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PROKON User's Guide: (Win 32 Version)
PROKON User's Guide: (Win 32 Version)
(Win 32 Version)
March 2010
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. Companies, names and data
used in examples are fictitious.
This document may be reproduced for the sole purpose of reference by PROKON users. No
part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, for any other reason without the express written permission of
Prokon Software Consultants
Copyright 1988-2010 Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd. All rights reserved
PROKON is the registered trademark of Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd
Introduction
This is a guide to using the 32-bit Windows version of the PROKON suite of structural
analysis and design programs. It is designed to help you be more productive by explaining
ways of integrating everyday structural analysis, design and detailing tasks.
In this manual, the basic procedures of installing and using PROKON are explained.
Components of the suite not covered in this manual include the PROKON Drawing and
Detailing System, Padds, and the geotechnical analysis modules. These are explained
separately in the following manuals:
Padds User's Guide and Command Reference: Information on using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System.
All analysis and design modules also have complete context-sensitive help to introduce you to
the use of the system. The on-line help information is updated on a regular basis and may
occasionally contain information not included in the manual.
This manual is also available in electronic form on the PROKON Structural Analysis and
Design installation CD-Rom. The complete text can be viewed and printed for the purpose of
reference by PROKON users a PDF viewer such as Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Note: A copy of this manual is available PDF format on the PROKON installation CD-Rom.
Introduction
Chapter 1 - Installing PROKON: This chapter deals with installing and activating the
software for use. The procedures for stand-alone and network installation are explained
in detail.
Chapter 2 - The PROKON basics: Essential reading for all new users and for users
upgrading to the 32-bit Windows version. Subjects covered include using Calcpad, setting
preferences and customising projects.
Chapter 3 - Structural analysis: Detailed discussion of the frame, beam and finite element
analysis modules.
Chapter 4 - Steel member design: Explains how you can design a variety of steel members
using elastic or plastic methods. The post-processing of frame analysis results is discussed
in detail.
Chapter 5 - Steel connection design: Design and generation of drawings of typical steel
connections.
Chapter 8 - General analysis tools: Overview of using the general analysis utilities.
ii
Introduction
Getting help
An important part of the service provided to PROKON users, is technical support. If you are a
registered user, you can obtain free program updates and support information from the World
Wide Web or your nearest branch of PROKON Software Consultants.
Who qualifies for support?
You automatically qualify for free software maintenance and support in the following cases:
If you have entered a maintenance agreement with respect to your purchased programs.
Internet support
Access answers to frequently asked questions, news on new developments, revision
information and programs updates on-line:
PROKON Home Page: Visit www.prokon.com for news on the latest developments.
Direct support
If you experience difficulties resolving your problems using PROKON, you may contact
Prokon Software Consultants directly for assistance:
South Africa
United Kingdom
Canada
Telephone
+27-12-346-2231
+44-20- 8780-5454
+1-8888-PROKON
Facsimile
+27-12- 346-3331
+44-20- 8788-8363
+1-866-323-7393
za@prokon.com
uk@prokon.com
ca@prokon.com
P O Box 17295
75 Lower Richmond Rd
PO Box 91693
Groenkloof
Putney
West Vancouver, BC
0027
V7V 3P3
South Africa
United Kingdom
Canada
E-mail
Postal address
Introduction
iii
Quick Reference
Use the thumbnails alongside for quick access to the chapters in this manual.
iv
Quick Reference
vi
Quick Reference
Chapter
1
Installing PROKON
This explains the procedures for installing and activating PROKON. step-by-step to help new
and experienced users alike avoid pitfalls.
Installing PROKON
1-1
Quick Reference
System Requirements
1-3
Program Installation
1-5
Updating PROKON
1-17
1-2
Installing PROKON
System Requirements
The minimum system requirements and recommended specification to run the 32-bit Windows
version of PROKON are:
Required
Recommended
PC with 1RAM
System Requirements
1-3
1-4
System Requirements
Program Installation
You can install PROKON on a stand-alone computer, or on a network for access by multiple
computers on your network. Setting up your system PROKON consists of the following steps:
1.
2.
Activate PROKON.
3.
Set up the design codes and section and material databases. This is explained in Chapter 2.
PROKON uses a sophisticated licensing scheme that allows a lot of flexibility in your choices:
The software is modular: No need to pay for features you don't use; order only the
modules you need.
License portability: You can deactivate and activate your programs (storing your license
on the PROKON license server) at any time. Moving your license between computers at
the office (and even your home computer) is simple.
Note: When not activated, e.g. directly after the initial installation, the PROKON suite will
function in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced functionality meant for evaluation
purposes.
Program Installation
1-5
The license folder: When you activate PROKON, the 'Prolock' folder is created and your
license key stored in it. Please do not remove this folder without first deactivating your
programs; doing so will destroy your license.
User folders: Each user's preferences, e.g. favourite design codes and on-screen layout of
each program, are automatically stored in a dedicated folder.
Note: When installing PROKON on a network, you need to adjust some folder permissions
to enable network users to access PROKON. See page 1-12 for more information.
1-6
Program Installation
License key: A special file that contain your license information. Your license key is
supplied either on your CD-Rom or made available via electronic download.
Expiry date: Annual rental license have a fixed expiry date 12 months after order.
Purchased licences allow perpetual use of the programs, but software maintenance
(program updates and technical support) expires after 12 months. Both annual rental and
software maintenance of purchased programs can be renewed.
Sets: The modules that you order is grouped in a set. Your license can include up to two
sets. Here is an example: You have a group of engineers that specialise in steel design, and
another group that specialises in concrete design. Both groups use the Frame Analysis
module to calculate forces in building frames. Your PROKON license can be configured
with two sets. Set 1(Steel) will contain the Frame Analysis module and some steel member
and connection design modules. Set 2 (Concrete) will also contain the Frame Analysis
module and some concrete design modules. The two sets form part of the same license
key, and can be activated and used separately. When combining two sets in the same
license key, a substantial discount is applicable to modules that are included in both sets.
Activation: You have to activate your programs in order to access their full capacity.
When you activate your programs, you can choose the number of workstations for Set 1
and Set 2 to activate. The number of available (for activation) workstations is decremented
accordingly. In the above example, Set 1 can be activated on three standalone computers,
or on a network for simultaneous use by three engineers.
Deactivation: You can deactivate an active set of programs at any time. The number of
available workstations is incremented accordingly.
Note: The PROKON license server (an internet service) keeps track of the number of
workstations that have been activated and the number of workstations available for
activation. An internet connection is required to activate or deactivate your programs.
Program Installation
1-7
Read and accept the license agreement before you can continuing with the installation.
1-8
Program Installation
Run PROKON.
On the Tools menu, choose Activate Programs, and then choose one of the displayed
activation methods:
E-mail: This method is similar to the browser method, except that it uses your email
client, e.g. Microsoft Outlook, to exchange a Report Code and Return Code. Even
though the PROKON license server responds to activation emails, possible delays in
email communication and spam filters make this method less desirable.
Phoning Prokon: If all else fails, use this option to call a Prokon branch for
activation assistance.
Enter the number of workstations to activate in Set 1 and Set 2. For a standalone
installation, you would typically not enter '1' workstation for Set 1 and/or Set 2.
Program Installation
1-9
If using the Direct Internet activation method, the result will be displayed within a
few seconds.
If using the Browser activation method, your web browser will display a page with a
Return Code that you should enter.
If you using the E-mail activation method, open your email client and send the
activation request message. The PROKON license server will reply automatic reply to
your message with a Return Code that you should enter.
When using the option to Phone Prokon, a Report Code will be displayed. Contact
your local Prokon branch and request a matching Return Code.
Note: For the Direct Internet activation method to work, your firewall should allow
communication on TCP port 80 (HTTP) as well as 20 and 21 (FTP).
On the Tools menu, choose Deactivate Programs, and then choose one of the
deactivation methods. As with activation, the Direct Internet deactivation method is the
preferred method for a instantaneous result.
If using one of the indirect methods, submit the Report Code to the Prokon license server
(via your web browser, e-mail, or phoning Prokon). This step is essential to ensure that
your deactivation workstation(s) is correctly credited back to your license key on the
Prokon license server.
After deactivation, PROKON will operate in 'demo mode' a special mode with reduced
functionality meant for evaluation purposes.
Note: Deactivating does not delete any files. Instead, all program and data files are left in
position to enable you to later activate the workstation again. To completely remove
PROKON from a PC, you must uninstall the software 1-15
1-10
Program Installation
Use the Direct Internet method for activating and deactivating whenever possible. This
allows for direct communication with the PROKON license server and instantaneous
results. Note that firewall restrictions on your company network may prevent this method
from working.
You can install PROKON on any number of standalone computers. However, activation of
the programs will be limited to the number of available workstations. You can any time
deactivate an active workstation (storing it the PROKON license server) and then activate
your programs on another computer.
If you find that you have to deactivate and activate PROKON very often, consider
installing your PROKON a USB memory stick (instead of a hard drive on your computer),
and moving the memory stick from between computers.
If you have about five or more engineers using PROKON on a regular basis, consider a
network installation instead of separate installations on standalone computers. Doing so
can save you money (more optimal use of fewer licensed workstations) and will make
upgrading PROKON more convenient (only one instance requires updating).
Program Installation
1-11
Installing on a network
PROKON can be installed on a network for simultaneous use by more than one person. The
number of simultaneous users will be limited to the number of workstations ordered, e.g. if
Set 1 has three workstations, then a maximum of three engineers can use that set at a time.
The network installation procedure has three steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
You do not need a dedicated file server to be able to install PROKON on your network. Any
PC on the network, even an ordinary PC connected to a peer-to-peer network, can be identified
as the 'server' for the purpose of sharing PROKON on your network.
Note: To install PROKON on a server version of Windows, you may need to be seated at
the server (or accessing its desktop remotely) and logged in as an administrator.
1-12
Program Installation
The 'User' folder and sub-folders where each user's preferences are saved.
The 'Prolock' folder contains the PROKON installation status and keeps a log of users
accessing the system.
The 'Data' folder is the default location for saving program input and output data. You will
likely have a different project storage location set up elsewhere on your network. To
change the default storage location, set the Working Folder. See Chapter 2 for more
information.
Refer to page 1-6 for more detail regarding the PROKON folder tree.
1-13
1-14
Program Installation
Uninstalling PROKON
To remove PROKON from a PC or network, follow the steps below:
Deactivate your PROKON license as described on page 1-10. Failure to deactivate your
license before uninstalling PROKON may result in your license being destroyed.
Seated at the PC where PROKON is installed (or at the server in the case of a network
installation), open the Windows Control Pane.
Select PROKON from the list and follow the steps to uninstall.
As a safeguard, PROKON data is not erased during the uninstall procedure. If you wish to
remove PROKON data as well, then manually delete the PROKON installation tree see page
1-6 for more information.
Note: Before uninstalling , please deactivate the software first as discussed on page 1-10.
Program Installation
1-15
Moving the programs to another folder on a local or network drive. You are free to move
or copy data folders though.
Converting the hard disk file structure, e.g. from to FAT32 to NTFS.
To deactivate the PROKON suite, follow the procedures described on page 1-10.
1-16
Program Installation
Updating PROKON
The PROKON development team is continuously working at improving the software. Changes
in design codes, support for additional design codes, new program features and occasional bug
fixes make for regular program updates.
Upgrade Eligibility
You are eligible for free program updates in the following cases:
If you do not have a maintenance agreement but have purchased or upgraded your
PROKON software less than 12 months ago.
PROKON Live Update: An automated utility that downloads the latest versions of your
programs and installs them for you. This is the preferred method if you are already using
the current major version of PROKON.
PROKON Service Pack: A package that contains all program modules for manual
installation. This is the preferred method when upgrading from one major version of
PROKON to another, i.e. from an older version to the current version.
Tip: For up-to-date version information and update instructions, please refer to the
following web page: www.prokon.com/updates.
Updating PROKON
1-17
Close all running PROKON programs except Calcpad. Launch Live Update from the
Tools menu in Calcpad. Alternatively, launch it from the PROKON group on the
Windows Start Menu.
Live Update will automatically connect with the PROKON update server to retrieve the
latest version information. After a few moments, it will show which modules have updates
available.
Download and install the updates. Depending on your internet connection speed and
anti-virus scanning, the process should complete in a few minutes.
Note: Firewall restrictions on your network can prevent Live Update from communicating
with the PROKON server. Please refer to the following web page for alternative update
options: www.prokon.com/updates.
1-18
Updating PROKON
Chapter
2
The PROKON Basics
The basic principles of using PROKON are discussed in this chapter. Starting with the issues
you need to address when using the program for the first time, e.g. setting up a working folder,
the text progresses to everyday tasks like running analysis and design modules. The chapter
ends with explaining advanced procedures like creating an equation library and customising the
page layout for your projects.
2-1
Quick Reference
Using PROKON for the First Time
2-3
2-11
2-15
2-23
2-25
2-31
2-37
2-47
2-53
2-57
2-2
2-3
Configuring PROKON
On launching PROKON, the main program, called Calcpad, is displayed. From here, you are
able to launch the individual analysis and design modules. Calcpad is also the application that
you will use to collect analysis and design results and save them in project files.
Some aspects are best attended to immediately when using PROKON for the first time:
Setting the preferred design codes, design parameters and units of measurement.
Selecting a wallpaper.
Once you start using the PROKON analysis and design modules, you will want to progress to
working with project files:
File management.
To select your user folder or create a new one, open the Settings menu and choose User. The
user folder resides under the main PROKON program folder. If you use the system on a
network, you will be able to select your user folder regardless of which workstation on the
network you use.
2-4
2-5
A folder name may not contain any of the following characters: \ / : * ? " < > |.
Selecting a wallpaper
To personalise your PROKON workstation, you may want to display a wallpaper in Calcpad.
To load a wallpaper, open the Settings menu and choose Wallpaper. The following limitations
apply to wallpapers:
Supported graphics formats include: Windows Bitmap (.bmp), Icon (.ico), Metafile (.wmf)
and Enhanced Metafile (.emf).
The wallpaper image is scaled to fit the Calcpad working area. Therefore, not all images
will necessarily look well.
2-6
In an analysis or design module, the input data and results are typically collected on the
module's Calcsheets page from where you send it to Calcpad. For an explanation of the
procedure, refer to page 2-13.
Results obtained from the various analysis and design modules are then saved together in a
project file.
You can then use Calcpad to supplement the results from the analysis and design modules
with additional design notes and pictures. Refer to page 2-31 for more detail.
Links are retained with each individual analysis via data file objects. These objects are
visible in the right-hand margin as yellow folders. Double-clicking a data file object recalls
the original input data in the relevant analysis or design module.
To perform calculations not covered in the scope of the design modules, you can use
equations a feature built into Calcpad. The use of the Equation Editor is explained on
page 2-37.
If you use similar headers for your different projects, you can save retyping information by
saving the header information. Click Save as default to save the information and Load default
to retrieve it.
2-7
Click OK to apply the new header to the active project. The new header will apply to the
current and following pages. This allows you, for example, to use different people's names in
the Designed by field if more than one person is working on the same project file.
The composition of the header can be changed to suit your own needs by customising the page
template. For more details, refer to the customisation procedures explained from page 2-47.
File management
Use the File menu commands to open and save project files in the working folder or any other
location on your own computer or on a network drive that you have write access to:
To close the active projects or all open projects, use Close Project or Close All.
To open a recently used project file, click the file name at the bottom of the File menu.
PROKON Project files as saved with the extension '.PPF' for easy recognition.
To open a project file on your hard disk or network
1.
2.
In the Look in box, click the drive and folder that contains the document.
3.
In the folder list, double-click folders until you locate the folder that contains the
document you want.
By default, the file list is filtered to show only project files created by Calcpad. You can
change this by selecting All files in the Files of type box, e.g. when wanting to open a text
file. You can also type a filter File name box; for example, type 'p*.*' to find all files
starting with the letter p.
4.
2-8
To change the appearance of the file list, click List or Details. With Details selected, you
can click a column heading to sort the data files by name, size, date or type.
Using PROKON for the First Time
5.
2.
To save the project in a different folder, click a different drive in the Save Project in box,
or double-click a different folder in the folder list.
3.
4.
In the File name box, type a name for the document. You can use long, descriptive file
names if you want. The program will automatically add an appropriate file extension.
5.
Click Save.
2-9
2-10
2-11
Similar layout
All modules present you with a number of tabbed pages or menus:
The File menu: Standard Windows commands are provided for opening and saving data
files. The commands are similar to those described on page 2-8.
The Calcsheets page: Analysis and design results can be accumulated in a single
calcsheet. You can choose between printing or sending the information to Calcpad.
The Drawings or Bending Schedules page: Most design modules are capable of
generating a detailed drawing or bending schedule of the designed element. Drawings and
bending schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
The Help menu: Access is provided to on-line Help topics and built-in Examples.
To display a particular page or menu, click it with the mouse. Alternatively use F11 and F12 to
move forward and back between the pages.
2-12
Data input
Except when using Padds for graphical input, e.g. for frames, all data is entered in tables. Data
is normally evaluated immediately as entered. If invalid input is detected, a list of errors is
normally displayed.
Entered data is typically shown in Pictures that interact with the Table Editor to automatically
update with every entry in the tables. Pictures can be zoomed and panned for more detail.
Some pictures have visible zoom buttons, others not. However, all pictures can be zoomed by
right-clicking it and using the pop-up menu. Pictures can also be saved as drawings.
The use of the Table Editor is explained in detail on page 2-15 and the manipulation of
Pictures on page 2-25.
Use the Settings function to select the components to include in the calcsheet. You can
optionally select the Data File to have the input data saved as part of the Calcpad project.
Note: In the case of some of the larger modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, you need
to first view the results and select individual components to be included in the calcsheet.
Click Send to Calcpad to append the results to the active project in Calcpad.
Saving input
You can use the File menu of a module to
save and open input data files. However, if
you enable the Data File option before
sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can
later recall the input data by double-clicking
the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file
embedded in Calcpad is saved as part of a
project and does not need to be saved in the
relevant module as well.
If you do save a data file in an analysis or
design module, the file name extension will
automatically be set to the program number
for easy recognition, e.g. '.A03' for Frame
Analysis.
Using the Analysis and Design Modules
2-13
It is easier to update electronic information than printed manuals. Therefore, you may
occasionally find that the on-line help is more up to date that the manual.
Updated help files are published regularly on the PROKON Website. Additional information
not given in either the manual or Help, e.g. answers to frequently asked questions and details
of program revisions, is also available on the PROKON Support Web. Refer to the
introduction of this manual to read more about support service included with your purchase of
PROKON software.
2-14
2-15
Pressing Enter accepts the entry and moves the cursor to the left-most cell in the next row.
If you press the right, up or down arrow key, the cursor will move one cell right, up
or down.
While entering or editing text, you can move left and right using the left and right arrow keys.
To jump to the left-most or right-most positions, press Home or End. To move one word to the
left or right, use Ctrl with the left and right arrows.
To edit text in a cell, move the cursor to the cell and press F2 or double-click it. If you want to
replace the text in the cell rather than change it, simply retype the text without first
pressing F2.
2-16
Deleting text
Press Del or Backspace to clear the current cell's contents. While entering or editing text in a
cell, Del and Backspace will delete one character to the right or left respectively.
Inserting lines
Press Enter to move to the first cell on the next line. To insert a blank line at the cursor,
press Ctrl+I.
2-17
Marking a cell or block of cells you can choose between using the normal Windows
methods of selecting cells or the extended PROKON functions.
Marking blocks
When marking blocks, you can choose between using the standard Windows functions and the
extended PROKON block functions the behaviour of the resulting blocks are different.
Using the standard Windows functions
To select a cell or block of cells using standard Windows commands, use any of the following
procedures:
Position the cursor on one of the corner cells. Press and hold Shift and then use the arrow
keys to move to the opposite corner.
Note: When marking a block this way, moving the cursor will undo the selection.
To select one or more rows, move the cursor to the first row and press Ctrl+L. Then move
to the last row and press Ctrl+L again.
To select one or more columns, move the cursor to the first column and press Ctrl+K and
then move to the last column and press Ctrl+K again.
To mark a rectangular block of cells, position the cursor on the top left cell and then press
Ctrl+B. To end the selection, move to the bottom right cell and press Ctrl+E.
Note: A persistent selection will remain active until unmarked with Ctrl+U. While the cells
are selected, you are free to move the cursor without the block being de-selected.
2-18
To copy a cell or block to the clipboard, press Ctrl+C. Alternatively right-click it and
choose Copy.
To cut a block, i.e. remove it from the table and copy it to the clipboard, press Ctrl+X.
Alternatively right-click it and choose Cut.
To paste the clipboard contents into the table at the cursor position, press Ctrl+V.
alternatively right-click and choose Paste. If you are pasting a block of cells, the current
cursor position will be taken as the top left corner of the block.
Examples:
To copy cells in the table, first select the cell or block of cells and Copy the information to
the clipboard. Then position the cursor to the new position and Paste the text.
To move one or more selected cells, Cut them to the clipboard and Paste them at the new
position.
To delete one or more selected cells, select and Cut them. Alternatively press Del to delete
the selected cells.
To copy one or more cells, first mark a persistent block, move to the new position and
then press Ctrl+V.
2-19
You are allowed to move the cursor while defining the selection, without cancelling the
selection. You could, for example, move up or down in the table without undoing the
selection.
You do not need to first Copy or Cut information to the Windows clipboard - while a
persistent block is selected, you can Paste or Move it directly.
Press Alt-Tab to swap to the destination program or click it on the Windows Task Bar.
Position the cursor and Paste the information from the clipboard.
2-20
Summary of commands
Moving around:
Arrows : Move one cell up, down, left or right.
Enter : Jump to the first cell in the next row.
Tab : Move one cell right.
Shift+Tab : Move one cell left.
Home : Jump to the first cell of the current row.
End : Jump to the last cell of the current row.
Ctrl+Home : Jump to the top left corner of the table.
Ctrl+End : Jump to the bottom left corner of the table.
Del : Delete the cell at the cursor.
Ctrl+Y : Delete the line at the cursor (irrespective of any block selected).
Backspace : Delete the cell at the cursor and open it for editing.
Ctrl+I : Insert a blank line.
Ctrl+F : Find or replace text
Editing cells:
F2 : Edit the cell at the cursor.
Left/right : Move the cursor inside the text.
Ctrl+left/right : Move the cursor left or right one word.
Up/down : Accept the changed text and moves to the adjacent cell.
Enter : Accept the changed text and jumps to the first cell in the next row.
Del : Delete the character to the right.
Backspace : Delete the character to the left.
Marking persistent blocks:
Ctrl+A : Select all cells.
Ctrl+B : Mark the top left corner of a rectangular block.
Ctrl+E : Mark the bottom right corner of a rectangular block.
Ctrl+K : Mark the first or last column of a block.
Using the Table Editor
2-21
2-22
2-23
Doing calculations
Operation is similar to a conventional hand-held calculator:
To enter a mathematical function, click the relevant button or write out the function.
To remove the displayed equation and continue working with the result, press Clear left.
Click Copy or press Alt-C to copy the result to the clipboard and close the calculator.
In the relevant application, e.g. Calcpad or an input table of a design module, use the
Paste command or press Ctrl+V to paste the value.
Tip: When using a Dos module, press Ctrl+Z to display a calculator. Use F10 to send the
result back to the module's input table.
2-24
2-25
All: Display the whole picture, based on the size defined internally for the
background.
Saving pictures
In addition to the Zoom button commands, the right-click pop-up menu also allows you to
save the picture in the following file formats:
PAD: Fully editable Padds drawing.
In some modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, a special button may is available
for adding a picture to the Calcsheets.
2-26
All: Display the visible portion of structure from the current view point.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion. You can
also click and drag the picture using the middle mouse button.
Viewpoint: Display the View Point Control dialog box for defining the view
point and other view characteristics.
View plane: Display the View Plane Control dialog box for defining a view
plane.
Rotate left: Rotate the structure to the left about the Y-axis. The rotation angle
is defined in the View Point Control dialog box.
Rotate right: Rotate the structure to the right about the Y-axis.
Orbit: Rotate the image freely about the centre of the model. Alternatively, hold
the Shift key, and rotate the image with the picture using the middle mouse
button.
Detailed settings
Some modules allow detailed configuration of pictures. In the frame analysis
modules, for example, you can access the Graphics Options to enable or disable
display of node numbers, global axes etc. Pictures can also be rendered in 3D or
shown as simple line diagrams.
2-27
Projection: Choose between using an orthogonal or perspective projection. The latter gives
a more realistic view of the structure. However, you may get a distorted picture when
using a large view angle in a close-up situation.
Elevations: For a quick view from the top or one of the sides, choose a positive or negative
X, Y or Z-elevation.
Perpendicular on view-plane: If a view plane is set, you can move the view point to be
perpendicular to it.
Default: Moves the view point to a position that looks down at the centre of the model
with a view direction of equal amount along the positive X, Y and Z-axes (i.e. dX, dY and
dZ all equal to -1.00) and zooms to the model extents.
Tip: The default view angle of 50 works well with perspective projections of structures. If
you cannot see the complete structure, the view point is probably to near to the structure.
Reset the View Point using the Default button or use the Zoom extents function to move
back far enough to view the complete structure.
The View Point Control dialog box can be left open while you work in the program. You can
also use the zoom and pan functions while the dialog box is open.
2-28
2-29
2-30
2-31
Typing text
Type text as you would in any other word processor or text editor.
Typing over existing text
Press the Ins key to toggle between overtype and insert modes. In overtype mode, you will
replace existing text as you type, one character at a time.
Replacing selected text
Select the text to be replaced and start typing to replace it.
Inserting symbols or special characters
You can insert Greek symbols and other special characters using the Symbol command on the
Insert menu. You can also insert a character or symbol by typing the character code on the
numeric keypad, e.g. 'Alt-225' inserts the character.
Insert the date and time in a project
You can insert the current date or time in a project using the Date command on the Insert
menu.
Insert a text file
To insert a complete text file, use the Text File command on the Insert menu. To insert only a
portion of a text file instead:
1.
Open the text file using the Open Project command on the File menu. Change the Files of
type field to 'All files' and select the file.
2.
Select and copy the relevant text using the procedures described on page 2-35.
Deleting text
Use Del and Backspace to delete a character to the left or right. To delete words or paragraphs,
select the text and press Del.
2-32
2.
The change will be applied to the selected text only or, if you did not select any text, to new
text from the cursor position and further.
You can also use the keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+B, Ctrl+I and Ctrl+U to make text bold, italic
or underlined.
When changing font style of text with mixed style, the style will toggle between normal,
formatted and mixed, e.g. all normal, all bold and mixed normal and bold.
Check spelling
Click the Check Spelling button in the toolbar to check the spelling of text in the document.
The built-in dictionary includes terminology commonly used in structural engineering.
Note: Prior to version 2.5, the spell checker required Microsoft Office to be installed. This
is no longer the case in the current version.
Scroll down one line: Click the down arrow on the scroll bar.
Scroll left: Click the left arrow on the horizontal scroll bar (if displayed).
Scroll right: Click the right arrow on the horizontal scroll bar (if displayed).
2-33
After scrolling, click where you want to start typing. To move the cursor using the keyboard:
To jump to the beginning or end of the current line: Press Home or End.
To jump to the first or last lines in the project: Press Ctrl+Home or Ctrl+End.
To move to the reference column on the far right: Press Ctrl+Tab.Using graphics in your
project
Graphics can be used to supplement text and serve to enhance your projects. Inserted graphics
can be moved, copied and resized.
Inserting a graphic
Use the commands on the Insert menu to insert graphics:
To insert a Windows Bitmap or Metafile: Click Picture and select the file.
Select the
clicking it.
graphic
by
2.
To resize a graphic:
1.
2.
3.
2-34
Using the keyboard, select text by holding down Shift and pressing the same key that moves
the cursor. To extend a selection:
2.
3.
4.
If you want to move or copy the text or graphics to another document, switch to it.
5.
6.
2-35
Margin: Display the whole page width between the left and right margins.
2-36
2-37
To edit an existing equation: Select and right-click the equation. Then choose Edit from
the pop-up menu.
To create or edit an equation, work through the different pages to create an equation object:
Equations: Use one or more lines to enter equations. When creating a new equation, this
page is displayed first.
Variables: Assign a value to each variable used on the Equations page. When editing an
exiting equation, this page is displayed by default.
Settings: Choose how the equations should be displayed and optionally attach a picture.
Note: When sending a series of equations to Calcpad, the equations are grouped together as
a unit, called an equation object.
2-38
Entering equations
Enter one or more lines of equations on the Equations page. Equations are written in 'normal
English' and then automatically displayed in the correct mathematical format.
Writing equations
A few simple rules apply when writing equations:
Like when using a simple calculator, use 'normal English' to write an equation the
equation is automatically formatted for you. For example, if you want to enter the equation
y = a x2 + b x + c, enter 'y=ax^2+bx+c'.
a b
c d
enter 'y=(a+b)/(c+d)'.Use
multiple lines for a sequence of equations. Variable values are inherited by equations that
follow. Refer to page 2-44 for more detail on using a series of equations.
2-39
Defining variables
A variable can be a single letter or several letters and/or numbers, e.g. a, a2 and ab. The
program intelligently takes care of formatting variables with sub-scripting and italic characters.
The following simple rules apply:
Enter numbers using normal or scientific notation. Example, '0.002' and '2E-3' has the
same meaning.
When entering a variable, the second and following characters are used as sub-scripts, e.g.
enter 'abc' to get abc.
Variables are case sensitive, e.g. 'a' and 'A' are seen as two different variables.
A variable cannot start with a number. Using '1' and 'a' separately yields a valid number
and variable respectively, but entering '1a' is not allowed.
Greek symbols are case sensitive, e.g. and are seen as two different variables.
2-40
Arc functions
Logarithmic functions
ln, log
Other functions
Square root
sqrt
Absolute value
abs
Additional functions can be derived using the standard mathematical operators and functions.
A few simple examples include:
Instead of using the built-in square root function, you may determine the square root and
other roots as follows:
'a=(b+c)^(1/2)
a bc
can
be
entered
as
'a=sqrt(b+c)'
or
1
. To enter the equation
tan
2-41
Assigned variables: Variables that are not calculated but require values to be assigned to
them are listed first.
Calculated variables: Variables denoting equation results are listed last. The values for
these items are typically shown as 'EqX:Y', where X is the relevant row number in the
table on the Equations page and Y is the equation result.
To explain the symbols, an image can be displayed alongside the list of variables. Refer to
page 2-42 for more information on using images with equations.
2-42
Equation settings
The Settings page is used to configure the display properties of an equation object:
Title: You can enter a title for an equation object. When inserting the equation in Calcpad,
the title can optionally be displayed above it.
Image: An image can be loaded and optionally displayed when inserting the equation in
Calcpad. The image is also displayed on the Variables page.
Numeric format: You can choose to display equation results in decimal, scientific or
engineering format.
Font: Select a font, style and height to use for the equation.
2-43
Advanced techniques
Once you have mastered the basic functions of the Equation Editor, you may want to proceed
to creating more sophisticated equation objects.
The unit should be written in curly brackets immediately after the variable.
You may use a mathematical operator to create derivatives of units, e.g. use ' m^2' for m2.
Examples:
To calculate the area of a circle in square meter, you may enter ' A{m^2}=#p*r{m}^2'.
The result will be:
r = 2.5m
A = p .r = 19.635 m2
2
Note: The program does not evaluate the consistancy of units within equations.
2-44
Conditional branching
You can use the inheritance characteristic of equations to your further advantage. By
combining inheritance with conditional branching, you can create equation objects that can
intelligently adjust for different values of the variables.
To create a conditional branch:
Define the condition using the 'if' statement, e.g. 'if a>b' will do something only if a is
greater than b. For comparison, you may use the operators <, >, =, >= and <=.
In the lines following the 'if' statement, enter one or more equations to be evaluated if the
condition is met. Use the 'end' or 'else' statement to terminate such a series of equations
and continue with the normal flow.
If a condition is not met, an alternative series of equations can be entered after an ' else'
statement. Terminate the series of equations with an 'end'.
In the following example, taken from the Help menu of the Equation Editor, the area of
reinforcement in a rectangular beam is calculated using the formulae in BS 8110 - 1997:
#bb=(100-%RD)/100
if %RD<10 then
(first conditional branch)
K'=0.156
else
(if condition is not met)
K'=0.402*(#bb-0.4) - 0.18*(#bb-0.4)^2
end
(end of first branch)
K=M{kNm}*1e6/(b{mm}*d{mm}^2*fcu{MPa})
if K<=K' then
(second conditional branch)
"Compression reinforcement not required because K<=K'"
z=d*(0.5+sqrt(0.25-K/0.9))
x=(d-z)/0.45
As{mm^2}=M*1e6/(0.95*fy{MPa}*z)
else
(if condition is not met)
"Compression reinforcement required because K>K'"
z=d*(0.5+sqrt(0.25-K'/0.9))
x=(d-z)/0.45
A's{mm^2}=(K-K')*fcu*b*d^2/(0.95*fy*(d-d'{mm})
As{mm^2}=(K'*fcu*b*d^2)/(0.95*fy*z) + A's
(end of second branch)
In the example, the first conditional branch causes K' to determined differently for different
values of the percentage of redistribution, %RD. Further, by comparing the values of K and K',
additional compression reinforcement is calculated when necessary.
2-45
2-46
2-47
The following templates are available when you run PROKON for the first time:
Default: The default template with frame and PROKON logo. For a start, you may want to
replace the PROKON logo and contact details with your own.
Frame: No-frills template with a frame only. This template offers a larger workspace.
2-48
Click Edit template to open the template script in the Text Editor.
2.
Use the Save As command on the File menu to save the template with a new name.
3.
4.
5.
To preview your new template, press Alt-Tab to swap back to the Page Setup dialog box
or select it from the task bar.
6.
7.
8.
Finally close the Text Editor and the Page Setup dialog box to return to Calcpad.
Script commands
A number of script commands are available to draw lnes, write text and define special items.
All commands use parameters, i.e. values, to define certain entities. Parameters are separated
with spaces or commas.
The template script commands can be categorised as follows:
Global page layout:
XO Xleft and YO Ybot : Define the origin, or reference point, from where all entities are
measured, e.g. 'XO 5' and 'YO 7.5' . The position of the origin is measured from the
bottom left corner of the page. In fact, if you do not enter an origin the bottom left corner
of the page will be used. You may repeatedly redefine the origin the last definition is
used for subsequent lines in the script.
MA Mleft,Mbot,Mright,Mtop : Set the left, bottom, right and top margins in millimetres, e.g.
'MA 15,15,285,195'. The margins define the workspace in Calcpad and the values are
measured from the origin rather than the edges of the page. The margin command does not
draw any lines.
2-49
RT colpos : Right column tab stop, measured in millimetres from the origin, e.g.
'RT 170'. The design modules use the right column for code references and other
comments.
Graphics:
Line drawing:
LL X1,Y1,X2,Y2: Draw a line from the coordinate X1,Y1 to X2,Y2, e.g. 'LL 5,10,5,110'
to draw a vertical line 100mm long.
Text:
TF font,style: Set the font and style, e.g.'TF Times New Roman, Normal'
TT Xleft,Ybot,text: Write text at the coordinate Xleft,Ybot , e.g. 'TT 5,10,Project No'.
Header items:
Other:
2-50
Example
Below is an abstract from the Default template script:
XO 15
// X Origin
YO 15
// Y Origin
BM 1,260, 41,267 PROKON.BMP
// Load Bitmap x1,y1,x2,y2
LT 0.3
// Line Thickness mm
LL 0, 0,186, 0
// Line x1,y1,x2,y2
LL 0,248,186,248
LL 0,268,186,268
LL 0, 0, 0,268
. . .
. . .
. . .
LL 166, 0,166,248
TF Arial Italic
// Text Font
TS 8
// Text Size Points
TT 156.5,267.8, Sheet
// Text x,y,text
TT 42.5,267.8, Job Number
TT 42.5,262.8, Job Title
TT 42.5,257.8, Client
TT 42.5,252.8, Calcs by
TT 90.5,252.8, Checked by
TT 138.5,252.8, Date
TT 3,259 , Software Consultants Pty Ltd
TT 3,255.5, Internet: http://www.prokon.com
TT 3,252 , E-Mail : mail@prokon.com
MA 1, 1, 185, 247
// Margins left, b, r, t
RT 166.5
// Right column tab stop
TS 10
// Text Size Points
HI 165.0,267.2, First Sheet No
// Header Item
HI 60.0,267.2, Job Number
// x,y,Description
HI 55.0,262.2, Job Title
HI 55.0,257.2, Client
HI 55.0,252.2, Calcs by
HI 106.0,252.2, Checked by
HI 150.0,252.2, Date
2-51
2-52
2-53
Selecting a database
Depending on the Windows Regional Settings, PROKON will automatically select an
appropriate section database when you run it for the first time. You can load another country's
database as follows:
On the File menu, choose Safe as Default to save the selected database as the default
database for all PROKON modules, Sectable.dat
I-shaped plate girders can be added with the other standard I-sections.
Older steel structures built with imperial sections can be checked after first adding the
relevant sections to the database.
2-54
In the Custom Profiles table, double-click in the Designation column. Enter a section
designation. Prosec will then open automatically.
Enter the section shape and calculated the bending and torsional properties.
2-55
On returning to the Section Database, the section properties and shape will be inserted
into the database.
2-56
2-57
Opening a country database: Use the open command on the file menu to select a list of
country databases to.
Saving a database. Use the save command on the file menu to store any changes you have
made.
Setting a database as system default: Open the database (if it is not open already), and use
the save as command on the file menu to save it as defaults.mtl.
Adding materials
You can edit existing grades of materials or add new grades as needed. Material grades are
categorised as steel, concrete and aluminium. For other material types, use the other group.
Terminology
The meaning of the symbols used is as follows:
Grade: Name of the material grade, e.g. 350W. The grade will be visible in the Frame
Analysis module when you select from the available items in the material database.
Yield criterion: Select a yield criterion if you wish to model non-linear material behaviour
in Frame Analysis. The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for materials that exhibit
similar behaviour under compression and tension, e.g. steel, and the Drucker-Prager
2-58
criterion is suitable for materials with pressure dependent behaviour, e.g. concrete and soil
that has negligible tensile resistance.
c: Cohesion (kN/m2 or psi). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager yield
criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
: Angle of internal friction (). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager
yield criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
Note: By default, all materials in the database have no stress-strain curves or yield criteria
assigned to them. The reason for this is that non-linear analyses (in Frame Analysis) are
usually performed to evaluate geometric non-linearity (i.e. where deflection are large
enough to have an effect on the analysis). To include non-linear (inelastic) material
behaviour, you must associate an appropriate stress-strain curve and yield criterion to each
material concerned.
2-59
Stress-Strain curves
When performing a non-linear analysis using the Frame Analysis module, you can model nonlinear material behaviour.
Stress-strain parameters: The values for the modulus of elasticity and strain limits for
positive (compression) and negative (tension) strain are used for the Von Mises and
Drucker-Prager yield criteria.
Stress-strain curve coordinates: Enter two or more pairs of strain and stress value that
define the stress-strain curve.
2-60
Predefined curves
The database includes a number of stress-strain curves:
Non-linear stress-strain relationship based on test results for duplex stainless steel 1.4462.
Linear elasto-plastic behaviour for and structural steel. The plastic zone includes a small
amount of strain hardening to allow a nominal stress increase after reaching the yield
point.
Yield criteria
The yield criterion supplements the stress-strain curve in defining a material's behaviour:
The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for ductile materials with similar compressive
and tensile properties, e.g. steel. If presented in three-dimensional space of principal
stresses, it would be a circular cylinder of infinite length with its axis inclined at equal
angles to the three principal stresses.
The Drucker-Packer yield criterion is suitable for materials that do not exhibit the same
behaviour in tension and compression, e.g. concrete and soil. Its three-dimensional
presentation would be a cone. The Drucker-Prager yield surface is a "smooth version" of
the Mohr-Coulomb yield surface, and therefore it is often expressed in terms of the
cohesion, c, and the angle of internal friction, , that are used to describe the MohrCoulomb yield surface.
2-61
2-62
Chapter
3
Structural Analysis
The structural analysis collection includes frame analysis and also some specialised finite
element and beam analysis modules.
3-1
Quick Reference
Structural Analysis using PROKON
3-3
Frame Analysis
3-5
3-85
3-97
3-2
3-105
Frame analysis
Frame can take account of own weight, temperature changes, prescribed displacements and
elastic supports. Loads are entered as load cases and grouped in load combinations at ultimate
and serviceability limit states.
The following static analysis modes are available:
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Non linear analysis. This takes the second order analysis a bit further. The load is
applied in steps and the deflected structure at the end of each step is used to apply the next
step. Material non linearity is not yet supported.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
3-3
Beam analysis
Modules are available for the analysis of simple beams and beams on elastic supports.
3-4
Frame Analysis
Frame can be used for the analysis of the following types of structures by selecting a domain
on the General input page:
Space Trusses: Analysis of three-dimensional trusses where only axial forces are
considered.
Frame analysis results can be post-processed using some of the steel and steel design modules.
Frame Analysis
3-5
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
3-6
Frame Analysis
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
The y-axis is taken in a vertical plane perpendicular to the z-axis. The y and z-axes thus
describe a vertical plane with the y-axis pointing vertically or diagonally upward.
The x-axis is taken perpendicular to the y and z-axes, using a left-hand rule.
One special case exists: In the case of a vertical member, the z-axis is taken parallel to the
global Y-axis. A unique definition of the y-axis is obtained by taking it parallel to the
global X-axis.
Vertical elements: The y-axis is taken vertically upward, i.e. parallel to the global
Y-axis. The x-axis is taken horizontal in the plane of the shell and z-axis is taken
horizontal perpendicular to the shell. The z-axis points towards you if the shell's nodes
are defined in an anti-clockwise direction and away if defined clockwise.
To simplify the analysis output, the orientation of the local shell axes can sometimes be
manipulated by slight rotation of the shell elements. In the case of horizontal slab, for example,
the local x and y-axes (and stresses) are taken parallel to the global X and Z-axes. In the case of
a circular slab, radial and concentric stresses may often be more desirable. By generating the
shell elements at a slight slope towards the centre, they will not be considered as horizontal
anymore. As a result, local y-axes will point (upward) towards the centre and the x-axes taken
Frame Analysis
3-7
perpendicular to that, i.e. radial and concentric respectively. The small inclination will
normally have no significant effect on the analysis.
Note: Rotating elements (for the sake of manipulating the local axes) can induce additional
support conditions in some cases. Such manipulation should thus be performed with
great care.
Beam
element
forcesThe
conventions are as follows:
sign
Note: In this manual, the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Shell element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
Bending stresses: The entities Mx and My are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes. Mxy represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane. The principal bending
moments per unit width are represented as Mmax and Mmin.
Plane stresses: The stresses in the plane of a shell, Sx and Sy, are given in the directions of
the local x- and y-axes. Sxy represents the shear stress in the plane of the element. Values
are also given for the principal plane stresses, Smax and Smin.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the orientation line would
indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
3-8
Frame Analysis
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Units
Metric
Imperial
Distance
mm, m
ft, inch
Force
N, kN
lb, kip
Use the Convert Units button on the Settings page to change the units for the current analysis:
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Analysis modes
The following types of analysis are possible:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis is normally sufficient for
the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway.
Second order analysis: Choose this mode to include p-delta effects in the analysis. This
option is recommended for structures where sway may have a marked effect on the
member forces, e.g. portal frames. The second order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
total strain energy of the frame is calculated after each iteration. The analysis is deemed to
have converged once the total strain energy of two sequential iterations differs by less than
the specified tolerance. If convergence was not possible, e.g. structural instability due to
buckling of critical members, a message to that effect will be displayed.
Non Linear analysis: Choose this mode where non-linear effects and large deflections
may be expected or where second order analysis might not provide sufficient accuracy.
Frame Analysis
3-9
Loading is applied in a series of steps and an iterative analysis is carried out at each step so
that the forces in the deflected structure at that point balance with the applied loading.
Modal analysis: For calculating the natural modes of vibration. The modal analysis is an
iterative procedure during which several sets of trial vectors are selected and evaluated.
The process takes relatively long to complete and it is therefore recommended that the
structure size be limited to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode
shapes to be calculated and other dynamic analysis parameters.
Harmonic analysis: Choose harmonic analysis to determine the response of the frame to
harmonic loading. Load amplitudes are entered exactly like static nodal and element loads.
You can enter a load frequency and phase angle for each harmonic load case. The first step
of a harmonic analysis is the calculation of the frame's natural modes of vibration.
Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of that analysis are re-used and only
the harmonic response calculated. The harmonic response is taken as the sum of the square
(SSRS) of the maximum modal responses, a method that is considered fundamentally
sound when modal frequencies are well separated. When frequencies of major contributing
modes are very close together, the SSRS method can give poor results.
Earthquake analysis: Use this option to calculate the response of the frame to the
specified a seismic acceleration parameters. Nodal and element loads entered are treated as
static loads. The analysis procedure starts by calculating the frame's natural modes of
vibration. Therefore, if preceded by a modal analysis, the results of the modal analysis are
re-used and only the seismic response calculated.
Buckling analysis: Use this option to determine the buckling load factors and mode shapes
for each load case or combination. Being the critical case, the first buckling mode shape is
normally the only one of interest.
Frame Analysis
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress
components smooths stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Frame Analysis
3-11
Element layout
To ensure accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used
between bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight
elements per span direction in a continuous slab.
Concrete design
Frame can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
To allow for the effect of in-plane forces, bending moments Mx, My and Mxy are increased to
include the effects of these forces. The moments are increased by conservatively taking the inplane forces to act with a lever arm of a quarter of the section depth. The Wood and Armer
equations are then evaluated in same manner as described above.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1997.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Steel Member Design for Axial Stress, Strut: Can design steel trusses.
Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, Com: Can design beam members.
3-12
Frame Analysis
Settings
Settings are done on the Settings page:
Analysis type
Linear analysis: Normal linear elastic frame analysis. A linear analysis is normally
sufficient for the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway. The linear
analysis procedure is performed faster than any other type of analysis. If you need to
perform a second order, buckling or dynamic analysis, it will be wise to first verify the
basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Frame Analysis
3-13
Non-linear analysis: This analysis is used when large deflections or non-linear behaviour
are expected. Only geometric non-linearity is supported a this stage. Material non-linearity
will be added in the near future. The solution is obtained by a stepped iterative analysis.
Loads are added in steps. The analysis is iterated to convergence for each step so that the
reactions and forces are in balance with the applied loads after each step. The deflected
structure at the end of each step is then used to apply the next load step and the process is
repeated until the total load has been applied.
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frames natural modes of vibration. The process takes
relatively long to complete and it therefore recommended that the structure size be limited
to a few hundred nodes. You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated and
other dynamic analysis parameters.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
You can specify the number of mode shapes to be calculated.
Analysis parameters
Depending on the selected analysis type, you may need to specify additional analysis
parameters:
Concrete design parameters: Concrete and reinforcement properties. Details are given
on page 3-61.
Second order and buckling parameters: Required analysis tolerance and number of
buckling mode shapes. Refer to page 3-62 for detail.
Non linear parameters: Values influencing the non-linear analysis. A detailed discussion
is given on page 3-64.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
3-14
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
Frame Analysis
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads, Beam loads, and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the
own weight load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you
can also enter the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which
case you may ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
The own weight or beam elements are modelled as uniformly distributed loads along the
lengths of the beams. In the case of a vertical beam element, own weight is modelled as two
equal point loads at the ends of the beam, yielding a constant axial force equal to half the own
weight. In the case of shell elements, own weight is modelled as point loads at the corner
nodes. In the case of solids, the weight is added as point loads at the nodes.
Graphics Options
Click on the graphics options button to have the graphics options dialog displayed.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent or have
them filled and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Frame Analysis
3-15
3-16
Frame Analysis
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the domain (Plane frame, grillage etc.) The input wizards can also
be selected here. More about these wizards later.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular, trapezium and point loads on
beams.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 3-58.
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
Frame Analysis
3-17
General input
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append
to the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the wizards. Any general two or three-dimensional frame can be collectively built up.
The wizards merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
3-18
Frame Analysis
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X, Y
and Z-coordinates in the X, Y and Z columns. If you leave X, Y or Z blank, a value of zero is
used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Note: Most of the examples given in this section show 3D co-ordinates as would be
applicable if the domain is set to Space Frame or Space Truss. If the domain is set to
Plane Frame or Grillage use the X-Y and X-Z planes respectively.
Frame Analysis
3-19
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same position. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes.
The coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and
negative Z-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus
(1.945,0,14.142) and (3.085,0,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
3-20
Frame Analysis
X
0.00
2.00
4.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
Y
5.12
5.12
5.12
5.62
5.62
5.62
Z
0.00
0.10
0.20
1.00
1.10
1.20
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X, Y and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m, zero and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X, Y and Z columns and use
the X-inc, Y-inc or Z-inc column to specify the angle increment about the X, Y or Z-axis
respectively. If the program domain is set to Plane Frame or Grillage, the angle increment
should be entered in the last column. Rotation will be about the Z and Y-axis respectively.
Frame Analysis
3-21
Example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,0,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. 'A12' to copy line 12 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
Frame Analysis
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All nodes inside the rectangle will be deleted. Press
Done when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order, one by one.
Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Explode nodes button to
explode the node input. This results in
the list of nodes being written, each
on a separate line without block & arc
generations etc. Once done, it cannot
be reversed.
Frame Analysis
3-23
An element definition must include a section number entered in the Section Name column.
The section name is used to identify the relevant section. The actual section properties for each
section number defined on the Beam Sections input page.
Frame Analysis
An element can be rotated about its axis by entering a beta angle. The beta angle is measured
about the z-axis, taking the default orientation as 0. Instead of entering a beta angle, you may
also enter a reference node the beta angle is then taken in the plane described by the element's
nodes and the reference point. To use a reference point, first define a node with the relevant
coordinate and then enter 'N' followed by the node number in the Beta column
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
Section orientation in a 2D analysis
In the case of a 2D analysis, the local y-z plane of an element is taken in the global X-Y plane.
The principle can be illustrated by considering an I-section in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered to be in a vertical plane.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
A section can be rotated through ninety degrees by selecting the alternative orientation when
reading it from the section database.
Note: In a space truss analysis the section orientation is of no importance. The analysis
results are influenced by the section area and not by it's second moment of inertia.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Torsional fixity: Use 'T' to provide restraint for rotation about the element axis only. This
option is only available in the Grillage domain and the Space Frame domain.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case, the normal convention of smaller and larger node
numbers does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the
nodes have been entered.
Frame Analysis
3-25
Example:
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, especially in the Space Frame domain, you should take care to ensure
overall stability of the frame. Consider two elements on a straight line with pins at all three
relevant nodes, for example. The centre node will be unrestrained for rotation about the
element axis, resulting in instability during the analysis.
Note: When performing a second order analysis, you can use tension elements to model
bracing, for example. For this, special settings need be made on the Beam Sections input
page. Refer to page 3-31 for detail.
Tapered beams
A beam can be made to taper between by entering two or three section names, separated with
commas:
Use two sections, e.g. 'Rafter,Haunch' or '1,2', to make the program vary the section
properties linearly along the length of the beam element. The first and second sections are
taken at the lower and higher node numbers respectively.
For a more accurate non-linear variation, enter three section names, e.g.
'Rafter,Middle,Haunch'. The first, second and third sections are taken at the at the lower
node number, the centre of the element and at higher node number respectively.
3-26
Frame Analysis
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly offset sub-structures, e.g. slabs with downstand beams. To
define a rigid link, enter 'R' in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum area and bending stiffness of the other beams with a factor, typically
one thousand. The rigid multiplication factors can be adjusted using the Advanced option on
the Beam sections input page. Refer to page 3-32 for detail.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns. Example:
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
Frame Analysis
3-27
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Frame Analysis
nodes must lie within a certain tolerance from the straight line between the end nodes to be
included. This tolerance can be entered in the Tolerance (%) field. If e.g. 1% is entered, any
node closer than 1% of the distance between the end nodes from the line joining them is
included. Pressing Undo will delete the beams in reverse order, in which they were entered,
one by one.
To delete beams click the Delete
beams button and then select the
beams to be deleted on the screen using
the mouse. Click Done when finished.
Clicking Undo will undo the deletions
in reverse order.
To block delete beams click the Block
delete beam elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished. Pressing
Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order one by one beam. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beams properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Click the Explode beams button to
explode the beam input. This results in the
list of beams being written, each on a
separate line without block generations etc.
Once done, it cannot be reversed.
On the beams input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Frame Analysis
3-29
Second moment of area about the local x-axis, Ix (not required for Space Truss analysis).
Second moment of area about the local y-axis, Iy (Space Frame domain only).
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
3-30
Frame Analysis
2.
Edit the value for the cross sectional area and change its sign to negative.
Note: The program uses the absolute value of the cross sectional area. The negative sign
entered merely enables the tension-only behaviour for beams of the given section group.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated
material.
To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open
the relevant material type screen and
select the materials that are required for
the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to
the input, you can select them by
clicking the Material column to drop
down a list.
Frame Analysis
3-31
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Click the Change beam properties
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the Get
properties button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beams properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
Undo button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
3-32
Frame Analysis
An element definition must include a thickness and material type. Refer to page 3-31 for more
detail on using materials.
Frame Analysis
3-33
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same group number using the Number of Extra
and Node no Inc columns.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
shells can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
The element 15-16-26-25 and the generated element 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
3-34
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shells click the Add
shell elements button. Enter the
material, thickness and shell
type (triangular or quadrilateral).
The easiest way to enter shells is
to define a plane in which they
lie. Click 3 nodes to indicate the
plane. The three node numbers
can also be typed directly into
the dialog. Also enter the
thickness of the plane. Only the
nodes lying in the plane and half
of the thickness on either side
are now displayed. If one now
moves the mouse across the
picture, possible shells are
shown in purple. Click the
mouse to have each shell entered
into the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way, click Dont use plane.
Pressing Undo will delete the shells in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete shells click the Delete
shells button and then select the
shells to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done
when finished. Clicking Undo
will undo the deletions in reverse
order.
To block delete shells click the Block
delete shell elements button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the
mouse. All shells inside the rectangle
will be deleted. Press Done when
finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo
All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Frame Analysis
3-35
On the shells input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
3-36
Frame Analysis
An element definition must include a material type. Refer to page 3-31 for more detail on
using materials.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated model, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Frame Analysis
3-37
The element 201-202-152-151-226-227-177-176 and the generated element 251-252-201-201276-277-227-226 are deleted.
3-38
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add solids click the Add
solids elements button. Enter the
material
and
solid
type
(tetrahedral,
wedges
or
hexahedra). At the time of
writing only hexahedra were
available for this function. The
easiest way to enter solids is to
define a plane in which they lie.
Click the set up plane button to
do this. Click three nodes to
indicate the plane. The three
node numbers can also be typed
directly into the dialog. Also
enter the thickness of the plane.
Only the nodes lying in the plane
and half of the thickness on
either side are now displayed. If
one now moves the mouse across
the picture, possible solids are shown in purple. Click the mouse to have each solid entered into
the input table. If you do not want to use a plane in this way anymore, click Clear Plane.
Pressing Undo will delete the solids in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by
one.
To delete solids click the Delete
solid elements button and then select
the solids to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click Done when
finished. Clicking Undo will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete solids click the
Block delete solid elements
button. Select a rectangle on the
screen with the mouse. All solids
inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press Done when finished.
Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse order one by one. Pressing Undo All will
undo all deletions done with this function.
Frame Analysis
3-39
Click the Change solid element properties button to change solid element properties. Enter
the desired material for the
solid(s) on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a solid. The
solids material property will then
be transferred to the dialog.
Clicking on solids will now change their material to that specified on the dialog. The Undo
button will undo the changes in reverse order.
Click the Explode solids
button to explode the solids
input. This results in the list of
solids being written, each on a
separate line without block
generations etc. Once done, it
cannot be reversed.
On the solids input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
3-40
Frame Analysis
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for K x would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add springs click the Add spring
elements button. Enter the spring
stiffnesses and orientation nodes on
the dialog.. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have springs entered into
the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the springs in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.
3-41
Press the Done button when finished. Pressing Undo will undo the deletions in reverse
order, one by one. Pressing Undo All will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the Change spring element
properties button to change
spring element properties. Enter
the desired spring stiffnesses and
orientation on the dialog. One can
also use the Get properties
button to do this. Click the button
and then click on a spring. The
springs properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking
on springs will now change their
properties to those specified on
the dialog. The Undo button will
undo the changes in reverse order.
On the springs input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the six degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X Y and Z-directions and
rotation about the X, Y and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil
support, and prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'Z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYZy'
means fixed against movement in the X, Y and Z-direction and rotation about the Y-axis.
3-42
Frame Analysis
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'XYZ'
or 'Y'. Avoid using a pin on an element to model an external hinge.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Prescribed displacements and elastic supports
Use the X, Y, Z, Rx, Ry and Rz columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations in
the direction of and about the X, Y and Z-axes. Being a global support condition, the effect of
the prescribed displacement is not considered to be a separate load case. Instead, the effect
Frame Analysis
3-43
of prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and
load combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y, Z, x, y and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Gap supports
Gap support are supports that work in one direction only and allow free movement in the
opposite direction, e.g. allow uplift. The sign of the gap support corresponds to the global axis
direction, e.g. a [+] input in the Y-direction provides support in the positive Y-direction
(upward reaction) and none in the negative Y-directions (i.e. uplift is allowed).
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphics
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 3-20 for
generating additional nodes.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
3-44
Frame Analysis
Frame Analysis
3-45
On the supports input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as
on the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Frame Analysis
The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically. Press Enter or Display to update
the picture.
A nodal load can, as its name implies, only be applied at a node. If a point load is required on
an element, use the Beam loads input table instead.
Sign conventions
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 3-6.
Tip: For a typical steel or timber frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at
each purlin position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as
nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Frame Analysis
3-47
3-48
Frame Analysis
Frame Analysis
3-49
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 3-6
and 3-6 respectively.
3-50
Frame Analysis
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction 'X', 'Y' or 'Z'.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a 'Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
You can also load a beam element parallel to its local y-axis by setting the load direction
to 'L' refer to page 3-6 for an explanation of the local axis convention used.
Types of beam loads
The following loads can be entered:
A point load's magnitude is entered in the P column and its position from the smaller node
number in the a column.
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity at the smaller and larger node numbers
in the W-begin and W-end columns respectively. If the load is constant over the length of
the element, W-end may be left blank.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional
element loads.
Block generation of beam loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional beam elements see page 3-27 for detail.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beam loads click the Add beam loads
button. Enter the loads, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
Frame Analysis
3-51
mouse on beams to have beam loads entered into the input table. Pressing Undo will delete
the beam loads in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by one.
To block add beam loads click the Block add
beam loads button. Enter the loads, direction
and temperature change on the dialog. The
load case also needs to be entered. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will have a beam
load added. Pressing Undo will delete the
beam loads in the reverse order in which they
were entered, one by one.
Frame Analysis
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a ''
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.
Tip: If the shell element numbers are not visible in the picture, edit the graphics options to
enable detailed rendering and disable the full 3D view. Refer to page 3-17 for detail on
changing the graphics options.
Sign conventions
Shell loads are applied parallel to the element's local z-axes an explanation of the local axes
of shell elements are given on page 3-6.
Types of shell loads
The following shell loads can be entered:
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity in the UDL column.
Frame Analysis
3-53
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads.
Block generation of shell loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional shell elements see page 3-34 for detail.
3-54
Frame Analysis
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add shell loads click the Add shell loads
button. Enter the UDL, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
mouse on shells to have shell loads entered
into the input table. Pressing Undo will
delete the shell loads in the reverse order in
which they were entered, one by one.
Frame Analysis
3-55
3-56
Frame Analysis
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column; followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability limit states are used as follows:
Deflections are calculated using the entered SLS loads. A set of reactions is also calculated
at SLS for the purposes of evaluating support stability and bearing pressures.
Frame Analysis
3-57
Element forces and a second set of reactions are determined using the entered ULS forces.
Tip: If you plan to use a working stress method to design the frame members, e.g. steel
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you may use the same load factors at ULS and SLS.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Input Wizards: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical frame
structures.
External Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and
converted to frame analysis input.
Input Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Input
Wizards do most of the data input. See page 3-18 for more detail on the Input wizards.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the input wizards modules. Instead, the input wizards merely serve to simplify input of
some typical frames.
Use Padds to draw the frame. Alternatively, import a drawing from another CAD system.
2.
The frame should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit. Identify different beam
sections by using different pen numbers.
3.
Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the target frame analysis module and press OK to start the conversion
procedure.
3-58
Frame Analysis
The file is saved in the working folder as a last file, e.g. ' Lastsf.a03' for Frame
Analysis.
4.
Close Padds.
Frame Analysis
3-59
When importing 3D .Dxf & .Dwg drawings, you can optionally interchange the Z- and Y-axes.
This option is given to correctly import a drawing where the Z-axis is taken as vertical, into
Frame Analysis where the Y-axis is vertical.
Typical problems experienced include the following:
Polylines may not be recognised correctly. Break or explode polylines into single lines
before saving the .Dxf file.
Blocks may not import correctly and may need to be broken or exploded into individual
entities.
Using AutoCAD, lines colours set 'by layer' translates to the default pen number. Rather
set colours using pen numbers to ensure correct section numbering.
If you experience problems importing a DXF file saved using a brand new version of your
CAD system, it may help saving the file as an older DXF file version, e.g. version 12.
CIMsteel
The Space Frame Analysis module can import complete frame models, including geometrical
and loading data, defined in the CIMsteel (Computer Integrated Manufacturing for
Constructional Steelwork) integration standard. Modelling packages that can create CIMsteel
files include Intergraph Frameworks and Microstation Structural Triforma. Note that at the
time of writing this feature had not been fully developed.
3-60
Frame Analysis
Settings
The Settings page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis method.
Analysis type
Select the type of analysis to be performed. Refer to page 3-13 for a description of the various
analysis modes.
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, fcu and fy.
Frame Analysis
3-61
Define the orientation for the 'main' and 'secondary' reinforcement, i.e. the x' and y'-axis.
Looking from the top, the x'-axis is measured anti-clockwise from the local x-axis to the
reinforcement x'-axis. The y'-axis is in turn measured anti-clockwise from the local x'-axis.
The direction of the local x-axis of a shell element is explained on page 3-6.
Define the reinforcement levels in the slab by entering the concrete cover values for the
top and bottom reinforcement in both directions.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Reinforcement tab under the View Output
age. Values are calculated for reinforcement at the top and bottom of shell elements. In this
context, top and bottom are defined as follows:
The top of a shell element is taken on the side towards which its local z-axis points.
For a non-vertical element, the top side is the visible side when looking down on the
element.
For a vertical element, the top side is the visible side if the nodes (as entered on the Shell
elements input page) defining the element are orientated anti-clockwise.
3-62
maximum number of forty mode shapes. Note that internally the program actually
calculates quite a few more mode shapes than specified to improve the accuracy of the
output for the modes that are specified. Because of this, the model should not contain too
few nodes. If no convergence is obtained, split the members into smaller portions by
adding extra nodes.
Frame Analysis
3-63
The number of mode shapes should preferably not exceed the number of degrees of
freedom in the structure divided by twelve.
In a harmonic analysis, use enough mode shapes so that the highest natural frequency is at
least 50% higher than the applied loading frequency.
For an earthquake analysis, the first three or four mode shapes are normally sufficient to
obtain the probable maximum combined effects.
3-64
Frame Analysis
Do not use too few nodes. If convergence is not obtained when calculating the natural
frequencies, add more nodes and split the elements. See also the first point above.
A static analysis is first performed with the mass of the structure, i.e. own weight and the
Y-components of the specified load cases, being the only load case.
The resulting axial forces are then incorporated when calculating the modified geometric
stiffness matrix of the structure. The geometric stiffness matrix is subsequently used to
modify the global stiffness matrix to account for the axial force effects.
The own weight of the frame, calculated using the density values entered in the Section
properties input table.
Own weight and distributed vertical loads are added using the consistent mass matrix
formulation. Point loads are added as lumped masses at the relevant nodes.
Note: In a seismic analysis all loads not selected as masses will be excluded from the
analysis.
Frame Analysis
3-65
Working stress no
more than about
half of yield stress
Working stress
near yield point
3-66
Frame Analysis
Damping
ratio
2%
3% to 5%
5% to 7%
5%
7%
Reinforced concrete
7% to 10%
10% to 15%
Design ground
acceleration
ii iii
0.003 g
iv v
0.01 g
Vi
0.03 g
vii viii
0.1 g
Ix
0.3 g
x xi
1.0 g
For structures, symmetrical and non-symmetrical, the seismic effects along two orthogonal
axes may normally be considered independently of each other.
The vertical components of selected load cases are included as masses when determining
the mode shapes. Refer to page 3-65 for detail.
All other effects of all load cases and combinations are ignored.
The dynamic response of the structure to the applied ground accelerations is amplified
with the specified design load factor.
Frame Analysis
3-67
The design load factor for forces and moments should be chosen in accordance with the
relevant loading code. At ultimate limit state, an average factor between 1.3 and 1.5 is
normally applied.
Spectrum reduction factor for vertical direction (seismic analysis only)
The relevant resonance frequencies of a structure in the vertical direction are generally quite
different from those in the horizontal direction. If it is deemed necessary to consider the effects
of vertical seismic motions, the average vertical design spectrum can often be reduced.
For typical bridge structures, TMH7 - Part 2 allows the average vertical design spectrum to be
taken as two-thirds the average horizontal seismic response spectrum.
Ductility (seismic analysis only)
The ductility of a structure is a function of the type and arrangement of the elements resisting
lateral forces. A unity value corresponds to perfect elastic behaviour and a value greater than
unity elastic-plastic behaviour.
Typical ductility values, taken from TMH7 - Part 2, are given below.
Type or arrangement of resisting elements
Un-braced structural steel structures with elements
adequately designed to resist the total lateral forces in
bending
Structural
ductility factor
If you enter a value greater than one, the elastic response spectrum will be adjusted to obtain an
appropriate inelastic response spectrum. The program allows you to adjust the design response
spectrum as required.
3-68
Frame Analysis
Foundation
factor f
1.0
1.2
1.5
TMH7 - Part2.
UBC 1194.
Alternatively, define a custom response spectrum by entering the ground acceleration for
damping ratios of 0.5%, 3%, 5% and 10% for nine different periods. Any period values can be
entered, including those for the acceleration/velocity and velocity/displacement bound regions
dividing points.
If the ductility value greater than unity is specified, the elastic response spectrum is adjusted to
obtain an inelastic response spectrum. The elastic spectrum, for any given damping ratio, is
modified along the displacement bound region by multiplying it with a factor 1/. Along the
acceleration bound region the elastic spectrum is multiplied by a factor 1/(2)..
Frame Analysis
3-69
Analysis
To analyse your model, open the analysis page and press start analysis. You can abort an
analysis in progress by pressing abort analysis, or clear the last analysis results by pressing
reset. Once the analysis has completed, you can view the results by opening the view output
page.
Analysis options
You can set the following options prior to analysis:
Load combinations only: Select this option to analyse only load combinations. If you do
not select this option, the individual load cases will also be analysed. Having the results
available for load cases will help you verify the accuracy of you analysis or understand the
behaviour of your model under those load cases, but it can slow down the analysis process
in some cases, e.g. non-linear analysis of large models.
Store output with input: With this option selected, the analysis results are saved with
your Frame Analysis input file. If you open the input file again at a later date, your
analysis results will be available immediately, allowing you to continue without needed to
run the analysis again. This feature is particularly useful when dealing with complex cases
that require a long analysis time.
Output file: If you choose to not store your output with your input, the program will store
your analysis results in a separate text file. You can enter the name for the output file;
historically Frame Analysis used the output file SF.OUT.
Save before analysing: If enabled, this option will automatically save your input file
before commencing the analysis. If something would go wrong during the analysis, you
will not lose your work.
3-70
Frame Analysis
The analysis progress is displayed to help you judge the time remaining to complete the
analysis.
After a successful analysis, the deflected shape is displayed for the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of modal or buckling analysis, the first mode shape.
Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the frame geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program can deal with a
situation like this and will allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.
Frame Analysis
3-71
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
During a second-order analysis, an element is removed from the frame as soon as its axial
force exceeds its Euler buckling load. If one or more elements have been removed from
the frame in this way, structural stability cannot necessarily be guaranteed any more. The
removal of a single element may cause a chain reaction of elements failing. If the
remaining members do not constitute a stable structure, the structure will fail. All member
forces in the output file will then be shown as ''.
A second order analysis fails in instability can be verified using a buckling analysis. You
can examine the buckling mode shapes to easily locate problem areas in the structure that
may require stiffening.
Slender non-structural elements often buckle before major structural members, distorting
analysis results. Such elements should preferably be excluded from the model.
If the linear and second order analysis results show negligible differences, the structure is
likely not sensitive to p-delta effects for the given loading. This is often true for truss-type
frames.
Tip: Perform a buckling analysis to get an indication of the general stability of the frame
under the entered loads. A frame with a buckling load factor less than unity normally
experiences the same local or global stability problems during a second order analysis.
Frame Analysis
View the deflection diagrams for each load case and satisfy yourself that their shapes and
magnitudes seem realistic. In the case of a dynamic analysis, check the shapes and
frequencies of the primary modes of vibration.
View the output file and compare the calculated total own weight with your estimates.
Inspect the equilibrium check to verify that each load case's applied loads and reactions
matches your hand calculations. If the program warns about an equilibrium problem, there
may be a stability problem in your model. In such cases, consider performing a buckling or
non-linear analysis to identify problem points in your model, e.g. members buckling in
compressions.
If the results of second order or non-linear analysis do not differ much from the results of a
linear analysis, the structure is likely not sensitive to p-delta effects or large deflections for
the given loading. This is typically true for truss-type frames and floor systems (grillages).
Error distribution: Peaks in estimated errors only in certain parts of the model suggests that
the basic mesh layout is sound. Refinement of the mesh may be needed in the zones where
the estimated errors are large.
Error location: Small stress differences in critical portions of the model may be significant.
Likewise, if you are interested in the stresses in a certain part of the model, large stress
difference in remote portions may have not significant effect in the part considered.
Stress smoothing: By smoothing stress, you can improve accuracy in some cases (by
balancing out errors). However, you should not use stress smoothing to try hide real
problems in your model.
In most cases you can be improved the accuracy of the analysis by optimising the finite
element mesh, e.g. using smaller elements is zones of stress concentration. When making this
decision, you should consider both the local and global characteristics of your model.
Frame Analysis
3-73
Design Links
Once the analysis is complete, Frame can link up with other Prokon modules for further postprocessing and design. This is done on the Design links tab:
3-74
Steel connections: Select this option on the left hand side of the screen. Now click on any
node in the structure. A dialog with possible connections will appear as shown above. The
program will look at the types of members meeting at the node. These members must be
steel members selected from the Prokon database. There should also be at least two
members meeting at the node. If for example, there are no hollow sections at the node, the
Hollow section connection option will remain greyed. For the Apex connection the
members must be I- or H-sections. Check the type of connection that you want. Sometimes
there is more than one possible connection of the chosen type at the node. The desired
connection can be chosen from the drop-down(s) to the right of the connection type
Frame Analysis
chosen. Pressing OK will convert the output data and transfer it to the relevant
connection design module.
Concrete columns: Select rectangular or circular column on the left hand side of the
screen. Now select a member on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred
from Frame and the relevant column design module will be opened.
Concrete base: Select Concrete base on the left hand side of the screen. Now select a
support node on the screen with the mouse. The data will be transferred from Frame and
the base design module will be opened. Note that only support nodes can be selected.
Member design modules: Separate buttons are provided to call up Member design for
axial stress, Member design for combined stress and Timber member design. Each of
these modules will open with the current structure and output, ready for further processing.
Important note regarding load combinations: If the analysis was a linear analysis, the
load combinations are broken up using the load factors entered in Frame. In the case of a
second-order analysis, the results of a combination are not necessarily equal to the sum of
the load cases times their load factors, due to the secondary effects taken into account. The
program will calculate appropriate load factors, which will be similar to the ones entered,
but adjusted so that the sum of load case forces times load factors gives the final forces
calculated by Frame.
Frame Analysis
3-75
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Mode shapes: In the case of a dynamic or buckling analysis, you can display the mode
shapes one-by-one. Use the Animate function to bring a mode shape to life. If you tick the
record animation box, the animation is stored as an animated .gif file as shown below.
3-76
Frame Analysis
Note: Mode shapes should not be confused with deflections. Mode shapes represent the
natural dynamic characteristics of a structure. Values are normalised with the maximum
"displacement" given as one thousand.
Reactions: The reactions forces and moments at all supported nodes are displayed. The
arrowheads points in the direction of each reaction.
Axial forces: The force is shown as expanded red and blue lines. Compression forces
are shown in red and tension forces in blue. The distance of a line from the element
centre line is in proportion to the size of the axial force.
Moments: Bending moments about the local x and y-axes. A plot factor can also be
entered to enlarge or reduce the bending moment diagram on the frame.
Shear: Shear force diagrams are drawn for the local y and x-directions. A beam
element's shear force diagram is constructed by viewing it with its local z-axis
pointing to the right. Since the direction of the z-axis depends on the node numbers,
irregular numbering of nodes can result in apparent irregular signs used in the shear
Frame Analysis
3-77
force diagrams. Refer to page 3-7 for detail on the sign conventions used for beam
element forces.
3-78
Torsion: The torsional moment about the z-axis, i.e. element axis.
Envelopes:
Enter a series
of elements
and select the
load case and
combinations
to include in
the envelopes.
Envelopes are
drawn using
the values as
tabulated
from the output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and
negative above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the
same envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces
of members.
Frame Analysis
Maximum and minimum stresses: These correspond to the largest tensile and
compression stresses respectively. Positive values indicate compression and negative
values tension.
Von Mises stresses: The Von Mises stresses give a graphical indication of a yield
criterion, i.e. a general indication of the combined effect of all stresses. The
Von Mises stresses takes into account in-plane stresses as well as bending stresses and
is presented for both the top and bottom faces of the shell elements..
Frame Analysis
3-79
3-80
The x, y and xy bending moments: The bending moments about the local x and yaxes and the torsional moment. The direction (not axis) of bending is shown as a small
line on each shell element.
The x, y and maximum shear forces: The shear forces are in local x and y-axes.
The maximum shear stress is also given and is obtained by dividing the maximum
shear force by the thickness of the element.
Frame Analysis
Reinforcement in shells:
Contours of the required reinforcement in the top and bottom faces in the x' and y'directions are given. The corresponding Wood & Armer moments from which the
reinforcement was calculated is also given. The reinforcement direction is shown as a
small line on each shell. Refer to page 3-61 for the definition of the reinforcement
directions.
Tip: If the lines indicating the direction of bending or of the reinforcement is not clearly
visible, enable detailed rendering under the graphics options. Refer to page 3-17 for
instructions.
Tip: Shell element stress contours are drawn on the deflected shape of the structure. Careful
choice of the deflection magnification factor can enhance contour diagrams.
Frame Analysis
3-81
Stresses in solids:
The stresses presented are the direct stresses in the X, Y and Z directions, the shear stresses in
the XY, XZ and YZ planes, the 3 principal stresses 1,2 and 3 as well as the maximum shear
stress and the von Mises stress. For solids all the stresses are plotted in the global co-ordinates.
3-82
Frame Analysis
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find heading function allows you to quickly locate any main section of the output file.
If you right click on the output, various editing functions are available. For example, you can
search for any string by pressing Ctrl and F.
Frame Analysis
3-83
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
3-84
Frame Analysis
3-85
Scope
The program analyses membrane structures of any general shape, including openings. The
cases of plane stress and plane strain are both supported. Element grids are automatically
generated with a customisable grid size.
3-86
Sign conventions
When entering coordinates and forces, the following sign convention is used:
Positive Y-coordinates and vertical forces are taken upward, i.e. parallel to the Y-axis.
Positive X-coordinates and horizontal forces are taken to the right, i.e. parallel to the
X-axis.
In the analysis results, deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection
therefore denotes an upward movement.
3-87
Input
Use the four input tables, i.e. Nodes, Supports, Material properties and Loads, to define the
structure's geometry and loading.
Nodes input
A structure is defined by entering one or more shapes. A shape may comprise straight lines and
arcs. When more than one shape is entered, the shapes will accumulate and form one structure.
Often, a complicated section is easier defined using more than one shape.
Note: Shapes must be entered in an anti-clockwise order.
An explanation of the node input table is given below:
The Mat. No. column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
1 to 9 : The start of a new polygon with the specified material property. An absolute
reference coordinate must be entered in the X and Y columns. If you leave X or
Y blank, a value of zero is used.
0 : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the X
and Y columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Mat. No. column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
A : Enter an 'A' in the Mat. No. column blank to make the coordinate absolute.
Use the Bulge column to define an arc of a specified radius. Consider an imaginary line
joining the previous coordinate and the coordinate entered in the X and Y columns. A
bulge greater than zero then defines an arc to the right of the line. Similarly, a negative
bulge draws an arc to the left of the line. If no bulge is specified, a zero value is used, i.e. a
straight line.
You do need to close the polygon defining a shape the starting coordinate is automatically
used as the ending coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes
preference and the previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be
entered on top of previously entered shapes.
3-88
Nodes are automatically numbered as they are input. You can later use the node numbers to
position supports and loads.
Supports input
You can define point supports, distributed support and prescribed displacements anywhere
along the edges of the structure. Supports are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point support or a range of nodes for a
distributed support, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by
the straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
XY support : Enter 'X' and/or 'Y' for horizontal and/or vertical support.
Displ. : Specify the value of any horizontal or vertical prescribed displacement in the
relevant column (m).
Note: Point supports invariably result in localised stress concentrations, with the effect
increasing for smaller element grids. It is therefore recommended to avoid point supports
and rather distribute each support over as large a width as possible.
3-89
Material properties
The following material properties must be input for every material property code used in the
Code column of the Nodes input table:
t : Thickness (m).
E : Modulus of elasticity (kN/m3). If left blank, the value for the preceding
material type is used. Typical values are tabled below.
Poisson : Poisson ratio. If left blank, the value for entered in the previous row is used.
Typical values are tabled below.
Dens : Density on (kN/m3). Typical values are tabled below.
Material
E modulus
(kPa)
Poison's
ratio
Density
(kN/m3)
Masonry
10E6
0.20
20 - 25
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
0.20
24
Aluminium
70E6
0.16
27
Structural steel
205E6
0.30
78
Loads input
Point loads and distributed loads can be defined anywhere along the edges of the structure. Use
as many lines as necessary to define the loads.
Loads are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point load or a range of nodes for a
distributed load, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by the
straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
X : The load direction can be either 'X' or 'Y' for horizontal or vertical respectively.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity at the smaller node number (kN/m).
Wright : Distributed load intensity at the larger node number (kN/m).
3-90
a : Distance from first node to beginning of distributed load (m). A value of zero
is used if field is left blank.
b : Length in m, of distributed load. The load is taken up to the ending node if this
field is left blank.
Note: Positive forces are taken to work upward and to the right.
3-91
Analysis
On completing the input, go to
the Analyse page to analyse the
structure. Following a successful
analysis, use the View page the
display the analysis results.
The following text describes the
analysis options that are
available and gives information
on finding and fixing analysis
problems.
Analysis options
During the analysis, the program generates a rectangular grid of nodes in which rectangular
and, where necessary, triangular finite elements are placed. The grid spacing can be set
independently in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Choose Settings to set the grid spacing and other analysis options:
Type of analysis: Enter 'E' for plane stress or 'A' for plane strain.
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Analysis results
The analysis results can be viewed and printed in tabular or graphical format:
Elastic deflections.
Maximum principal stresses, i.e. the largest tensile stresses. Positive values indicate
tension and negative values
compression.
Minimum principal
i.e. the largest
compression
Negative values
compression.
stresses,
possible
stresses.
indicate
3-93
If the program is unable to analyse the structure, there may be errors in the input. A
common mistake is the definition of shapes in a clockwise direction the program expects
anti-clockwise input.
Stress concentrations will be present at positions of point loads and point supports. Such
concentrations are further exaggerated when using finer element grids. In practice, loads
and supports rarely act at points, but rather on small areas. It is likewise recommended to
spread all point loads and supports over small lengths.
3-94
Calcsheets
The finite element analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-95
3-96
3-97
Sign conventions
When entering forces and moments, the following sign convention is used:
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
3-98
Input
The beam definition has two main input components:
Loads.
Beam input
The following values must be entered:
Length : The overall length of the beam (m).
M Left : The applied moment at the left-hand end (kNm). If you leave the field blank, a
zero moment is used, e.g. the beam is simply supported. You can also fix an
end by entering an 'F' or make it a free cantilever end with a 'C'.
M Right : The applied moment at the right-hand end (kNm).
3-99
E modulus (kPa)
Timber
5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium
70E6
Structural steel
205E6
Section input
The moment of inertia of a standard steel section can be selected from the section database.
You can also define your own sections or remove sections from the database.
Own weight
On selecting a steel section form the database, the own weight is automatically entered as a
uniform distributed load.
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
3-100
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end extent of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the righthand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
3-101
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
3-102
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-103
3-104
3-105
Positive vertical forces act downward, i.e. parallel to the negative Y-axis.
Deflections are measured along the Y-axis. A positive deflection indicates uplift and
negative deflection a downward movement.
Bearing pressure is also measured along the Y-axis. A positive bearing pressure denotes an
upward reaction.
Shear forces are measured along the Y-axis. A positive shear force at the left edge of the
beam, for example, represents an upward vertical reaction.
Analysis procedure
The program performs a linear analysis in which the beam is modelled as a two-dimensional
frame on a series of least fifty closely spaced springs. Rigid supports are put at the specified
positions and gaps in the elastic support where the supporting width is set to zero. Nodes are
taken at close intervals along the length of the beam. A node is also introduced at every support
and load position.
If negative soil pressures are not allowed, i.e. uplift is allowed, springs with negative reactions
are removed and the analysis repeated. Likewise, previously removed springs are restored if
downward deflections are calculated at the points concerned. The analysis procedure is
repeated until the iteration converges to a stable solution.
A beam is considered unstable, i.e. to overturn under the applied load, if the analysis yields less
than two springs with compressive forces.
3-106
Input
The beam definition has several input components:
Supports input
Loads.
Beam input
The beam is defined as one or more segments, each with its own properties. The following
values must be entered:
Lsec : The length of a beam segment with a specified stiffness and support width (m).
You may enter more than one segment to define a beam varying section or an
elastic medium of varying stiffness. Each additional beam segment entered is
added to the right-hand side of beam.
Isec : The stiffness of the beam segment, express as the second moment of inertia of
the relevant cross section (m). The value of Young's modulus, applicable to the
whole beam, is entered under the analysis settings.
Bsec : The support width of the beam segment (m). This beam width is multiplied by
the foundation modulus of the soil, Km, to obtain the support stiffness per unit
length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness, i.e. a gap in
the elastic medium.
Supports input
Use the Support input columns to enter rigid supports in the elastic medium:
Position : A rigid support position, measured from the left-hand side (m).
Support : You can set the support type to vertical and/or rotational:
Support
Description
YR
3-107
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the righthand edge of the beam.
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Analysis settings
Press Settings to edit the material constants and other parameters to be used in the analysis:
E modulus: Young's modulus for the beam (kPa). Values for typical building materials are
tabled below:
Material
3-108
E modulus (kPa)
Timber
5E6 to 15E6
Concrete
(normal strength)
25E6 to 35E6
Aluminium
70E6
Structural steel
205E6
K modulus (kN/m3)
Loose sand
4 800 to 16 000
9 600 to 80 000
Dense sand
32 000 to 80 000
24 000 to 48 000
Clayey soil:
qa 200 kPa
12 000 to 24 000
24 000 to 48 000
> 48 000
The foundation modulus, K, is a conceptual relationship between the soil pressure and
deflection of the beam. Because the beam stiffness is usually ten or more times as great as
the soil stiffness as defined by K, the bending moments in the beam and calculated soil
pressures are normally not very sensitive to the value used for K. Recognizing this,
Bowles suggests that the value of K can be approximated from the serviceability limit state
bearing capacity, qa, as being 40 qa (kN/m3) or 12 qa (k/ft3).
Note: The foundation modulus, Km, is multiplied with the support width to obtain the
support stiffness per unit length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness,
i.e. a gap in the elastic medium.
3-109
Example
The sketch shows an 800 mm wide by 300 mm deep beam is modelled on an elastic
foundation:
The first fourteen meters of its length is supported on very stiff clay. The foundation
modulus is set to 40 000 kN/m3.
The beam crosses a rock intrusion ten meters from the left that provides vertical support.
The beam then spans four meters over a ditch, i.e. no support. This is modelled by entering
a zero section width.
On the other side support is provided on a strip of hard clay, two meter wide. The hard
clay is modelled by increasing the support width to 1.2 m. The resulting effective
foundation modulus is then given by 1.2/0.8 x 40 000 = 60 000 kN/m3.
The beam is loaded with a long trapezoidal distributed load, twelve meters long, a point
load and a moment at its right-hand end.
3-110
Analysis
Press Analyse to display the analysis results:
Bearing pressure.
Bending moment.
3-111
Calcsheet
The beam analysis results can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
3-112
Chapter
4
Steel Member Design
The steel member design modules can be used for elastic and plastic design of structural steel
members. Several modules act as post-processors for the frame analysis modules, facilitating
integrated frame analysis and design.
4-1
Quick Reference
Steel Member Design using PROKON
4-3
4-5
4-33
4-65
4-77
4-2
Girder design
Specialised modules are available for designing crane gantry girders and plate girders.
4-3
4-4
Use Strut for checking and optimising steel members subjected to axial stress only,
e.g. truss members.
Combine is used for checking and optimising steel members subjected to a combination of
axial and uniaxial or biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams and columns in frames.
The steel member design modules primarily act as post-processors for the frame analysis
modules. Both modules also have an interactive mode for the quick design or checking of
individual members without needing to perform a frame analysis.
4-5
Design scope
The steel member design modules can design hot-rolled sections subjected to axial stress or a
combination of axial and bending stresses.
Strut can be used to design any hot-rolled section for axial stress. Because the design
procedure is relatively simple, design results are presented in tabular format. This feature
makes the program especially useful when designing of a large number of struts and ties.
Combine can design hot-rolled double symmetric sections and channels subjected to axial
and bending stress. Non-symmetric sections like angles are not supported. More design
checks need to be performed for each member requiring more detailed output.
Strut and Combine use a similar design approach. Although there may seem to be a degree of
overlapping in their design features, the two modules rather complement each other with
specialised individual design functions. You will typically use them to design the different
components of the same structure, e.g. design a roof truss in Strut and its supporting columns
in Combine.
Note: Support for cold-formed sections is not provided. However, hot-rolled hollow circular
and rectangular sections may be designed with the programs if such sections are deemed to
have relatively thick walls with a resulting low risk of local buckling.
Tapered sections
The current versions of Strut nor Combine cannot design tapered sections, e.g. haunches in
portal frames. When evaluating members with varying sections, the section type at the first
node is used over the whole length of the member.
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
AS4100 - 1998.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA-S16.1-94.
4-6
Units of measurement
The steel design modules support the following units of
measurement:
Metric.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Ane/Ag : Effective area factor with which the gross sectional area must be multiplied to
obtain the effective sectional area, reduced for fasteners holes. The factor
applies to elements subjected to tensile axial stress only.
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling (Combine only).
Kv : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the v-v (weakest) axis of the member (Strut only).
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress
4-7
Ky : Factor with which the member length must be multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the local y-y axis of the member.
AISC:
F : Applied axial force (kN or kip).
Fy : Specified minimum yield strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
Fu : Specified minimum tensile strength of steel (MPa or ksi).
L
/r : Slenderness ratio.
/r : Slenderness ratio.
/r : Slenderness ratio.
/i : Slenderness ratio.
/r : Slenderness ratio.
4-9
/r : Slenderness ratio.
4-10
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis generally
corresponds to strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending. For
non-symmetric sections like angles, the x-x and y-y axes are horizontal and vertical with the
v-v axis representing the weakest axis.
Tip: The exact orientation of the v-v axis of a mono-symmetric section can be determined
using the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec.
Axial force and moment
The local axes system and force directions are defined as follows:
P-delta effects
Design codes generally allow stability effects to be taken into account in buckling checks by
reducing design capacities or amplifying design moments or axial forces. Trusses are normally
not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta effects to be an important
part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame analysis.
Second order analyses
The desirability of a second order analysis is echoed in the various design codes:
AISC LRFD: Section C1 states that an analysis of second order effects is required for
frames. This is done by second order elastic analysis or first order analysis with
amplification factors B1 and B2.
4-11
SABS 0162 - 1984: Encourages second order analysis of frames with sway by limiting the
coefficient for variable bending moment, , to no less than 0.85 in the absence of second
order analysis.
The programs do not make automatic adjustments to take account of stability effects. If
deemed necessary, you should conduct a second order analysis using the Plane Frame
Analysis or Space Frame Analysis modules.
When post-processing a second order frame analysis, Combine also performs a second order
analysis for each member. This generally results in more economic design of sections.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Effective area factor
When an element is subjected to a tensile axial force, allowance should be made for the reduction
in sectional area due to fastener holes.
The various design codes follow similar approaches for calculating the effective area factor, for
example:
CSA S16.1: When calculating the allowable tensile force, allowance is made for reduction
of the effective net area for shear lag (clause 12.3). The effective area is thus effectively a
function of the yield strength and ultimate strength of the steel (clause 13.2).
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: The same clauses apply as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
4-12
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: The same clauses apply as for CSA S16.1.
Considering a plane truss, the effective length Lx relates to in-plane buckling. For struts where
rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners or a welded connection,
a value between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible,
e.g. single bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
The effective length Ly relates to buckling out of the vertical plane. This phenomenon can often
govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can buckle in a snakelike 'S'
pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral restraints are normally
provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced purlins connected to the top
flange of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the purlin spacing.
The effective length Lv relates to buckling about the v-v axis, i.e. the weakest axis, and requires
special attention. Because movement about the v-v axis requires movement about both the x-x
and y-y axes, Lv is usually set equal to the least of Lx and Ly.
Effective length factors for beam-columns
The codes give similar guidelines, for example:
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending. Refer
to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993 and SANS 10162: Same as for CSA S16.1.
Note: CSA S16.1, SABS 0162 and SANS 10162 clause 9.3.2 allows the effective length
factor for compression members to be reduced to 1.0 if a second-order frame analysis has
been performed. A second order analysis will therefore normally yield a more economic
design.
Consider a typical portal frame subjected to dead and live load. The effective length L x relates
to buckling in the plane of the portal, i.e. about the strong axis of each member. The length L y
relates to out-of plane buckling, i.e. weak axis buckling. This value is typically set equal to the
distance between restraining purlins and sheeting rails.
4-13
The effective length Le relates to lateral torsional buckling of a members compression flange
about its weak axis. The length depends on the distance between restraints of the compression
flange. For rafters with purlins restraining the top flange, Le can therefore be set equal to Ly in
zones of sagging moment. However, if the rafter is relatively deep and no special precautions
are taken, the purlins could possibly have no effective restraint on the bottom flange.
Therefore, where the bottom flange is in compression, i.e. zones of hogging moment, longer
effective lengths for lateral torsional buckling will apply.
Note: The current versions of Strut and Combine cannot design tapered sections. The use
of haunches in the sketch is merely for the sake of explaining the effective lengths. See
page 4-6 for more detail.
Slenderness limits
The different codes specify similar slenderness ratios for members in compression, typically 200.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 300 is generally used. When launching
Strut or Combine, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default.
You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or combination
if required. For example, in the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, the maximum
slenderness ratio may possibly be increased, e.g. SABS 0162 - 1984 clause 8.4 and
BS 5950 -1990 clause 4.7.3.2 allows a slenderness ratio of 250.
4-14
Strut designs members for axial stress only and can therefore read the results of Plane
Frame Analysis, Space Frame Analysis and Space Truss Analysis. The Grillage
Analysis and Single Span Beam Analysis modules are used to analyse beams and are
therefore excluded.
Combine designs members for combined axial and bending stress can therefore read the
results of Plane Frame Analysis, Grillage Analysis, Space Frame Analysis and Single
Span Beam Analysis. The Space Truss Analysis is used to analyse trusses with axial
forces only and is therefore supported by Strut instead.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the frame design procedure can be broken up into
the following steps:
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 4-17.
The Members page (Combine only): Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths.
Refer to page 4-27 for detail.
The Design page (Combine only): Evaluating the design results. See page 4-29 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 4-31 for detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress
4-15
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Interactive page (Strut) or Input page (Combine): Choose a design approach, set the
design parameters and enter the element loads. In Strut, results are displayed interactively
on the same page. Refer to page 4-23 for a detailed explanation.
The Design page (Combine): Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on
page 4-29.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 4-31
for detail.
4-16
Tasks input
On entering Strut or Combine, it defaults to reading the last compatible frame analysis for
post-processing. You can then choose to:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results: Define one or more design tasks by
grouping members with relevant design parameters.
Interactive design: Ignore the frame analysis and interactively input and design members.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 4-23.
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
The Input page is used to manage design tasks for post-processing frame analysis output.
The Interactive page is used for entering data pertaining to interactive design of members.
Read data from: Use this option to load the output of a different frame module than the
one displayed. Click the box and select the relevant file from the list or enter a file name.
4-17
The design of a frame should be simplified by breaking it into one or more manageable tasks.
Each task then defines a group of members to be designed together with the relevant design
parameters to be used.
Once you have defined one or more design tasks, the Calcsheet page (Strut) or Design page
(Combine) is enabled viewing that page automatically performs all design tasks.
After having carefully defined a number of tasks, you can save the task list to disk for later
re-use. This means that you can return to the relevant frame analysis module, make some
changes to the structure, re-analyse it and then repeat the previous design tasks by simply
reloading the task list.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1.
2.
If you choose to select the lightest section, then also choose a profile to use.
3.
4.
5.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
4-18
2.
3.
Make the necessary changes to the selected members, design parameters etc.
4.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: In Combine, saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes
and effective lengths entered in the Members page.
4-19
4-20
Use the Laterally unsupported (F7) function to indicate those nodes that are supported
all other nodes are then assumed to by unsupported. The program uses the shortest path
between the specified nodes to identify the relevant elements. Leave a blank line to end a
series of supported nodes or use the New group function to start a new series of laterally
supported nodes. You can manually enter node numbers or click them on the picture.
The following apply to the calculation of effective lengths when you indicate laterally
unsupported members:
Lx and Lv remain a function of the individual element lengths between adjacent nodes.
Tip: To keep the design of a large truss manageable, consider using more tasks and
specifying fewer nodes at a time.
4-21
4-22
Interactive input
The interactive design mode offers an alternative method of designing members. Instead of
performing a frame analysis and then and post-processing the results, you can enter member
length and forces and design them interactively.
To enable the interactive design mode:
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 4-15
Evaluate current sections: This approach allows you to specify a section size for each
member. Use the Profile (F5) function to select a section.
4-23
Designation: Profile or section chosen using Profile (F5). With 'select lightest section'
enabled, you only need to choose the type of profile. With 'Evaluating current section'
selected, you should select a section for evaluation.
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
4-24
X/Y: Axis of bending relating to the values that follow next. Use as many lines as
necessary to define the loading on the member about the x-x and y-y axes.
M1: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y axis (kNm
or kipft).
W1: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m or
kip/ft).
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress
4-25
A: Position of the point load, measured from the left end (m or ft).
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
4-26
Enter internal node numbers in the table or click them with the mouse.
Use the Auto Select function to let the program detect all internal nodes.
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
4-27
Apply the same value of Kx, Ky or Ke to all members by clicking the Kx, Ky en Ke
buttons in the table heading.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 4-17 for detail.
4-28
Design results
In Strut the design results are shown on the Calcsheet page. In Combine, select the Design page
to perform all design tasks and display the design results. All specified load cases and
combinations are considered for each member designed. Unless a very large number of elements
and load cases are involved, the design procedure will normally be completed almost
instantaneously.
By default, the results for the design task active on the Input page are displayed. The results of
any other design task can be displayed by selecting the task from the list (see description below).
If an interactive member design was performed, the displayed results will be for the interactive
design task instead.
The interaction formulae given by the relevant design code are used to evaluate the effect
of axial stress or combined effect of axial stress and bending stress. In calculating the
allowable stresses, the program takes account of the member slenderness and effective
tension area.
The slenderness ratio checked against the specified maximum allowable slenderness ratio
for compression and tension.
Note: Strut designs members for axial stress only and ignores any bending stresses.
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress
4-29
Click the Detailed Equations button to view step-by-step design calculations for the current
member.
Task to Calcsheet: Add the design results of all members in the current task, including
those members not currently displayed.
4-30
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on the Calcsheet page for sending to Calcpad or
immediate printing.
Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheets page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
4-31
4-32
The plastic collapse mechanism and load factors can be determined for a series of load
combinations.
The frames plastic behaviour can be optimised to achieve more economical sections.
Elastic design of a steel frames can be done using the Plane frame Analysis or Space Frame
Analysis modules in conjunction with the steel member design modules axial and combined
stress, Strut and Combine. See Chapter 4 for detail.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To evaluate non-linear behaviour of
frames, the recommended procedure is to use the Frame Analysis module and perform a
non-linear analysis. See Chapter 3 for more information.
4-33
Design scope
The use of plastic design methods is normally limited to the design of continuous beams and
single storey frames with rigid joints, e.g. portal frames. It may also be acceptable to use plastic
methods for designing some braced multi-storey planar frames.
Determining plastic mechanisms
The program performs an elasto-plastic analysis of plane frames. A rational analysis approach
is followed to obtain a true collapse mechanism for each load case or combination:
1.
A linear elastic analysis is performed to determine the position of the first plastic hinge.
2.
The bending moment at that position is then limited to the relevant plastic moment while
the position of the next hinge is calculated.
3.
4.
If the formation of further plastic hinges results in the bending moment at one of the
existing hinges to decrease, that hinge is removed and elastic behaviour re-instated at that
position.
5.
Analysis modes
Depending on the analysis module used, the following types of analysis can be performed:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
4-34
No optimisation: Evaluate the frame with sections as entered and calculate the adequacy
against collapse for each load combination.
Plastic Frame Design
Design codes
The program uses general plastic theory. Working within their scope, the program can be
considered to support the all the limit state design codes supported by Strut and Combine. See
page 4-6 for a list of design codes.
Note: SABS 0162 - 1984 use an allowable stress design method for elastic design. For
plastic design, however, it adopts an ultimate limit state design method.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for element forces. You can also apply loads in the direction of
a beam element's local y-axis. The local axis system is defined as follows for beam elements:
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
4-35
The x-axis is taken parallel to the global Z-axis, i.e. pointing towards you. A rotation about
the x-axis is thus always anti-clockwise.
The y-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and z-axes, using a right-hand rule.
Note: In this manual the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Units
Metric
Imperial
Distance
mm, m
ft, inch
Force
N, kN
lb, kip
Use the Units commands on the Options menu to change the units for the current analysis:
Set Units: Changes the units of measurement without altering the input data.
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
4-36
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the frame geometry and loading:
General input: Select the analysis type and special analysis parameters.
Beam sections input: Enter properties or read sections from the database.
Spring elements input: For special effects, optionally enter spring elements.
Beam element loads input: Uniform distributed, triangular and trapezium loads on beams.
Load combinations input: Group dead, live and wind loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page Error!
Bookmark not defined..
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new view point or camera position.
Graphics:
Select whether you want items like node numbers and supports to be displayed.
Choose whether you want all beam elements or only a certain type to be displayed.
4-37
Choose
quick
or
detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
4-38
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Analysis type
Choose between performing a simple linear elastic analysis or a plastic analysis. Refer to page
4-34 for an explanation of the analysis modes.
Plastic design parameters
You need to set the following analysis parameters when performing a plastic analysis:
Plastic analysis tolerance: The plastic analysis is an iterative procedure. The analysis is
deemed to have converged once the total strain energies of two sequential iterations differ
by less than the specified tolerance.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads and Beam loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
4-39
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Parametrics
The parametric plastic frame
input modules are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append to
the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the parametric
input modules to generate
complicated structures.
Note: Plasdes is not limited to analysing only those frames generated by the parametric
modules. The program can treat any general two-dimensional frame. The parametric
modules merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
A descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use when
you save the input data.
4-40
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the frame. A unique number must
be assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Y-coordinates in the X and Y columns. If you leave X or Y blank, a value of zero is used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
4-41
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes are generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Y-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m to the right at 0.472 m downward,
i.e. along the X and negative Y-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes
are thus (1.945,-0.472) and (3.085,-0.944).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
4-42
X
0.00
2.00
4.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
Y
5.12
5.12
5.12
5.62
5.62
5.62
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Y-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Y columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment about the Z-axis.
Example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10.0,1.5). The node
Plastic Frame Design
4-43
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Z-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise on
the screen using a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. 'A12' to copy line 12 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Mirror
Nodes of a plane frame or grillage can be mirrored horizontally or vertically by entering an 'M'
in the No column, followed by the start and end line numbers.
Mirror example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 are mirrored about a vertical (horizontal for a grillage) line
through X=10 m. Node numbers are incremented with 5. By specifying a Y or Z-value instead
of an X-value, nodes can be mirrored about a horizontal line passing through the specified Y or
Z-value.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
4-44
4-45
Section orientation
The local y-z plane of an element is taken
in the global X-Y plane. The principle
can be illustrated by considering an Isection in its normal orientation. For this
case, the web will always be considered
to be in a vertical plane.
A section can be rotated through ninety
degrees by selecting the alternative
orientation when reading it from the
section database.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the Supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case the normal convention of smaller and larger node numbers
does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the nodes have
been entered.
4-46
Example:
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, you should take care to ensure overall stability of the frame. Consider two
elements on a straight line with pins at all three relevant nodes, for example. The centre node
will be unrestrained for rotation about the element axis, resulting in instability during
the analysis.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
Tapered beams
The current version of Plasdes does not support tapered sections.
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly fix sub-structures to each other. To define a rigid link, enter
'R' in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum stiffnesses of the other beams with a factor, typically one thousand.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
4-47
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting beams
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
4-48
Example:
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Reading sections from the database
Use the Section database function to display and select sections from database. You can add
your own sections, e.g. plate girders, to the database using the procedures described in
Chapter 2.
Entering haunches
Haunched sections are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To
add a haunch of 280 mm to a '305x102x66' BS taper flange I-section, enter '305x102x66
(0.280h)'. The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 4-15 more detail.
4-49
Note: Although haunched sections can be entered, Plasdes does not support analysis of
members with tapered sections. A tapered haunch in a typical portal frame, for example,
should be modelled by entering one or more members that approximate the stiffness of the
actual haunch.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the General input page.
4-50
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated material. To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open the relevant material type screen and select the
materials that are required for the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to the input, you can select them by clicking the Material
column to drop down a list.
Adding materials to the global database
The procedure to permanently add more materials to the database is described in Chapter 2.
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
4-51
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" so as to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for K x would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the three degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X and Y-directions and
rotation about the Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil support, and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYz'
means fixed against movement in the X and Y-direction and rotation about the Z-axis.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
4-52
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, you should enter 'XY' or 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Prescribed displacements and elastic supports
Use the X, Y and Rz columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations in the direction
of the X or Y-axis or about the Z-axis. Being a global support condition, the effect of the
prescribed displacement is not considered to be a separate load case. Instead, the effect of
prescribed displacements is added once only to the analysis results of each load case and load
combination.
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, Y and z columns.
The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or
rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an entered
value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S column
blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphic
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 4-42 for
generating additional nodes.
4-53
Sign conventions
4-54
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 4-35.
Tip: For a typical steel frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at each purlin
position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodal loads
Additional nodal loads can be generated using the Number of extra and Node number inc
columns respectively.
Block generation of nodal loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of nodal loads. The procedure is similar to that
for generating additional nodes see page 4-43 for more detail.
4-55
For a distributed load, entered in the load intensity at the smaller and larger node numbers in
the W-begin and W-end columns respectively. If the load is constant over the length of the
element, W-end may be left blank.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Node number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional
element loads.
Block generation of beam loads
You can use the block function to copy blocks of beam loads. The procedure is similar to that
used to generating additional beam elements see page 4-48 for detail.
4-56
Deflections are calculated using the entered SLS loads. A set of reactions is also calculated
at SLS for the purposes of evaluating support stability and bearing pressures.
A second set of reactions and all element forces are determined using the entered ULS
forces.
Plastic Frame Design
4-57
Note: Unlike elastic design, which is done using an allowable stress design technique,
plastic design to SABS 0162 - 1984 is done at ultimate limit state. Refer to clause 12.2 and
Table 30 for guidance on load factors to be used.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
4-58
Analysis
On completing the frame input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Use the General input page to select the analysis mode:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Note: The results of an optimising plastic analysis should not be regarded as a final solution.
You should return to the input data and enter the suggested or other preferred sections and
then re-analyse the frame as a final check.
4-59
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
4-60
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Moments:
Bending
moments about the local x
and y-axes. A plot factor
can also be entered to
enlarge or reduce the
bending moment diagram
on the frame.
Shear:
Shear
force
diagrams are drawn for the
local y and x-directions. A
beam element's shear force
diagram is constructed by
viewing it with its local zaxis pointing to the right.
Since the direction of the zaxis depends on the node
numbers,
irregular
numbering of nodes can
Plastic Frame Design
4-61
result in apparent inconsistent signs used in the shear force diagrams. For detail on the
sign conventions used for beam element forces, refer to page 4-36.
Envelopes: Enter a series of elements and select the load case and combinations to
include in the envelopes. Envelopes are drawn using the values as tabulated from the
output file. Positive moments, for example, are drawn below the line and negative
above. Because members of different orientations can be included in the same
envelope, no simple distinction is made between tension and compression faces of
members.
Tip: When working with complicated frames, you may prefer adding one or more zoomed
pictures to the Calcsheets instead of a single cluttered picture. To do this, simply into a
picture and then use the Add to Calcsheets function.
4-62
Calcsheets
Frame analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
4-63
4-64
4-65
Design scope
Crane gantry girders are generally constructed from rolled I-beams or welded plate girder, and
channel capping beams are often used to stiffen top flanges. The program checks and optimises
crane gantry girders made of rolled or welded I-sections or box sections with or without
capping beams. One or two simultaneous cranes can be specified.
The design procedure for crane gantry girders is similar to that used for statically loaded
girders. The various loading codes recognise the varying degree of duty of different types of
crane and give parameters for horizontal transverse effects. In the case of heavier duty cranes,
especially, certain aspects of the design and construction may additional special consideration.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
IS:800 - 2007.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2).
b : Width of capping beam top flange (mm).
bbot : Width of main beam bottom flange (mm).
btop : Width of main beam top flange (mm).
Cw : Warping torsional constant (mm4).
4-66
4-67
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a crane gantry girder:
Effective lengths
The codes give guidelines for determining effective length factors for flexural members:
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending. Refer
to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
4-69
Input
Design input comprises five categories:
General parameters: Design parameters including general characteristics of the girder, load
factors, support conditions.
Main beam sections: Dimensions and material properties of main beams sections.
Capping beam sections: Dimensions and material properties of optional capping beams.
Spans: Section composition and lengths along the length of the girder.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered.
General design parameters
Spans can be made continuous or simply supported. If this entry is left blank, full
continuity at supports is assumed.
Modulus of elasticity. The entered value is used for all main beam and capping beam
sections.
The rail height is used as eccentricity when applying horizontal crane loads.
The effective length factor for a typical span relates to effective length for lateral torsional
buckling. This will depend on the degree of fixity at the supports and the de-stabilizing
effect of applied loads.
During the analysis each crane is moved step-wise across the beam to determine the force
and deflection envelopes. A larger step can be used for an initial analysis and a smaller
step for the final design. A smaller step size will yield a more accurate analysis and
smoother output diagrams but will result in a longer analysis time.
4-70
Dead load factor: Factor by which the dead load, i.e. the self-weight of the girder,
bridge and crab, is to be multiplied to obtain the ultimate limit state design load.
Live load factor: Factor by which the live loads are to be multiplied
Combined live load factor: Factor by which both the horizontal and vertical live loads
must be multiplied if they are considered as acting together. This factor is usually
smaller than the normal live load factor.
When designing a girder for two cranes, enter the minimum spacing between the cranes.
Crane Gantry Girder Design
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Vertical: Amplification factor for vertical loading per wheel, including the effect of
impact.
Horizontal surge: Factor for transverse force due to acceleration and braking of the crab.
The program assumes that surge forces are transmitted via the wheel flanges. The full
effects of such forces are applied perpendicular to the crane track.
Misalignment: For the effects of misalignment of the bridge's wheels or the crane tracks.
The misalignment forces are applied as two equal opposing forces.
Skewing: Allows for skewing of the bridge. Skewing forces are applied as two equal
opposing forces.
L/D vertical: Vertical deflection limit, given as a ration of the span length.
Design options
Two design approaches are available:
You can choose to evaluate the capacity of entered beam sections to carry the specified
loads.
The main beams and capping beam sections can be optimised to obtain the lightest
sections capable of resisting the design loads.
For square and rectangular hollow sections only h, b-top and tf-top are required.
Crane Gantry Girder Design
4-71
The value for r2 and applies to sections with tapered flanges only.
Each main beam section must be given a unique number for easy reference when defining
the girder.
Spans
The data for a typical span comprises a span number, span length, main beam section number
and, if required, capping beam section number.
Length : The length of a segment (m). Segment lengths are added to get the total length
of the girder.
Section M : Main beam section number.
Section C : Capping beam section number. Leave blank if no capping beam is used.
Any combination of previously defined main and capping beams may be used. However, you
should take care that the capping beam will correctly fit over the main beam.
Crane data
Enter the loading and dimensional data for the cranes. In the case of a single crane analysis,
simply leave the information for the second crane blank.
Capacity : The rated lifting capacity of crane (T, i.e. 10 kN units).
Class : The crane class designates its type of use:
Class
Type of use
4-73
4-74
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The design calculations include the following:
Section properties for each combination of main beam and capping beam sections used.
Design checks for each span, including checks for the critical section and overall member
strength.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for axial
force. If required, the output equations can be edited to include bending about the minor axis.
To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and choose Edit.
4-75
4-76
4-77
Design scope
Welded plate girders can often be effectively and economically used as flexural sections. Modern
mechanised manufacturing and automated welding techniques have simplified the production of
plate girders greatly, boosting their popularity.
The program is capable is designing I-shaped sections with identical or different top and
bottom flanges. You can also make the section properties vary along the length of the girder to
model a tapered element.
Tapered sections
CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections. You can
however choose to use the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990 to design tapered elements.
Bi-axial bending moment
Plate girders are normally used to resist high bending moments and/or vertical shear forces.
The program correspondingly assumes that these effects would govern the design and does not
explicitly perform the checks for bi-axial bending moment.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output formulae can be manually adjusted to
include bending about the minor axis.
Buckling under axial compression
The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is small and therefore uses the full
moment capacity for bending about the major axis. No capacity reduction is made on account
of buckling about the major axis.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
4-78
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
General design parameters
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2).
Bbot : Width of bottom flange (mm).
Btop : Width of top flange (mm).
Cw : Warping torsional constant (mm4).
fyf : Yield strength of flange (MPa).
fyw : Yield strength of web (MPa).
h : Total height of section (mm).
Ix : Second moment of area about major axis (mm4).
Iy : Second moment of area about minor axis (mm 4).
J : St. Venant torsional constant (mm4).
ry : Radius of gyration about minor axis (mm).
Tb : Bottom flange thickness (mm).
Tt : Top flange thickness (mm).
Tw : Web thickness (mm).
Zcx : Compression flange section modulus about major axis (mm3).
Ztx : Tension flange section modulus about major axis (mm 3).
Zplx : Plastic section modulus about major axis (mm3).
Zply : Plastic section modulus about minor axis (mm3).
Zy : Section modulus of entire section about minor axis (mm 3).
Stresses, forces and related entities
BS 5950:
Ag : Gross sectional area (mm2).
F : Applied axial load (kN).
Plate Girder Design
4-79
4-80
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a plate girder:
Effective lengths
The effective length of a member depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end
of the member. The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is relatively small
and hence uses the full bending capacity for bending about the major axis.
However, the program allows you to specify positions of restraints for lateral torsional
buckling of the compression flange. You can apply a different effective length factor to each
unsupported length, e.g. different factors for a cantilever end and internal continuous lengths.
Guidelines given in the codes include:
BS 5950 - 1990: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending.
Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1 - M89: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
4-81
BS 5950-1990: The equivalent uniform moment and slenderness correction factors, m and
n, may not be less than 0.43 and 0.65 respectively.
CSA S16.1 - M89: The equivalent uniform bending moment, 1, may not be less than 0.4
and the moment gradient factor, 2, may not be higher than 2.5.
SABS 0162-1984: The values of the coefficient for varying bending moment, , may not
be less than 0.4. For members subjected to sway, should not be taken less than 0.85.
The program automatically calculates the above factors and restrict their values to the
minimum and maximum values specified.
4-82
Input
Design input comprises five categories:
Spans: Section variations and lengths along the length of the girder.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered:
The shape of a flexural member's bending moment diagram influences its lateral torsional
stability. The design codes use different design factors to accommodate this phenomenon.
See page 4-82 for more details.
The entered support width is used to calculate local buckling and crushing of the girder's
web at every support.
Specify whether the program should calculate and add the girder's own weight in the
analysis.
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Enter an axial force, with a positive force denoting compression (kN or kip).
Note: Although the program allows you to enter an axial force, it does not check for
buckling under axial load. The effect of axial compression is assumed to be so small as not
to cause a reduction in the moment capacity for bending about the major axis.
Sections
You can define a variety if I-section by entering the dimensions for the web and top and
bottom flanges. If different grades of steel are used for the flanges and web, you should enter
the appropriate yield strengths for each. Each section should be given a unique number for easy
reference when defining the girder.
4-83
Spans
The plate girder is entered as one more continuous
segments. Up to twenty segments may be defined by
entering the following values in the Section Lengths
input table:
Note: CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections.
When designing such elements, the program gives the option to use the weakest portion of
such elements or to design of them using the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990.
Loads
Applied loads may comprise distributed loads, point loads and moments. Positive forces and
moments are taken to work downward and anti-clockwise respectively:
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied at the left-hand starting
position of the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of
zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied on the right-hand ending
position of the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to
Wleft, i.e. a uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN or kip).
M : Moment (kNm or kipft).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m or ft). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of
the girder. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is
taken to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m or ft). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the girder.
4-84
Note: Applied forces are taken to be design loads at ultimate limit state. For allowable stress
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
Lateral supports
Specify the positions of lateral support by entering the unsupported lengths. A unique effective
length factor can also be entered for each length. Refer to page 4-69 for more details.
Note: The program always draws the specified lateral supports on the top flange. During the
analysis, however, these positions are taken to define lateral supports of the compression
flange, whether it is the top or bottom flange that is actually in compression.
4-85
4-86
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The calcsheets include a Data File for easy recalling of the analysis from Calcpad.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output equations can be edited to include
bending about the minor axis. To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and
choose Edit.
4-87
4-88
Chapter
5
Steel Connection Design
The steel connection design modules can be used for design of common welded and bolted
steel connection.
5-1
Quick Reference
Steel Connection Design using PROKON
5-3
5-5
5-15
5-25
5-33
5-45
5-2
The PROKON suite includes several design modules for typical steel connections.
Shear connections
Bolt groups and weld groups can be designed for eccentric in-plane shear.
Moment connections
The following types of moment transmitting connections can be designed:
Simple connections
Simple beam to column connections that do not transmit moments:
5-3
5-4
5-5
The effective applied column force and moment is applied to the base plate as a point load
in the flanges and a uniform distributed load in the webs of the approximated section.
The application of the axial force as uniform distributed load in the webs serves as a
mechanism to model the stiffening effect of the webs on the base plate.
The base plate is analysed as a beam on an elastic support. The resulting concrete bearing
stresses or stud forces are applied to the base plate during its analysis.
Unstiffened base plates are analysed using elastic theory. A rectangular perimeter that
encloses the column cross-section is considered and the bending stress in the base plate
evaluated on each of its four sides. The required base plate thickness is calculated by
limiting the bending stress on each of the lines that extend from edge to edge and passing
over a side of the rectangle.
Stiffened base plates are analysed using yield line theory. Since this is an upper bound
method, allowable stresses are reduced by 20%.
The interaction between the base plate and supporting concrete or grout layer is taken in
accordance with the relevant code. When using BS 5950 - 1990, for example, the parabolic
stress-strain relationship given in BS 8110 - 1997 is used. Similarly, the parabolic
relationship given by SABS 0100 - 1992 is used when designing the base plate using
SABS 0162 - 1993 and CSA A23.3 M89 for CSA S16.1 - 1989. In the case of allowable
stress design to SAB 0162 - 1984, a linear stress-strain relationship is assumed.
5-6
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
General design parameters
a1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a2 : Distance from the right edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a3 : Distance from the bottom edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
centre line of the bolts (mm).
a4 : Distance from the top edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the centre
line of the bolts (mm)
bg : Bolt grade, e.g. 4.8.
B : Width of the column flange (mm).
D : Overall depth of the column (mm).
fcu : Cube strength of bedding concrete or grout (MPa).
L : Length of the base plate (mm).
L1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the column flange (mm).
Studs : Enter 'Y' if the bolts are used as studs, i.e. the base plate transmits all tension
and compressions forces to the bolts. Enter 'N' to transmit compression forces
to the bedding concrete or grout.
W : Width of the base plate (mm).
W1 : Distance from the top edge of the base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
corner of the column flange (mm).
Stresses, forces and related entities
C : Design compression force in the connection (kN).
Base Plate Design
5-7
5-8
Input
Define the beam and column connection geometry by entering the relevant information in the
input table.
Column dimensions
To read a column section from the section database, select the section type and choose a
profile. For non-standard sections such as plate girders, you can enter the relevant dimensions.
Tip: To move the column to the centre of the base plate, use the Centralise Column
function.
5-9
Special configurations
You can model some special configurations:
The bolts can be moved inside the column flanges by sufficiently increasing the values of
a1 and a2.
The input table allows you to change the bolts to studs, i.e. transfer the column loads in the
bolts rather than support the plate on the bedding concrete.
5-10
Design
The base plate connection is designed twice, with and without plate stiffeners.
5-11
The unstiffened base plate thickness is calculated using normal elastic theory. For a stiffened
base plate, however, the required plate thickness is determined using yield line theory. If
tensile forces are dominant, the number of bolts used also influences the plate thickness.
5-12
Calcsheets
The base plate connection design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending
to Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
5-13
Drawing
Detailed drawings can be generated for designed connections. Drawings can be edited and
printed using Padds.
Generating a drawing
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the dimensions.
Change the values to suite your special requirements.
Required information:
Connection properties:
Plate thickness.
Stiffener size.
Weld sizes.
5-14
5-15
Design scope
The moment connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit shear, moment
and axial force. Only forces in the plane of the connection are considered, i.e. vertical shear,
axial compression or tension and in-plane moment. The connections may be bolted or welded.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the connecting beams or beam and column are in the same plane.
Connections are deep enough for each sections flanges to resist the prevailing
compressive and tensile forces.
Compressive forces in the flanges and stiffeners are transmitted through the welds and not
through bearing.
Longitudinal and transverse welds in the web plates are full size butt welds.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
BS5950 - 1990.
BS5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS0162 - 1993.
5-16
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Sign conventions
Design loads are the forces transmitted by the right-hand side beam onto the connection:
A positive moment corresponds to a tensile force in the top flange of the beam.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meanings of the
symbols are clear from their use in the design output.
With an elastic analysis, the bolt furthest from the compression flange will have the largest
tensile force. Forces load will reduce linearly in bolts closer to the compression flange.
In the case of a plastic analysis, all the bolts have the same force.
Prying action
In moment connection, prying action can be prevalent. The prying forces and method of failure
depend on the layout of the design, the thickness of the plate or flange in question and the
strength of the bolts.
A yield line analysis method is used to calculate three resistance values for each relevant
portion of the connection:
The smallest of the three resistance values is taken to be the ultimate resistance.
Moment Connection Design
5-17
Input
The moment connection design modules use a similar procedure for data entry:
Members: Set the connection type and properties of the beams or beam and column.
Members
Define the type of connection and the design parameters:
Define the connection type by selecting an end plate configuration, e.g. no end plate, end
plate flush at the top and bottom of the beam or extending at the tope and/or bottom.
Settings
Use Settings to set the bolt, weld and member material properties:
5-18
Loads
Enter any number of load cases. For each load case:
Use a maximum of six characters to enter a descriptive load case name or load case
number, e.g. 'Dead', 'DL + LL' or '1'.
Specify the axial force, shear force and moment that the right-hand side beam exerts on the
connection.
The SLS factor is divided into the entered ULS loads to obtain service loads.
Note: All entered loads should be ULS loads. The corresponding SLS loads are obtained by
dividing the entered ULS loads by the SLS factor. The SLS factor should thus be set equal
to the relevant ULS load factor divided by the SLS load factor.
5-19
Design
The design table lists all variable dimensions and parameters of the connection. A value for
any property in the table can be calculated using the Optimise function. You can also
selectively fix values for any individual properties to suite your preferences:
Select values for all properties that should have specific values. To obtain a specific bolt
layout, for example, enter preferred values for the bolt offsets.
Tip: For a table summarising the design results, go to the Calcsheet page.
5-20
After optimisation, you should evaluate each of the values calculated by the program. You are
then free to refine the results by selectively entering more appropriate values. After adjusting
some values, you may wish to optimise some of the other values again.
Note: Several valid design solutions are possible for any particular connection. The
optimised results calculated by the programs should be regarded as one such solution.
5-21
Calcsheet
Open the Calcsheet page to view the detailed design calculation. The information on the can
be printed or sending to Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular
design summaries and the complete design calculations.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
5-22
Drawing
Detailed drawings can be generated for designed connections. Drawings can be edited and
printed using Padds.
5-23
5-24
5-25
Design codes
The program designs according to recommendations given in Annex K of Eurocode 3 - 1992.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols and sign conventions are used as in the design codes:
Section dimensions
bi : Width of a section (mm or inches).
hi : Height of a section (mm or inches).
hw : Web height of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
i : Section number. The main chord is identified by i = 0 and the left, right and
centre chords by i = 1 to 3 respectively.
ro : Radius between the web and flange of an I-section or H-section (mm or
inches).
ti : Thickness of a section, i.e. wall thickness of a hollow section or flange
thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
tw : Web thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
Joint geometry
g : The clear gap between bracing as measured member on the chord surface (mm
or inches). A negative value denotes an overlap.
Symmetry : Enter 'Y' to make an X-joint symmetric, i.e. mirrored about the main chord. If
you enter 'N', bracing members continue along their axes to the other side of
the main chord.
X-joint : Enter 'Y' to put bracing elements on both sides of the main chord, i.e. an Xjoint. This option can only be used in combination with K, N and T joints
where a circular hollow section is used as the main chord. Enter 'N' for bracing
members on one side of the main chord only.
5-26
: Out-of-plane separation angle between two sets of bracing members (). The
angle must lie between 60 and 90. This option is useful when modelling
joints in triangulated trusses. If this option is used, all setting relating to
X-joints are ignored. Leave this field blank if you do not want to use this
option. The option can only be enabled when a circular hollow section is used
as main chord.
1 : Angle between the main chord and the left bracing member (). The angle must
be between 30 and 90.
2 : Angle between the main chord and the right bracing member (). The angle
must be between 30 and 90.
3 : Angle between the main chord and the centre bracing member (). The angle
must be between 30 and 150. The angle must also by greater than 1 and
smaller than (180 - 3).
Forces and stresses
Es : Modules of elasticity of steel (GPa or Mpsi).
fy : Yield strength of main chord or bracing members (MPa or ksi).
N0 : Ultimate axial force in the main chord (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a
compression force.
N1 : Ultimate axial force in the left bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a compression force.
N2 : Ultimate axial force in the right bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a compression force.
N3 : Ultimate axial force in the centre bracing member (kN or kip). A positive value
denotes a tensile force.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. When changing from one
system of units to another, the program automatically converts all input data.
5-27
Input
The definition of the connection requires you to enter geometrical and loading data.
A single bracing member should be entered as either the left or right bracing member.
The centre bracing member can be defined only after defining both the left and right
bracing members.
X-joints can be defined only if the main chord is a circular hollow section.
X-joints can be made symmetric by enabling the relevant option in the table.
A separation angle for a 3D joint can only be used if the main chord is a circular hollow
section.
Tip: Use the 3D rendering option to view and rotate the connection in 3D.
5-28
5-29
Design
The design checks are performed as prescribed in the code, including the following:
Geometrical evaluation of the connection to ensure compliance with the design codes.
Design of welds.
5-30
Calcsheet
The connection design output is given on a calcsheet. You can choose to print the information
immediately or rather send it to Calcpad.
Tip: The Data File embedded in the calcsheet can be used for easy recalling of the design
from Calcpad.
5-31
5-32
5-33
Design codes
The programs support the following design codes:
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Bolt group geometry
d : Bolt Size.
a1 : Horizontal bolt spacing
a2 : Vertical bolt spacing
nr : Number of rows of bolts in the group.
nc : Number of columns.
5-34
Material properties
fu : Ultimate strength of steel or weld.
fy : Yield strength of steel.
Applied loads
F : Force.
x : Force horizontal eccentricity
y : Force vertical eccentricity
: Force angle
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. In addition, you can also choose
between units within the selected system, e.g. between mm and cm.
Analysis principles
The program designs bolt groups and fillet weld groups subjected to eccentric shear using
either linear or non-linear strength relationships.
Linear analysis
Eccentrically loaded fastener groups are usually analysed by considering the group areas as an
elastic cross-section subjected to direct shear and torsion. Assuming elastic behaviour, the
group's centre of rotation is taken as the group's centroid. The deformation of each fastener is
then assumed proportional to its distance from the assumed centre of rotation.
The elastic method has been popular because of its simplicity and has been found conservative.
Salmon and Johnson1 quotes the ratio between actual strength and service loads to be in the
range of 2.5 to 3.0.
Non-linear analysis
The non-linear method, also called plastic analysis or instantaneous centre of rotation method,
assumes that the eccentric load causes a rotation as well as a translation effect on the fastener
group. The translation and rotation is reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the
instantaneous centre of rotation.
C. G. Salmon and J. E. Johnson, "Steel Structures, Design and Behaviour", Third Edition
(1990), Harper Collins Publishers.
Shear Connection Design
5-35
Similar to the linear method, the deformation of each fastener is taken proportional to its
distance from the instantaneous centre of rotation. The load in each fastener is however
determined using the non-linear strength expression proposed by Fisher2 and used by
Crawford and Kulak3:
Ri Rult 1 e 10
0.55
The relationship assumes a bearing-type connection and ignores slip. The coefficients 10 and
0.55 were experimentally determined. For the given experimental setup, the maximum
deformation, , at failure was about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm).
Salmon and Johnson1 conclude that the plastic analysis method is the most rational approach
to obtain the strength of eccentric shear connections.
Application of the non-linear strength relationship
For the purpose of its application
in
the
connection
design
modules, the strength relationship
has been normalised and
rewritten:
0.55
J. W. Fisher, "Behaviour of Fasteners and Plates with Holes", Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 91, STD6 (December 1965).
3
S. F. Crawford and G. L. Kulak, "Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections", Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, 97, ST3 (March 1971).
5-36
R Ru 0.5sin 1.0
1.5
where
Ru = Ultimate strength of a fillet weld loaded with longitudinal shear
R = Resistance of a fillet weld when the loading angle equals .
The relationship was determined empirically and implies the resistance in a weld element will
vary between 1.0Ru for longitudinal shear and 1.5Ru for transverse shear.
Application of non-linear method
The program divides the weld group into a discrete number of finite weld elements. When
performing a non-linear analysis, the instantaneous centre of rotation is determined through
iteration. The following criteria are used:
The Lesik and Kenedy equation is used to determine the resistance of each weld element
for the relevant load direction.
The deformation in an element is taken to vary linearly with the distance from the
instantaneous centre of rotation. At ultimate limit state, the element furthest from the
centre of rotation is assumed to experience the maximum deformation.
The ultimate resistance of each element for longitudinal shear is determined using the
non-linear strength relationship explained above.
5-37
Input
The definition of bolt groups and weld groups follow the same basic pattern. However, the
geometry of weld groups is entered using a slightly more complex method of polygon
definition.
Analysis method.
Analysis method.
Material strengths.
Weld geometry.
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
'+' : The start of a new weld. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in
the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Blank : Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'L' : Indicates a line drawn using polar coordinates.
5-38
'A' : An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured anti-clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
'B' : Sets the bearing, or starting angle, for the next entity, likely an arc.
'C' : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
Note: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Shear Connection Design
5-39
A reference coordinate which gives the starting point of a weld or the centre of a circle. In
the Code column, enter a '+' to indicate the start of a new weld.
One or more entries defining the weld's coordinates of lines and arcs or a circles radius.:
Enter the absolute values of the reference coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns.
If the Code column is left blank, the coordinate is taken relative from the last point
entered.
The coordinate values are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. A negative
X or Y coordinate must be preceded by a minus sign. The plus sign before a positive
X or Y coordinate is optional.
A circular arc is defined by setting the Code to 'A' and entering the radius in the
X/Radius column. The arc is then taken to extend from the end point of the last line
or arc, starting at the angle that the previous line or arc ended and extending through
the angle specified in the Y/Angle column. To set the bearing, or starting angle, of an
arc use a 'B' in the Code column followed by the angle in the Y/Angle column.
Define a circle by setting the centre point using the Code '+' described above. On the
next line enter the Code to 'C' and the radius in the X/Radius column.
Weld generation
Click the 'standard' shapes for
quick generation of welds.
Enter the required dimensions
and orientation angle. Press
Add to input to append the
shape to the bottom of the
table. The default values of X,
Y and are set to the ending
values of the last weld
segment.
5-40
Design
Shear distribution in bolt groups and weld groups are calculated in similar ways:
The applied force causes an equal force in each of the bolts parallel to the force.
The rotational shear force in each bolt is taken proportional to the distance to the centroid.
The strain of each bolt is proportional to its distance from the centre.
The force on each bolt is calculated assuming the non-linear strength model explained
form page 5-35.
5-41
Equilibrium of external and internal forces is considered and the rotational centre adjusted.
The rotational shear force in each segment of a weld is taken proportional to its distance
from the centroid.
The strain in each segment of the weld is taken proportional to its distance from the centre
of rotation.
The force on each segment is calculated assuming the non-linear strength relationship
explained from page 5-35.
External and internal forces are compared and the centre of rotation adjusted to improve
equilibrium.
5-42
Calcsheet
The connection design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular design summaries etc.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
5-43
5-44
5-45
Design scope
The simple connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit end shear and
axial force only. A designed connection has negligible resistance to rotation and is thus
incapable of transmitting significant moments at ultimate limit state.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the beam and column are in the same plane.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
BS5950 - 1990.
BS5950 - 2000.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
5-46
Sign conventions
All applied shear forces are entered as loads in the beams local axes:
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meaning of the symbols
should be clear from their use in the design output.
5-47
Input
The simple connection design modules use a similar procedure for data entry:
Members
Define the connection orientation and profile to use for each member:
Double angle cleat connection: Select an angle section and enter the cleat length.
Fin plate and end plate connections: Enter a plate height, width and thickness.
Define the relative element positions by entering the spacing between the column and
beam and the vertical position of the cleat or connecting plate.
Tip: Click the Auto size and Auto spacing buttons for quick input of workable dimensions.
Design parameters
Select the connection shear
analysis method and define the
fastener and member material
properties:
5-48
Enter the strength properties of the beam, column and connection members.
Connections
The layout of the bolts on the
connecting member is defined
by entering their number and
spacing.
In the case of angle cleats, the
connections to the beam and
column are defined independently.
Tip: Click the Auto size and
Auto spacing buttons to
quickly input a workable bolt
layout.
View connection
To verify that you have defined
the connection geometry as you
intended, you can view it from
several angles:
5-49
Loads
Enter any number of load cases. For each load case:
When
designing
high
strength friction grip bolts at
serviceability limit state,
also enter the relevant
service loads.
5-50
Calcsheet
Open the Calcsheet page to design the connection. The design output is grouped on a calcsheet
for printing or sending to Calcpad. Various settings can be made to include input data, tabular
design summaries and the complete design calculations.
To view the individual bolt forces, open the Bolt forces page.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
5-51
5-52
Chapter
6
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.
Concrete Design
6-1
Quick Reference
Concrete Design using PROKON
6-3
6-5
6-41
6-97
6-125
Column Design
6-137
6-155
6-171
6-185
6-193
6-201
6-2
Concrete Design
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crack width, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crack width requirements.
6-3
6-4
6-5
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous concrete beams and slabs. You can design
structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams and
slabs. Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. Spans can have
constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. At
ultimate limit state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Reinforcement can be generated for various types of beams and slabs, edited and saved as
Padds compatible bending schedules.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
6-6
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-14). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
6-7
The South African loading code, SANS 10162, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjustment the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, this load case can be incorporated by
increasing the entered dead load or increasing the ULS dead load factor. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are
calculated
for
pattern
loading
and
then
redistributed
using
the
procedures explained in the
following text.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution
method aims to reduce the
hogging moments at the
columns without increasing
the sagging moments at
midspan. The redistribution
of moments and shear forces
procedure is performed as
follows:
1.
2.
6-8
The shear forces for the same load cases are adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
1.
The maximum hogging moment at each internal support is adjusted downward by the
specified percentage. This adjustment affects the moment diagram for the load case where
the maximum design load is applied to all spans.
2.
The relevant span moments are adjusted accordingly to maintain static equilibrium.
3.
The minimum hogging moment at each internal support is subsequently adjusted upward
to as close as possible to the reduced maximum support moment, whilst remaining in the
permissible redistribution range. A second load case is thus affected for each span.
4.
The relevant span moments are adjusted in line with this redistribution of the column
moments to maintain static equilibrium.
5.
For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
6.
7.
8.
Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
9.
The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (b0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
10. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: The exact amount of moment redistribution specified is always applied, irrespective
of the degree of ductility of the relevant sections. Where necessary, ductility is improved by
limiting the neutral axis depth. This is achieved by adding additional compression
reinforcement.
6-9
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
serviceability limit state.
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross uncracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
1.
The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
2.
The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
1.
2.
The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
3.
The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
4.
The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
6-10
Considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
2.
The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment. The resulting moment
is then applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
3.
The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the
central sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the actual
section.
The width of the column strip is initially taken as half the panel width. The total design
moment is then distributed between the column and middle strips as follows:
Moment position
Column strip
Middle strip
75%
25%
Moments at midspan
55%
45%
Continuous Beam and Slab Design
6-11
2.
The middle strip is widened by fifty percent from half the panel width to three-quarters of
the panel width.
2.
2.
3.
6-12
Consider the column strip like a beam and provide stirrups equal to or exceeding the
calculated required shear steel.
A narrower column strip is obtained with a uniform transverse distribution of main bars
and a narrow zone of shear links.
Detailing of the adjoining middle strips is also simplified by the usage of uniform
reinforcement distributions.
The design procedures for flat slabs and coffer slabs are described in more detail on page 6-38.
6-13
Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
Parameters input
Enter the following design parameters:
fcu : Characteristic strength of concrete (MPa).
fy : Characteristic strength of main reinforcement (MPa).
fyv : Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
Redistr : Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied.
Method : Method of moment redistribution, i.e. downward or optimised. For more
information, refer to page 6-8.
Cover top : Distance from the top surface of the concrete to the centre of the top steel.
Cover bottom: Distance from the soffit to the centre of the bottom steel.
DL factor : Maximum ULS dead load factor.
LL factor : Maximum ULS live load factor.
Note: The ULS dead and live load factors are used to calculate the ULS design loads. The
ULS dead and live loads are then automatically patterned during analysis. Refer to page 6-7
for more information.
Density : Concrete density used for calculation of own weight. If the density filed is left
blank, the self-weight of the beam/slab should be included in the entered dead
loads.
LL perm : Portion of live load to be considered as permanent when calculating the creep
components of the long-term deflection.
: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
cs : Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
6-14
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design
6-15
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical and horizontal offsets of sections are use used for presentation and
detailing purposes only and has no effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
Y-offset : Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset : Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the
web is moved to the right.
Flange offset : Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left blank,
the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive
value means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The shear steel design procedure works with the
entered web area, i.e. Bw D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods produce
similar pictures, their shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input page are used here with segment lengths to define
spans of constant or varying sections.
6-17
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no : Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was
applicable to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current
span.
Section length : Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left : Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Sec No Right : Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank, the
section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If
the entered section number differs from the one at the left end, the section
dimensions are varied linearly along the length of the segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no : Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F : The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made
fixed by entering 'C' or 'F' respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational
fixity is assumed, e.g. the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D : Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured
in the span direction of the beam/slab.
B : Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H : Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will still be considered as a normal simple support. However,
when generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to
half the support depth past the support centre line.
6-18
Code : A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying 'P'. If you enter 'F' or
leave this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-7.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L : Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span : Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span
number is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
6-19
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-14.
6-20
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
6-21
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the Design pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections are calculated by analysing the beam/slab under pattern loading using the
gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-10 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-7.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
Detailed design calculations
You can view the detailed design calculations at any
position along the length of the beam by displaying the
Steel output page, and then clicking on the Detailed
Calculations button.
6-22
Using incorrect units of measurement. For example, span lengths should be entered in
metre and not millimetre.
Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.
The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
To verify the extent of cracking along the length of the beam/slab, you can study the contents
of the Crack file. Check the cracked status and stiffness of the relevant sections. The extent of
cracking along the length of the beam/slab is usually a good indication of its serviceability.
6-23
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial longterm deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
6-24
Steel diagrams
Bending and shear reinforcement
envelopes are given for ULS
pattern loading. The bending
reinforcement diagram sows
required top steel above the zero
line and bottom steel below.
6-25
Reinforcing
Reinforcement can be generated for the most types of continuous beam and slabs using the
automatic bar generation feature. Reinforcement is generated in accordance to the entered
detailing parameters after which you can edit the bars to suit your requirements.
To create a bending schedule, use each detailing function in turn:
Detailing parameters: Select the detailing mode, enter you preferences and generate the
reinforcement.
Detailing parameters
The detailing parameters set the rules to be used by the program when generating
reinforcement:
Beam/slab type: Different detailing rules apply to different types of beams and slabs:
Type
6-26
Description
Main reinforcement
Shear reinforcement
Normal beam
Nominal reinforcement
as for beams
Beam shear
reinforcement
Nominal reinforcement
as for slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
Column strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
Middle strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
Main reinforcement in
accordance with
moment distribution
between column and
middle strips. Nominal
reinforcement as for
slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
Separate punching
shear checks should
be performed.
Rib
Nominal reinforcement
as for slabs.
Shear reinforcement
as for beams.
Maximum bar length: Absolute maximum main bar length to be used, e.g. 13 m.
Minimum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The minimum bar diameter to
be used in each if the indicated positions.
Maximum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The maximum main bar
diameter to be used in each if the indicated positions.
Tip: To force the program to use a specific bar diameter, you can enter the same value for
both the minimum and maximum diameters.
Note: The default bar types used for main bars and stirrups, e.g. mild steel or high tensile,
are determined by the yield strength values entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-14 for detail. High tensile steel markings, e.g. 'T' or 'Y', will be used for specified
values of fy and fyv exceeding 350MPa.
Stirrup shape code: Preferred shape code to use for stirrups. Valid shape codes include:
6-27
First bar mark - top: The mark of the first bar in the top of the beam/slab. Any
alphanumerical string of up to five characters may be specified. The rightmost numerical
or alpha portion of the bar mark is incremented for subsequent bars. Examples of valid
marks include:
First bar mark - middle: The mark of the first bar in the middle of the beam/slab. If you
do not enter a mark, the bar marks continue from those used for the top reinforcement.
Middle bars are generated for all beams with effective depth of 650 mm or greater.
First bar mark - bottom: The mark of the first bar in the bottom the beam/slab. If you
leave this field blank, the bar marks will continue from those used for the top or middle
reinforcement.
Cover to stirrups: Concrete cover to use at the top, bottom and sides of all stirrups.
6-28
Loose method of detailing: The envisaged construction technique can be taken into
account when detailing reinforcement:
With the 'loose method' of detailing, also referred to as the 'splice-bar method', span
reinforcement and link hangers are stopped short about 100 mm inside each column
face. This is done at all internal columns were congestion of column and beam
reinforcement is likely to occur. The span bars and stirrups are often made into a cage,
lifted and lowered between supports. For continuity, separate splice bars are provided
through the vertical bars of each internal column to extend a lap length plus 100 mm
into each span. Top bars will extend over supports for the required distance and
lapped with nominal top bars or link hangers. Allowance is made for a lap length of
40 and a 100 mm tolerance for the bottom splice bars that are acting in compression.
for the required distance and lapped with link hangers. Where more practical, top bars
over adjacent supports may be joined. Adjacent spans are sometimes detailed together.
Note: The 'normal' method of detail may give rise to congested reinforcement layouts at
beam-column junctions, especially on the bottom beam/slab layer. Reinforcement layout
details at such points should be checked.
Generating reinforcement
Use the Generate reinforcing to have the program generate bars according the detailing
parameters.
Note: The aim of the automatic reinforcement generation function is to achieve a reasonable
optimised reinforcement layout for any typical beam or slab layout. More complicated
layouts will likely require editing of the generated reinforcement as described in the text that
follows. Very complicated layouts may require more detailed editing using Padds.
Editing reinforcement
You can modify the generated reinforcement to suite your requirements by editing the
information on the Main reinforcing, Stirrups, Shear reinforcing and Sections pages.
Main reinforcing
The main reinforcement bars are defined as follows:
Bars: The quantity, type and diameter of the bar, example '2T20' or '2Y16'. The bar
defined at the cursor position is highlighted in the elevation.
Shape code: Standard bar shape code. Valid shape codes for main bars include 20, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 51.
Offset: Distance from the left end of the span to the start point of the bar (m). A negative
value makes the bar start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the previous span.
Hook: If a bar has a hook or bend, enter 'L' or 'R' to it on the left or right side. If this field
is left blank, an 'L' is assumed.
Layer: Position the bar in the top, middle or bottom layer. Use the letters 'T', 'M' or 'B'
with an optional number, e.g. 'T' or 'T1' and 'T2'.
6-29
The bending reinforcement diagram is shown on the lower half of the screen. The diagrams for
required (blue) and entered (red) reinforcement are superimposed for easy comparison. Bond
stress development is taken into consideration in the diagram for entered reinforcement.
Stirrups
Define stirrup layouts as follows:
Stirrup number: Enter a stirrup configuration number. Configuration numbers are used
on the Shear reinforcing input page (see page 6-32) to reference specific configuration. If
left blank, the number applicable to the previous row is assumed, i.e. an extended
definition of the current configuration.
Section number: Concrete cross section number as defined on the Sections input page
(see page 6-33). If left blank, the number applicable to previous row in the table is used.
6-30
Note: Mild steel bars are normally used for shear reinforcement. However, in zones where
much shear reinforcement is required, you may prefer using high yield stirrups. You can do
this by entering 'T' or 'Y' bars instead of 'R' bars. In such a case, the yield strength ratio of
the main and shear reinforcement, i.e. fy/fYV as entered, will be used to transpose the entered
stirrup areas to equivalent mild steel areas.
Mark: Any alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, e.g. 'SA1', '01' or
'S001'.
Shape code: Standard double-leg bar shape code. The following shape codes can be used:
Bars are automatically sized to fit the section web. The first stirrup entered is put against the
web sides. Subsequent stirrups are positioned in such a way that vertical legs are spaced
equally.
Tip: Open stirrups, e.g. shape code 55, can be closed by entering a shape code 35.
Continuous Beam and Slab Design
6-31
Shear reinforcing
Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input page (see page 6-30) are distributed over the
length of the beam/slab:
Offset: Distance from the left of the span to the start point of the distribution zone (m). A
negative value makes the zone start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the
previous span.
The diagrams for required and entered shear reinforcement are superimposed. The required
steel diagram takes into account shear enhancements at the supports.
6-32
It may sometimes be acceptable to enter less shear steel than the calculated amount of nominal
sheer steel, e.g. when the stirrups are only used as hangers to aid the fixing main steel in slabs.
This option can be set as default on the Detailing parameters input screen see page 6-26
for detail.
Sections
Cross-sections can be generated anywhere along the length of the beam/slab to show the main
and shear steel layout:
Offset: The position of the section, given as a distance from the left end of the span (m).
Sections are displayed on the screen and can be used to check the validity of steel entered at the
different positions. Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input (see page 6-30) rely on
appropriate section positions specified. All specified sections will be included in the final
bending schedule.
6-33
3D View
View a 3D rendering of the beam with longitudinal and shear reinforcement to help you spot
layout conflicts and gaps.
Bending schedule
The Bending schedule input page is used generate a complete Padds compatible bending
schedule. The parameters allow flexibility in the bending schedule creation, e.g. you can have
the details of a beam/slab on a single bending schedule or split it onto more than one schedule
to improve clarity. Each bending schedule can then be given a unique name and the associated
spans entered.
The following information should be entered:
File name: The name of the Padds drawing and bending schedule file
First span: For clarity, a beam/slab with many spans can be scheduled put on more than
one bending schedule. Enter the first span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Last span: Enter the last span number to be included in the bending schedule.
6-34
Grid lines: Optionally display grid lines and numbers appear on the bending schedule
drawing.
First grid: The name or number of the first grid. Use one or two letters and/or numbers.
Drawing size: Select A4 or A5 drawing size. If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit
on a full page and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will
scale the drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule. Typically, a maximum of
three to four spans can be shown with enough clarity in A5 format and four to six spans in
A4 format.
Note: When combining a drawing and schedule on the same page, the number of schedule
lines is limited to a maximum of twenty-four in Padds. Using more lines will result in the
drawing and schedule being printed on separate pages.
Use the Generate schedule function to create and display the Padds bending schedule.
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, following the
steps below:
Choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file will be
opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain the
drawing of the beam and the second window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the member column to enter a member
description, e.g. '450x300 BEAM'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
6-35
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'BEAM.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suite your company's schedule numbering system, e.g. 'P12346-BS001'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
6-36
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-37
6-38
as a panel with width equal to half the transverse column spacing, i.e. 3000 mm, carrying the
full load for that area. The program will analyse the strip and the generate reinforcement for a
column strip, 750 mm wide, and a middle strip, 2250 mm wide.
First internal strip (Strip C)
The first internal strip can subsequently be modelled using the same width as a typical internal
panel, i.e. 6000 mm. Because of the moment distribution explained above, the loading is
increased to 50% + 62.5% = 112.5% of the typical panel loading. The small overlap in loading
between the edge and first internal panels should take care of any adverse effects due to pattern
loading.
Note: If the own weight is modelled using a density, you should account for the increased
loading by either increase the density value by 12.5% or increasing the applied dead load.
The program will analyse the panel and generate a column strip, 1500 mm wide, and a middle
strip 4500 mm wide.
Reinforcement layout
Careful combination of the column and middle strips generated above, should yield a
reasonably economical reinforcement layout:
For typical internal strips (strip A), use the generated column strip (CA) and middle
strip (MA).
For the column strip over the external row of columns, use no less than the column strip
reinforcement (CB) generated for the external strip (strip B).
For the column strip over the first row of internal columns, use no less than the column
strip reinforcement (CC) generated for the first internal strip (strip C).
The first middle strip from the edge (MC/MB) can be conservatively taken as the worst of
middle strip generated for the first internal strip (MC) and twice that generated for the
external strip (MB).
The solid bands should be as wide or slightly wider than the generated column
strips, i.e. L/4 or wider.
Assuming that the concrete compression zone of each coffer rib falls in the coffer flange,
the slab can be modelled as a solid slab.
6-39
Setting the density to zero and appropriately increasing the applied dead load can model
the own weight of the slab.
The linear shear requirements should be verified for the column strips, i.e. solid bands.
The areas around columns slab should also be checked for punching shear.
The coffer webs should be checked for linear shear and compression reinforcement.
Note: You should validate the design procedure by checking that, in zones of sagging
moment, the concrete compression zones of coffer ribs fall within the coffer flanges. Zones
of hogging moment should be located inside solid bands.
6-40
6-41
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous pre-stressed concrete beams and slabs. You can
design structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams
or slabs.
Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. More complex sections,
e.g. box bridge decks, can be modelled with the aid of the section properties calculation
module, Prosec. Spans can have constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. You
can also enter individual load cases and group them in load combinations. At ultimate limit
state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Pre-stressed tendons can be generated to balance a specified percentage of dead load.
Conventional reinforcement can be added to help control cracking, deflection and increase the
ULS capacity.
Tendon profiles can be scheduled and saved as Padds compatible drawings.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
Report No 2 of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE and ISA (JSD), 'Design of Prestressed Concrete Flat Slabs'.
Attached torsional members are treated in accordance with ACI 318 - 1989.
6-42
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Column stiffness
BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 2000 assume that columns are rigidly fixed to slabs over the whole
width of the panel. If the ultimate negative moment at an outer column exceeds the moment of
resistance in the adjacent slab width, the moment in the column should be reduced and the
sagging moment in the outer span should be increased to maintain equilibrium.
In ACI 318 - 1989, on the other hand, allowance is made for the reduction of column stiffness
due to torsion. Report 2 of the JSD adapts a similar column stiffness reduction approach. The
program incorporates this approach by allowing you to optionally enable attached torsional
members.
Note: When the approach to include the attached torsional members is followed, column
heads will also be taken into account in the column stiffness.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-70). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
6-43
Note: The case where any two adjacent spans are loaded with maximum load and all other
spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and SABS 0100 - 2000, is
not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load cases. In
contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SANS 10162, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjust the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, increasing the entered dead load or
increasing the ULS dead load factor can incorporate this load case. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Code requirements
The JSD Report 2 recommends that the maximum moment redistribution should not
exceed 20%.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution method aims to reduce the hogging moments at the columns
without increasing the sagging moments at midspan. The redistribution of moments and shear
forces procedure is performed as follows:
6-44
4.
The maximum hogging moment at each column or internal support is adjusted downward
by the specified maximum percentage.
5.
The corresponding span moments are adjusted downward to maintain static equilibrium.
The downward adjustment of hogging moments above is limited to prevent any increase in
the maximum span moments of end spans.
6.
The shear forces for the same load cases are adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
11. The maximum hogging
moment at each internal
support is adjusted
downward
by
the
specified
percentage.
This adjustment affects
the moment diagram for
the load case where the
maximum design load is
applied to all spans.
12. The
relevant
span
moments are adjusted
accordingly to maintain
static equilibrium.
13. The minimum hogging
moment at each internal
support is subsequently
adjusted upward to as
close as possible to the
reduced
maximum
support moment, whilst
remaining
in
the
permissible
redistribution range. A
second load case is thus
affected for each span.
14. The
relevant
span
moments are adjusted in
line with this redistribution of the column
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
6-45
6-46
The right offset, R, is chosen equal to the span length divided by twenty, with a minimum
of 250 mm.
The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b1 (b3 for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b3
(b1 for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
The tendon force, T, required to produce the balanced load Wbal is given by
Treq
Treq
0.7UTStendon
The left and right offsets, L and R, are chosen by the program to be equal to the span
length divided by twenty, with a minimum of 250 mm.
6-47
Over the supports, the tendons are taken as high as possible. The values of b1 and b2 are
made equal to the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter. At the end of the
beam/slab, i.e. at an anchor, the tendons are taken on the neutral axes.
At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b2 is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
b1 b3 / 2 b2Length L R
Length
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Treq
Treq
0.7UTStendon
The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b1 (b3 for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b3
(b1 for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
6-48
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, xw, is calculated as
x w Length Length 2 2Rmin (b3 b1 )
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is given by
yw
xw 2
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Treq
1.15Wbal
sin
Treq
0.7UTStendon
The left and right offsets, L and R, are set to span length divided by four.
The eccentricity at the end of the beam/slab end is taken as zero, i.e. b1 (b3 for a right end
span) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The value of b3 (b1 for a right
end span) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b2 is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
6-49
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, xw, is calculated as
2
Length
Length
2 Rmin (b3 b2 )
4
4
xw
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
xw 2
2R min
yw
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Treq
1.15Wbal
16d1
16d 2
3 Length 3 Length xw
where
d1
2(b1 b2 )
3
d2
2(b3 y w b2 )
3
Treq
0.7UTStendon
The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The values of b1 and b3 are
thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b2 is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus the half the sheathed tendon diameter.
6-50
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, xw, is calculated as
2
xw
Length
Length
2 Rmin (b3 b2 )
4
4
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
yw
xw 2
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Treq
1.15Wbal
16d 2 16d 2
3 Length x
w
where
d1
2(b1 y w b2 )
3
d2
2(b3 y w b2 )
3
Treq
0.7UTStendon
Pre-stress losses
In the following text, an explanation as given for the various components of pre-stress losses:
Friction losses.
Wedge-set.
Long-term losses.
6-51
The following is applicable to parabolic tendon profiles, including those cases where L and R
are zero:
m (2 Length R) a 2 L
n a1 ( R Length) Length
where
a dif a 2 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
x
p
2a dif
where
p m 2 a dif n
If x 0, then the vertical position of the left inflection point, c1, is given by
c1
a1 L
else c1 is zero.
X
If L X then the vertical position of the right inflection point, cs, is given by
c2
a2 R
Length X
else c2 is zero.
Length 2
d1
6-52
The effective pre-stressing force at the end of the span, Pe, can now be calculated:
Pe Poe( k ) Length
where
Po = Applied tendon force
l 2 Length L R
The position of the end of the left minimum radius, xwL, is given by
x wL L L2 2Rmin a1
for L2 2Rmin a1
x wL 0
otherwise.
Corresponding to this
y wL
x wL 2
2R min
Similarly, the position of the start of the right minimum radius, xwR, is given by
x wR R R 3 2Rmin a 2 for R 2 2Rmin a 2
x wR 0
Corresponding to this
y wR
x wR 2
2R min
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
6-53
The slopes of the three sections of tendon are now known. The change in slope at each kink
is then determined. At the first kink, friction losses occur over a length xwL and at the second
kink over a length of 2 xwL. At the Last kink, friction losses occur over a length xwR and at the
third kink over a length of 2 xwR.
Starting from the one side the force at the end of each kink is calculated as:
Pend Pbegine
( k ) L fric
where
Lfric = Portion over which the losses occur.
Wedge-set
As soon as the stressing jacks are
released, a phenomenon known as
'wedge-set' or 'wedge pull-in' occurs.
In typical building slabs, the tendons
normally pull in by about 5mm to
10 mm before the tendons grip onto
the wedges in the anchor head. The
influence on the tendon force is
significant.
Because of frictional losses, the effect of wedge-set is to reduce the effective pre-stress over a
limited length of tendon only. This length, labelled l w, is calculated by considering the average
force loss over the entire length of the tendon:
m
Pbegin Pend
Total tendon length
d ws ApsEs
m
where
Aps = Area of tendons
Es = Modulus of elasticity of tendons
ds = Wedge-set
6-54
The force loss over the length affected by the wedge-set can then be calculated:
Plossws
d ws E s A ps
lw
The tendon force profile can then be adjusted by reducing the tendon force at the live anchor
by 2Plossws and taking the negative pre-stress loss gradient up to the position of wedge-set
influence, lw.
Long-term tosses
The average steel strain in all the tendons is given by
st
( Pspanbegin Ps panend )
2 Es Aps
This summation is carried out over all spans for all tendons.
The creep strain is estimated as
creep
Pavg
Ac E c
where
Pavg = Average pre-stressing force
Ac = Concrete area
Ec = Concrete modulus of elasticity
= Creep factor
The percentage total losses can be calculated as
% Loss %relaxation
where
6-55
Load balancing
Captain uses a load balancing approach when generating tendons. The average tendon force,
Pav, is calculated for each span and each tendon. Pav is used to calculate the equivalent load
from the central portion of the tendon. The tendon force values at the beginning and end of
each span are used to calculate the equivalent loads for the reversed parabolic portions of
parabolic tendons and for the point loads from harped tendons at supports.
Equivalent load for parabolic tendons
Consider a typical span with parabolic tendons.
The procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to cantilever and end
spans as well.
The following values are used to determine the
position of the lowest point on the parabola and
are derived from the basic parabolic equations
describing the tendon profiles.
m (2 Length R) a 3 L
n a1 ( R Length) Length
where
adi f a3 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
X
p
2a dif
where
p m2 adif n
6-56
a1 L
else c1 is zero.
X
a3 R
Length X
else c2 is zero.
2 Pbegin
L2
If L = 0 then W1 = 0.
The central portion of the equivalent tendon load is calculated by using a length lcalc. The
distance lcalc is measured from the lowest point of the parabola to the nearest inflection point.
If the left inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc X L
Pav (a1 c1 )
lcalc2
Else, if the right inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc Length X R
and the equivalent load in the centre portion
W2
Pav (a3 c2 )
lcalc2
2 Pend
R2
If R = 0 then W3 = 0.
If the value of X is equal to zero, it implies that the tendon is horizontal at the beginning or end
of the span. If the value of L or R is equal to zero, it means that there is no reverse portion of
the parabola. In such a case a point load is calculated which acts downwards at the support.
6-57
Pt Pend sin
If a tendon is stopped off away from the neutral axis, a point moment is generated in the slab.
The magnitude of this moment is given by:
M t Ptendon etendon
where
etendon = Tendon eccentricity measured from the section neutral axis.
Equivalent load for harped tendons
Consider a typical span with harped tendons. The
procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to both cantilever
and end spans.
The four point loads caused by the typical harped
tendon are labelled P1 to P4. The central portion of
the tendon is assumed to be horizontal, causing no
vertical components of force.
The sloped ends with offset lengths L and R cause upward or downward point loads where they
change direction at the support or at the offset points to the horizontal portion. In practice, the
change in direction of the tendon occurs over a short distance dictated by the allowable
minimum radius of the tendon. For calculation purposes the vertical components are calculated
as point loads at the theoretical intersection points of the straight portions.
6-58
The tendon forces used in the calculation are Pbegin end Pend, which are the tendon forces at the
beginning and end of each span. For calculating the values of P2 and P3, the tendon force is
interpolated linearly between the end values.
The equivalent loads are given by
P1
Pbeginb1
b12 L2
( Pbegin Pend ) L
P2 P11
LengthP
begin
( Pbegin Pend ) R
P3 P4 1
LengthPend
Pend b3
P4
b32 R 2
At transfer of tendon forces: Only initial dead loads are considered at transfer. Additional
dead loads are only considered later at SLS. On the Loads input screen, a dead load is
considered as an initial dead load except if the letter 'A' is entered before or after the load
value. In that case, the load is taken as an additional dead load to be considered at SLS
only and will not be considered at transfer.
At SLS: The full SLS loads, i.e. initial dead load, additional dead load and live load, are
applied and long-term losses in tendon forces are included.
Note: Tensile concrete stresses are not considered when generating tendon profiles. The prestressing is considered as an external load with a load balancing effect. Typical bridge
design code checks for class 1, 2 and 3 structures should be done in an iterative way by
manually checking the stress diagrams.
6-59
Reports 2 and 25 gives the following allowable concrete stresses for flat slab construction:
Loading
Condition
Permissible
Compression
Permissible Tension
Bonded
Un-bonded
Transfer
Sagging
0.33fci
0.45fci
0.15fci
Hogging
0.24fci
0.45fci
0.33fcu
0.45fcu
0.15fcu
Hogging
0.24fcu
0.45fcu
The allowable stresses tabled above apply to post-tensioned flat slab design. Different values
may apply to the design of other types of members. Refer to the relevant design code for
allowable stresses for class 1, 2 and 3 pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members.
6-60
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
serviceability limit state.
Code guidelines
Deflection can generally be controlled in the preliminary design by limiting span to depth
ratios. Report 2 of the JSD gives the following guidelines for flat slabs where at least half of
the dead plus live load is balanced by pre-stress:
Type of Slab
Flat Slabs
Waffle Slabs
Loading
Intensity
Maximum span
to depth ratio
Light
40 to 48
Normal
34 to 42
Heavy
28 to 36
Heavy
28 to 32
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross uncracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
3.
The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
4.
The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
6-61
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
5.
6.
The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
7.
The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
8.
The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
6-62
Bending moment.
Linear shear.
Punching shear.
Moment capacity
The moment capacity is calculated using general flexural theory. The tendon strain at ultimate
limit state is given by
pb pe pa
where
pe
f pe
Es
The additional strain, pa, is determined by considering the change in concrete strain at the
level of the tendon. The concrete strain distribution resulting from the effective pre-stress force
is shown as a dashed line in the figure.
6-63
pa e u
where
Concrete prestress
at the level of the tendons
Ec
pa e u
In general, one can say
pa 1 e 2u
where
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.1
pa 1 e 2
dx
cu
x
and
pb pe pa
pe 1 a 2
dx
cu
x
d 2 cu pb pe 1 c
6-64
Therefore
f pb
k1 f cu bd
2 cu
A ps
2 cu pb pe 1 c
The values of fpb and pb are solved by iteration using the stress-strain curve to subsequently
yield the neutral axis depth, x.
The ultimate moment of resistance is then calculated as
M u f pb Aps (d k2 x)
The calculated ULS capacity envelopes for bending moment and shear force incorporate all
tendons and additional reinforcement entered. Strain is calculated on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and concrete and steel stresses are then calculated correspondingly.
Note: The secondary moments, or a portion thereof, caused by pre-stressing may optionally
be included in the ULS calculations. Refer to page 6-70 for information on specifying the
percentage of secondary moment to be included in the analysis.
Linear shear
The linear shear checks performed by the program are done according to the provisions of
codes using the procedure described below.
An analysis is done on the sub-frame with only the equivalent tendon loads applied. The
minimum fibre stress as a result of the tendon forces is then calculated as
f pt
Ptendons M
Aconcrete Z
The section modulus, Z, is taken at the top for negative bending and at the bottom for positive
bending.
The cracking moment is then calculated as
Mo
0.8 f pt
Z
The section is considered as cracked in areas where the ultimate moment exceeds the cracking
moment.
6-65
where
ft = Concrete tensile strength
= 0.24 f cu
fcp = Average concrete compressive pre-stress
=
Ptendons
for rectangular sections
Aconcrete
Ptendons Ptendonsz f
zf = Distance from the neutral axis to the junction of the flange and the web of the
section which falls inside the compression zone
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity s given by
Vcr (1-0.55
f pe
f pu
)vc bw d
M oV
M
where
f pe
f pu
Ptendons
No of tendons UTStendon
The value of vc is calculated by taking into account the total area of pre-stressing tendons and
unstressed steel.
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity Vcap is the minimum of Vco and Vcr calculated
above.
The shear forces are reduced by the vertical components of the tendon forces if this was
specified. Where the shear force V is less than 0.5 the shear capacity Vcap, no shear
reinforcement is required. Shear reinforcement must be supplied in zones where
(Vcap + 0.4bwd) V 0.5Vcap:
Asv
0.4 bw
Sv
0.87 f yv
6-66
Sv
0.87 f yv d t
where
dt = Depth to the bottom reinforcement or tendons about which the stirrups are taken.
Linear shear is normally not a problem in flat slabs, but comes into play if ribbed slabs and
beams are analysed. For flat slabs, punching shear is normally the main shear design criterion.
Veff V( 1 1.05
M tx
)
Vyb
Veff V( 1 1.05
M ty
Vxb
Veff 1.15V
6-67
where
Mty = Moments transferred between slab and column in the X direction, i.e. about the
Y-Y axis
Mtx = Moments transferred between slab and column in the Y direction
xb = Projected width of the critical perimeter in the X directions
yb = The projected width of the critical perimeter in the Y direction
Note: The factor 1.05 is derived from 1.5M as given by the codes, with a 30% reduction
allowed if the equivalent frame method with pattern loading has been used in calculating the
moments.
For an edge column, the enhanced shear force is the largest of
Veff V(1.25 1.05
M
)
Vx
Veff 1.25V
If the edge lies parallel with the X-axis, then M = Mty and x = yb. Similarly M = Mtx and x = xb
for the edge parallel to the Y-axis.
For a corner column, the enhanced shear force is given by
Veff 1.25V
The effective shear force is then adjusted by the vertical components of the tendon forces as
specified. The shear capacity is subsequently checked for each perimeter and reinforcement
calculated.
The shear capacity on a specific perimeter is given by
Vcap vc ucrit d
where
ucrit = Critical perimeter
d = Effective slab depth
The value of vc is calculated for both the x and y-directions and the average of the two values
used. If Veff exceeds Vcap, shear reinforcement is calculated as
Asv
Veff vc ucrit d
0.87 f yv
0.4ucrit d
0.87 f yv
The shear reinforcement represents vertical links to be placed in slabs deeper than 200 mm.
6-68
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity vc is taken as the average of vcx
and vcy. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining vc.
The shear force capacity, Vc, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.
6-69
Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
Parameters input
The following general parameters are required for analysis and design:
Reduce moments to column face: If selected, this option will take the moments at the
column faces as the design moments rather than the moments at support centres.
6-70
Reduce shear by tendon force component: Select this option to include the effect of
tendons in punching shear checks.
SLS DL factor: Serviceability limit state dead load factor used for calculation of
deflection, stresses and crack widths.
ULS DL factor: Ultimate limit state dead load factor used for calculation of moments,
shear and reactions.
6-71
Live load permanent: Percentage of live load to consider as permanent when calculating
long-term deflections.
Attached torsional members: This option enables the reduction in column stiffnesses as
allowed for by ACI 318 - 1989. To prevent overestimation of column moments, it is
recommended that this option should be enabled. For more detail on the sub-frame
analysis technique used by the program, refer to page 6-43.
Edge beam: This option only applies if attached torsional members are used and allows
for the case where the columns are framing into the slab on one side only.
: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Ultimate strength: Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of one tendon or cable (kN).
Outside diameter of sheath: The diameter of a tendon or cable, including sheath or duct
(mm). The program measures concrete cover to the outside diameter.
Tendon area: The cross sectional area of the tendon or cable itself (mm2).
k: Friction coefficient due to unintentional variation from the specified profile ('wobble' in
the sheath). Both BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 1992 recommend a value of not less than
33E-4 in general. Where wobbling is limited, e.g. rigid ducts with close supports, a
6-72
reduced value of 17E-4 may be used. For greased tendons in plastic sheaths, a value
of 25E-4 may be taken. However, for greased tendons, both FIP and Report 2 of the JSD
recommend a value of 10E-4.
: Friction coefficient due to curvature of the tendon. BS 8110 - 1997 and SABS 0100 1992 recommend values ranging from 0.55 to 0.05, depending on the condition of the
strand and the duct. For greased tendons, FIP and Report 2 of the JSD recommend values
of 0.05 and 0.06 respectively.
Wedge pull-in: Movement of the tendon will occur when the pre-stressing force is
transferred from the tensioning equipment to the anchorage, causing a loss in pre-stress.
The magnitude of the draw-in depends on the type of tendons used and the tensioning
equipment. Values of 4 to 8 mm are common for flat slab construction.
Tendon / Cable relaxation: Percentage long-term loss of force due to cable steel
relaxation.
Es: Modulus of elasticity of tendon (kPa). This value is typically set to 195E6 kPa.
Minimum radius: The minimum radius to use for harped tendons at change of slope (m).
This value is ignored when using parabolic tendons.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
6-73
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical offsets of sections are used when calculation of tendon eccentricities
and has no other effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no: The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific sections
(see page 6-77).
6-74
Y-offset: Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset: Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the web is
moved to the right.
Flange offset: Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left
blank, the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value
means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The linear shear steel design procedure works with
the entered web area, i.e. Bw D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods
produce similar pictures, their linear shear modelling is vastly different.
6-75
Sec no: Number of the section to be referenced when you enter spans on the Spans
input page (see page 6-77).
Designation: Prosec file name. If the cursor is on a defined section when you press the
Prosec button, the relevant section will automatically be loaded and displayed in Prosec.
Shear Area: Enter the area likely to transmit the vertical shear (mm 2). Use your own
judgement on what portions of the section are suitable for transmitting shear.
Ix: Second moment of inertia about the X-axis calculated by Prosec (mm4)
Neut Axis: Position of the neutral axis as measured from the bottom of the section (mm).
Y-top: Offset of top surface from the datum line (mm). This value will initially be set to
zero but can be adjusted to move the section up (positive) or down.
Y-bottom: Offset of bottom surface from the datum line (mm). The section depth is given
by Y-top minus Y-bottom.
6-76
Note: The derived equivalent I-section is not unique more than one solution is possible.
The derived section merely serves the purpose of simplifying the section for use by the
program. If a particular equivalent section does not seem like a realistic approximation of
the original section, you should consider entering the section as a normal I-section on the
preceding input page, using more appropriate section dimensions.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input and User sections input pages are used here with
segment lengths to define spans of constant or varying sections.
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no: Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was applicable
to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current span.
Sec No Left: Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
6-77
Sec No Right: Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank,
the section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If the entered
section number differs from the one at the left end, the section dimensions are varied
linearly along the length of the segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
6-78
Sup no: Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
C,F: The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made fixed
by entering 'C' or 'F' respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational fixity is assumed, e.g.
the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
B: Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
Code: A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying 'P'. If you enter 'F' or leave
this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
6-79
S/T: Specify a square or tapered column head. If left blank, a tapered head is used.
Diameter/Depth: The depth (in span direction) or diameter, in the case of circular column
heads (mm).
Width: The width of a rectangular column head (mm). Leave this field blank if the
column head is circular.
Note: The program will not check the validity of a column head in relation to column. It is
possible, for example, to define an unpractical circular column head for a rectangular
column.
6-80
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-43.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L: Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span: Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span number
is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of the
load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of the
load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is assumed.
M: Moment (kNm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
6-81
a: The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position of the
moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the beam. If you leave
this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken to start at the left-hand edge of
the beam.
b: The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-hand edge of
the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-70.
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
6-82
'Automatic load combinations' allows for automatic pattern loading of dead and live loads,
e.g. as for typical building slabs.
'User load combinations' allows for combinations of the entered load cases, e.g. as for
bridge decks.
Note: No load combinations need be entered if the automatic load combination mode is
selected.
As many lines as necessary may be used to input combinations of the various load cases:
Load Combination: Name of the load combination. If this field is left blank, the load
combination is taken to be the same as for the previous row in the table.
ULS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the ultimate
limit state.
SLS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the
serviceability limit state.
6-83
Tendon Profiles
You can let the program generate tendon profiles or you can enter profiles as required. The
program is capable of generating reasonable tendon profiles for typical beams and slabs that
you can adjust and change to obtain the required result.
Generated tendons can have parabolic or harped profiles. The program attempts to generate
tendons to balance the specified percentage of dead load. Profiles generated will not be perfect
for all cases and may require some manual adjustment.
Tendon profiles are displayed one set at a time, where a set is defined as one or more tendons
with the same profile and force distribution. The following parameters define the profile for
each span:
L: Left offset of tendon inflection point (parabolic) or slope change (harped) from left end
of span (m).
R: Right offset of tendon inflection point or slope change from right end of span (m).
b1: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at left end of the span (mm).
6-84
b2: Distance from bottom surface at midspan to tendon centre line (mm).
b3: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at right end of the span (mm).
Tip: The values of L and R are normally taken is the greater of span divided by and 250mm
for parabolic cables and span divided by four for harped cables.
Tendon property no: Tendon property number 1, 2, or 3 as defined in the original input.
Life end position: Position of live end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
Dead end position: Position of dead end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
The plotted tendon force diagrams represent the total force of all tendons:
The initial tendon forces are shown in blue and include losses due to friction, wedge slip
and elastic shortening of the concrete.
The final tendon forces are shown in red and include the long-term effects, tendon
relaxation, shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
The equivalent balancing loads are also displayed. The balancing loads are shown as
percentage of the equivalent dead load. The latter is defined as the total dead load for each
span, including own weight and any applied dead load, divided by span length.
Tip: Even if you want to specify your own tendon profile, it is nearly always easier to allow
the program to generate the tendon profiles and then edit them, delete some or add more
tendon groups.
6-85
Reinforcement
Additional bending reinforcement and punching shear reinforcement can be designed
interactively.
A minimum of 0.15% unstressed reinforcement is taken over columns over a width equal
to the column width plus four times the slab width.
At midspan and where the tensile concrete stress exceeds 0.15fcu, a working stress of
0.58fy is used in the reinforcement.
6-86
Tip: The method used to calculate reinforcement aims to limit tensile concrete stress by
adding sufficient reinforcement and tends to be conservative. Less reinforcement can
normally be used, say three quarters of the peak values. In the final analysis you should
check that the various requirements for crack width, ULS capacity and nominal
reinforcement are met.
Reinforcement bars are entered as follows:
Bar: Specify the steel as individual bars, e.g. 3T16, 2Y20 or 4R16, or groups of bars, e.g.
Y25@300. One can also combine bars, e.g. 2T16 + T10@250.
L/R: If a hook or bend is required on the left end of the bar, enter an 'H' or 'B' in the L
column. For a hook or bend on the right end of the bar, use the R column.
X: Position of left end of the bar measured from the left end of the span (m).
Geometrical input.
Forces and parameters required calculating the effective shear force Veff.
Tendons and additional reinforcement to consider when calculating the allowable shear
stress, vc.
The following parameters are required to define the column and slab geometry:
C: Column head dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
D: Column head dimension in the transverse direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
6-87
X: Longitudinal distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
Y: Transverse distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
Corner: Enter 'Y' for an outside corner or 'N' for an inside corner.
For the calculation of the effective shear force Veff, the program detects internal, edge and
corner columns as follows:
Internal column: Both edges further than 5deff from the column centre.
Edge column: One edge closer than 5deff from the column centre.
Corner column: Two edges closer than 5deff from the column centre.
UDL: Uniform ultimate load in the region of the column (kN/m). The shear force is
reduced by the portion of load within each perimeter considered.
Pcx: The pre-stressing force in the longitudinal direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). The value will default to the total pre-stressing force of all tendons. This may
be accurate for banded tendons. However, for tendons spaced further apart, only those
passing through the shear perimeters should be considered. The vertical component of the
entered total pre-stressing force is deducted from the effective shear force.
Pcy: The pre-stressing force in the transverse direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). This value must be entered manually.
Slope-X: Average slope of tendons in X-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The slope is used to calculate the vertical component of the pre-stress relieving the
effective shear force. The program will base the initial value on the generated tendon
profiles.
Slope-Y: Average slope of tendons in Y-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The value must be entered manually.
Note: Although the program performs a uni-directional analysis for bending moment,
deflections, etc, bi-directional effects are included in the punching shear design procedure.
6-88
Tip: For orthogonally stressed slabs, it is recommended that you design one direction, e.g.
the banded direction, and record the relevant punching shear values. On analysing the other
direction, you can enter these parameters for the Y-direction entered for complete
bi-directional punching shear checks.
The shear capacity is based on the following parameters:
Type: The number of the tendon types entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-70 for detail. The specified type's properties are used to calculate the pre-stressed
reinforcement passing through each perimeter.
N cables: Number of cables passing longitudinally through each perimeter (average per
side) in the X (longitudinal) and Y-directions (transverse). The area of the pre-stressed
cables is then incorporated in the calculation of the shear resistance Vc.
Note: When calculating the shear resistance Vc, both bonded and un-bonded tendons are
considered.
6-89
Ast:
Amount
of
conventional
reinforcement passing longitudinally
through each shear perimeter in the X and
Y-directions. The reinforcement values
Asx and Asy represent the minimum
amount of main reinforcement crossing
each perimeter in the X and Y-directions.
For a perimeter edge on both side if the
column, e.g. y1 in the sketch, you should
use the minimum of the amount of
reinforcement crossing the left edge and
the amount crossing the right edge. For a
perimeter edge on one side only, e.g. y2 in
the sketch, use the amount of
reinforcement crossing that single edge.
Note: The amount of conventional reinforcement can be taken as the average (minimum for
unsymmetrical reinforcement) amount passing through the perimeter on the left and the
right (as seen on the screen) of the column. For an edge or corner column, the amount
should be taken equal to the amount passing through the perimeter on the span side.
6-90
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the View output pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections, concrete stresses and cracking are calculated by analysing the beam/slab
under pattern loading using the gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-61 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-43.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.
6-91
The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
6-92
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial longterm deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Moments and shear forces
The bending moment and shear
force diagrams show the
envelopes due to ULS pattern
loading. The capacities are
calculated from the entered
tendons and conventional reinforcement. Capacities are shown
in blue and actual moments and
shear forces in red.
6-93
Concrete stress
Serviceability limit state stress envelopes are displayed for the following cases:
Crack widths
In the calculation of crack
widths, the program takes into
account all bonded tendons and
also
any
additional
reinforcement that has been
entered. The crack spacing is
calculated on the assumption
that all the bars and bonded
tendons are spaced equally
across the widest portion of the
section.
Un-bonded tendons are ignored
when calculating crack widths.
If too few bars or bonded
tendons are present, rotations in
the sections will be high and
unrealistic values of deflection
will result. The program will
give a warning when this occurs.
6-94
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-95
Profile Scheduling
Designed tendons can be
scheduled as Padds compatible
drawings. Profile properties are
taken from the Tendon profiles
input page. Enter Padds file name
special notes that should appear
on the schedules and then click
Generate schedules.
The resulting schedule can be
opened in Padds for further
editing and printing.
6-96
6-97
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for
bending stresses:
6-98
Bending stresses: The entities Mx and My are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes.
The principal bending moments per unit width are represented as Mmax and Mmin.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Units
Metric
Imperial
Distance
mm,m
ft, inch
Force
N, kN
lb, kip
6-99
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Stresses at common nodes are smoothed by
taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
Note: The Space Frame Analysis modules can design shells for in-plane stresses as well.
Refer to Chapter 3 for detail.
6-100
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
AS 3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985..
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
HK Oncrete - 2004.
6-101
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the slab geometry and loading:
Load combinations input: Group dead and live loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-117.
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
Use the View Planes Control to view a slice through the slab.
Graphics:
Choose
quick
or
detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
6-102
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent
or have them filled and outlined.
Contour values, like those on the reinforcement contour diagrams, can optionally be
shown.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current viewpoint and graphic display options. The current
view's name is displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name
on the picture to drop down a list of saved views. A detailed explanation is given
in Chapter 2.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Concrete design parameters
Specify the concrete and reinforcement material properties, concrete cover to reinforcement
and orientate the reinforcement axes. Refer to page 6-118 for more detail.
Envelope of load cases
Fesd calculates a set of results, including reinforcement values, for each load case or
combination analysed. To enable you to easily identify the worst-case scenario, you can
specify an envelope of load cases for which the minimum and maximum values are extracted.
The envelope can comprise load cases and/or load combinations. Results for the envelope is
presented and can be accessed as if a separate load case.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Finite Element Slab Analysis
6-103
Note: The program is not limited to modelling only those slabs generated by the parametric
modules. Any general two-dimensional slab can be treated. The parametric modules merely
serve to simplify input of typical slabs.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Point loads and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
6-104
Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the slab. A unique number must be
assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Z-coordinates in the X and Z columns. If you leave X or Z blank, a value of zero is used.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
6-105
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:
The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total co-ordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
6-106
X
0.00
2.00
4.00
0.50
2.50
4.50
Z
5.12
5.22
5.32
6.12
6.22
6.32
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a ''.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B10' to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:
6-107
All nodes defined in rows 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row numbers, e.g. 'A5' to copy row 5 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of '1E-9' or by entering 'Delete' in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:
6-108
6-109
Selecting materials
Each slab element should
have
an
associated
material.
To add one or more
materials to a slab analysis
data file, click Materials.
Open the relevant material
type screen and select the
materials that are required
for the current slab input.
After adding the selected
materials to the input, you
can select them by clicking
the Material column to
drop down a list.
6-110
The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a ''.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B5' to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
6-111
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'Y', 'x' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
6-112
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'Yxz'
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
Skew supports
The rotational supports 'x' and 'z' can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a 'P' in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displacement or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a column above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
6-113
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.
6-114
Enter the coordinates and load values in the appropriate columns, using the global axis sign
conventions given on page 6-98. The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically.
Press Enter or Display to update the picture.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional point loads
Additional point loads can be generated using the Number of extra and X-increment and
Z-increment columns.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
6-115
A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a ''
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.Enter the distributed load intensity in the UDL
column.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Shell number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads. The procedures are similar to that used to generating additional shell elements see
page 6-111 for detail.
6-116
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Parametric input: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical slab
structures.
Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and converted
to slab analysis input.
Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Wizards do
most of the data input. See page 6-103 for detail on the wizards.
Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a slab's geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Using Padds for slab input
To use Padds to define a slab's geometry:
1.
Use Padds to draw the slab. Alternatively, import a DXF drawing from another CAD
system.
2.
3.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an area with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
4.
Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
5.
Close Padds.
6-117
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, fcu and fy.
6-118
Analysis
On completing the slab input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Analysis options available on the General input page include:
Concrete design: If the model includes finite shell elements, you can optionally design the
shells as reinforced concrete members.
Add own weight: Select a load case to which the self-weight of the beam and shell
members should be added.
Output file: Enter an output file name or accept the default file name, e.g. 'Fesd.out'.
Analyse load combinations only: Enable this option if the results of only the load
combinations are required. Generally, one would require results for the load combinations
only. However, you may have a special need to view the results of specific load cases as
well. Disable this option to include the results for the individual load cases as well.
6-119
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
6-120
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format.
The x, y and xy
bending stresses: The
bending stresses about
the local x and y-axes
and
the
torsional
stresses. The direction
(not axis) of bending is
shown as a small line on each shell element.
Reinforcement and Wood and Armer moments: Contours of the effective bending
moments and corresponding required reinforcement at the top and bottom in the x' and
y'-directions. The reinforcement direction is shown as a small line on each shell. Refer
to page 6-99 for an explanation of the use of the Wood and Armer equations and to
page 6-118 for the definition of the reinforcement directions.
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the x' and y'-directions.
6-121
6-122
Calcsheets
Slab analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.
6-123
6-124
6-125
Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Irrespective the selected design codes, long-term deflections are estimated in accordance with
clause 9.5.2.3 of ACI318 - 1992
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
6-126
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
dx : Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
dy : Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).
Lshort : Length of the short side of the slab, taken parallel to the Y-axis (m or ft).
Llong : Longer side length of the slab, taken parallel to the X-axis (m or ft).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
: Time factor for long-term deflection
: Poisson's ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m or lb/ft)
Applied loads
WADL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).
WLL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).).
PDL : Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
PLL : Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
Abotx : Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopx : Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Aboty : Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Atopy : Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
6-127
Long-term deflections
The program estimates long-term deflections by adjusting the stiffness of the slab based on the
level of cracking. The use of a time factor for estimating creep behaviour, is based on the
approach by ACI 318 1999 clause 9.5.2.3.
Typical values for are:
Duration of load
Time factor
5 years or more
2.0
12 months
1.4
6 months
1.2
3 months
1.0
Instantaneous
0.0
Note: The calculated long-term deflections are not exact and should be considered a
reasonable estimate only.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
6-128
6-129
Input
Use the single input table to define the slab and its loading.
If the aspect ratio of the slab exceeds 3:1, it may be more appropriate to design it as
spanning in one direction only.
Long-term deflections are calculated if you specify a time factor, , larger than one.
Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is
automatically added to each load case entered.
For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
6-130
To create load combinations, simply repeat the relevant loads in the table. Copying lines in
the table is easily accomplished using the table editor commands.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.
6-131
Design
Due to the simple finite element arrangement used, the analysis procedure will complete
almost instantaneously. You can view the design results graphically:
Moments:
Transformed
moment diagrams, using
the Wood and Armer
equations, for the top and
bottom in the X and
Y-directions are shown.
Values are given per unit
width. The transformed
moments in the top and
bottom fibres represent the
moments to be resisted by
the
calculated
reinforcement.
Deflections:
Short-term
elastic deflections, based
on the un-cracked gross
concrete
section
are
shown. To view an
estimate of the long term
effects like shrinkage and
creep, enable the show
long term deflections
option.
Reinforcement: Required
reinforcement for the top
and bottom in the X and
Y-directions is shown. The
calculated reinforcement is
based on the transformed
moments and therefore
includes the effects of
torsion.
6-132
Calcsheets
The slab panel design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-133
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed slab panels. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Schedule file name: Name of the Padds drawing and schedule file.
Detailing parameters:
Concrete
cover
reinforcement
Reinforcement
length.
to
bond
Reinforcement for top and bottom layers in each of the X and Y-directions.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Note: To detail slabs of more complex shape, use Padds.
6-134
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the slab panel and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'SLAB PANEL E'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'SLABE.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS405'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
6-135
6-136
Column Design
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Column Design
6-137
Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
The procedure used for the design of rectangular columns is applied to the design of
circular columns.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
6-138
Column Design
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Rectangular column geometry
b : Width of cross section, perpendicular to h (mm or in). This smaller column
dimension is taken parallel the X-axis.
d'x : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the X-axis (mm or in).
d'y : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Depth of the cross section (mm or in). This larger column dimension is taken
parallel the Y-axis.
Circular column geometry
d' : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement (mm or in).
: Diameter of column (mm or in).
Effective lengths
x : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
y : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Es : Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (GPa or ksi).
Applied loads
Mx top : Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anticlockwise.
Mx bot : Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
My top : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
My bot : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
Column Design
6-139
P : Axial force in the column (kN of kip). A positive value denotes a downward
compression force and a negative value an uplift force.
Design output
Ac : Gross concrete area (mm or in).
Ascx : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm or in).
Ascy : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm or in).
b' : Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h' : Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
Lex : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Ley : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Madd : Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
Madd x : Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
Madd y : Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin x : Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin y : Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mx : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
My : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M' : Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'x : Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'y : Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
6-140
Column Design
Code requirements
The supported design codes have similar clauses with respect to bracing and end fixity
conditions.
Braced and un-braced columns
A column is braced in a particular plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole is
provided in that plane. A column should otherwise be considered as un-braced.
Global lateral stability is normally provided by means of shear walls or other bracing systems.
Such bracing systems should be sufficiently stiff to attract and transmit horizontal loads acting
on the structure to the foundations.
RecCol and Circol allow you to set independent bracing conditions for bending about the X
and Y-axis of rectangular columns.
Effective length of columns
The effective length or height of a column depends on its end conditions, i.e. the degree of
fixity at each end. Four end condition categories are defined in the design codes:
End condition 1: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs that
are deeper than the column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 2: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs
which are shallower than the overall column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 3: The end of the column is connected to members that provide some
nominal restraint. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as pinned.
End condition 4: The end of the column has no lateral or rotational restraint, i.e. a free end
of a cantilever column. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as free.
The various codes generally suggest effective length factor, , in line with the following:
End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Pinned
Fixed
0.75 to 0.85
Pinned
0.90 to 0.95
Fixed
0.90 to 0.95
Pinned
1.00
Column Design
6-141
End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Pinned
Fixed
1.2 to 1.5
Pinned
1.6 to 1.8
Fixed
1.6 to 1.8
Pinned
N.A.
Fixed
2.2
Free
Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.
Short and slender columns
A column is considered to be short if the effects of its lateral deflection can be ignored.
Slenderness in a given plane is expressed as the ratio between the effective length and the
column dimension in that plane. The slenderness limits for short and slender columns set by
some of the supported codes of practice are:
Slenderness limit
Short
Column
Maximum
Slenderness
BS 8110 - 1997
Braced
lex
h
and
Unbraced
lex
h
and
All
Cantilevers
lo
ley
b
ley
b
< 15
< 10
and
lex
h
ley
b
and
<
ley
b
17 7
M1
M2
< 10
lo 60b
Lo 60b and b
h
4
100 b2
60 b
h
lo 25b and b
h
4
Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.
6-142
Column Design
Input
The column definition has several input components:
Load cases.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a column's geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.
Column Design
6-143
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
+ : The start of a new polygon. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. If you leave either blank, a value of
zero is used.
: Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Code column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
L : Enter an 'L' in the Code column blank to make the following coordinate
absolute.
A : To enter an arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle
are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
6-144
Column Design
The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
GenCol also requires a value for the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement,
Es (GPa or ksi).
Column Design
6-145
Loads input
More than one ultimate load case can be entered:
Axial load (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a compression force. The program does
not automatically include the self-weight of the column. The self-weight should be
calculated and manually included in the applied loads.
Moment values (kNm or kipft). Use the same sign for the top and bottom moments about
an axis to define double-curvature about that axis.
6-146
Column Design
Design
The column design modules follow different design approaches:
RecCol and CirCol calculate the required reinforcement for the column.
GenCol evaluates the column for the entered reinforcement or calculates a single bar
diameter to be used at each defined bar position.
Irrespective the approach followed, additional moments are calculated for slender columns and
automatically added to the applied moments. The design moment is taken to be equal to or
larger than the minimum moment set by the code.
Column design charts are constructed for bending about the X and Y-axis.
If the column is slender, additional slenderness moments are calculated as required about a
single or both axes.
For slender columns, the applied moments and additional moments are summed for each
axis.
Column Design
6-147
Note: The design procedure for bi-axially bent slender columns tend to be conservative due
to he codes' allowance for additional moment about both the X and Y axes.
6-148
Column Design
An iterative solution is obtained using strain compatibility and equilibrium as criteria. The
simplified rectangular stress block given by the codes is used.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.
Column Design
6-149
Design charts
The column design charts can be displayed for the specified column geometry and material
properties:
Rectangular columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis for
various percentages of reinforcement.
General columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis.
6-150
Column Design
Calcsheets
The column design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The different column design modules allow various settings, including design charts, tabular
design summaries and detailed design calculations.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Column Design
6-151
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
Rectangular columns:
Bar diameter for the
corner bars and the
number and diameter of
the intermediate bars in
the
horizontal
and
vertical faces of a
rectangular column, as
displayed on the screen.
6-152
Column Design
Note: To ensure that the amount of reinforcement supplied is not less than the amount
required, the relevant values are shown in a table.
Level at the top of the column or, in the case of starter bars, at the top of the
base (m or ft).
Links:
Rectangular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing, e.g. 'R10@200, and choose a
link layouts. Link type '2' should only be used with square columns.
Circular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing and choose between using
circular or spiral links.
General columns: Select a shape code and follow the prompts to indicate the link
coordinates. Available shape codes include '35' (normally used for holding
intermediate bars in position), '60' or '61' (used to enclose four bars by a rectangular
link) and '86' or '87' (spiral bar for use with circular columns).
First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
Column continuous: Enable this option to make the column bars continuous and have it
detailed with a splice at the top. If this option is disabled the column is detailed with bends
at the top to anchor it in a beam or slab.
Starter bars only: If enabled, starter bars are generated instead of complete column bars.
Double links at kinks: If enabled, a set of double links is provided at the position of the
main bar kinks. Circular columns are detailed with straight bars, removing the need for
this option.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Column Design
6-153
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the column and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a member
description, e.g. 'COLUMN TYPE 5'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'COLUMN5.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required
to suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS201'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title
Block and Print command on the bending schedule window.
6-154
Column Design
6-155
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
6-156
List of symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes.
Wall geometry
At : Wall thickness at the top (m).
Ab : Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).
H1 : Total wall height (m).
H2 : Height of soil in front of the wall (m).
H3 : Height from top of wall to soil level at back of wall (m).
Hr : Height of the support point from the top of the wall for a simply supported or
propped cantilevered wall (m).
Hw : Height of water table, measured from the top of wall (m).
x : Inclination of the wall (m).
xf : Position of the shear key, measured from the front of the base (m).
xL : Position of the line load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
xP : Position of the point load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
: Angle of soil behind wall ().
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
: Angle of friction between wall and soil (). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
: Angle of internal friction ().
: Poissons ration for the soil. The plane strain value should be used rather than
the triaxial value see geometry and loads input.
6-157
Applied loads
kh : Horizontal acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
kv : Vertical acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
L : Line load on or behind the wall (kN/m).
Lh : Horizontal line load at top of wall (kN/m).
P : Point load on or behind the wall (kN).
W : Uniform distributed load behind the wall (kN/m2).
Design parameters
DLfact : Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LLfact : Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Pmax : Design bearing pressure at serviceability limit state (kPa)
SFOvt : Allowable safety factor for overturning at serviceability limit state.
SFSlip : Allowable safety factor for slip at serviceability limit state.
Design output
As1 : Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
As2 : Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm 2).
As3 : Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ac1 : Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
Ac2 : Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
Ac3 : Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ds : Density of soil (kN/m3).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
Ka : Active pressure coefficient.
Kp : Passive pressure coefficient.
Kps : Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M1 : Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M2 : Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M3 : Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
Pfac : Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.
6-158
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.
Soil pressure, soil weight and wall self-weight are taken as dead loads.
Applied distributed loads, line loads and point loads are considered to be live loads.
If a water table is specified behind the wall, a linear pressure distribution is used along its
depth. The pressure applied on the bottom of the base is varied linearly from maximum at
the back, to zero at the front.
Point loads are distributed along the depth of the soil. In contrast, line loads are taken
constant in the transverse direction of the wall.
6-159
If no water table is present, soil should be taken as a value that includes moisture content
that can reasonably expected.
If a water table is present, the portion of the soil above the water table will likely have a
degree of saturation close to unity. Using the wet density rather than the dry density should
yield reasonable results.
0.30
0.33
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.60
Plane strain
0.42
0.50
0.54
0.67
0.82
1.00
1.50
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-kv). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Live loads can be optionally included in a seismic analysis. If included, live loads are applied
with the same pressure coefficients as for dead loads.
6-160
for the uniform pressure coefficient, Pfact, was determined by Terzaghi and Peck*. An average
value of 0.65 should yield reasonable results in most cases.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall. If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front
of the wall or below the base is taken as zero.
6-161
Input
Use the input tables to enter the wall geometry, loading and general design parameters.
The value for Hr is only required for simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Leave the Hw field blank if you do not want to define a water table. If you wish to design a
liquid retaining wall, you may set the water table above the soil level.
All applied loads work downward. Point loads are distributed at 45 through the depth of
the soil. Line loads are applied uniformly along the width of the wall.
6-162
Disable the option to allow seepage below the base if applicable, e.g. for liquid retaining
walls.
Allow active pressure to be applied to the back of the shear key (if any) if applicable, e.g.
if it is positioned towards the back of the base with compacted backfill.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to page
6-159.
Enter the equivalent seismic accelerations in the horizontal and vertical directions.
6-163
Cantilever: The base is fixed against rotation with the wall cantilevering from it.
Simply supported: The base has no fixity, i.e. free to rotate. The wall is supported
horizontally at the bottom and at the level defined by Hr.
Propped cantilever: Fixed at the bottom and simply supported at the level defined by Hr.
6-164
Design
You can design the entered wall configuration or use the optimisation functions to obtain a
more economic design.
Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, vc (MPa).
Retaining Wall Design
6-165
Note: The wall design does not include any axial effects due to friction or applied loads.
Results for serviceability limit state checks include:
Select B: Optimise the horizontal base dimension in front of the wall. The smallest value
of B is calculated to not exceed the allowable bearing pressure and safety factor for
overturning. A warning message is displayed if an appropriate value could not be
calculated.
6-166
Select D: Optimise the horizontal base dimension behind wall. The smallest value of D is
calculated to satisfy the requirements set for the allowable bearing pressure and safety
factor for overturning.
Select F: The value of F is optimised using the safety factor for slip as only criterion.
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.
6-167
Calcsheets
The retaining wall design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-168
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed retaining wall. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Reinforcement
is
generated at various
positions in the wall and
base
using
the
calculated
ultimate
bending
moments.
Change the diameters
and spacing as required.
First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed retaining wall, press
Reset. Also press Reset if you have changed the reinforcement bond stress and want to
recalculate the reinforcement.
6-169
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the retaining wall and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'WALL TYPE C'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'WALLC'. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit
your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS303'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
6-170
6-171
Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Stability checks can be performed at ultimate limit state or using the working force method.
Refer to page 6-176 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
6-172
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible.
Geometry:
A, B : Horizontal and vertical base dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
C, D : Horizontal and vertical column dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
E, F : Horizontal and vertical column eccentricity as shown on the screen (m or ft).
X : Stub column height (m or ft).
X : Base thickness (m or ft).
Z : Soil cover on base (m or ft).
Rebar depth : Concrete cover plus half of the reinforcement diameter (mm or in).
Materials:
Density : Concrete and soil densities (kN/m or lb/ft).
Friction angle : Internal friction angle for calculating passive soil stress.
Friction constant : Coefficient for calculating horizontal friction between the base and soil.
fci : Concrete cylinder strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
fcu : Concrete cube strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Safety factors:
SFover : Safety factor for overturning.
SFslip : Safety factor for slip.
Loads:
Hx, Hy : Horizontal forces in X and Y direction (kN or kip).
LFovt : Load factor to use for evaluating overturning stability.
LFuls : Load factor for ultimate limit state calculations.
Mx, My : Moment in X and Y direction (kNm or kipft).
P : Vertical load (kN or kip).
6-173
Sign conventions
The X and Y-axes lie in the horizontal plane. Using a
right-hand rule, the Z-axis points vertically upward.
The sign conventions applicable to forces and
moments are as follows:
Hx
Hy
Mx
My
Ry
Rx
None
None
Grillage Analysis
Ry
None
None
Mz
Mx
Ry
Rx
Rz
Mz
Mx
6-174
Input
The column base definition has several input components:
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.
6-175
Loads input
Enter one or more load cases. The following should be kept in mind:
All loads are applied at the centre of the columns. A column is positioned at the centre of
the base unless values for E and/or F are entered.
6-176
For the case of a concrete column extending to the slab above, no stub column should be
entered, i.e. the value for X should be left blank.
For a steel base plate bearing directly on the base, enter the plate dimensions for the
column dimensions, C and D, and use zero for the stub column height, X.
Seen in elevation, the horizontal forces Hx and Hy are applied at the top of the stub
column.
A positive value of P
denotes a downward force.
Use a negative value for
uplift.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-174.
Load factors
Each load has two load factors:
LFULS: Load factor to use for calculating bending moment, shear and reinforcement at
ultimate limit state analysis.
Own weight of the base is considered as a separate load case. Load factors for own weight is
entered in the geometry input table.
Note: Although overturning is also considered an ultimate limit state, the ULS abbreviation
is used to designate the strength ultimate limit state.
For more detail on calculating the safety factor for overturning at ultimate limit state, refer to
page 6-178.
6-177
Design
A column base is designed for compliance with ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state conditions:
The stability of the base is evaluated at both ultimate and serviceability limit state.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered un-factored working loads.
Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using un-factored forces.
Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The un-factored loads are used at serviceability limit
state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-176 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.
6-178
Shear checks
The required reinforcement for bending is used to calculate the shear resistance, vc, in the X
and Y-directions. For punching shear, the value is based on the average required reinforcement
in the two directions.
Linear shear
When
considering
linear shear, lines are
considered
at
a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column.
The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
Design moments in the X and Y-directions in the bottom and top of the base (kNm or
kipft).
6-179
Linear and punching shear stresses and allowable shear stresses (MPa or psi).
Optimise A, B and Y: Calculate the optimum values for all the base dimensions. The
optimisation procedures take into account the specified material costs.
Select B: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the Y-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Select A: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the X-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.
6-180
Calcsheets
The column base design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-181
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
Main reinforcement:
Column reinforcement:
At each column portion used, specify whether a normal column, stub column or no
column should be detailed.
Middle bars: The number and diameter of intermediate bars in the horizontal and
vertical column faces, as displayed on the screen.
Lap length factor: Splice length to allow for column starter bars.
Links: Diameter, dimensions and number of stirrups to hold column starter bars in
position.
6-182
First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
Column Base Design
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
Choose a configuration of bar shape codes to use for the bottom and, where
applicable, the top reinforcement.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the column base and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the Member column to enter a description,
e.g. 'BASE 6'.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. 'BASE6.PAD'. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. 'P123456-BS206'.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
6-183
6-184
6-185
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage due to hydration is accounted for by a combination of the thermal
expansion coefficient and the restraint factor. The design method employed by the codes is
ideally suited for non-temperate regions like Europe.
Reinforcement type
Concrete cracking has traditionally been correlated with the prevailing tensile steel stress.
Eurocode 2 - 1984 also takes account of the type of reinforcement, i.e. bond between concrete
and reinforcement.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
bt : Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
he : Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
6-186
6-187
Input
The section geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following points
require special attention.
The program evaluates an effective surface zone where crack control would be effective,
rather than the complete section. The surface zone is normally entered as half the section
depth but not more than 250 mm.
Because only a surface zone is considered, only half of the entered tensile forces
(applicable to the overall section) is used.
Reinforcement is calculated for the surface zone. The same reinforcement should be
supplied in full in both faces of the section.
Select Beam mode if you wish cracking to be evaluated at the section corners as well.
Tip: It is recommended that wide sections be designed using Slab mode.
6-188
The hydration temperature, T1, is defined as the difference between the environmental
temperature and the peak temperature due to hydration. The value is used to evaluate early
thermal cracking. Typical values, taken from Table A.2 of the code, are given below.
OPC content (kg/m3)
Section
Thickness (mm)
325
350
400
325
350
400
300
Steel formwork
11*
13*
15*
18 mm plywood formwork
23
25
31
500
20
22
27
32
35
43
700
28
32
39
38
42
49
1000
38
42
49
42
47
56
The seasonal temperature variation, T2, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.
Section
Thickness (mm)
300
325
15
350
17
400
21
500
25
28
34
The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 fct / fy, where fct is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.
6-189
Design
The following checks are considered for each load case at serviceability limit state:
The combined effect of bending moment, tensile force and the seasonal temperature
variation, i.e. MSLS + TSLS + T2.
The section is also evaluated at ultimate limit state by considering the combined effect of
bending moment and tensile force, i.e. MULS + TULS.
Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.
6-190
Calcsheets
The crack width design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-191
6-192
6-193
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
Bf : Width of the flange (mm).
Dct, Dcb : Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
Hf : Depth of the flange (mm).
6-194
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa).
fy : Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
fy : Shear reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
Design output
As : Bottom steel required for bending (mm2).
A's : Top steel required for bending (mm2).
Anom : Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm2).
Asv : Required shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Asvn : Nominal shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
vc : Allowable shear stress (MPa).
vt : Torsional shear stress (MPa).
The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the section and
the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section.
By considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment, the resulting moment
applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the central
sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the entire section.
6-195
6-196
Input
The section geometry and ultimate loading are entered using the single input table. The
following should be kept in mind:
If the values for Bf and Hf are left blank, a rectangular section is assumed.
The program puts the flange at the top. To model the case where the flange is at the bottom
or where the flange is in tension, enter a rectangular section without a flange. The effects
of bending and shear will still be evaluated correctly. In the absence of a flange, the
torsion checks will however be conservative.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.
6-197
Design
Press Analyse to design the section for the entered moment, shear and torsion. The following
results are given:
The moment capacity of the section using tensile reinforcement only. The tabled flexural
reinforcement values are the required values at the top (compression) and bottom (tension)
and the nominal reinforcement.
Shear stress in the web and the shear capacity of the section together with the required and
nominal shear reinforcement.
For torsion in the web and flanges, values are tabled for the torsional shear stress and
required shear and longitudinal reinforcement.
Longitudinal reinforcement
bars to resist combined
bending and torsion in the
web. The bottom and top bar
configurations are chosen to
exceed the required flexural
reinforcement
at
that
position plus half the total
longitudinal torsional reinforcement.
Note: The suggested reinforcement configurations are given as guidelines only. You can use
the tabled values for required reinforcement to determine rebar layouts more suitable to your
requirements.
6-198
Calcsheets
The section design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-199
Detailed calculations
The detailed calculations page displays the complete step-by-step calculations for the section.
6-200
6-201
Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).
6-202
6-203
If one edge is closer than five times the effective slab depth, i.e. 5 Deff, from the column
centre, the column is considered to be an edge column.
If two edges are closer than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is taken to be a corner column.
If all edges are further than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is analysed as an internal column.
Shear capacity
The program calculates the shear capacity in the X and Y-directions, vcx and vcy, based on the
main reinforcement in those directions and the average effective depth. The design shear
capacity, vcx, is then taken as the average of the values in the X and Y-direction.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity vc is taken as the average of vcx
and vcy. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining vc.
The shear force capacity, Vc, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.
6-204
Input
The slab geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following
parameters may require special attention:
6-205
Design
The design procedure includes the following steps:
The effective shear force, Veff, is calculated. See page 6-203 for an explanation of the
assumptions that apply.
The program chooses four shear perimeters. The first perimeter is taken a distance
1.5 Deff away from the column face. Subsequent perimeters are spaced at 0.75 Deff. The
perimeters are chosen to be as short as possible, extending to the slab edge when
necessary.
For each perimeter, the allowable stress, vc, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions. Refer to page 6-204 for more detail.
The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance
1.5 Deff inside the relevant perimeter.
6-206
Calcsheets
The slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6-207
Detailed calculations
The detailed calculations page displays the complete step-by-step calculations for the section.
6-208
Chapter
7
Timber Design
The timber design module can be used to design timber members in frames and trusses.
Timber Design
7-1
Quick Reference
Timber Design using PROKON
7-3
7-5
7-2
Timber Design
7-3
7-4
7-5
Design scope
The timber member design module can design timber and glued laminated timber load bearing
members. Timsec currently has the following limitations:
Only rectangular sections bent about their major or minor axes can be designed.
Design codes
The program designs timber members according to the following allowable stress design
codes:
BS 5268 - 1991.
Units of measurement
Timsec supports Metric units of measurement only.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Dimensions
B : Section breadth (mm).
D : Section depth (mm).
L/r : Slenderness ratio.
Leff : Effective length (m).
Design parameters
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling. Refer to page 7-8 for detail.
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member. Refer to page 7-9 for
more detail.
7-6
Ky : Factor with which the member length must be multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the local y-y axis of the member.
Modification factors
k1 to k5 : Stress modification factors for SAB 1063 - 1989.
K1 to K14 : Stress and dimensional modification factors for BS 5268. Refer to page 7-11
for detail.
Stresses
fb : Allowable bending stress (MPa).
fc : Allowable compression stress (MPa).
ft : Allowable tension stress (MPa).
sb : Actual bending stress (MPa)
sc : Actual compression stress (MPa)
st : Actual tension stress (MPa)
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis corresponds to
strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending.
Axial force and moment
The local axes system and force directions are defined as follows:
7-7
P-delta effects
Trusses are normally not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta
effects to be an important part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame
analysis.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Effective length factors beams
The lateral torsional stability of a beam depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at
each end of the beam and of the compression edge along the length of the beam.
The codes treat lateral buckling by limiting section dimensions and specifying effective length
factor, Ke:
BS 5268: To ensure there is no risk of lateral buckling of beams, limiting depth to breadth
rations are given in clause 14.8, Table 19.
Degree of lateral support
7-8
Maximum
D:B ratio
No lateral support
SABS 0163: Lateral stability of beams is treated in clause 6.2.3.2. The laterally
unsupported should be multiplied with the effective length factor given in Table 11:
Effective length
factor, Ke
Concentrated at centre
1.61
Uniformly distributed
1.92
1.84
1.69
Uniformly distributed
1.06
Cantilever beam
The effective length factor may conservatively be taken as 1.92 for all situations.
Effective length factors for struts and ties
The effective length factors depend on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end of
compression members. Guidelines are given in the codes:
7-9
End condition
Effective
length factor
0.7
0.85
1.0
1.5
2.0
Considering a typical plane timber truss, the effective length Lx relates to in-plane buckling. For
struts where rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners, a value
between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible, e.g. single
bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
For a typical plane truss, the effective length Ly relates to buckling out of the vertical plane.
This phenomenon can often govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can
buckle in a snakelike 'S' pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral
restraints are normally provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced
purlins connected to the top chord of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the
purlin spacing.
The effective length Le relates to lateral torsional buckling of a member about its weak axis.
The length depends on the spacing and type of restraint of the member's compression edge.
Using an effective length factor Ke of 1.92 would be conservative for all cases.
7-10
K3
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
Note: Since load duration factor may differ for different loads on the structure, you should
divide the relevant loads with this factor at the analysis stage.
K4 : Modification factor for bearing stress. Not applicable.
K5 : Shear strength factor to allow for notches. Not applicable.
K6 : Form factor for solid non-rectangular sections. Not applicable.
7-11
7-12
Duration of load
Cf
1.0
0.8
0.66
k2 : Factor for load sharing by members connected in parallel. All grade stresses
are multiplied by this factor.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
k3 : Stress modification factor for the type of structure. The value may be taken as
1.10 where the consequences of failure are small. For other structures a value
of unity should be used.
k4 : Modification factor for quality of fabrication. If the fabricated member
complies with an SABS specification, the value may be taken as 1.05.
k5 : Stress modification factor for moisture content. If the moisture content in a
compression member may occasionally exceed 20%, use a value of 0.75.
Slenderness limits
BS 5269 (clause 15.4) and SABS 0163 (clause 6.4.4) specify similar slenderness ratios for
members in compression. The slenderness limit for compression is taken as 180 in most cases.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 250, as specified by BS 5268, is
generally used.
When launching Timsec, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default. You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or
combination if required. For example, in the case where a member is carrying self-weight and
wind load only, the codes allow the maximum slenderness ratio for compression members to be
increased to 250.
7-13
The following text gives details of the design techniques and also explains how the database of
timber grades and sections sizes can be customised.
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 7-18.
The Members page: Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths. Refer to page 7-24
for detail.
The Design page: Evaluating the design results. See page 7-26 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 7-28 for detail.
7-14
The Input page: Choose a design approach, set the design parameters and enter the
element loads.
The Design page: Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on page 7-26.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 7-28
or detail.
7-15
Use the Edit Timber Grades (F5) function on the Input page to display the database of
grades and sections. Refer to page 7-15 for details.
Edit the properties on the Timber Grades page as required. Note that each grade requires
a size number.
On the Section Sizes page, enter available section dimensions for each size number used
on the Timber Grades page.
Use Save as Default and Load Defaults to record your preferred grades and sections
independent from the selected design code.
7-16
Tasks input
On entering Timsec, it defaults to reading the last compatible frame analysis for post-processing.
You can then choose to:
Read and post-process the frame analysis results: Define one or more design tasks by
grouping members with relevant design parameters.
Interactive design: Ignore the frame analysis and interactively input and design members.
The text that follows describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 7-21.
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
7-17
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
Read data from: Use this option to load the output of a different frame module than the
one displayed. Click the box and select the relevant file from the list or enter a file name.
2.
3.
Enter the design parameters and select the section dimensions to use.
4.
Select the load cases to be considered and enter the maximum slenderness ratios.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
7-18
2.
3.
Make the necessary changes to the selected members, design parameters etc.
4.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: Saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes and effective
lengths entered in the Members page.
Select lightest sections: Elements can be optimised for economy using mass as the
criterion. You can optimise the section breadth and height separately or simultaneously by
setting the respective values to 'Auto'.
Evaluate specific sections: To check specific section sizes, select the required sized for
breadth and depth.
7-19
nodes are not laterally supported, you can indicate them on the Members page. Refer to page 724 for detail.
Note: To modify the available section sizes for the selected timber grade, click Edit Timber
Grades (F5). Refer to page 7-15 for details.
7-20
Interactive input
The interactive design mode offers an alternative method of designing members. Instead of
performing a frame analysis and then and post-processing the results, you can enter member
length and forces and design them interactively.
To enable the interactive design mode, select 'Interactive input of data' on the Input page.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 7-14.
Select lightest sections: Elements can be optimised for economy using mass as the
criterion. You can optimise the section breadth and height separately or simultaneously by
setting the respective values to 'Auto'.
7-21
Evaluate specific sections: To check specific section sizes, select the required sized for
breadth and depth.
X/Y: Axis of bending relating to the values that follow next. Use as many lines as
necessary to define the loading on the member about the x-x and y-y axes.
M1: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y-axis (kNm).
W1: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m).
A: Position of the point load, measured from the left end (m).
7-22
Note: For allowable stress design with BS 5268 or SABS 0163, you should enter working
loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
7-23
Member definition
Internal nodes and effective lengths are defined on the Members page. The data entered on the
Members page are applicable to all design tasks defined on the Input page.
Enter internal node numbers in the table or click them with the mouse.
Use the Auto Select function to let the program detect all internal nodes.
7-24
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100 (where 180 corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Apply the same value of Kx, Ky or Ke to all members by clicking the Kx, Ky and Ke
buttons in the table heading.
Tip: You can quickly find a member in the table by pressing Ctrl+F. Enter the member
name by referring to one or both of its end node numbers.
7-25
Design results
Select the Design page to perform all design tasks and display the design results. All specified
load cases and combinations are considered for each member designed. Unless a very large
number of elements and load cases are involved, the design procedure will normally be
completed almost instantaneously.
By default, the results for the design task active on the Input page are displayed. The results of
any other design task can be displayed by selecting the task from the list (see description below).
If an interactive member design was performed, the displayed results will be for the interactive
design task instead.
7-26
The interaction formulae given by the relevant design code are used to evaluate the
combined effect of axial stress and bending stress. In calculating the allowable stresses, the
program takes account of the member slenderness.
The slenderness ratio checked against the specified maximum allowable slenderness ratio
for compression and tension.
Viewing results
The complete interaction formulae are displayed for the critical load case of the first member of
the first design task. Individual calculations have 'OK' and 'FAIL' remarks to indicate success or
failure.
To view the results of another task, member, section or load case:
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Member to Calcsheet: Add the current displayed member only. This option is not
available when the design results are set to include only a tabular summary.
Task to Calcsheet: Add the design results of all members in the current task, including
those members not currently displayed.
All tasks to Calcsheet: Add all members of all tasks. This option is not available in the
interactive design mode because only a single design task, i.e. the interactive design task,
is involved.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 7-20 for detail.
7-27
Calcsheet
The design results of all tasks are grouped on the Calcsheet page for sending to Calcpad or
immediate printing.
Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheet page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
7-28
Chapter
8
General Applications
The general analysis modules can be used to calculate section properties, wind pressures on
buildings and evaluate drainage systems of building roofs.
General Applications
8-1
Quick Reference
General PROKON Analysis Tools
8-3
8-5
8-19
8-27
8-2
General Applications
General PROKON
Analysis Tools
The PROKON suite includes a number of simple analysis tools to simplify everyday
calculations. These include:
Section Properties Calculation: For the calculation of bending and torsional properties of
any generalised section.
Wind Pressure Analysis: For determining the free stream velocity pressure on a building.
Gutter Design: Use this module to design a drainage system for a roof by sizing a gutter,
outlet and down pipe.
General Applications
8-3
8-4
General Applications
8-5
Scope
Prosec can be used to calculate the properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid
or have openings. For bending property calculation, the program uses a simple technique of
division into smaller trapezoidal sub-sections, and adding up the properties of all the subsections. The program uses the Prandtl membrane analogy to determine the shear and torsional
section properties, including the shear centre, St. Venant torsional constant and torsional
warping constant.
Sign convention
A simple Cartesian sign convention applies:
X-coordinates are taken positive to the right and negative to the left.
Units of measurement
All input and output values are used without a unit of measurement. Whether you define a
section using sizes for millimetres, metres, inches or feet, the output will effectively be given
in the same unit of measurement.
You can optionally specify a unit of measurement using the Analysis Settings option on the
Input page, and that unit will then be used in the output.
List of symbols
Below is a list of symbols used for the bending and torsional section properties:
Bending properties
A : Area of the cross section.
Ixx, Iyy : Second moment of inertia about X and Y-axis.
Ixy : Deviation moment of inertia.
Iuu, Ivv : Second moment of inertia about major axis and minor axis.
Ir : Polar moment of inertia
8-6
8-7
Input
To define a section, enter one or more shapes (polygons) that define its outline and any
openings.
Entering a section
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
'+' : The start of a new polygon or circle. An absolute reference coordinate must be
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'' : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'R' : Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'L' : Indicates a line drawn with absolute coordinates.
'A' : An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
'C' : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
'B' : Bulge altitude to apply to the previous line, changing it to an arc segment.
Enter the bulge altitude in X/Radius column. A positive bulge value
corresponds to an upward bulge for a line drawn from left to right.
Tip: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y-coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
8-8
Anatomy of a section
A section comprises one or more shapes that define its outline and any openings. Any shape is
a polygon, and has two basic components:
A reference coordinate, which gives the starting point of a polygon or the centre of a
circle.
One or more entries defining the polygons coordinates of lines and arcs or a circles
radius.
In the Code column, enter either a '+' or '' to indicate the start of a new shape. Entering a
'+' means that the shape will be added to the section. Likewise, a '' means that the shape
will be subtracted, e.g. an opening.
Enter the absolute values of the reference coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns.
If the Code column is left blank, the coordinate is taken relative from the last point
entered.
The coordinate values are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. A negative X or
Y-coordinate must be preceded by a minus sign. The plus sign before a positive X or Ycoordinate is optional.
A circular arc is defined by setting the Code to 'A' and entering the radius in the X/Radius
column. The arc is then taken to extend from the end point of the last line or arc, starting at
the angle that the previous line or arc ended and extending through the angle specified in
the Y/Angle column.
Section Properties Calculation
8-9
Define a circle by setting the Code to 'C' and entering the coordinate for the centre point.
On the next line, enter the radius in the X/Radius column.
To define a bulge between two points, enter a line segment and then apply the bulge in the
next input line. Enter 'B' in the Code column and the bulge altitude in the X/Radius
column. The bulge altitude is defined as the from the centre point of the line segment, and
perpendicular to it to the circular arc. A positive bulge value corresponds to a clockwise
rotation from the start to end point of the line segment.
Rotating a section
To rotate an entered section by a set angle, click on Settings.
Note: The torsional properties can only be calculated for a single contiguous section. You
may use several shapes to define an outline and one or more openings for the section, but
the section must be contiguous if you require torsional analysis results.
8-10
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Next, leaving the Code column blank, enter the consecutive corner points of the polygon
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. By leaving the Code column blank, the entered
coordinates are set to relative coordinates.
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
For each following coordinate, enter an L in the Code column and enter the absolute
coordinate values in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define straight lines by entering the consecutive corner points using relative or absolute
coordinates.
For an arc, set the Code to A and enter its radius and angle in the X/Radius and Y/Angle
columns. The arc will be taken to extend from the previous line/arc through the specified
angle. A positive angle is taken as a clockwise rotation and a negative angle as an anticlockwise rotation.
Tip: If an arc is to start at a certain angle, simply precede it with a short line at that angle.
Entering a circle
A circle is defined by entering the centre point followed by its radius in the next line:
8-11
Define the centre point of the circle by setting the Code to '+' and entering the absolute X
and Y-coordinates. If you leave either of the coordinates blank, a value of zero is used.
On the next line, set the Code to C and enter the radius of the circle in the X/Radius
column.
Note: A circle should be considered as a complete shape. If a circle has to be incorporated
in another shape, a polygon with arcs should be used.
Entering an opening
An opening is defined exactly like any other shape, with the exception that it is entered as a
negative shape:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define lines, arcs or a circle by entering the relevant points as described in the examples
above.
Examples
A number of examples are available on the Help menu to illustrate the input functions:
Circular tube that illustrates the use of circles and entering an opening.
Import a DWG or DXGF drawing into Padds, or draw the section in Padds.
On the Macro menu, use the Generate Input file to create input for Prosec. Follow the
prompts to select the lines and arcs that form the section outline, and select any openings.
8-12
8-13
Analysis
To calculate the bending section properties, or shear and torsional section properties, display
the Properties or Shear and torsion page respectively.
To calculate the bending properties, or shear and torsional section properties, click the
Bending Properties or Torsion Properties buttons respectively.
Analysis settings
Click Settings to adjust the analysis settings applicable to the bending and torsional analyses:
Poisson Ratio
Aluminium
0.16
Concrete
0.20
Steel
0.30
Number of equations: For determination of the torsional section properties, the finite
difference mesh is sized to yield approximately the specified number of equations. More
equations will take longer to solve, but may yield better accuracy, especially when
analysing thin-walled sections.
Units: Entering the units of measurement is optional the calculated section properties are
always given in the same units as the input. However, when you do enter the units of
measurement, relevant units will be displayed in the output. This may be useful to interpret
the order of unit of a specific section property, e.g. mm3 versus mm4.
8-14
Circles and arcs are first converted to polygons with approximately the same shapes. The
program uses lines at 30 angle increments for this purpose.
The section is then sub-divided into a series of trapeziums and the properties are calculated
for each trapezium.
The global section properties are finally calculated through summation of the values
obtained for each trapezium.
8-15
For calculating the shear and torsional section properties, the program uses a finite difference
analysis method:
The analysis routine uses Prandtl membrane analogy for determining the Y and X-shear
stresses and J, the St. Venant torsional constant.
The shear stress distributions in the Y and X-directions are determined for a unit load
applied in the Y-direction. The shear centre is then calculated by considering the moment
of shear stresses about the centre of mass.
The torsional constant, J, is taken as twice the volume below the membrane. The
maximum slope of the membrane then gives the torsional modulus. The maximum
torsional shear stress is obtained by dividing the torsional moment with the torsional
modulus Zt.
Warping torsion is evaluated by using the relationship between shear and axial
deformation from classical elastic theory. The shear deformation is obtained from the pure
torsion analysis. The warping constant, Cw, is then determined from the longitudinal
displacements.
8-16
Note: The number of equations has an effect on the accuracy of the torsional analysis. More
equations typically yield better results, especially for thin-walled sections, but take longer to
solve. To set the number of equations, adjust the Analysis Settings.
U0
1 2
xy
2G
(1)
Ui U 0.dA
(2)
External work :
Ue
V2
2GAs
(3)
From 1 and 2:
Ui
1
xy 2.dA
2G
(4)
From 3 and 4:
As
.dA
xy
1
2
8-17
Calcsheet
The section property calculations can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
8-18
8-19
Scope
The program calculates the free stream velocity pressure applicable to a building structure, and
then considers the internal and external pressure coefficients for the given building geometry to
calculate the design wind loads on the walls and roof.
Design codes
The following codes of practice are supported:
CP3 - 1972.
Units of measurement
The program support metric and imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
k : Pressure coefficient that depends on altitude.
Cpe : External pressure coefficient
Cp, : Internal pressure coefficient
Qz : Free stream velocity pressure (kPa).
V : Regional wind speed (m/s).
vz : Characteristic wind speed at a height z (m/s)
8-20
Input
Define the building and wind loading condition to be analysed:
Building geometry.
Wall permeability.
Environmental parameters
Enter the following parameters to define the environment:
Mean return period: A return period to indicate the importance of the structure.
Return Period
Description
100
25
Temporary structures
50
Terrain category: An indication of the likely exposure of the structure to wind loading. A
higher value denotes increased shielding and lower wind pressures.
Terrain
Category
1
Description
Open terrain
Outskirts of towns
City centres
Regional wind speed: The design wind speed for a fifty-year return period for the location
of the building (m/s or ft/s). Refer to the relevant design code for regional values.
8-21
Class of structure: The class of structure quantifies the importance of the analysis:
Class
Description
Structural component
Structure as a whole
Roof cladding type: A description of the surface profile of the material used to clad the
building, affecting friction. Choices include ribs, corrugations, and smooth.
Building geometry
Enter the following parameters to define the building geometry:
Wall permeability
Define the wall permeability (for calculation of internal pressure coefficient Cpi) by selecting
the option that best describes the permeability of the wall. Alternatively enter a custom Cpi
value.
8-22
Wind Profile
Display the free stream wind profile for the building location.
8-23
Wind Pressures
Display the calculated wind pressures on the walls and roof of the building.
8-24
Calcsheet
The Calcsheets page assembles the analysis results for printing and sending to Calcpad. Use
the Options button to select the information to be displayed.
8-25
8-26
8-27
Scope
The program can evaluate roof drainage systems subjected to intense short duration rains. It
takes into account the shape of the gutter, the outlet into which the gutter discharges and the
pipe-work that conveys the flow to below.
Note: Gutters and down pipes may normally be omitted for roofs with area of 6 m 2 or less
and no other area drains onto it (clause NC.5).
Design code
The program is based on the requirements of BS 12056-3 - 2000.
Units of measurement
The program supports both Metric and Imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
B : Width of the gutter at its top (mm or in).
Br : Width of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
Bs : Width of the gutter at its base (mm or in).
H : Overall gutter depth (mm or in).
Hr : Height of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
Lr : Length of roof to be drained at the position of the gutter (m or ft).
Tx1 : Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof (m or ft). Leave blank or
enter zero for a rectangular roof area.
TLr : Length of the roof at the ridge (m or ft). Enter the same value as for Lr for a
rectangular roof area.
x1 : Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof (m or ft).
x2 : Position of the gutter end (m or ft).
yd : Sloped depth of a trapezium-shaped gutter (mm or in).
8-28
Input
Define the drainage system and storm to be drained:
Storm characteristics
Gutter geometry
Storm characteristics
Enter the following parameters to define the storm:
Two minute M5 rainfall (mm): This quantity is defined as the expected rainfall in a two
minute period during a one in five year storm. Press 2 Minute M5 Rainfall Constants to
display regional data for the United Kingdom and South Africa. Refer to the code or other
relevant hydrological data for regions not listed.
Design duration (1 to 10 minutes): The M5 rainfall is adjusted for the actual duration in
accordance with Table NB.1 of the code.
8-29
Gutter geometry
You can define rectangular
trapezium-shaped gutters:
and
Roof layout
Define the roof layout by entering the
roof and downpipe dimensions.
Roof dimensions
The roof being drained can have a rectangular or trapezoidal layout:
Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof. Leave blank or enter zero for a
rectangular roof area, Tx1.
Length of the roof at the ridge. Enter the same value as for Lr for a rectangular roof
area, TLr
Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof, x1. Leave blank or enter zero
if the gutter extends for the whole length of the roof.
Position of the gutter end, x2. Enter the same value as for Lr if the gutter extends for the
whole length of the roof.
8-30
The wind characteristics determine whether there will be increased water flow compared
to the case where rain is falling vertically:
Driven: The rain is driven unto the roof (at an angle of 26) resulting in increased
water flow due to rain on sloping roofs. This is accounted for in the analysis by
increasing the impermeable area of the roof (Table 3 of the code).
Perpendicular: The impermeable area of the roof is calculated using T r, the distance
from the gutter to the ridge measured along the slope of the roof.
None: Rain is falling vertically, and the impermeable roof areas is calculated using the
horizontal distance from the gutter to the ridge, Br.
Downpipes
Define one or more downpipes using the following parameters:
Position of the downpipe from, measured from the edge of the roof (m or ft).
The type of outlet influences the flow collected from the gutter (code clause 5.4). The
following types of outlets can be specified:
Gutter and Down pipe Design
8-31
Type 3: Outlet with tapered edges not exceeding 45 with the vertical.
Breadth to width ratio: Use a unity value for square and circular down pipes.
Width: The larger dimension of the down pipe. Use the diameter in the case of a circular
down pipe.
Drop box: Indicate if the downpipe has a box receiver or sump increases the drainage
capacity before overtopping.
Additional inflow
8-32
If draining one or more other roofs into this gutter, enter the location (measured from the
start of the roof) (m or ft) and the equivalent drainage areas (m 2 or ft2) for each.
Design
The Design page gives a graphic summary of the drainage catchments and gutter draining.
8-33
Calcsheets
The Calcsheets page displays the design calculations. The program evaluates the following
three components of the drainage system:
The outlet into which the flow from the gutter discharges.
The pipe-work that conveys the flow from the outlet to a lower drainage system.
8-34
Chapter
9
Masonry Design
The masonry design section contains modules for the analysis of reinforced masonry beams
subjected to pure bending and unreinforced masonry walls subjected to axial compression and
out of plane bending about two axes.
Masonry Design
9-1
Quick Reference
Masonry Design using PROKON
9-3
9-5
9-2
Masonry Design
9-15
9-4
9-5
Design scope
The masonry section design module verifies the resistance of a reinforced
masonry beam at a critical section. It is assumed that the loads imposed on
the beam causes uniaxial bending and a shear force only.
The following limitations apply:
Design codes
The program designs masonry sections according to the following codes of
practice:
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
b : Section breadth (mm).
d : Effective depth, i.e. distance from the compression face to the
tension steel centroid (mm).
z : Moment lever arm (mm).
9-6
Design results
Mr : Moment resistance (kNm).
Mu : Applied ULS moment (kNm).
Vr : Shear resistance (kN).
Vu : Applied ULS shear (kN).
a : Shear span (m), or unit correction factor (unitless).
Design parameters
As : Tension steel area (mm).
mm : Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
ms : Partial material safety factor for the reinforcement.
Lmax1,2 : Limiting lengths due to stability considerations (m).
Stresses
fy : Ultimate tensile strength of the tension steel (Mpa).
fyy : Ultimate tensile strength of the shear steel (Mpa).
fnom : Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
fk : Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
fv : Shear stress due to Vu (MPa).
fv : Adjusted shear stress (MPa), modified based on the shear
span.
fbr : Bond resistance (MPa).
fbu : ULS bond stress due to Vu (MPa).
Design parameters
Tension steel area
As MasSec only verifies the resistance of a section, the diameter and number
of bars are required parameters during the input stage.
9-7
9-8
Input
Design input comprises two steps:
General input
The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below:
Solid unit
Hollow unit
9-9
Percentage solid material refers to the area perpendicular to the loading in the
crushing test, usually this would be width x length. The percentage solid
material would then be (total area void area) as a percentage of the total
area.
Masonry unit sizes are based on the modular concept, i.e. any dimension of
the unit added to a joint thickness of 10mm yields a multiple of 100.
The table below indicates the recommended nominal unit dimensions
applicable to South Africa.
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Burnt clay
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Calcium silicate
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Concrete
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
The second table on this page contains the parameters pertaining to material
strengths and reinforcement position. If the masonry units have been tested to
failure as specified by the applicable code then fk can be entered directly in
this table. If only nominal strengths are available, enter the nominal strength
and MasSec will calculate fk.
9-10
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
7 MPa
Calcium silicate
14 MPa
21 MPa
35 MPa
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Concrete
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
Steel strength, positioning and type, as well as mortar class must be chosen in
this table as well.
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void between
the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Grouted cavity - Double leaf of masonry, where the larger void between
the two leaves is filled with concrete with strength of at least fk.
9-11
The dimensions of the beam section, the clear span and the type of support
are also chosen on this table.
The second table provides parameters for the steel as well as a load distance
parameter and a bearing length. The load distance is the distance of the
critical section from the left hand support the resulting shear enhancement
is allowed in certain cases. The last table requires the input of ULS loads on
the critical section.
9-12
Design
The design page provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design.
Two cases of bending failure are presented on the diagram and the minimum
chosen as the section strength in bending:
1) Compression failure Over-reinforced beam, masonry ruptures in
compression before the steel yields.
2) Tension failure Under-reinforced beam, steel yields before the masonry
ruptures in compression.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength). Steel required and provided is tabulated in the left
bottom corner of the tab.
9-13
Calcsheets
9-14
9-15
Design scope
The masonry wall design module verifies the resistance of an unreinforced
masonry wall, subjected to one of the following loads:
Design codes
The program designs unreinforced masonry walls according to the following
codes of practice:
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
t : Wall thickness (mm).
h : Wall height (mm)
ex : Calculated or actual eccentricity (mm).
Design results
9-16
9-17
Design parameters
Eccentricities
Actual load eccentricity is assumed to vary from ex at the top of the wall to
zero at the bottom, subject to additional eccentricity due to slenderness
effects.
Partial material safety factors
The safety factors for masonry units have a fairly wide range, due to the wide
range of materials and the measure of control during manufacturing and
construction. See the applicable code of practice for details.
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasWall, any one of the two approaches can be used. Similarly flexural
tensile resistances parallel and perpendicular to the bed joints can be
specified or left to MasWall for calculation.
9-18
Input
Design input is divided into two steps:
General input
The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below.
Solid unit
Hollow unit
9-19
Percentage solid material refers to the area perpendicular to the loading in the
crushing test, usually this would be width x length. The percentage solid
material would then be (total area void area) as a percentage of the total
area.
Masonry unit sizes are based on the modular concept, i.e. any dimension of
the unit added to a joint thickness of 10mm yields a multiple of 100.
The table below indicates the recommended nominal unit dimensions
applicable to South Africa.
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Burnt clay
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Calcium silicate
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 100 x 190 mm
190 x 90 x 90 mm
Concrete
290 x 90 x 90 mm
390 x 90 x 190 mm
390 x 190 x 190 mm
The second table on this page contains the parameters pertaining to material
strengths. If the masonry units have been tested to failure as specified by the
applicable code then fk can be entered directly in this table. If only nominal
strengths are available, enter the nominal strength and MasWall will
calculate fk.
9-20
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
17 MPa
7 MPa
Calcium silicate
14 MPa
21 MPa
35 MPa
3.5 MPa
7 MPa
Concrete
10.5 MPa
14 MPa
21 MPa
The layout of subsequent pages in the input process will vary according to
the design type chosen.
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void between
the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Masonry Wall Design
9-21
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this page.
Possible values for the horizontal restraint are: (Refer to SABS 0164 for
details)
Similar rotational fixities can be specified for the vertical edge(s) of the wall.
MasWall also supports vertical stiffeners between the wall edges. These
stiffeners can be either piers (small columns) or intersecting walls. Once
vertical stiffeners have been selected, they need to be dimensioned as well.
9-22
The table on this page defines the type, geometry and edge restraint of the
masonry wall panel.
The following wall types are supported:
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this page.
Edge restraints can be specified for each edge individually as free, simple or
fixed.
9-23
9-24
Design
This page provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design. The
two resistance moments are shown on the diagram.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength).
9-25
Calcsheets
9-26