6.1 What is waves?

WAVES
Process of transferring energy from one location to another which is produced by
an oscillating or vibrating motion.
Examples of Light waves are produced as a result of vibrations of waves electron
s in an atom Sound waves are produced by vibrating mechanical bodies such as a g
uitar strings or a tuning fork. Water waves are produced by a disturbance on a s
till water surface. How do waves transfer energy? When energy is transferred by
a wave from a vibrating source to a distant receiver, there is no transfer of ma
tter between the two points. When the string is shaken up and down, a disturbanc
e moves along the length of the string. It is the disturbance that moves along t
he length of the string, not parts of the string itself. Drop a stone in a quite
pond. It will produce a wave that moves out from the center in expanding circle
s. It is the disturbance that moves, not the water. After the disturbance passes
, the water is where it was before the wave was produced .
The energy transferred from a vibrating source to a receiver is carried by a dis
turbance in a medium, not by matter moving from one place to another within the
medium
The string and water is the medium through which wave energy travels.
What is A transverse wave is a wave in which the vibration of Transverse particl
es in the medium is at right angle to the direction of Wave? propagation of the
wave.
1

What is Longitudin al Waves?

The spring is moved sideways. The motion of the particles medium (spring) is at
right angles to the direction in which the wave travels. Examples: water waves,
light waves A longitudinal wave is a wave which the vibration of particles in th
e medium is along (parallel to) the direction of propagation of the wave.
The slinky spring moves backwards and forwards to produce a transverse wave. The
particles of the medium (spring) move along the direction of the wave. The wave
that travels along the spring consists of a series of compression and rarefacti
on. Examples: sounds waves.
2

What is a ripple tank?

The phenomenon of water waves can be investigated using a ripple tank. The water
waves are produced by a vibrating bar on the water surface. The tank is leveled
so that the depth of water in the tank is uniform to ensure water waves propaga
te with uniform speed.
The water acts as a lens to produce a pattern of bright and dark regions on a pi
ece of white paper placed under the tank when light passes through it. Water wav
es have crests and troughs. A crest is the highest position of the wave acts as
a convex lens, whereas a trough is the lowest position acts as a concave lens. L
ight rays from the lamp on top will focus onto the white screen below. The brigh
t lines correspond to the crests, and the dark lines correspond to the troughs.
3

What is meant by a wavefront? Lines joining all the points of the same phase are
called wavefronts.
1. Plane wavefronts
2. Circular wavefronts
The wavefronts of a transverse wave and longitudinal wave are perpendicular to t
he direction of propagation of the waves. Describing Waves Vibration/Oscillation
The movement from one extreme position to the other and back to the same positi
on.
Amplitude (a) The maximum displacement from its equilibrium position. Amplitude
relates to loudness in sound and brightness in light. SI unit: meter, m Waveleng
th () The distance between two adjacent points of the same phase on a wave.
The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs
The distance between two successive compressions or two successive rarefactions
in a sound wave.
4

Period (T) The time taken for an osci ation to comp ete one cyc e. SI unit is s
econd (s). Wave Speed (v) The speed of a wave is the measurement of how fast a c
rest is moving from a fixed point. SI unit is ms-1.
Frequency, f Re ation between The number of waves frequency and period: produced
in one 1 second. f = T SI unit is Hertz (Hz) The re ationship between speed, wa
ve ength and frequency Ve ocity = wave ength x frequency v = f
Disp acement-time graph
Disp acement-distance graph
Ve ocity , v = f Examp e 1 From the graph, ca cu ate: (a) Amp itude (b) Period, (
c) Frequency
5

Examp e 2
A graph shows a wave produced by a s inky spring vibrating at frequency 8 Hz. Wh
at is: (a) amp itude (b) wave ength (c) wave speed
What is damping? What causes damping? A graph to show damping
Damping is the decrease in the amp itude of an osci ating system when its energ
y is drained out as heat energy. The amp itude of an osci ating system wi gra
dua y decrease and become zero when the osci ation stops. 1. Externa damping
of the system is the oss of energy to overcome frictiona forces or air resista
nce. 2. Interna damping is the oss of energy due to the extension and compress
ion of the mo ecu es in the system.
Externa

Force Force osci ation Natura frequency

To enab e an osci ating system to go on continuous y, an externa force must be

app ied to the system. The externa force supp ies energy to the system. Such a
motion is ca ed a forced osci ation The frequency of a system which osci ate
s free y without the action of an externa force is ca ed the natura frequency
.
6

Resonance
Resonance occurs when a system is made to osci ate at a frequency equiva ent to
its natura frequency by an externa force. The resonating system osci ates at
its maximum amp itude. The frequency of a simp e pendu um depends on the ength
of the pendu um. In Bartons pendu um experiment, there are many pendu ums tied t
o the rope. Two of the pendu um are of the same ength When pendu um B osci ate
s, a the other pendu ums are forced to osci ate. But pendu um D osci ates wi
th the argest amp itude, ie, pendu um D resonates
Experiment in Bartons pendu um
How does resonance occur in the two pendu um of equa

ength?

Pendu um B and pendu um D are of the same ength. Frequency B = Frequency D Ther
efore, pendu um B causes pendu um D to osci ate at its natura frequency. Good
1. The tuner in a radio or te evision enab es us to se ect effects of the progra
mmes we are interested. The circuit in the resonance tuner is adjusted unti res
onance is achieved, at the frequency transmitted by a particu ar station se ecte
d. Hence a strong e ectrica signa is produced. 2. The oudness of music produc
ed by musica instruments such as the trumpet and f ute is the resu t of resonan
ce in the air. Bad effects 3. A bridge can co apse when the amp itude of its of
vibration increases as a resu t of resonance. resonance
7

6.2 Ref ection of wave

REFLECTION OF WAVES
Occurs when a wave strikes an obstac e. The wave undergoes a change in direction
of propagation when it is ref ected. The va ue of frequency (f), wave ength () a
nd speed (v) remain the same after ref ection. Law of Ref ection:
Incident wave : the wave before it strikes the obstac e
Ref ected wave: the wave which has undergone The ang e of incidence, i is equa
to the ang e of a change in direction of propagation after ref ection. ref ectio
n, r. i = ang e of incident the ang e between the direction of propagation of in
cident wave and the norma r = ang e of ref ection the ang e between the directi
on of propagation of ref ected wave and the norma . Ref ection of p ane water wa
ves in a ripp e tank 1. Set up a ripp e tank. 2. Switch on the motor to set the
vibrating. Increase the frequency of the waves by increasing the vo tage power s
upp y to the motor. 3. Observe the ref ected wave by using a stroboscope.
Draw a diagram to show ref ection of waves.
8

6.3
What is Refraction of waves? What happens to frequency, speed, wave ength & dire
ction?
REFRACTION OF WAVES
Refraction of waves is a change in its direction as the waves pass from one medi
um to another. It occurs when there is a difference in the speed of the wave at
the boundary of two mediums. After refraction, the wave has the same frequency,
but a different speed, wave ength and direction of propagation. The re ationship
between v and of a water wave in deep and sha ow water: v = f f is constant
v v is direct y proportiona to v v v f = = cons tan t 1 = 2 f1 f2
Use the words, increase, decrease or unchanged
Characteristics
Water waves passes from deep water to sha ow water
Characteristics
Water waves passes from sha ow water to deep water
Speed Wave ength Frequency
Decrease Decrease unchanged
Speed Wave ength Frequency
increase Increase unchanged
How does the direction of waves change when:
Water passing from the deep region to the sha ow region, the water wave is refr
acted toward the norma .
Water passing from the sha ow region to the deep region, the water wave is refr
acted away from the norma .
9

Use a ripp e tank Draw a ray diagram to show refraction of waves.

Examp e 1 A p ane wave has a wave ength of 2 cm and a ve ocity of 8 cm s-1 as it
moves over the surface of sha ow water. When the p ane wave moves into an area
of greater depth, its ve ocity becomes 12 cm s-1. What is
(a) the wave ength (b) the frequency of the wave in the area of greater depth?
10

Examp e 2 The diagram shows a p ane water wave moving from one area P to another
area Q of different depth.
If the speed of water wave in P is 18 cm s-1, what is the speed of water wave in
Q?
6.4
What is diffraction of waves?
DIFFRACTION OF WAVES
Diffraction of waves is a phenomenon in which waves spread out as they pass thro
ugh a gap or round a sma obstac e.
What are 1. Frequency, wave ength and speed of waves do not Characteristics chan
ge. of diffracted 2. Changes in the direction of propagation and the pattern of
waves?
the waves. 3. The amp itude of the diffraction wave decreases so its energy decr
ease.
What are the factors that inf uence the effect of diffraction?
The effect of diffraction is obvious if: 1. the size of the gap or obstac e is s
ma enough 2. the wave ength is arge enough. The effect of diffraction is obvi
ous if the shape of the diffracted waves more spread out or more circu ar
11

Diffraction of sound
Sound diffracting around corners so a owing us to hear others who are speaking
to us from adjacent rooms.
Diffraction of ight
Light is diffracted if it passes through a narrow s it comparab e in size to its
wave ength. However, the effect is not obvious as the size of the s it increase
s. This is because the wave engths of ight are very short.
We can hear the sound of a radio p aced nearby a corner of a wa
see the radio. Why?
Procedure

but we cannot

Sound waves are more easi y diffracted in comparison to ight waves because the
wave ength of sound waves is much onger than the wave ength of ight waves.
A ripp e tank is fi ed with water and set up as shown. Switch on the power pack
. Use a barrier to b ock the incident straight water waves. Observe the wave pat
tern beyond the barrier. Send a straight water waves to pass through a gap. Obse
rve the pattern of diffracted waves beyond the gap. Send straight water waves to
wards a sma gap. Observe the wave pattern beyond the sma gap.
12

Observation (a) Wide gap

(b) Narrow gap
The waves are bend on y at the edges after passing through the gap. The effect o
f diffraction is not obvious Straight water wave propagate towards an obstac e.
The waves are circu ar and appear to originated from the sma
f diffraction is obvious

gap. The effect o

As the size of the gap or obstac e is sma er , the effect of diffraction become
s obvious.
13

6.5 INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

State the Princip e of superposition of Waves (a) Superposition of two crests Wh
en two waves interfered, the resu ting disp acement of the medium at any ocatio
n is the a gebraic sum of the disp acements of the individua waves.
Constructive Interference
(b)Superposition of two troughs
Constructive Interference
(c) Superposition of a crest and a trough What is Interference of Waves? What is
coherent sources? How does interference occur?
Destructive Interference
Interference is the superposition of two waves originating from two coherent sou
rces. The waves from coherent sources have the same frequency (f), same wave eng
th and constant phase difference. Wave interference occurs when two waves meet w
hi e propagating a ong the same medium. When the two waves are superposed, inter
ference wi occur either constructive interference or destructive interference.
14

Constructive Interference Destructive interference

Occurs when the crests or troughs of both waves coincide to produce a wave with
crests and troughs of maximum amp itude. Occurs when crest of one wave coincide
with the trough of the other wave, thus cance ing each other with the resu t tha
t the resu tant amp itude is zero
The occurrence of constructive interference and destructive interference
Antinode Node Keys:
Maximum crest wave (2 crests meet) Zero amp itude (trough meets crest) Maximum t
rough wave (2 troughs meet)
A point where constructive interference occurs A point where destructive interfe
rence occurs.
15

Youngs formu a
The re ationship between , a, x and D
=
ax D
a = distance between two coherent sources = wave ength x = distance between two
consecutive node (or antinode) ines D = distance from the two sources to the po
int of measurement of x
Factors affecting The interference pattern depend on the va ue of x the interfer
ence When x changes, the interference pattern a so changes pattern D
x=
a
1.
1 x a
The distance between 2 consecutive ines, x is inverse y proportiona to the dis
tance between 2 sources,a
As a becomes

arger, x becomes sma er

As a becomes sma er, x becomes arger

16

2.
x
The distance between two consecutive node ines or antinode ines , x increases
is direct y proportiona to the wave ength of the wave , Low frequency ( arge ) H
igh frequency (sma )
where a & D are constant
As increases, x increases 3.
As decreases, x a so decreases.
xD
x direct y proportiona

to D where a & are constant

The distance between two consecutive node ines or antinode ines, x is direct y
proportiona to the distance from the two sources to the point of measurement o
f x, D
Interference of ights
Occurs when an incident ight wave passes through a doub e s it. An interference
pattern is produced as a resu t of the superposition of two emerging ight wave
s from the doub e s it. Use monochromatic ight ( ight which has one co our and
one wave ength) The doub e s it must be very narrow (about 0.5 mm) to produce a
c ear interference pattern because the wave ength of ight is very sma . When
ight from monochromatic source passes through a doub e s it, two sources of cohe
rent ight are produced.
17
Youngs doub e-s it experiment

The interference pattern consists of a ternate bright and dark fringes that can
be seen on a distant screen. Bright fringes: constructive interference Dark frin
ges: destructive interference. a = Distance between the two s its on the doub e
s it
p ate D = Distance between the doub e-s it p ate and the screen = The wave ength
of ight depends on its co or. x = Distance between two consecutive bright frin
ges or dark fringes.
=
ax D
Interference of Sound Occurs when two coherent sound waves interact Waves on the
basis of the princip e of superposition to produce a pattern of
a= the distance between the two oudspeakers D = Distance between the oudspeake
rs and the path a ong which interference can be detected = The wave ength of sou
nd waves is
The two oud speakers are the sources of the two coherent sound waves as they ar
e connected to the same audio signa generator. A student is requested to wa k i
n a straight path at a distance of D from the oudspeakers. The student hears a
ternating oud and soft sounds as he wa ks a ong the straight path.
18

inf uenced by the frequency of the audio signa generator. x = Distance between
two consecutive positions where oud sound is heard
The a ternating oud and soft sounds is caused by interference of the sound wave
s. The oud sound: constructive interference The soft sound : destructive interf
erence.
=
ax D
Water wave
Sound wave
Light wave

The wave ength of water waves is inf uenced by the frequency of the vibrator Dis
tance between the spherica dippers and the position marked x is measured Distan
ce between the two spherica dippers Distance between two consecutive antinode
ines or two consecutive node ines High amp itude of water Ca m water
D
a x
The wave ength of sound waves is inf uenced by the frequency of the audio signa
generator. Distance between the oudspeakers and the path a ong which interfere
nce can be detected Distance between the two oudspeakers Distance between two c
onsecutive positions where oud sound is heard Loud sound Soft sound
The wave ength of

ight depends on its co or.

Distance between the doub e-s it p ate and the screen Distance between the two s
its on the doub e s it p ate Distance between two consecutive bright fringes or
dark fringes. Bright fringes Dark fringes
19

Examp e 1 In the interference of two coherent sources of waves, the separation b

etween two spherica dippers is 3 cm and the distance between two consecutive no
de ines is 4 cm measured at a distance of 15 cm from the two coherent sources o
f waves. Ca cu ate the wave ength of the water waves originating from the source
s.
Examp e 2 In a Youngs doub e s it experiment, the distance between the doub e s i
t and the screen is 4.0 m and the separation of the two s its is 0.5 mm. ca cu a
te the distance between two consecutive bright fringes for vio et ight with a w
ave ength of 4.0 x 10-7 m
Examp e 3 The wave ength of ight can be determined with a doub e-s it p ate. Th
e diagram shows the pattern of interference fringes obtained in a Youngs doub e-s
it experiment. The separation of distance of the two s its is 0.25 mm and the d
istance between the screen and the doub e s it p ate is 3.0 m. Ca cu ate the wav
e ength of ight used in the experiment. Examp e 4 In an experiment on the inter
ference of waves, two oudspeakers are p aced at a distance of 1.5 m from each o
ther. They are connected to an audio signa generator to produce coherent sound
waves at a frequency of 0.5 kHz. Ca cu ate (a) the wave ength of the sound wave
if the speed of sound is 300 ms-1 (b) the distance between two consecutive soft
sounds at a perpendicu ar distance of 5 m from the source of the sound.
20

6.6 ANALYSING SOUND WAVES

What is sound waves?
Sound is a form of energy propagated as waves that make our eardrums vibrate. So
und waves are caused by vibrating objects. Sound waves are ongitudina waves. S
ound waves are produced when a vibrating object causes the air mo ecu es around
it to vibrate.
How is sound produced by a vibrating objects?
When a tuning fork vibrates, ayers of air vibrate and the sound energy is propa
gated through the air around it in the form of waves. When the tuning fork moves
forwards, the air is compressed. When the tuning fork moves backwards, the air
ayers are pu ed apart and cause a rarefaction. Therefore, a series of compress
ion and rarefactions wi
produce sound.
Why does The air partic es vibrate backward and forward in the sound waves direc
tion para e to the direction of propagation of the is a sound wave. ongitudin
a Wave ength of sound, = the distance between two waves?
successive regions of compression or two successive regions of rarefaction. Exp
ain how The oudness of the sound depends on its amp itude. the oudness If the
amp itude is increased, the oudness increases.
re ates to amp itude? Exp ain how
A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency and
21

the pitch re ates to frequency

a ow pitch sound corresponds to a ow frequency of vibration.
To investigate the re ationship between the amp itude and the oudness of sound
The audio signa generator is switched on and the frequency of the sound wave
adjusted to a suitab e eve . The oudness of the sound is varied from a ot
a high eve gradua y. Observe the shape of the sound wave disp ayed on the
reen of osci oscope. Write: ow / medium / high Wave form Amp itude of sound
ve Loudness of sound

is
to
sc
wa

The re ation between the pitch and the frequency of sound The audio signa is sw
itched on and the oudness is adjusted to a suitab e eve . The frequency of the
sound is varied from ow to high gradua y. The pitch of the sound that is hear
d and the form of the wave disp ayed on the screen of the osci oscope is observ
ed. Write: ow / medium / high Wave form Frequency of sound wave Pitch of sound
22

describe app ications The ref ection of sound is ca ed echoes. of ref ection of
sound waves. Infrasound Norma U trasound audib e range Less than 20 20 Hz to H
igher than U trasound in Hz 20 000 Hz 20 000 Hz. medicine U trasound waves is us
ed to scan and capture the image of a fetus in a mothers womb and the image of in
terna organ in a body. Transmitter P emits u trasound downwards to the fetus. D
etector R receives the u trasound (echoes) ref ected by the various parts of the
fetus. The soft tissues of the fetus absorb most of the incident u trasound, re
f ect very itt e. The bony parts wi absorb very itt e, but ref ect most of t
he u trasound. The ref ected u trasound wi produce an image of contrasting bri
ghtness.
Sonar
Sonar is the technique of using u trasound to ocate underwater objects or to me
asure the depth of a seabed. U trasound signa is sent out from a transmitter. I
ts echo from the seabed is detected by a receiver which is connected to an e ect
rica recording circuit. The time interva , t between the sending and receiving
of the u trasound signa after ref ection from the seabed is measured.
23

 The depth of the seabed, d = v the ve ocity of sound in water.

t where v is 2
A bat can navigate in darkness
When u trasonic waves emitted by the bat hit an object, they are ref ected back
and received by the bat. The time between the emission of the sound waves and re
ception of the ref ected waves enab es the bat to estimate the position of the o
bject accurate y. This enab es the bat to adjust its direction to avoid knocking
at the object.
Ca cu ate distances using the ref ection of sound waves.
An u trasonic wave is used to determine the depth of a seabed. A pu se of u tras
ound is generated and trave s to the seabed and ref ected by it. The time taken
by a pu se of u trasonic wave to trave to and fro the seabed is 0.28 s. It the
speed of sound in the water is 1 500 ms-1, ca cu ate the depth of the seabed.
24

6.7 ANALYSING ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Describe the e ectromagnetic spectrum

-------Radio waves--------

-----

ow frequency
high frequency
high wave ength
ow wave ength
What is the It consists of a group of waves with simi ar natures. e ectro The mem
bers of the e ectromagnetic spectrum magnetic arranged in increasing frequencies
and decreasing spectrum? wave engths are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays
, visib e ight, u travio et rays, X rays and gamma rays. Radio waves have the
ongest wave ength but are of ow frequency waves. They carry very itt e energy.
Gamma rays have the shortest wave ength but are of high frequency waves. They c
arry very high energy. What is the It is produced when e ectric and magnetic fie
d vibrate e ectroat right ang e to each other. magnetic The direction of propag
ation of the wave is wave? perpendicu ar to both fie ds.
25

State the visib e ight is a part of the e ectromagnetic spectrum

Visib e ight waves are the on y e ectromagnetic waves we can see. Light can be
seen as the co ours of rainbow. Each co our has a different wave ength. Red has
the ongest wave ength and vio et the shortest. When a the waves are seen toge
ther, they make white ight. When white ight shines through a prism, the white
ight is broken apart into the seven co ours of the visib e ight spectrum. Red,
orange, ye ow, green, b ue, indigo and vio et. They transfer energy from one p
oint to another. They are transverse waves. They can trave through vacuum. They
trave at the same speed through vacuum, i.e at the speed of ight , c = 3 x 10
8 ms-1. 5. They a show wave properties such as ref ection, refraction, diffrac
tion and interference. 6. They obey the wave equation, v = f. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Describe the properties of e ectromagnetic waves
List sources of e ectro-magnetic waves and the app ications. E ectromagnetic Sou
rces wave Gamma Rays Radioactive substances App ications Engineering to detect
eakages in underground pipes Medicine cancer treatment Food steri isation
26

X- rays
x-ray tube
U travio et rays
The sun, mercury vapour amp.
Medicine i. X-ray photograph of the interna organs of the body, e.g to ocate b
one fracture. ii. Cancer treatment Engineering to detect cracks in meta Checkin
g of uggage at airports Cause sunburn Stimu ates the formation of vitamin D nee
ded for assimi ation of ca cium and the prevention of rickets. Detect fake notes
F uorescent amp Steri ization of surgica too s and p ant seed ings. Visua co
mmunication Photography Photosynthesis A sensation of warmth is fe t when IR fa
s on the skin. Therma imaging and physiotherapy Infrared binocu ars for night
time vision. IR radiation emitted by a iving thing can be detected. Remote cont
ro for TV / VCR Communication system with sate ites Used in radar system Cooki
ng Ce u ar (mobi e) phone service For broadcasting and wire ess communication U
HF (u tra high frequency) radio waves te evision and hand phones
27
Visib e ight
F ames, amps, the sun Hot objects such as f ames, the human body, the sun
Infrared radiation
Microwaves
Radar transmitter Microwaves oven E ectrons osci ating in aeria s Radio/ te evi
sion
Radio waves

transmitter
VHF (very high frequency) radio wave
sed by the po ice

oca radio FM and wire ess communication u

Describe the detrimenta effects of excessive exposure to certain components of

the e ectromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves Microwaves No evidence of hazard Inter
na heating of body tissues when they enter our body. Long exposure to mobi e ph
ones can cause brain tumor and inner ear comp ications in chi dren. Just SMS. Sk
in burns No evidence of hazard Damage to the surface ce s (inc uding skin cance
r) and b indness Damage to ce s. Cancer, mutation The mutated ce s may resu t
in the abnorma growth of cancer ce s. Pregnant mothers who are exposed to X-ra
ys and radiations too frequent y may cause abnorma ities in new born babies.
Infrared Visib e ight U travio et X-rays Gamma rays
28