precedes

but the time necessarily employed in gaining a

practical facility in the application of the rules of these

reasoning faculties as they are exercised in Geometry.

Geometry rests upon a few simple and self-evident

discipline, which supplies an important corrective

genius of the Greeks.

as a science, to the inventive

Greek Geometers are models of accuracy, clearness, and

SiielUus reproduced the

Viviani, the disciple of Galileo,

In pursuance of a plan to print at Oxford a complete

Gregory edited the works of Euclid, and Dr. Halley,

the founder of the ancient

His great work, known

a text-book in most of the English schools.

have lived in the time of the

years before the Christian era, and

Ptolemy, some 300

the founder of the Alexandrian mathematical school.

consists of thirteen books.

have sometimes been added, of which Hypsicles

complete edition of Euclid's Elements was published

1703, in the original Greek,

In 1824^1825, an edition of the

In 1826-1829, another complete edition of the Elements

in Berlin, in Greek, with a collection of

various readings, by Ernest Frederick August.

In 1781, .James Williamson published in Oxford the

with dissertations, which was followed

This edition gives a close

Robert SimsOn, a distinguished Scotch mathematician,

volume, in 1756, which he compressed, in 1760, into an

nal, materially modified

books, with the 11th and 12th of the origi-

adapt them to the existing

This edition has had a

circulation, and constitutes the basis of the various

editions of the Elements

by Playfair^ Lardner, De Mor-

gan^ Todhunter, and others, which have appeared, from

meet the demand

for Euclid in the English

important additions were made to the digest of

raut and Legendre. are the most deserving of notice.

brief but perspicuous.

designed to guide the

student by deductive processes to the solution of math-

But the Geometry

generally regarded as the best