Power Semi Conductor Devices

1.1.1 Introduction to Power Electronics:

Power Electronics is a field which combines Power (electric power), Electronics and Control systems. Power
engineering deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation, transmission and
distribution of electric power.
Electronics deals with the study of solid state semiconductor power devices and circuits for Power
conversion to meet the desired control objectives (to control the output voltage and output power). Power
electronics may be defined as the subject of applications of solid state power semiconductor devices
(Thyristors) for the control and conversion of electric power.
Power electronics deals with the study and design of Thyristorised power controllers for variety of
application like Heat control, Light/Illumination control, Motor control - AC/DC motor drives used in
industries, High voltage power supplies, Vehicle propulsion systems, High voltage direct current (HVDC)
transmission.

1.1.2.
Power Electronic Applications
Commercial applications: Heating Systems Ventilating, Air Conditioners, CentralRefrigeration, Lighting,
Computers and Office equipments, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Elevators, and Emergency Lamps.
Domestic applications: Cooking Equipments, Lighting, Heating, Air Conditioners, Refrigerators &Freezers,
Personal Computers, Entertainment Equipments, UPS.
Industrial applications: Pumps, compressors, blowers and fans. Machine tools, arc furnaces, induction
furnaces, lighting control circuits, industrial lasers, induction heating, welding equipments.
Aerospace applications: Space shuttle power supply systems, satellite power systems, aircraft power systems.
Telecommunications: Battery chargers, power supplies (DC and UPS), mobile cell phone battery chargers.
Transportation: Traction control of electric vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles,
electriclocomotives, street cars, trolley buses, automobile electronics including engine controls.
Utility systems: High voltage DC transmission (HVDC), static VAR compensation (SVC), Alternative
energy sources (wind, photovoltaic), fuel cells, energy storage systems, induced draft fans and boiler feed
water pumps.
1.1.3 Power Semiconductor Devices Used In Power Electronics
The first thyristor or the SCR was developed in 1957. The conventional Thyristors (SCR's) were
exclusively used for power control in industrial applications until 1970. After 1970, various types of power
semiconductor devices were developed and became commercially available.
The power semiconductor devices can be divided broadly intofive types
Power Diodes.
Thyristors.
Power BJT's.
Power MOSFET's.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT's).
Static Induction Transistors (SIT's).

1.2 Power Diodes

Power diodes play an important role in power electronics circuits. They are mainly used as
uncontrolled rectifiers to convert single-phase or three-phase AC voltage to DC. They are also used to
provide a path for the current flow in inductive loads. Typical types of semiconductor materials used to
construct diodes are silicon and germanium. Power diodes are usually constructed using silicon because
silicon diodes can operate at higher current and at higher junction temperatures than germanium diodes. The
symbol for a semiconductor diode is given in Fig. 1.2.1. The terminal voltage and current are represented as
Vdand Id, respectively. Figure 1.2.2 shows the structure of a diode. It has an anode (A) terminal and a
cathode (K) terminal. The diode is constructed by joining together two pieces of semiconductor materiala
p-type and an n -typeto form a pn-junction. When the anode terminal is positive with respect to the
cathode terminal, the pn-junction becomes forward-biased and the diode conducts current with a relatively
low voltage drop. When the cathode terminal is positive with respect to the anode terminal, the pnjunction
becomes reverse-biased and the current flow is blocked. The arrow on the diode symbols in Fig. 1.2.1 shows
the direction of conventional current flow when the diode conducts.

1.2.1 Diode symbol

1.2.1 Diode structure.

Characteristics
The voltage-current characteristics of a diode are shown in Fig. 1.2.3.
In the forward region, the diode starts conducting as the anode
voltage is increased with respect to the cathode. The voltage where
the current starts to increase rapidly is called the knee voltage of the
diode (Ef) . For a silicon diode, the knee voltage is approximately 0.7
V. Above the knee voltage, small increases in the diode voltage
produce large increases in the diode current. If the diode current is
too large, excessive heat will be generated, which can destroy the
diode. When the diode is reverse-biased, diode current is very small for all
values of reverse voltage less than the diode breakdown voltage. At breakdown,
the diode current increases rapidly for small increases in diode voltage.

1.2.3 Diode voltage-current

Principal Ratings for Diodes

Maximum Average Forward Current
The maximum average forward current (I f (avg)max ) is the current a diode can safely handle when forward
biased. Power diodes are available in ratings from a few amperes to several hundred amperes.For example,
the power diode D 6 can handle up to 6 A in the forward direction when used as a rectifier.

 Peak Inverse Voltage

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a diode is the maximum reverse voltage that can be connected across a
diode without breakdown. The peak inverse voltage is also called peak reverse voltage or reverse breakdown
voltage. The PIV ratings of power diodes extend from a few volts to several thousand volts. For example, the
power diode D 6 has a PIV rating of up to 1600 V,
Maximum Surge Current
The I FSM (forward surge maximum) rating is the maximum current that the diode can handle as an
occasional transient or from a circuit fault. The I FSM rating for the power diode D6 is up to 190 A
Maximum Junction Temperature
This parameter defines the maximum junction temperature that a diode can withstand without failure. The
maximum junction temperature for the power diode D6 is 180C.
Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier circuits produce a DC voltage or current from an AC source. The diode is an essential component
of these circuits. Figure 1.2.4(a) shows a half-wave rectifier circuit using a diode. During the positive half
cycle of the source voltage, the diode is forward-biased and conducts for vs(t) >Ef. The value of Effor
germanium is 0.2 V and for silicon it is 0.7 V. During the negative half cycle of vs(t) , the diode is reverse
biased and does not conduct. The voltage vL(t) across the load RL is shown in Fig. 1.2.4(b). The half-wave
rectifier circuit produces a pulsating direct current that uses only the positive half cycle of the source voltage.
The full-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 1.2.5(a) uses both half cycles of source voltage. During the positive
half cycle of vs(t), diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct. Diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased
and do not conduct. During the negative half cycle of vs(t), diodes D1 and D2 arereverse-biased and do not
conduct, whereas diodes D3 and D4 are forward-biased and conduct. The voltage vL(t) across the load RL is
shown in Fig. 1.2.5(b).

1.2.4(a) Basic circuit for half-wave rectifier.

1.2.4(b) Input and output voltage waveforms for the for half-wave

1.2.5 (a) Basic circuit full-wave rectifier.

1.2.5 (b) Input and output voltage waveforms for the for full-wave

1.5 Power Tra

ansistors
Powerr transistorss are devices that have controlled turn-on andd turn-off chharacteristiccs. These deevices
aree used a sw
witching devvices and aree operated in
i the saturaation regionn resulting iin low on-sttate voltagee drop.
Thhey are turnned on whenn a current signal is giiven to basee or controll terminal. T
The transisttor remains on so
lonng as the coontrol signall is present. The switchhing speeds of modern transistors are much higher
h
than that
t of
thyyristors andd are used extensively in
i dc-dc and dc-ac con
nverters. Hoowever theirr voltage an
nd current ratings
r
aree lower thann those of thhyristors annd are thereffore used in low to meddium powerr application
ns.
Poower transistors are classsified as foollows
Bipolaar junction transistors(B
t
BJTs)
Metal--oxide semiiconductor filed-effect
f
transistors((MOSFETs))
Static Induction transistors(S
SITs)
Insulaated-gate bippolar transisstors(IGBTss)

1.3 Power
P
Bip
polar Juncction Transistors
Powerr bipolar junnction transsistors (BJT
Ts) play a vital
v
role in power circcuits. Like most
m other power
p
devices, poweer transistorrs are generrally constrructed using
g silicon. The
T use of ssilicon allow
ws operationn of a
BJJT at higheer currents and junction temperaatures, whicch leads too the use oof power trransistors in
i AC
applications where
w
rangees of up to several hunddred kilowatts are essenntial.
The power
p
transiistor is partt of a family of three--layer devicces. The thhree layers or
o terminals of a
traansistor are the base, thhe collectorr, and the emitter.
e
Effeectively, thee transistor is equivaleent to havinng two
pnn-diode juncctions stackked in oppoosite directiions to each
h other. Thhe two typees of a transistor are teermed
nppnandpnp. The
T npn-typpe transistorr has a highher current--to-voltage rating than the pnpand
d is preferred for
moost power conversion applications
a
s. The easiesst way to diistinguish ann npn-type transistor frrom a pnp-ttype is
byy virtue of thhe schematiic or circuit symbol. Thhe pnptype has an arrow
whead on thhe emitter th
hat points tooward
thee base. Figuure 1.3.1 shhows the strructure andd the symbo
ol of a pnp-type transisstor. The np
pn-type trannsistor
haas an arrowhhead pointinng away froom the basee. Figure 1.3
3.2 shows the
t structuree and the sy
ymbol of ann npntyppe transistorr.

1.3.1 pnnp transistor struucture (a) and ciircuit symbol (b)).

1.3.2 npn transsistor structure (a) and circuit sy

ymbol (b).

When used as a switch, the transistor controls

c
thee power froom the sourrce to the lo
oad by suppplying
suffficient base current. This
T small current
c
from
m the drivin
ng circuit thhrough the bbaseemitteer, which must
m be
maaintained, turns
t
on thee collector
emitter path.
p
Remov
ving the cuurrent from
m the base
emitter patth and
maaking the baase voltage slightly negative turnss off the sw
witch. Even though the baseemittter path mayy only
utiilize a smalll amount off current, thee collectoremitter path
h is capablee of carryingg a much hiigher currennt.

The Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a BJT

The volt-ampere characteristics of a BJT are shown in Fig. 1.3.3. Power transistors have exceptional
characteristics as an ideal switch and they are primarily used as switches. In this type of application, they
make use of the common emitter connection shown in Fig. 1.3.4. The three regions of operation for a
transistor that must be taken into consideration are the cut-off, saturation, and the active region. When the
base current (IB) is zero, the collector current (IC) is insignificant and the transistor is driven into the cut-off
region. The transistor is now in the OFF state. The collectorbase and baseemitter junctions are reverse
biased in the cut-off region or OFF state, and the transistor behaves as an open switch. The base current (IB)
determines the saturation current. This occurs when the base current is sufficient to drive the transistor into
saturation. During saturation, both junctions are forward-biased and the transistor acts like a closed switch.
The saturation voltage increases with an increase in current and is normally between 0.5 to 2.5 V. The active
region of the transistor is mainly used for amplifier applications and should be avoided for switching
operation. In the active region, the collectorbase junction is reversed-biased and the baseemitter junction
is forward-biased.

1.3.3. BJT V-I characteristic

1.3.4 Biasing of a transistor

BJT Biasing
When a transistor is used as a switch, the control circuit provides the necessary base current. The
current of the base determines the ON or OFF state of the transistor switch. The collector and the emitter of
the transistor form the power terminals of the switch.
The DC load line represents all of the possible operating points of a transistor and is shown in Fig.
1.3.5. The operating point is where the load line and the base current intersect and is determined by the
values of VCCand RC. In the ON state, the ideal operating point occurs when the collector current ICis equal to
VCC/RCand VCEis zero. The actual operating point occurs when the load line intersects the base current at the
saturation point. This occurs when the base current equals the saturation current or IB= IB(sat). At this point,
the collector current is maximum and the transistor has a small voltage drop across the collectoremitter
terminals called the saturation voltage VCE(sat). In the OFF state, or cutoff point, the ideal operating point
occurs when the collector current IC is zero and the collectoremitter voltage VCEis equal to the supply
voltage VCC. The actual operating point, in the OFF state, occurs when the load line intersects the base
current (IB= 0). At the cutoff point, the collector current is the leakage current. By applying Kirchoff s
voltage law around the output loop, the collectoremitter voltage (VCE) can be found. The operating points
between the saturation and cutoff constitute the active region. When operating in the active region, high
power dissipation occurs due to the relatively high values of collector current ICand collectoremitter voltage
VCE. For satisfactory operation, a slightly higher than minimum base current will ensure a saturated ON state
and will result in reduced turn-on time and power dissipation.

1.3.5 DC load line.

MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor
device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices. The
MOSFET is a core of integrated circuit and it can be designed and fabricated in a single chip because of
these very small sizes. The MOSFET is a four terminal device with source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body
(B) terminals. The body of the MOSFET is frequently connected to the source terminal so making it a three
terminal device like field effect transistor. The MOSFET is very far the most common transistor and can be
used in both analog and digital circuits.
The MOSFET works by electronically varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers
flow (electrons or holes). The charge carriers enter the channel at source and exit via the drain. The width of
the channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate which is located between source and
drain. It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide. The MOS capacity present
in the device is the main part

The MOSFET can be function in two ways

Deflection Mode
Enhancement Mode
Deflection Mode:
When there is no voltage on the gate, the channel
shows its maximum conductance. As the voltage on
the gate is either positive or negative, the channel
conductivity decreases.

Enhancement mode:
When there is no voltage on the gate the device
does not conduct. More is the voltage on the gate,
the better the device can conduct.

Working Principle of MOSFET:

The aim of the MOSTFET is to be able to control the voltage and current flow between the source
and drain. It works almost as a switch. The working of MOSFET depends upon the MOS capacitor. The
MOS capacitor is the main part of MOSFET. The semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer which is
located between source and drain terminal. It can be inverted from p-type to n-type by applying a positive or
negative gate voltages respectively. When we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present under the
oxide layer with a repulsive force and holes are pushed downward with the substrate. The deflection region
populated by the bound negative charges which are associated with the acceptor atoms. The electrons reach
channel is formed. The positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain regions into the

channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current flows freely between the
source and drain and the gate voltage controls the electrons in the channel. Instead of positive voltage if we
apply negative voltage , a hole channel will be formed under the oxide layer.

P-Channel MOSFET:
The P- Channel MOSFET has a P- Channel region between source and drain. It is a four terminal
device such as gate, drain, source, body. The drain and source are heavily doped p+ region and the body or
substrate is n-type. The flow of current is positively charged holes. When we apply the negative gate voltage,
the electrons present under the oxide layer with are pushed downward into the substrate with a repulsive
force. The deflection region populated by the bound positive charges which are associated with the donor
atoms. The negative gate voltage also attracts holes from p+ source and drain region into the channel region.
N- Channel MOSFET:
The N-Channel MOSFET has a N- channel region between source and drain It is a four terminal
device such as gate, drain , source , body. This type of MOSFET the drain and source are heavily doped n+
region and the substrate or body is P- type. The current flows due to the negatively charged electrons. When
we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present under the oxide layer pushed downward into the
substrate with a repulsive force. The deflection region is populated by the bound negative charges which are
associated with the acceptor atoms. The electrons reach channel is formed. The positive voltage also attracts
electrons from the n+ source and drain regions into the channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between the
drain and source the current flows freely between the source and drain and the gate voltage controls the
electrons in the channel. Instead of positive voltage if we apply negative voltage a hole channel will be
formed under the oxide layer.

Static Characteristics

b) current-voltage characteristics,
(c) transfer characteristics

One of the important features of the power

MOSFET is the very high input impedance which simplifies the gate drive circuitry and reduces cost. It is a
voltage-controlled device with to gate current flow during operation. Figure 1.5 shows IV characteristics of
an enhancement mode (normally off) power MOSFET. or in the constant-current region for a given value of
gate bias and drain current. Temperature effect on threshold voltage (about 6 mV/C reduction) and the
difference between typical values of parameters and the maximums should be taken into account.

FIGURE 1.60 Breakdown characteristics of a power

MOSFET showing the ideal (sharp) and nonideal (soft)
behaviors.
1.5 Current-voltage characteristics of a power MOSFET

Breakdown Voltage
This is the drain voltage at which the reverse-biased body-drift diode breaks down and a significant
current starts to flow between the source and drain by the avalanche multiplication process, while the
gate and source are shorted together. Breakdown voltage, BVDSS, is normally measured at a drain current
of 250 A. For drain voltages below BVDSSand with no bias on the gate, no channel is formed under the
gate at the surface and the drain voltage is entirely supported by the reverse-biased body-drift pnjunction.
There are two related phenomena which can occur in poorly designed and processed devices. These are
punch-through and reach-through.
Punch through is observed when the depletion region on the source side of the body-drift p-n
junction reaches the source region at drain voltages below the rated avalanche voltage of the device. This
provides a current path between source and drain and causes a soft breakdown characteristics as shown in
Figure 1.6 . The leakage current flowing between source and drain is denoted by IDSS. There are tradeoffs to
be made between RDS(on) that requires shorter channel lengths and punch-through avoidance that requires
longer channel lengths.
The reach-through phenomenon occurs when the depletion region on the drift side of the body-drift
p-n junction reaches the epilayer-substrate interface before avalanching takes place in the epi. Once the
depletion edge enters the high carrier concentration substrate, a further increase in drain voltage will cause
the electric field to quickly reach the critical value of 2x105 V/cm where avalanching begins.

For Example Using the MOSFET as a Switch:

In this circuit arrangement an enhanced mode and N-channel MOSFET is
being used to switch a sample lamp ON and OFF. The positive gate voltage
is applied to the base of the transistor and the lamp is ON (VGS =+v) or at
zero voltage level the device turns off (VGS=0). If the resistive load of the
lamp was to be replaced by an inductive load and connected to the relay or
diode which is protect to the load. In the above circuit, it is a very simple
circuit for switching a resistive load such as lamp or LED. But when using
MOSFET to switch either inductive load or capacitive load protection is
required to contain the MOSFET device. We are not giving the protection
the MOSFET device is damage. For the MOSFET to operate as an analog switching device, it needs to be
switched between its cutoff region where VGS =0 and saturation region where VGS =+v.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross between
a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor, (MOSFET) making it ideal
as a semiconductor switching device.
The IGBT transistor takes the best parts of these two types of transistors, the high input impedance
and high switching speeds of a MOSFET with the low saturation voltage of a bipolar transistor, and
combines them together to produce another type of transistor switching device that is capable of handling
large collector-emitter currents with virtually zero gate current drive.
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) uses the insulated gate (hence the first part of its name)
technology of the MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor,
(hence the second part of its name). The result of this hybrid combination is that the IGBT Transistor has
the output switching and conduction characteristics of a bipolar transistor but is voltage-controlled like a
MOSFET.
IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters, converters and power
supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching device are not fully met by power bipolars and power
MOSFETs. High-current and high-voltage bipolars are available, but their switching speeds are slow, while
power MOSFETs may have higher switching speeds, but high-voltage and high-current devices are
expensive and hard to achieve.
The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or MOSFET is that it
offers greater power gain than the standard bipolar type transistor combined with the higher voltage
operation and lower input losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated with a bipolar transistor in
a form of Darlington type configuration as shown.
The IGBT structure is similar to that of a planar power MOSFET except the difference in the
substrate doping type. The fabrication of the IGBT therefore is almost the same as a power MOSFET.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance device that
combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output connected in a
type of Darlington configuration. As a result the terminals are labelled as: Collector,Emitter and Gate. Two
of its terminals (C-E) are associated with the conductance path which passes current, while its third terminal
(G) controls the device.
The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between its
output signal and its input signal. For a conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the amount of gain is
approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current, called Beta.
For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as the
gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FETs gain is equal to the ratio of
output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device and this is also true of
the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is provided by a MOSFET.
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in much the
same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low conduction loss of a
BJT with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch exists which is ideal
for use in power electronics applications.Also, the IGBT has a much lower on-state resistance, RON than an
equivalent MOSFET. This means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching
current is much lower. The forward blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power
MOSFET.
When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and current
ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an IGBT makes
it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.
An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned ON or OFF by activating and deactivating
its Gate terminal. Applying a positive input voltage signal across the Gate and the Emitter will keep the
device in its ON state, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly negative will cause it to turn
OFF in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET. Another advantage of the IGBT is that it
has a much lower on-state channel resistance than a standard MOSFET.
IGBT Characteristics

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the Gate to
maintain conduction through the device unlike BJTs which require that the Base current is continuously
supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation.

Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the forward
direction, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFETs which have bi-directional current switching
capabilities (controlled in the forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse direction).
The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor are very
similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the resistance offered by the
main conducting channel when current flows through the device in its ON state is very much smaller in
the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when compared with an equivalent power
MOSFET.
The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistorover other types of transistor
devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast switching speeds and
combined with zero gate drive current makes it a good choice for moderate speed, high voltage applications
such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed control, switch-mode power supplies or solar
powered DC-AC inverter and frequency converter applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.
A general comparison between BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs is given in the following table.
IGBT Comparison Table
Device

Power

Power

Characteristic

Bipolar

MOSFET

Voltage Rating

High <1kV

High <1kV

Very High >1kV

Current Rating

High <500A

Low <200A

High >500A

Current

Voltage

Voltage

20-200 hFE

VGS 3-10V

VGE 4-8V

Low

High

High

Output Impedance Low

Medium

Low

Switching Speed

Slow (uS)

Fast (nS)

Medium

Cost

Low

Medium

High

Input Drive
Input Impedance

IGBT

We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is semiconductor switching device that
has the output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a metal oxide field
effect transistor, MOSFET.
One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it can be driven ON
by applying a positive gate voltage, or switched OFF by making the gate signal zero or slightly negative
allowing it to be used in a variety of switching applications. It can also be driven in its linear active region
for use in power amplifiers.
With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as its ability to switch high voltages
at high frequencies without damage makes the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal for driving
inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.

Uni junction Transistor (UJT)

The Unijunction Transistor or UJT for short, is another solid state three terminal device that can be
used in gate pulse, timing circuits and trigger generator applications to switch and control either thyristors
andtriacs for AC power control type applications. Like diodes, uni-junction transistors are constructed from
separate P-type and N-type semiconductor materials forming a single (hence its name Uni-Junction) PNjunction within the main conducting N-type channel of the device.
Although the Unijunction Transistor has the name of a transistor, its switching characteristics are
very different from those of a conventional bipolar or field effect transistor as it can not be used to amplify a
signal but instead is used as a ON-OFF switching transistor. UJTs have unidirectional conductivity and
negative impedance characteristics acting more like a variable voltage divider during breakdown.
Like N-channel FETs, the UJT consists of a single solid piece of N-type semiconductor material
forming the main current carrying channel with its two outer connections marked as Base 2 ( B2 ) and Base
1 ( B1 ). The third connection, confusingly marked as the Emitter ( E ) is located along the channel. The
emitter terminal is represented by an arrow pointing from the P-type emitter to the N-type base.
The Emitter rectifying p-n junction of the Unijunction Transistor is formed by fusing the P-type
material into the N-type silicon channel. However, P-channel UJTs with an N-type Emitter terminal are also
available but these are little used.
The Emitter junction is positioned along the channel so that it is closer to terminal B2 than B1. An
arrow is used in the UJT symbol which points towards the base indicating that the Emitter terminal is
positive and the silicon bar is negative material. Below shows the symbol, construction, and equivalent
circuit of the UJT.
Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction

Notice that the symbol for the unijunction transistor looks very similar to that of the junction field
effect transistor or JFET, except that it has a bent arrow representing the Emitter( E ) input. While similar in
respect of their ohmic channels, JFETs and UJTs operate very differently and should not be confused.
So how does it work? We can see from the equivalent circuit above, that the N-type channel basically
consists of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent (ideal) diode, D representing the p-n
junction connected to their center point. This Emitter p-n junction is fixed in position along the ohmic
channel during manufacture and can therefore not be changed.Resistance RB1 is given between the
Emitter, E and terminal B1, while resistance RB2 is given between the Emitter, E and terminal B2.As the
physical position of the p-n junction is closer to terminal B2 than B1 the resistive value of RB2will be less
than RB1.
The total resistance of the silicon bar (its Ohmic resistance) will be dependent upon the
semiconductors actual doping level as well as the physical dimensions of the N-type silicon channel but can
be represented by RBB. If measured with an ohmmeter, this static resistance would typically measure

somewhere between about 4k and 10ks for most common UJTs such as the 2N1671, 2N2646 or the
2N2647.
These two series resistances produce a voltage divider network between the two base terminals of the
unijunction transistor and since this channel stretches from B2 to B1, when a voltage is applied across the
device, the potential at any point along the channel will be in proportion to its position between
terminals B2 and B1. The level of the voltage gradient therefore depends upon the amount of supply voltage.
When used in a circuit, terminal B1 is connected to ground and the Emitter serves as the input to the
device. Suppose a voltage VBB is applied across the UJT between B2 and B1 so that B2 is biased positive
relative to B1. With zero Emitter input applied, the voltage developed across RB1 (the lower resistance) of the
resistive voltage divider can be calculated as:

Unijunction Transistor RB1 Voltage

For a unijunction transistor, the resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB shown above is called the intrinsic
stand-off ratio and is given the Greek symbol: (eta). Typical standard values of range from 0.5 to 0.8
for most common UJTs.
If a small positive input voltage which is less than the voltage developed across
resistance, RB1( VBB ) is now applied to the Emitter input terminal, the diode p-n junction is reverse biased,
thus offering a very high impedance and the device does not conduct. The UJT is switched OFF and zero
current flows.However, when the Emitter input voltage is increased and becomes greater
than VRB1 (orVBB + 0.7V, where 0.7V equals the p-n junction diode volt drop) the p-n junction becomes
forward biased and the unijunction transistor begins to conduct. The result is that Emitter current, IE now
flows from the Emitter into the Base region.
The effect of the additional Emitter current flowing into the Base reduces the resistive portion of the
channel between the Emitter junction and the B1 terminal. This reduction in the value of RB1resistance to a
very low value means that the Emitter junction becomes even more forward biased resulting in a larger
current flow. The effect of this results in a negative resistance at the Emitter terminal.
Likewise, if the input voltage applied between the Emitter and B1terminal decreases to a value below
breakdown, the resistive value ofRB1 increases to a high value. Then the Unijunction Transistor can be
thought of as a voltage breakdown device.So we can see that the resistance presented by RB1 is variable and
is dependant on the value of Emitter current, IE. Then forward biasing the Emitter junction with respect
to B1 causes more current to flow which reduces the resistance between the Emitter, E and B1.
In other words, the flow of current into the UJTs Emitter causes the resistive value of RB1 to
decrease and the voltage drop across it, VRB1must also decrease, allowing more current to flow producing a
negative resistance condition.
Unijunction Transistor Applications
Now that we know how a uni-junction transistor works, what can they be used for. The most
common application of a uni-junction transistor is as a triggering device for SCRs and Triacs but other UJT
applications include saw toothed generators, simple oscillators, phase control, and timing circuits. The
simplest of all UJT circuits is the Relaxation Oscillator producing non-sinusoidal waveforms.
In a basic and typical UJT relaxation oscillator circuit, the Emitter terminal of the uni-junction
transistor is connected to the junction of a series connected resistor and capacitor, RC circuit as shown below.

Uni-junction Transistor Relaxation Oscillator

When a voltage (Vs) is firstly applied, the unijunction transistor is OFF and the capacitor C1 is
fully discharged but begins to charge up exponentially through resistor R3. As the Emitter of the UJT is
connected to the capacitor, when the charging voltage Vc across the capacitor becomes greater than the
diode volt drop value, the p-n junction behaves as a normal diode and becomes forward biased triggering the
UJT into conduction. The unijunction transistor is ON. At this point the Emitter to B1 impedance
collapses as the Emitter goes into a low impedance saturated state with the flow of Emitter current
through R1 taking place.As the ohmic value of resistor R1 is very low, the capacitor discharges rapidly
through the UJT and a fast rising voltage pulse appears across R1. Also, because the capacitor discharges
more quickly through the UJT than it does charging up through resistor R3, the discharging time is a lot less
than the charging time as the capacitor discharges through the low resistance UJT.
When the voltage across the capacitor decreases below the holding point of the p-n junction ( VOFF ),
the UJT turns OFF and no current flows into the Emitter junction so once again the capacitor charges up
through resistor R3 and this charging and discharging process between VONand VOFF is constantly repeated
while there is a supply voltage, Vs applied.
UJT Oscillator Waveforms

Then we can see that the unijunction oscillator continually switches ON and OFF without any
feedback. The frequency of operation of the oscillator is directly affected by the value of the charging
resistance R3, in series with the capacitor C1 and the value of . The output pulse shape generated from the
Base1 (B1) terminal is that of a sawtooth waveform and to regulate the time period, you only have to change
the ohmic value of resistance, R3 since it sets the RC time constant for charging the capacitor.
The time period, T of the sawtoothed waveform will be given as the charging time plus the
discharging time of the capacitor. As the discharge time, 1 is generally very short in comparison to the
larger RC charging time, 2 the time period of oscillation is more or less equivalent to T 2. The frequency
of oscillation is therefore given by = 1/T.

UJT Oscillator Example No1

The data sheet for a 2N2646 Unijunction Transistor gives the intrinsic stand-off ratio as 0.65. If a
100nF capacitor is used to generate the timing pulses, calculate the timing resistor required to produce an
oscillation frequency of 100Hz.
1. The timing period is given as:

2. The value of the timing resistor, R3 is calculated as:

Then the value of charging resistor required in this simple example is calculated as 95.3ks to the
nearest preferred value. However, there are certain conditions required for the UJT relaxation oscillator to
operate correctly as the resistive value of R3 can be too large or too small.
For example, if the value of R3 was too large, (Megohms) the capacitor may not charge up
sufficiently to trigger the Unijunctions Emitter into conduction but must also be large enough to ensure that
the UJT switches OFF once the capacitor has discharged to below the lower trigger voltage.
Likewise if the value of R3 was too small, (a few hundred Ohms) once triggered the current flowing
into the Emitter terminal may be sufficiently large to drive the device into its saturation region preventing it
from turning OFF completely. Either way the unijunction oscillator circuit would fail to oscillate.
UJT Speed Control Circuit
One typical application of the unijunction transistor circuit above is to generate a series of pulses to
fire and control a thyristor. By using the UJT as a phase control triggering circuit in conjunction with an
SCR or Triac, we can adjust the speed of a universal AC or DC motor as shown.
Unijunction Transistor Speed Control

Using the circuit above, we can control the speed of a universal series motor (or whichever type of
load we want, heaters, lamps, etc) by regulating the current flowing through the SCR. To control the motors
speed, simply change the frequency of the sawtooth pulse, which is achieved by varying the value of the
potentiometer.