1982 OIL & GAS FACILITIES SCHOOL DEHYDRATION & HYDRATE PREVENTION REYNOLD B. RILLEGEIST3 DEHYDRATION AND HYDRATE PREVENTION STUDY GUIDE Name four ways to prevent hydrate formation if dehydration facilities are not available. ‘The two main factors that must be known to size an indirect heater ar a, fuel gas quality and flovline pressure. >. heat tequirenents and coil area. <. pressures and temperatures in and out of the heater. Absorption is: a. the molecular attraction of particular hyérocartons to a solid surface. b. a transfer of ents from a vapor to liquid phase by control ‘vapor-Liquid equilibrium conditions. c. the sane as adsorption. ‘Trays in absorbers, or contact towers, are required: a, to provide intinate contact between gas and absorbent. B. to provide vessel strength. €. to provide pressure drops. ‘The water content of a gas leaving a glycol contactor can be decrease. by decreasing: a. contact temperature. . contact pressure. ¢: glycol concentration. 4. glycol circulation rate. ‘Triethylene glycol is preferred over diethylene glycol because: a, it is cheaper. b. can be Tegenerated to higher purity. ¢. it does not becone contaminated as quickly. Operation of a glycol dehydrator is greatly improved if the inlet gas temperature can be lowed below 50°F because such reduction in tenperat decreases the water content in the gas. (True, False) ‘Adsorption is: a. the same as absorption.10. a. 22. 4s. 44. 1s. 16. a. as. Lower gas dew points can be achieved with dry bed cehydrators than with glycol dehydrators. (True, False) When adsorbent beds are being regenerated, it is best for the hot regeneration flow to be: 2, from top of contactor to bottom. b. from bottom of contactor to top. Which of the following hydrate prevention techniques would most Likely be used to solve a short-term problem? a. Downhole regulator. b. Glycol injection. c. Heater. 4) Methanol injection. When gas stream pressure suddenly decreases, the temerature of the g8s a. decreases. bi is unaéfected, increases. ‘To prevent plugging of flow Lines with hydrates a. grade the line to prevent free water accumilation. >. Inject methanol or glycol. ¢. use a flow line scrubber. The most commonly used dehydration system is a. dry bed dehydration bl refrigeration. ¢. glycol dehydration. Glycol flow in a contactor is: a. countercurrent. b. cocurrent.. to gas flow. as may be bubbled through regenerated glycol to: a, cool it for storage. b. further increase its purity. to agitate the liquid for uniform temperature. ‘The EDEND computer progran is based on the a, Kremser Brown equations. D. the MeCabe-Thiele diagram. c. the extrapolation of test data. Glycoi “foaming may be caused by:1s. 20. a. 2. 23. 2. 25. 6. Low glycol concentration may be the result of: 2. too much stripping gas . low glycol rate c. low Teboiler temperature Injection glycol losses are caused by: a. vaporization. b. solubility in water. ¢. reaction with sour gases. ‘The hydration of natural gas can be prevented by: a, Keeping the tenperature above 32°F. BL injecting methanol. Methanol losses are high because of: a. its high solubility in hydrocarbons. b. its high volatilit cL chemical reaction with natural gas components. Water displaces light hydrocarbons from most adscrbents because: a, it has strong polar Zorces. b. it has a larger molecule. c. it has a high vapor pressure. Drybed cooling is best accomplished by: upflow. b. downflow. List three desiccants with a high affinity for weter. Name two methads for dehydration of @ Liquid hydrocarbon.DEHYDRATION AND HYDRATE PREVENTION STUDY GUIDE Nane four ways to prevent hydrate fornation if dehydration facilit: are not available. 1. Flowline heaters 2. Methanol Injection 3. Glycol Injection 4 Domnote Regulators The two main factors that must be known to size an indirect heater fuel gas quality and flovline pressure. (O) heat requirements and coil area. €. pressures and temperatures in and out of the heater. Absorption is: . the molecular attraction surface. a transfer of components from a vapor to liquid phase by contr vapor-liquid equilibrium conditions. the sane as adsorption. articular hydrocarbons to a solié ‘Trays in absorbers, or contact towers, are required: to provide intinate contact between gas and absorbent. “B: to provide vessel strength. €. to provide pressure drops. ‘The water content of a gas leaving a glycol contactor can be decrea by decreasing GB cnace pera. Scena preter © Giyed cercentration, SESE EEE ace. ‘Triethylene glycol is preferred over diethylene glycol because: it is cheaper. > can be regenerated to higher purity. : it does not becone contaminated as quickly. Operation of a glycol dehydrator is greatly improved if the inlet g temperature can be lowed below 50°F because such reduction in tenpe decreases the water content in the gas. (True, False) Adsorption is: the sane as absorption.9. Lower gas dew points can be achieved with dry bed dehyérators than with glycol dehydrators. (True, Felse) 10. When adsorbent beds are being regenerated, it is best for the hot regeneration flow to be: a. from top of contactor to bottom. (H _fron botton of contactor to top. 11. Which of the following hyrate prevention techniques would most Likely be used to solve a short-term problem? a. Downhole regulator. bi Glycol injection. c. Hester. © Methanol injection. 12, When gas stream pressure suddenly decreases, the texperature of the ges decreases. is unaffected. increases. 15. To prevent plugging of flow lines with hydrates 2. grade the line to prevent free water accumulation. @® inject methanol or glycol. ¢. use a flow line scrubber. 14. The most comonly used detyéretion systen is 2. dry bed dehydration BL Selrigeration. Gi pycol dehyérvion. 15. Glycol flow in a contactor is: @._ countercurrent. b. cocurrent. GB) eb, for stomge further increase its purity. €. to agitate the liquid for uniform temperature. 17. The EDEND computer program is based on the 2. Krenser Brown equations. the McCabe-Thiele diagram, €. the extrapolation of test data, 418. Glycol foaming may be caused by:19. Low glycol concentration may be the result of: a. too mich stripping gas . low glycol rate low Teboiler tenperature 20. Injection glycol losses are caused by: Q@ veporizarion. solubility in water. €. reaction with sour gases. 21. The hydration of natural gas can be prevented by: a. Keeping the temperature above 32°F. injecting methanol. 22, Methanol losses are high because of: its high solubility in hydrocarbons. @) its high volatility, ©. chemical reaction th natural gas components, 23. Water displaces light hydrocarbons fron most adsorbents because: Q it has strong polar forces. b. it has @ larger molecule. c. it has a high vapor pressure. 24, Drybed cooling is best accomplished by: 2. upflow. © dinzion. 25. List three desiccants with a high affinity for water. 2) Aleming, Gel 2) Silica Gel 2) Melecoler Sieve or @) Aeliveled Alomina 26; Nane two methods for dehydration of a liquid hydrocarbon. Jy Dry Bed Dehydration 2 hee Dekyebr ator Cory Shrippinghras)ml. DEHYDRATION AND HYDRATE PREVENTION TABLE OF CONTENTS Hydrate Prevention a 8, cas. fiydrate Formation Indirect Heaters Methanol Zajeetion Glyeol Injestion Downhole Regulators Comparison of Hydrate Prevention Methods Debydration Giycot Dehydration 1. Principles 2. Proves 3. Effect of Operating Variables 4, system Design 5. Glyool Selection ané Care 6. System Operation and Maintenance Dry Bed Dehydration 1. Principles 2. Proves 3. Effect of Operating Variables 4, Desiccant Selection 5, Speosal application: Molecular Sieves in Expander Plants 6. system Design PAGE a 1s 16 » 9 a 2 a 3 38 a a7 a “9 32 3 58TIT, Liquid Dehydration A. Free Water Renoval 1B. Dissolved Water Removal Water Solubility of a Liquid Dry Bed Dehydration Dehydration with stripping Gas References Tables Figures Appendices I. operator Talk...Glycol Dehydration Tt, Hydrate Prevention Calculations ITT. Glycol Dehydration Unit Calculations IV. Dey Bed Dehydration Example Proble: V. Dehydrator Problem Solving VI, Trintetraethylene Glycol Blends 6a 64 6a 65 66EIS? OF TABLES AND FIGURES (| saaues " nite I coefficients of Heat Transfer 1 Specific Heat of Natural Gas vrgumes siete 1 nydeate Formation Tenperatures 2 Expansion Cooling of Natural Gas 3 Enthalpy Curves ~ 0.6 Sp. Gr. Gas 4 Enthalpy Curves ~ 0.7 Sp. Gr. Gas 5 Enthalpy Curves ~ 0.8 Sp. Gr. Gae 6 ‘Typical Wellhead Indirect Heater Hoo 7 Detailed View of an Indirect Heater Ja Basic Heat Transfer Equation rb Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient te og Mean Temperature Difference ta Corrected Log Mean Temperature Digte 8 Oil Specific Heats 9 Maximum Gas Velocity in Pipes a0 Heater Coil Heat Transfer Coefficien L Log Mean Tenperature Difference a2 ‘Typical Methanol Injection systs as Water Content of Nawural Gas a4 Ratio of Vapor to Liguia Composition 3 typical Glycol Injection and Recover a6 Freezing Points of Ethylene Glycol uv Boiling Points of Ethylene Glycol ae Boiling Pointe of Diethylene Glycol as Boiling Points of triethylene Glycol 20 Boiling Points of Setraethylene Glyc: 20a Glycol Vapor Losses aia Specific Gravity of Bthylene Glycol 21» Specific Gravity of Diethylene Glyco 2c Specific Gravity of triethylene Glyc: aie Specific Gravity of Tetraethylene Gl 2 Glycol Vapor Pressures 23 Giycol Dehydrator Schematic 24 Water Dew Point vs. TEG Concentratio 25 Water Dew Point vs. DEG Concentratio 26 Dow Point Depression vs. TEG Circula 2 Dew Point Depression ve. Number of T 28 ‘ray Internals 20 Capacity of Trayed Glycol contactors 30 Capacity of Packed Glycol contactors 31 Capacity of Correction Factors ( 2 Required Dew Point Depression for 7 33 ‘Trays or Packing Required for GlycolList of Tables and Figures, cont'd. Tithe Bxanple of Modified Mocabe-Thiele Dia, Dew Points of EG Solutions Dew Points of DEG Solutions Dew Points of TuEG Solutions Dew Points of TEC Solutions Specific Heats of EC and DEC Solution Specific Heate of TEC and T4£C Soluti Stripping Still Size for Glycol Dehyd Seripping Gas Requirenents EDEHYD - Dew Point Depression vs. TEC EDEHYD - Dew Point Depression vs. Non! Physical Properties of Glycols ‘Tenperature Sensitive Properties of D Boiling Temperatures of Ethylene Clyc: Boiling Temperatures of DEC Boiling Temperatures of TEC Boiling Temperatures of T4EC TEG ~ Vapor Pressure vs. Concentratio Flow Diagram Solid Desiccant Dehydrat Typical Dual Tower Dehydrator Gas Flow Rate vs. Desiccant Capacity Water adsorbed vs. Relative Humidity Water Adsorption Isosteres Properties of Solid tesiccants Water Advorbed vs, Relative Humidity PoH-T Diagram Showing Hydrate Expecta Artist's Conception cf Molecular Siev ‘Types of Sieves and Uses Mol Sieve Adsorption Diagram Mol Sieve Requirenents for Adsorber B Three-Bed Dehydratior of Sarita Blue Water Ges Plant Mol Sieve Dehydr Gas Pressure Drop through Dry Bed Deh Maximm Bed Velocity - Upflow Maximom Bed Velocity - Downflow Mol Sieve Adsorber Internals Water Solubility of 2 Liquid mydrocar Dry Bed Debydration of @ Liquid Condensate Debyarator© A I. HYDRATE PREVENTION Hydrate Fomation 1 3. Hydrate Description In gas systems operating at high pressures, hydrates can fom at ‘enperatures considerably above the normal’ freezing point of water. Hydrates consist of a water lattice in which light hydrocarbon nolecules are embedded, resenbling dirty ice in appearance. ‘They’ See chemical combination of all | form but do not result from truc ‘the molecules involved. liydrates norm: form when a gas stream is cooled below its hydrate formation temper ture, which may be as high as 70°F at pressures comonly encounter in natural gas handling. Hydrate formation is almost always undes: because the crystals can cause plugging of flovlines and chokes. Prediction of Hydrate Formation ‘The temperature at which hydrates may be expected to form depends « the gas pressure and gravity. Figure 1 can be used to determine tl naximm hydrate formation tenperature at a given pressure. Choking, or expansion of gas from a high pressure to a lower pres- sure, generally required for control of gas flow rates. The choking is achieved by use of a choke nipple or a control valve. Since the pressure drop that occurs causes a decrease in the gas temperature, hydrate formation can occur at the choke or control valve. An estimate of the temperature drop that will accompany a given presst drop can be determined fron Figure 2. Figures 3, 4, and 5 and Figures 15-2 through 15-6 in the 1972 Engineering Data Book of the Gas Processors Suppliers Association will give better estimates th: Figure 2 because they take the gas gravity into account. Expansioi of gas across a choke or control valve is known as a Joule-Thompsot or isenthalpic expansion because the enthalpy of the gas does not change, and this fact is the key to reading Figures 3, 4, and S. For example, to determine the anount of expansion that a’0.7 gravi: gas at 2800'psia and 120°F can incur before hydrates begin forming Tocate 2800 psia and 120°F on Figure 4 and move dovn the figure on constant enthalpy line to the hydrate expectancy curve. Hydrate formation could be expected at 1420 psia and the temperature of thi gas would be lowered 52°F to 68°F because of the expansion. Wellhead Temperatures and Pressures Knowledge of the temperature and pressure of a gas stream at the Wellhead is important for determining whether hydrate formation cay be expected when the gas is expanded into the flowlines. The temp ‘ture at the wellhead can change as the reservoir conditions or pro: tion rate change over the producing life of the well. Thus, wells that initially flowed at conditions at which hydrate formation inFlowline Temperatures and Pressures Cooling of the gas ina flowline due to heat loss to the surrot ground or air can sonetines cause the gas temperature to drop ‘the hydrate formation temperature. Flowline tenperatures and pressures are required to determine the best locations to effec pressure drops or to install heaters. ‘The following equation can be used to calculate the downstream ‘temperature Ty, in a pipeline section: tgs Bee ‘a Where: x=» DUL/CG, D = 0D of flow line, feet U = Heat transfer coefficient, Bru/Day/*F/Sq. ft. (WU values are difficult to determine. _Representat: values are listed in Table T. These values ust. multiplied by 24 for use in the above equation. L = Length of flow line, feet Q= Gas flow rate, standard MICE per day Gy = Specific heat factor, Btu/Mc£/°F (2 value of 26,800 is nomally used. Values fron Table II, miltiplied 1000, may yield more accurate results. “The most ace specific heat determination is made by most of the 5 prograns (such as FLASHA) in Exxon's GASPLANT progra e= 2.71828 Tu = Upstream gas temperature, °F (It could be the wellhe temperature, Tyg;, if no choke or hester is used. Ot wise, it could" the temperature domstrean of a he Tg = Ground temperature, °F -- the folloving values, from Field Handling of Natural Gas, by the University of ABE, NPR and Docon's eqerience, are suggested if © field data are not available: 36-inch coverage, Corpus Christi minim Tg = 58°F Dallas minim Tg = 53°F 18-inch coverage tomes Carist minimm Tg = 53°F Dallas minimm Tg * 48°F Unver Gulf Coast of ‘Tg = S0°F toPoraian Basin, Bast Texas Bg = 45°F ‘and North Louisiane Hugoton-Panhendle 1g = 259F to 30°F 5. System Optimization Before choosing a nethod of hydrate prevention or det aration, the operating system should be optinized to minimi the treating necessary. Some general factors to che include the following: (1) reduce pressure drops by mir mizing line lengths and restrictions; (2) take requir pressure drops at the warmest conditions possible; (3) che the economics of insulating pipe in cold areas. 6. Methods of Hydrate Prevention ‘the remainder of this seotion will discuss four methods preventing hydrate formation without removing water from t fast heating of the gas, injection of methanol into the gx SmJection of glycol, and use of downhole regulators. Hydre prevention can also be accomplished by removing the wat that causes the hydrates from the gas stream, Water reno\ is discussed in Seotion TI, Gas Dehydration. Indireot Heaters Indirect heaters are commonly used to heat gas to a tenperatt above the hydrate formation temperature. The heater is a ves: containing firetube (usually fired by gas) and a coil for | Fluid to be heated. These are immersed in a neat transfer fl: (usually water) which transfers heat to the fluid in the co: The coil is designed to withstand the full gas pressure and ‘ heater shell containing the water is usually operated at < mospheric pressure. 1. Wellhead Hester Description Figures 6 and 7 show @ typical heater installation at Wellhead, Beginning at the wellhead, the following items : normally included: a. Safety Shut—In Wing Valve: This valve is bolted direc ‘to the Christaas tres and is pneumatically actuated. pilote are installed to actuate this valve. The fir Senses the flov1ine pressure between the welihead and heater choke. This pilot will shut in the well whene the flowline pressure upstrean of the heater falls be a certain set pressure, indicative of @ Flowline ruptu. This pilot must be re-set manually. The seoond pi senses the flowline pressure downstream of the hea ‘choke and will shut in the well on either abnormally h on low pressure. If the pilot actuates because of pressure condition, the Well will remain shut in un the pilot is manually re-set. If the pilot actuates4 because of a high pressure condition, che well will be shut in until flowline pressure returns to normal, et Wnich time the wing valve vill be autonatically re. opened. In certain installations, @ separate gate valve is installed as the safety shut-in valve, in addition to the regular wing and master valve at the wellhead . ». High-Pressure Flowline: This flowline ie normally 150 Feet long and is designed to withstand full wellhead shut-in pressure. ©. Expansion Loop: Designed to absorb flowline length changes caused by changes in temperature as the wel) is brought on strean. 4. Long Nose Heater Choke: A choke with 2 long body in stalled in the heater in such @ fashion that the choke orifice is located within the direct heater bath. Sine the walls of the choke orifice are heated by water bath, hydrates will not form in the orifice and cause plugging. Figure 7 shows a detailed view of the choke. 2. Heater By-Pass Valve: A valve designed to withstand full wellhead shut~in pressure and bypass gas around the heater after the wellhead pressure hae been draxn down to near sales line pressure. Use of this valve prevents needless wear and erosion on the heater cots and allows the pressure drop from wellhead to sales Line to be minimized. Heater Coil: A multiple pass steel coil designed to withstand £11 wellhead shut-in pressure. Because of the high corrosion and erosion rates in the return bends of these coils, the return bends are "safety grilled". Safety-driiling is a process vhere small holes are drilled in the outside of the return bends, approxinately one-half way through the metal. This ‘small hole will begin to leak when corrosion and ero- sion have reduced the wall thickness by a factor of one-half and provide a warning that the return bends should be replaced. Safety Relief Valve: This valve provides overpressure Protection for the low-pressure flowline. It is set to Pelieve at a slightly higher pressure than the pressure fat which the wellhead safety valve will close. This is to prevent flaring of gas unless all other safety de- viees fail. Particular attention should be paid to the location of the relief valve vent stack in relationship to the heater to prevent the possible ignition of flare ges.5 b. Heater Flame arrestor: This flame arrestor provides fire protection by preventing the heater fire from flashing back through the air intake and igniting sur- rounding material. Flowline Heaters Flowline heaters differ from wellhead heaters in purpose only. The primary purpose of a wellhead heater is to heat the flow stream at or near the wellhead where choking fre— quently occurs. It is generally at an easily accessible location for operating personnel and in many instances, sufficient heat can be added to the gas at this point 30 an additional heater will not be required. If additional heat is required, the flowline heater design is the sane as that for the wellhead heater except the choke and the shut-in and relief equipment shown in Figure 6 are seldom used. & bypass should be installed in either heater design 20 the heater can be taken out of service when no longer needed. System optimization Heat requirements that appear to be very large can often be reduced to minimal values or even eliminated by revising the mode of operation. A good example is using a central heating location. Most fields have more than one producing well. These wells produce to a central location where the gae streans are commingled and the total stream is then processed. Each of the gas streaus will generally reach the central point at a different temperature and preseure because of different flow rater and Tlowline lengthe for each well. When the streams are commingled, the heat from the hotter gas streams may be more than adequate to raise the temperature of colder gas streams to a paint above which nydrates will not form. Therefore, if it is neces- sary to lower the pressure of the flowing gas stream, it te efficient to do so at the central gathering point. Also, if heaters are still required, it is more efficient to operate then at a central location, because clean fuel gas for the heaters can be obtained from separators or serub= bers and temperature control of multiple heaters at a cen- tral point is easier than when the heaters are renotely located, A disadvantage of bringing gas to a central point before taking @ pressure drop is that the gathering lines must be able to withstand shut-in wellhead pressures. as an alter- native to installing the extra strength lines, a wellhead shut-in valve may be installed that shute the well in when- ever the flowline pressure reaches a maximum value. The flowlines can then be designed for the flowing gas pressure only.Heater Sizing In order to adequately desoribe the size of a heater, the heat duty and the coil sizes must be specified. To determine the heat duty required, the maximum anounts of gas, water, and ofl or condensate expected in the heater and the pressures and temperatures of the heater inlet and outlet must be kmown, Sinoe the purpose of the heater ts to prevent hydrates from forming downstream of the heater, the outlet temperature will depend on the hydrate formation temperatare of the gaa. The coll size for the heater depends on the Yolune of fluid Flowing through the coil and the required heat duty. Consideration of special operating conditions such as start up of a shut~in well mist be considered in sizing the heater. ‘The temperature and pressure conditions fourd in a shut-in well and the extra amount of liquids that may be present in the well when it has just started flowing may require additional heater capacity over the steady state require- ments. The shut-in pressure and temperature ray be such that hydrates could be a real problem when prodiction is ini- Hated; i.e., hydrates could plug the flowline or choke, most Likely ‘the choke, before heat can be added to the gas. In such instances, a heater may be installed tenporarily until the wellhead temperature inoreases due to gas flow. If the well is to continue to flow, the heater can be removed. If operation of such a well is to be intermittent, preneat coils ahead of the choke in the permanent heater will probably be Gustified. Such coils are merely tubes put inside of the heater ahead of the choke to add heat to the gas stream and melt any hydrates before they reach the choke. ‘The calculation procedures described below are arranged for determining the size for a new heater installetion. The sane procedures, however, oan be used for evaluating existing heaters under various operating conditions with only slight modifications. Appendix II contains an example of the ‘calculations described below. a. Heat Requirement Determination (2) Determine the maximum pressure (P:) and the lowest temperature (Tz) at which gas could be expected to reach the heater. From Pigure 3, li, or 5, depending on the gas gravity, determine the hydrate ten- perature (Th) at the inlet pressure (Pi). If the Snlet temperature (Ty) 1s not at least, 10°P higher than Tp, 2 preheat coil nay be necessary to prevent hydrates from plugging the choke. I” a preheat coil 3s necessary, it oan be sized vsing the sane guidelines indioated below for sizing the main coil.(2) a a ) C3) om 1 Using the sane graph used in step 1, detersine the hydrate tenperature at the outlet ‘of the heater using the pressure downstream of the heater choke (Fo) The hydrate temperature plus 15°F (safety factor) is the gas temperature required at the outlet of the heater (Tg)- From the same graph, read the enthalpy of the gas at Py at Ty (Hy) and at Fo and To (Hp). Subtract the smaller enthalpy from the larger. The result will be the heat required to heat the gas in Btu/oubic feet. Multiply this value by the gas production rate (Rg) in Met per hour to obtain the required gas heating capacity (Qg) in MBtu/nr. Calculate the amount of heat required to heat any ‘condensate or O11 produced with the gas using the following equation: 1G = 0.35 CpG Ry (Ty - Tr) G = hest required to increase the oil temperature MBtu/ne s specific heat of ofl, Btu/Ib - °F from Figure 8 G = specific gravity of ot Ry = of] production rate, Bb1/nr. Calculate the anount of heat required to heat any free ater produced with the gas (Qy) using the following equation: 1Gy = 0.35 Ry (To - TH) Were: Qy = neat required to increase water temperature, MBtu/br Ry = free water production rate, Bbl/hr. This does not include water condensed out of the gas across the choke. If the flowline ie not insulated, estimate the fanount of heat lost from the heater to the at~ mosphere (Q,) by using the following approximation: IW = 0.10 (Oy + G + Og)Where Qq = heat loss to the atmoshpere, MBtu/hr. Heat loss varies greatly with weather conditions and is usually the largest in heavy rain and ex- ‘treme cold. The above equation tas been found to work satisfactorily for preliminary design. (8) Caloutate the total heat duty required for the heater (Qj) as follows: Oe = Op + + Oy + Oe Where: Qy = totel heat input, MBtu/hr 041 Sizing and Coil Area - variable notation 1s con sistent with that used in Section I.B.l1.a. (1) Determine the minimum eize and weight of tubing coil required by using Figure 9. (2) Determine U, the overall heat transfer coefficier in Beu/hr ~'sq ft - OF by using Figure 10. (3) Caloulate the minimum temperature of the gas and Liquid mixture iamediately dovns:ream of the inle heater choke (To) by using Figure 3, %, or 5, anc following trial and crror prooedure (Note: This step uses the fact that expansion across a valve is at constant enthalpy; therefore, the heat adde to the gas oust equal the heat lest from the 1i~ quid. (a) Determine the enthalpy of the gas in Btu/eu ft (Hy) at conditions 1; and Py from Figure 3, 4, or 5, a8 in Section TBa. (b) Plok a value for Te less than To. A good nethod of estination of To is to read down the constant enthalpy Line from (Py, T%) on the pressure-enthalpy graph to Py. The cor: responding temperature ts a good estimate fc co (c) Determine the enthalpy (Hp) of the gas at P, and Tg from the same figure used in (3) (a) Caloulate the following value Qe = (He = Hy) (Rg) Where:(4) Caleutate the following value: Geno + 9435 Cy @ Ry + By) (Te ~ 15) Where: uso = total heat loss from of1 and water cooling from Ty t0 Tp, Btu/hr. (0) If = =Qygo then the assumed value of To is If Q # -Qygo then estimate another value for repeat steps ¢ through e. (W) Using Figure 11, determine the log wean temperature difference (LMTD). Note: To equals the "coil inlet temperature" and Ty equals the "coil outlet teuperat 1659F is a good estimate for the bath temperature if is not known. (5) Calculate the required coil area (A, sq ft) as follo A = 1000 Qe v (erp) Methanol Injection Hydrate formation can be inhibited by the additicn of chemicals as methanol or glycol. These chemicals dissolve in the free wate and lower the hydrate-formation temperature of the mixture. Inje of a sufficient amount of chemical to lower the tydrate-formation temperature below the minimum system temperature Will prevent hyd Formation. 1. Mothanol Injection System Desorption [A typical methanol injection station is showr in Figure 12. this system, methanol is injected by means of a gas driven pu (3) Anto thé Flowtine upstream of the choke cr pressure contr valve (2). A tomperature controller (5) meacurea the tempera of the gas in the low pressure flowline (7) end adjusts the ethanol rate accordinely. ‘The methanol injection rate is controlled by the anount of po gas that is allowed to flow through the power gas control val. to drive the pump. 2. Methanol Injection Volume Calculations The procedure below can be used to caloulate the methanol injection rate required to prevent the formation of hydrates. An example of the calculations deseribed below is shown in Appendix IV.10 Determine the flowline temperature downstream of the Dhokes Tp ffoe Figures 2,3, 4, oF 5, assuming isentht expansion, If specific volumes of oil or water are be produced, calculate Tr by using the method outlined in Section £.B.4.b (3). Determine the hydrate formation temperature at the flo! pressure, Pe, from Figures 1, 3, 4, or 5 Determine the hydrate point depression required, °F = Hydrate formation temperature (step c) - Tr (step b) 4+ 3°F (safety factor) Calculate the minimin weight percent of methanol in th phase required to prevent nydrate formation by using t Following equation developed by Hamnerschmidt: We 100 wd ceed Where: m= noleoular weight of methanol = 32 4 = hydrate point depression required (step ¢) © = experimental constant = 2335 Determine the uater content of the reservoir gas and t Flowline gas, #/MMot, by using Figure 13, the McKetta~ graph. The amount of condensed water in'#/day is then difference in the above two values tines gas Tlow rate Mora. Determine the methanol vapor to Liguid ratio using Fie Caloulate the concentration of sethanel in the gas phe Ws0f Weight $ methanol in liquid (step e) x Methanol vapor to liquid ratio (step &) Caloulate the azount of methanol required to be disso) in the liquid to produce the desired ayérate point der easy secman of ety 9 > Liquid (step Latent ot me cateutate tne sscunt of aeikGtol reuulred vo saturate gas phase, #/day- 0 = concentration of methanol in the gal phase (#/Miscf« gas flow rate (Wsct/4)a Calculate the total methanol injection rate, gal/day: (methanol in Liquid + methanol in gas)/ 6.55 #/gal ‘The preceding calculations are based on the essunption that the well is producing water-saturated gas anc no free wa ter. If free water is being produced, it should be added to the anount of water in Step f. When the wellhead pres- sures are reasonable, 2 free water knockout should be pla- ced upstream of the methanol injection pumps and choke. Tate vessel will renove the free water and reduce the vol- ume of methanol that must be injected. Glycol Injection Te injection of glycol into a gas stream has the sane effect that the injection of ethanol has - namely, lowering of the hydrate-formation point. However, glycol has a relatively low vapor pressure and thus does not evaporate into the vapor phase as readily as methanol. For these reasons, glycol can often be ‘economically recovered, thus reducing operating expenses. 1, Glycol injection and Recovery System Description Figure 15 shows a typical glycol injection and recovery system. The injection part of the system (items 1-5) is similar to the methanol injection described in Section I.C.1. The additional equipment in the glycol system is Por recovering and reclaiming the glycol. A three-phase separator (6) separates the water and glycol from the ny- @rocarton phases. The water-glycol solution in the sepa~ rator is sent to the reboiler (7) while the gas is de~ Livered to the sales line and the hydrocarbon condensate is dumped to the condensate storage tanks. In che reboiler, excess water is boiled avay from the glycol. The glycol that ie reconcentrated in the reboiler is then available again for injection into the gas stream. Separation of the glycol-water phase from the hydrocarbon Liquid phase is more difficult than separation of liquids From vapors. glycol hydrocarbon mixture will separate nore readily if the temperature is above 60-[0°F. At lower temperatures, emulsions can form, especially in the pre- gence of some well-tresting compounds. A residence tine in ‘the separator of 10-15 minutes for the liquid phases will normally allow separation of the glycol and 2ydrecarbon. Where emulsions are a problem, a larger separator with & longer residence time will often solve the problem. Ad- dition of heat to the emulsion in the separator or in a second separator will also help break the emilsion. Some~ tines lowering the glycol concentration in the injected fluid will nelp (the injection rate will have to be in- ereased) or anti-emulsion agents can be added to the ely- cot.2 Glycol Injection System Design Calculations Calculation of the glycol injection rate is done with procedure similar to the procedure used fer the calculatio Of the methanol rate. Steps a through d are identical to Steps a through d in the procedure in Section I.C.2. An example of the calculations described below is shown in Appendix IT. a. Determine the reservoir pressure, Pp, and temperature, Zhe flowline pressure downatarean of the choke, Pr; th flow rate in MMefa; and the gas gravity. >. Determine the flowline temperature dcwnstream of the Tp, from Figures 2, 3, ¥, or 5, assuming isenthalpic expansion. If specific volumes of of] or vater are be produced, calculate Tp by using the method outlined in Section £.B.4.b (3). Determine the hydrate formation temperature at the flo Line pressure, Fr, fron Figures, 3, 4, or 5. 4, Determine the hydrate point depression required, °F = hydrate formation temperature (step c) - Tr (step d) + PF (safety factor) fe. Determine the water content of the reservoir gas and t flowline gas, W/MMo?, by using Figure 13, the MeKetta- graph. The amount of candansed water in’ é/day is then difference in the above two values tines the gas flow in Mora. Caloulate the minimum weight percent of glycol in the phase required to prevent hydrate formation by using t Hamnerschmidt equation: W = 100 nd c+ md here: hydrate point depression required (step d) ‘experimental constant = 2335 the moleoular weight of glycol BG = 62.1, DEG = 106.1, TEC + 150.2 s2cesete. San: tten tap Rdintana Woloresdendetaets, | extremely low freezing points. “glycol concentration (W) 1s 70% or the concentration Calculated above, whichever is greater. For initial caloulations a lean glycol concentration (C) of 90% Pecomended, if the glycol injection rate, calculate: below, 18 unreasonably high, the valuss of "C" and "W3B Note Figure 16 must be used to ensure that the freezing point of the glycol solution does no exceed the temperature of the system at any p Calculate the required glycol injection rate, #/day, usit the following procedure (Note: 11 peroenta are by eset Let X = d/day of lean glycol (Cf) to be injected upstreat of the choke. Let ¥ = #/day of rich glycol (WE) to be removed from the S-phase separator. Let Z = #/day of condensed water from Step o. Do a material balance on water and glyool as shown below Gayeol: xc = _ww. Too — Too Water: z+ wo 00 Since W, C, and Zane known, we have two equations and ty unknowns. Solving the glycol equation for "Y": ¥ = x¢ ¥ Substatuting this value of YY" into the water equation ys Xe we i To convert the injection rate from #/day into gallone/day Figure 21 (for the type of glycol being used) to determir glycol specific gravity. Then: x” x/(80) (6.336) Where: X* = gallons/day of lean glycol (CX) to be injected upstream of the choke. SG + glycol specific gravity at injection temperatur Again the proceding calculations are based on the assumpt that the well is producing water-saturated gas and no fre water. If free water is being produced, st should be adc to the amount of water in Step e. When’ wellhead pressure are reasonable, a free water knock-out should be installe upstream of the glycol injection point and choke. This vessel will renove the free water and reduce the volume ©3. as 4. Nopzle design. Due to the lower vapor pressure of glycol, a Pine, well-distributed mist is required to obtain adeque mixing with the gas and insure optimum results. Therefore spray nozzles are normally used for glycol injection. Usually, nozzle design is left up to the vendor; however, particular attention should be focused on nozzle design due to ite Smportance in the successful operation of a elyeol injection aystem. For instance, in most installati Blycol injection normally takes place just upstream of 2 heat exchanger where gas is being chilled. Inadequate nozzle design could result ine or ever fa dropping action. These larger droplets would eventally settle to the bottom part of the exchanger and thereby decrease the hydrate temperature of only a portion of the gas stream, leaving part of the stream unprotected and sut to hydrate formation. Normally, about 100 psi pressure at nozzle is sufficient to atomize the glyco! ‘A common problem in any glycol injection system occurs whe gas production decreases. If the glycol :njection rate is sitilarly decreased, the spray nozzles no longer provide sufficient atomization and hydrates may form. There are ‘two solutions to this problem: increase the glycol rate back up to its former level, or refit the nozzles. For short-term decreases in gas rate, the glycol rate should remain unchanged. For a long-term cutback in gas product’ ‘the economic advantages refitting the spray nozzles versus injecting excess glycol should be considered. Giycol Selection one of three glycols is normally used to prevent the formatior of hydrates - ethylene glycol (EG), diethylene glycol (DEG), < triethylene glycol (TEG). The selection of a glycol depends t ‘a large extent upon the Composition of the hydrocarbon flow stream, and the advice of a glycol supplier (vith experience # the area) should be sought. Some general guidelines are prov! below, based on information from Dow Chemical Company: a. If glycol is to be injected into a natural gas transmissic Line, ethylene glyool would be the best choice because it produces the greatest hydrate depression of any of the glycols. b. If glycol is to be injected into a unit were it will cont hydrecarton liquids, ethylene glycol is tne best choice s. it has the lowest solubility in high molecular weight hyc carbone. ¢. However, if vaporization losses are severe, diethylene or triethylene glyeol would be better to use because they hav @ lower vapor pressure15 It 4s important that the freezing point of the glycol solutic be lower than the lowest tenperature expected in the systen. Figure 16 shows the freezing point of glycol as a function of composition. Glycol concentrations are usually maintained at 10-15 weight. percent because freezing of the glycol or high viscosities are not problems at this concentration. The reboiler temperature should be maintained at @ temperatur ‘equal to the boiling point of the desired solution. This temperature is dependent on the glycol type and concentratior as well as the rebotler pressure. Boiling points for the glycols are plotted in Figures 17 through 20. For example, from Figure 17, the reboiler temperature should be set at 2N09F in order to produce a 70 weight percent ethylene glyco: solution at atmospheric pressure (760 mm). Thermal degradat: ean occur if the boiling point of the pure glycol is exceede: land should be avoided. As a rough rule of thumb, glycol losses can be estimated at Losses due to vaporization into the gas stream and solution into the hydrocarton liquid are usually only a small portion of the total losses. These losses can be estimated fron Figure 20a. The greatest sources of glycol losses are due t leakage and carryover with the hydrocarbon liquid. Losses cx also occur from vaporization and carryover in the reconcentri Downhole Regulators If a gas well can produce more than its allowable, it 1s possibic that a downhole regulator may be utilized to elininate surface hydrate formation problems. A downhole regulator is a device th: contains a spring-loaded valve and stem and is set on wireline 1 the tubing string. The spring compression is adjusted before the regulator ie run in the well so that any specified pressure drop can be obtained. The pressure drop across the regulator is constant and does not depend on the well flow rate (within a bro: range). The theory behind the use of a downhole regulator is th: the pressure drop from flowing pressure to near salesline pressu: is taken down hole where the formation temperature is sufficient ‘to prevent the formation of hydrates. The tubing string above tl regulator then acts as a sub-surface heater, transferring heat i) the gas. ‘The calculations involved in downhole regulator design are rathe: involved and depend, to a large extent, upon wellbore configurat: Flowing downhole pressures and tenperatures, well depth, ete. TI brief outline listed below gives the generalized method of deter: Whether installation of @ downhole regulator is feasible. Calculate the available pressure drop (AP) that can be take: across the downhole choke. This pressure drop is equal to tl unrestricted wellhead flowing prressure minus the minimum Wellhead pressure (Pq) required for production into the sale:16 2. Pek the regulator setting depth (Dp). 3. Betimate the flowing pressure at Dy when the well is flowing at the allowable rate. This will be identical to the pressure upstrean of the regulator (Py). 4, Caleulate the flowing pressure downstream of tie regulator (Pq Paz Py -AP 5. Calculate the flowing Wellhead pressure (Pg) ab the allowable Flow rate when Pq equals the flowing pressure at Dp. 6. If Pp Pq proceed with Step #7. Ir Pp < Pq‘ Feduce either AP or Dy and recalculate If Pp >F_ —_merease eitherAP or By and recalculate, 7. Caleulate the flowing temperature at Dp when the well is flows: at its allowable rate. This is equal to Ty, the temperature upstream of the regulator. 8, Determine the flowing temperature (14) downstream of the regulator by using Figure 2. 9. If the point Tq and Pg is above the hydrate formation curve in Figure 3, 4, oF 5, a downhole regulator installation is feasib If it 4s nob, repest the calculations using a larger Dy. ‘The accuracy of these calculations depends largely upon the estina of flowing pressures and temperatures up and dovnstrean of the reeulator, These numbers are normally difficult to obtain acourat linen 1t appears feasible to install a dowhole regulator, = tool ‘company should be contacted for a design recommencation based on ‘their experience in the area Comparison of Hydrate Prevention Methods ‘the four methods of hydrate prevention discussed above ~ indirect heaters, methanol injection, glycol injection, and downhole regulators - are proven methods that oan be designed for safe and Peliable operation. Determining which of the methods is best for a particular application is primarily a question of economics. Listed below are sone advantages and disadvantages of the four nethods that may help in determining which method is most applicat toa given job. Investnent, An indirect heater is probably the most expensive alternative in teras of investment. Most heaters cost from $10,000 to $20,000 depending on heating capacity and coil working capzcit In addition, installation costs alone could rin as high as $2,000 to $4,000 or more, depending on the lovation. A glyco! system should cost less than an equivalent heater, but the Envestwent is still significant. Methanol injeotion and down hole regulators have low initial investments veoause of thee aT 2. Fuel Consumption (GNM indirect heater will have the @Bphest fust costs because it heats the entire gas strean. A'glyool injection system also consumes fuel, but the fuel rate should be lower than fe a heater because only the glycol-water solution is heated instead of the full strean. The methanol ayaten and downhole regulator systems do not require fuel. 3. Operating and Maintenance Expenses Heaters have no moving parts, so a well designed and construc heater should be relatively maintenance-free. Problems conoe fuel gas freeze-up in cold weather are usually avoided in moe heater designs by installing a fuel gas preheat coil oust into the side of the heater shell. The glycol and methanol injection punps have potential maintenance problems especial] Af the power gas contains hydrogen sulfide. If the methanol injected in a methanol systen is not recovered, at a cost of approximately $1.25/gallon, the cost of buying methanol coulé be significant. Sone large-scale operations do recover methe In glycol systems, most of the glycol is reclaimed, but highe losses due to poor design or operation of the system may ‘cause the expense of glycol make-up to be high. Downhole regulators do not require any routine service, but a wireline service company must be used each tine the pressure drop has to be changed and when the regulator is fins:ly removed. Eve in a well with a downhole regulator, injection of methanol or glycol may be required when the well 1s brought back on line after a shut-in peried until Ube Clow aud Leuperature stabil After a Well declines to less than allowable production, the downhole regulator will have to be removed and another form o hydrate prevention might be necessary. 4, Space Requirenents For onshore locations, the size of the aysten ia usually not critical, but space is important in offshore facilities. The indirect heater requires a large amount of space. For exampl 1.5 WBtu/hr heater would ocoupy 90 square feet of area. Gly systens are usually skid mounted but still have significant space requirenents. The space requirements for the methanol system are small since the only major equipment is the pump land the storage tank, and the downhole regulator, of course, requires no surface space. 5. Bazards Indirect heaters and some glycol rebotiers present @ possible Fire hazard because of the direst fired firetuses. Flame arrestors should be installed on the heater air intakes to mininize this hazard. In addition, partioular attention shou be paid to the location of heaters and reboilers with respect to safety relief stacks where gas may be flared under energen18 poisonous and should not be handled without adequate ventilatic Downhole regulators do not present any special safety hazards, but, since work with the regulators involves working in the wel ‘there is always the risk of losing the well. Because of the cost of methanol consumption, the methanol injection systen is most often used for temporary hydrate prevention and in ‘snail installations. Larger installations favor indirect heater: glycol injection systems. Downhole regulators are most useful in large, high pressure reservoirs where excess pressure is available and the reservoir pressure is not expected to decline rapidly.