8.

Resistance Spot Welding,

Resistance Projection Welding
and Resistance Seam Welding

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

105

Figure 8.1 shows an extract from the classification of the welding methods according to DIN
1910 with a detailed account of the conductive resistance pressure welding.
In the case of resistance pressure welding, the heating occurs at the welding point as a consequence of Joule resistance heating caused by current flow through an electrical conductor,
Figure 8.2. In spot and projection welding, the plates

welding

to be welded in overlap.
pressure
welding

fusion
welding

cold pressure
welding

resistance pressure
welding

induction pressure
welding

Conduction pressure
welding

Current supply is carried

out through spherical or

friction welding

flat

electrodes,

respec-

tively. In roller seam welding, two driven roller elec-

resistance spot
welding

projection
welding

roller seam
welding

resistance butt
welding

flash butt
welding

ISF 2002

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trodes are applied. The

plates to be welded are
mainly

Classification of Welding
According to DIN 1910

overlapped.

The

heat input rate Qinput is

generated by resistance

Figure 8.1

heating

in

current-

carrying conductor, Figure

spot welding

roller seam welding

projection welding

workpieces overlap

electrode

weld nugget

workpiece usually in general

overlap

driven roller electrode

spot rows (stitch weld,
roller spots)

workpieces with elevations

(concentration of electicity)

workpieces overlap

pad electrode

several joints in a single weld

weld nugget joint

1
1

1 electrode force
2 elektrodes
3 production part

4 loaded area

instrumental in the formaQeff is composed of the

input heat minus the dissi-

4
1

fective heat quantity Qeff is

tion of the weld nugget.

8.3. However, only the ef-

pation heat. The heat loss

arises from the heat dissi-

5 projection

pation into the electrodes

br-er8-02e.cdr

and the plates and also

from thermal radiation.
Figure 8.2

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

106

The resistance during resistance heating is composed of the contact resistances on the two
plates and of their material resistance. The reduction of the electrode force down to 90% increases the heat input rate by 105%, the reduction of the welding current down to 90% decreases the heat rate to 80% and a welding time reduction to 90% decreases the heat rate to
92%.
The time progression of the resistance is shown in Figure 8.4. The contact resistance is
composed of the interface resistances between the electrode and the plate (electrode/plate)
and between the plates
(plate/plate).

The

resis-

Fel:
Qeff:
Qinput:
I:
Q1:
Q2 :
Q3 :
Q4:
R(t):
Rmaterial(t):
Rc(t):

tance height is greatly dependent on the applied

electrode force. The higher
this force is set, the larger
are the conductive cross-

electrode force
effective heat
total heat input
current (time dependence)
heat losses
losses into the electrodes
losses into the sheet metal
losses by heat radiation
total resistance
material resistance
contact resistance

Fel

Q4

Q3

Qeff = Qinput - Q1l

Q3

Q4
Q2

Qinput = C

I (t) R(t) dt

t=0

points and smaller the re-

Qeff

Q4

t=tS

sections at the contact

Q4

Q2

Fel

Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4

sistances. The contact sur-

R(t) = Rmaterial(t) + Rc(t)

ISF 2002

br-er8-03e.cdr

faces, which are rapidly

Heat Balance in Spot Welding

increasing at the start of

welding, effect a rapid re-

Figure 8.3

duction of interface resistances.

theoretical contact area

100% metallic conduction contact
mOhm

proportion at room temperature

With the formation of the

resistances

between

the

resistance

weld nugget the interface

total resistance

low electrode force

high resistance

sum of material resistance

high electrode force

low resistance

plates disappear. During

proportion after first

milliseconds welding time

sum of contact resistances

the progress of the weld

10

welding time

the material resistance in-

periods

surface resistance is
collapsed,
a3 is highly extended
A1: area out-of-contact
A2: contact area with high resistance
A3: contact area completely conductive

creases from a low value

br-er8-04e.cdr

(surrounding temperatures)
to a maximum value above
the melting temperature.

Figure 8.4
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

Figure

8.5

shows

diaelectrode force

grammatically the different

resistance rate

resistances during the spot

R1

welding process with acting electrode force, but

R3

R3

R6
R6

_
~

R7

without
Weld

welding
nugget

107

current.

R4

formation

R5

R5
R7

R2

R4

must therefore start in the

100

200

joining zone because of

R [Ohm]

the existing high contact

br-er8-05e.cdr

resistance there.
Figure 8.6 shows directly

Figure 8.5

cooled electrodes for resistance welding. The coolant

cooling tube
cooling drill-hole
6-8

is normally water. In the

cooling tube, the cooling
water is transported to the

2-5

10 - 20

slope

electrode base. The diagram shows the temperature distribution in the elecC

trodes and in the plates.

The maximum temperature
Electrode Cooling

the weld nugget and decreases

strongly in

the

ISF 2002

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is reached in the centre of

Figure 8.6

electrode direction.
Sequence of a resistance spot welding process, Figure 8.7:
1->2 Lowering of the top electrode
2->3 Application of the adjusted electrode force Set-up time tpre, sequence
3->4 Switching-on of the adjusted welding current for the period of the welding time tw. Formation of the weld nugget in the joining zone of both workpieces.

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

108

An example shows the macrosection of a weld nugget after the welding time has
ended.
4->5 Maintaining the electrode force for the period of the set post-weld holding

time th.

5->6 Switching-off the force generating system and lifting the electrodes off the workpiece.
The functions of the set-up time and the post-weld holding time are listed in Figure 8.8. Dependent on the welding task different force and current programs can be set in the welding machines, Figure 8.9. In the top the simplest possible welding program sequence is
shown: The application of the electrode force, the set-up time sequence tpre, the switching-on
of the welding current and the sequence of the welding time tw, the sequence of the postweld holding time th and the switching-off of the force generating system. The diagram in the
centre is almost identical to the one just described.
Merely in the welding current range, welding is carried out using an adjustable current rise (7)
and current decay (8). The diagram below depicts a more sophisticated current program. In
addition, welding is carried out with a variable electrode force (2) and with preheating (4) and
post-heating current (6). Dependent on the control system, the process can be influenced by
adjustment.
Fel

Iw

set-up time

electrode force Fel

- compressing the workpiece

- build-up of electrode force to preset
value
- setting-up of reproducible resistance
before welding
- electrode resting after bounce
- preventing resting of electrode on
workpiece under electricle voltage

welding current Iw

time t

tpre

tw

th

top electrode

postweld-holding time
- holding time of workpiece during
cooling of molten metal
- prevention of pore formation in the
welding nugget
- prevention of lifting the electrode
under voltage

workpiece
lower electrode

insufficiently melted weld nugget

weld nugget

The postweld-holding time has

influence on the weld point hardening
within certain limits.

totally melted weld nugget

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ISF 2002

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Time Sequence of
Resistance Spot Welding

Figure 8.7

ISF 2002

Functions of Pre- and Postwelding

Figure 8.8
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

109

A controlled variable may be, for instance, the electrode path, the resistance progress, the
welding current or the welding voltage.
Figure 8.10 shows the principle structure of a resistance spot welding machine. The
main components are: the machine frame, the welding transformer with secondary lines, the
electrode pressure system and the control system. This principle design applies to spot, projection and roller seam welding machines. Differences are to be found merely in the type of

Fel

welding current

electrode force

electrode fittings and in the electrode shapes.

Iw

tw

th

tpre = pre-weld time

tw = welding time
th = holding time
tpres = pressure time

9
tpre

time

10

tp res

2
3

11

Fel

welding current

electrode force

6
12
4

Iw
8

5
7

7
5
8

electrode force

welding current

time

1
2
5
7

Fel

3
Iw
6

1 - initial force
2 - welding pressure
force
3 - post pressure force
4 - preheating current
5 - welding current
6 - postheating current
7 - ascending current
8 - descending current

1 electrode force cylinder

2 pneumatic equipment
3 machine tool frame
4 welding transformer
5 power control unit
6 current conductor
7 lower arm
8 foot switch
9 top arm
10 electrical power supply cable
11 water cooled electrode holder
12 electrode

time
ISF 2006

br-er8-09e. cdr

br-er8-10e.cdr

Schematic Assembly of
Spot Welding Machine

Course of Force and Current

Figure 8.9

ISF 2002

Figure 8.10

Figure 8.11 depicts the possible process variations of resistance spot welding. These are
distinguished by the number of plates to be welded and by the arrangement of the electrodes
or, respectively, of the transformers. It has to be noted that with a corresponding arrangement also plates can be welded where one of the two plates has a non-conductive surface
(as, for example, plastics).

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

110

Figure 8.12 shows the current types which are normally used for resistance welding.
Alternating current has the
~

simplest structure (Figure

8.13) and is most price ef-

fective, unavoidable are,

however,

the

disadvan-

tages of current zeros and

two-sided single-shear
single-spot welding

two-sided two-shear
spot welding (stack welding)

one-sided single-spot welding

with contact electrode

weld nugget cooling. In

relation to the average cur-

rent values, peak loads

~

two-sided duplex spot

welding

occur and, with that, increased

electrode

one-sided multi-spot welding

with conductive base
ISF 2002

br-er8-11e.cdr

wear.

Variants of Spot Welding

These extreme peak loads

do not occur with direct

one-sided duplex spot welding

with conductive base

Figur 8.11

current.
The structural design of a d.c. supply unit is, however, more complicated and, therefore,
more expensive than an a.c. supply unit.
As conventional welding machines operate with a 50 Hz primary current supply, the welding
current can be controlled only in 20 ms units (1 period). When the inverter-direct current
technique or, respectively, the medium-frequency technique is used, a finer setting of the current-on period and a more
alternating current

medium frequency direct current

12

15

[kA]

[kA]

20
10
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16
-5

current

current

-10
-15
-20

ing current is possible.

8
6
4
2
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16

welding time [s]

welding time

[kA]
0.00

0.02 0.04

0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

welding time

0.14 0.16

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.00

currents and shorter weldpacitor resistance welding

technique is applied. The

0.02 0.04

0.06 0.08 0.10

0.12 0.14 0.16

[s]
ISF 2002

Current Types

In order to realise higher

ing times, the impulse ca-

welding time

[s]

br-er8-12e.cdr

Figur 8.12

[s]

impulse capacitor current

current

current

[kA]

"conventional" direct current

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

precise control of the weld-

10

rectified primary current is

stored in capacitors and,
through

high-voltage

transformer, converted to

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

111

high welding currents. The

single-phase
alternating current

advantages of this tech-

static-inverter direct current

nique are low heat input

and

high

reproducibility.

Because of the high energy

density,

materials

with

capacitor impulse discharge

3-phase direct current

good conductivity can be

welded and also multipleprojection welds can be
carried out. A disadvantage
br-er8-13e.cdr

of this method is, apart

from the high equipment
costs, the difficult regula-

Figure 8.13

tion of the welding current.

Electrodes for spot resistance welding have the property of transferring the electrode force
and the welding current. They are wearing parts and, therefore, easily replaceable.

requirements

electrodes
form A

form B

form C

form E

form F

form G

form D

- good electrical conductivity

- good thermal conductivity
- high high-temperature strength
- high temperature stability
- high softening temperature
- little tendency to alloying with workpiece material
- easy options in machining
ISO 5182
Group

Type
1

electrode caps
2
A

ISO 5182

Key

Group Type

No.
1

Cu - ETP

Cu Cdl

Cu Crl

Cu Crl Zr

Cu CO2 Be

Cu Ni2 Si

Cu Ni1 P

Cu Be2 Co Ni

Cu Ag6

CuAl10NiFe5Ni5

Key
No.

10

W75 Cu

11

W78 Cu

12

WC70 Cu

13

Mo

14

15

W65 Ag

electrode holders
br-er8-14e.cdr

ISF 2002

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Electrodes,
Electrode Caps and Holders

Figure 8.14

Electrode Materials

Figure 8.15
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

112

Depending on the shape and type of electrode, solid electrodes or electrode caps, must
be either remachined or recycled. Figure 8.14 depicts various types of electrodes, electrode
caps and holders.
Dependent upon the electrode application, different alloyed electrode materials are used,
Figure 8.15. The added alloying elements influence the red hardness, the tempering resistance, the conductivity, the fusion temperature, the electrode alloying tendency, and, finally,
the machinability of the electrode material. When beryllium is used as an alloying element,
the admissible MAC values must be strictly adhered to during remachining or dressing of the
electrodes.
Already during the design phase of the components to be welded, importance must be attached to a good accessibility of the welding point. Moreover, the electrode force which is
imperative to the process must be applied in a way that no damage is done to the workpiece.
In the ideal case, the welding point is accessible from the top and from below, Figure 8.16.
poor

good

br-er8-16e.cdr

poor

ISF 2002

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Accessibility for Spot

Welding Electrode

Figure 8.16

good

ISF 2002

Contact Area for

Spot Welding Electrodes

Figure 8.17

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

113

In order to avoid the displacement of the electrodes, the electrode working surface must
be flat. Also during the design phase space
must be provided for an adequately large
clearing zone around the working point, in

spot welding

order to guarantee the unimpeded electrode

approach to the working point, Figure 8.17.

shunt connection current

Dependent on the joining job, the process

copper

current path

indirect welding
one side

variation, or the resistance welding method, a

so-called shunt current/effect may be noticed. This current component, as a rule, does
not contribute to the formation of the weld
nugget; under certain circumstances it might

roller seam welding

br-er8-18e.cdr

even prevent a reliable welding process. In

Shunting

the example, shown in Figure 8.18, the shunt

current leads to undesired fusing contacts

Welding spatter:
Discharge of molten material between two steel
sheets or from the surface of steel sheets.

Figure 8.18

and, because of the lacking electrode force at

this point, also to damages to the plate surface.
If unsuitable welding parameters have been
fig. 1

set, weld spatter formation may occur, Fig-

fig. 2

Reason here is high welding current, (fig. 1) or

too-small edge distance (fig. 2)

ure 8.19. Liquid molten metal forms on the

plate surface or in the joining zone. The reasons for this kind of process disturbance are,
for example, too low an electrode force with
regard to the set welding current or welding
time, too high an energy input with regard to

porosity in the joint caused

by welding spatter

discharge of molten
material at the joint plane

br-er8-19e.cdr

the plate thickness or too small an edge dis-

Welding Spatter

tance of the welding point.

Figure 8.19
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

114

Figure 8.20 shows a list of

welding current changes
shunt
connection

wear of
electrodes

wear of
cable

mains voltage
fluctuation

a large number of possible

secondary
electrical
impedance

disturbances in resistance

Qeff = Qinput - Qlosses

wear
Qeff
diversion
heat

plate

plate
thickness

quality
of plates

number
of plates

welding equipment

alteration to force

spot welding. Welding curalteration

of
pressure

rent changes are caused

by: shunt, electrode wear,
cable wear, mains voltage
variations, secondary im-

plate
surface

edge
distance

pedance.

modification of the unit

br-er8-20e.cdr

Different welding conditions are caused by weldFigure 8.20

ing machine wear, different

heat

dissipation.

Non-

uniform conditions by alterations to components are: different plate thicknesses, plate quality,
number of plates, plate surfaces, edge distances. Electrode force changes are caused by:
pressure fluctuations and -changes, plate bouncing.
The resistance spot welding method allows
welding of a large number of materials. A list
of the various materials is shown in Figure

materials

aluminium

weldability

alloying
elements

good
weldability

sufficient
weldability

satisfactory
maximum content [%]

8.21. The alloying elements which are used

for steels have a varying influence on the suitability for resistance spot welding. The values
which are indicated in the table are valid only
when the stated element is the sole alloying
constituent of the steel material.

iron

very good

gold

satisfactory

0,25

0,40

C + Cr

0,35

1,60

C + Mo

0,50

0,70

C+V

0,40

0,60

C + Mn

1,40

1,60

molybdenum satisfactory

C + Ni

3,00

4,00

nickel

very good

Si

0,40

1,00

platinum

very good

Cu

0,60

0,60

P+S

0,10

0,10

C+Cr+Mo+V

0,60

1,60

cobalt

very good

copper

poor

magnesium

silver
tantalum

Figure 8.22 shows a comparison between

good

very good
very good

titanium

very good

tungsten

satisfactory

resistance spot and resistance projection

welding. The fundamental difference between
the two methods lies in the definition of the

weldable materials

influence of
alloying elements
(steel materials)

br-er8-21e.cdr

current transition point.

Weldable Materials

Figure 8.21
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

115

The differences between both methods are illustrated in Figure 8.23. The short life of the
electrodes used for resistance spot welding is explained by the higher thermal load and the
larger pressing area caused by the smaller electrode contact areas. The term electrode life
stands for the number of welds that can be carried out with one pair of electrodes without
further rework and without
exceeding the tolerances

after welding

before welding

for quality criteria of the

weld.
Depending

on

the

defollow-up
distance

mands on the joint strength

or on the projection rigidity,

elektrode

different projection shapes

are applied. These are an-

projection
br-er8-22e.cdr

nular, circular or longitudinal projections. The welding projections are, accord-

Figure 8.22

spot
welding

projection
welding

up to 20 mm

> 20 mm

embossed
projection shape

elektrodes:
diameter
tip face

pressed
mould pressed

convex

flat

electrode life

less

longer

place where
the nugget
originates

elektrodes

projections

one

several

small

big

current distribution

no

yes

force distribution

no

yes

number of
welding nuggets

circular
longitudinal
annular

solid
projection shape

natural
projection shape

struck
machined
cut
pushed

circular
longitudinal
annular
interrupted annular

spot
contact
line
contact

Circular

follow-up distance

weld nut

problems:

br-er8-23e.cdr

ISF 2002

Longitudinal

cut

Annular

pushed

wire-plate

bolt-pipe

br-er8-24e.cdr

Differences Between Resistance

Spot and Projection Welding

Figure 8.23

crossed wires

Customary Projection Shapes

Figure 8.24
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

116

ing to their size, adapted to the used plate

thickness and may, therefore, appear as difdie

die
plate

ferent types in the workpiece: embossed proplate

jections, solid projections and natural projections. The survey is shown in Figure 8.24.
d1

mould plate

mould plate

counter-die

d1

In Figure 8.25 the production of embossed

projections in different shapes is shown. The

ring projection

embossed projection

shape is embossed onto the plate surface by

appropriate die plates, dies and, if necessary,

die

l
mould plate

counter dies.
plate

Various problems occur in projection welding caused by the welding of several joints in
a single working cycle. Due to different current

longitudinal projection
br-er8-25e.cdr

ISF 2002

Production of
Embossed Projection Shapes

paths - when using direct current - and a current displacement - when using alternating
current -, welding nuggets with differing quali-

Figure 8.25

alternating current distribution

intensity of current increases from the center to
the outer area caused by current displacement

force distribution of a C-frame projection press

welder during bending of machine tool frame

direct current distribution

intensity of current decreases from the center to
the outer area caused by the longer current path
br-er8-26e.cdr

force distribution of a C-frame projection press

welder with non-parallel positioning tables
ISF 2002

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Problem of Current Distribution

During Projection Welding

Figure 8.26

ISF 2002

Problems of Force Distribution

During Projection Welding

Figure 8.27
2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

117

ties are produced when no preventive remedies are taken, Figure 8.26.
A varying force distribution,
as shown by the example
in Figure 8.27, also leads
to differing qualities of the
produced weld nuggets.
In Figure 8.28 several examples of application using
projection welding are de ISF 2002

br-er8-30e_sw.cdr

Application Examples of Projection Welding

picted. In this example, the

shapes are of the embossed type.

Figure 8.28
Figures 8.29 and 8.30 show several process variations of roller seam welding. Seam welding
is actually a continuous spot welding process, but with the application of roller electrodes. In
contrast to resistance spot welding the electrodes remain in contact and turn continuously
after the first weld spot has been produced. At the points where a welding spot is to be produced again current flow is
lap joint

lap joint with

wire electrode

lap joint
with foil

squash seam
weld

butt weld
with foil

initiated. Dependent on the

electrode feed rate and on
the welding current frequency, spot welds or seal

before
welding

welds

with

weld

nuggets

overlapping
are

pro-

duced. The application of

d.c. current also produces

after
welding

seal welds.
ISF 2002

br-er8-28e.cdr

Roller Seam Welding

Figure 8.29

2005

8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding

118

interrupted-current roller seam weld

overlap seal weld

continuous D.C. seal weld

br-er8-29e.cdr

ISF 2002

Weld Types for Roller Seam Welding

Figure 8.30

2005