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(ASCE2014-online) Kansai Settlement - Mesri PDF
(ASCE2014-online) Kansai Settlement - Mesri PDF
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Introduction
Japans extensive reclamation history stems from a need for additional land in coastal areas (Mikasa and Ohnishi 1981; Sasaki et al.
1987). Reclamation has taken place in Osaka Bay at least as early as
the Edo era (16001867), when it was used for rice cultivation.
The Kansai International Airport was constructed 5 km off the
coast of Senshu in 18- to 20-m-deep seawater to avoid noise pollution and land-acquisition disputes that were experienced at the
Itami and Narita airports. Construction of Island I began in 1987, and
Runway I began operation in 1994. Construction of Island II began
in 1999, and Runway II began operation in 2007 [Nakase 1987; New
Kansai International Airport Company (NKIAC) 2012].
As a part of the original design considerations, the surface elevation of the Kansai Airport islands were to remain above 14-m
chart datum level (CDL) to avoid the erosive action of waves
overtopping the seawall (Arai 1991). As of December 2012, the
average seabed settlement has exceeded 12.9 and 14.2 m, respectively, for Airport Islands I and II (NKIAC 2012).
The Kansai Airport project has received considerable attention in
the geotechnical engineering literature in part because of the scale of
the project; Island I is 511 ha in approximately 18-m-deep seawater
and Island II is 545 ha in approximately 20-m-deep seawater. The
project is also signicant because of the sufciently detailed subseabed information and observations of settlement and pore-water
1
Ralph B. Peck Professor of Civil Engineering, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign,
Urbana, IL 61801 (corresponding author). E-mail: gmesri@illinois.edu
2
Geotechnical Staff, Shannon & Wilson, Inc., 1321 Bannock St., Seattle,
WA 98103.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 12, 2014; approved on
September 19, 2014; published online on October 30, 2014. Discussion
period open until March 30, 2015; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/04014102
(16)/$25.00.
ASCE
pressure reaching depths up to 350 m below the seabed. The projected or observed consolidation behavior of the subseabed has been
used in an ongoing debate on the uniqueness (Mesri and Choi 1985b;
Mesri et al. 1995) of the end of primary (EOP) void ratioeffective
vertical stress relationship of clay and silt deposits. Hight and
Leroueil (2003) claimed that the Kansai reclamation project conrms that, under a given effective stress, the in situ strain, and thus
settlement, is larger than that deduced from laboratory tests, thus
concluding that a settlement analysis based on the assumption of
uniqueness will lead to an underestimate of settlement resulting from
primary consolidation. Rocchi et al. (2006), attributing observations
in the Osaka Bay to an unusual settlement behavior of clays, stated
that the eld behavior of Osaka clays at these two sites demonstrates
that primary compression settlements predicted by conventional
interpretation of oedometer tests may be substantially lower than
observed, casting doubt on the uniqueness of the EOP void ratio
effective stress relationship, which is found to provide reliable
predictions only under special circumstances.
Mimura and Jang (2005) proposed that the phenomenon taking
place because of the reclamation project is far from the conventional
concept of consolidation in which deformation is primarily caused
by dissipation of excess pore-water pressure. Imai et al. (2005)
highlighted the confusion in connection to consolidation behavior of
Osaka Bay Pleistocene clays by stating that The most shocking
nding is that a large compression endlessly takes place for [a] long
time even when an applied load is smaller than pc [preconsolidation
pressure]. Why does such abnormal behavior take place? In
connection to modeling of consolidation characteristics of clays for
settlement prediction of Kansai International Airport, Kobayashi
et al. (2005) reported compression of a specimen of Ma3 clay
subjected to a consolidation pressure in the recompression range,
commenting that settlement continued without showing a tendency
of decreasing coefcient of secondary compression. . . . No denite
answer for such large settlement under the overburden pressure can
be given and this point needs more investigation in the future.
In this paper, detailed settlement analyses are reported for the
Kansai Airport islands, based on the assumption of the uniqueness of
04014102-1
is found in Ds1, and the 6,300 YBP K-Ah is found in Ma13 (Itihara
et al. 1975; Nakaseko et al. 1984; Itoh et al. 2000, 2001).
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Fig. 1. Osaka Bay (data from Mikasa and Ohnishi 1981; Yamasaki and Nakada 1996; Sekiguch and Aksornkoae 2008) together with depth to bedrock
contours in meters (data from Kagawa et al. 2004)
ASCE
04014102-2
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Fig. 2. (a) Subseabed prole at the Kansai International Airport site (10:1 vertical to horizontal exaggeration); (b) subseabed prole at the Kansai
International Airport site (10:1 vertical to horizontal exaggeration)
oor by the reclamation process has previously been either computed using the unit weight and thickness of the ll, taking into
account the submergence effect (Shibata and Karube 2005;
Kobayashi et al. 2005; Tabata and Morikawa 2005; Furudoi and
Kobayashi 2009; Furudoi 2010; N. Nishimura, personal communication, 2011), or load cell measurements at the seaoor (Tabata
and Morikawa 2005; Kobayashi et al. 2005; Furudoi 2010; N.
Nishimura, personal communication, 2011). The reported seaoor
reclamation loads are shown subsequently together with settlement
and pore-water pressure observation and present predictions. Although the load cell measurements for MP2-II are relatively consistent, reaching a maximum value equal to 540 kPa, the load cell
measurements for MP1-II were 485 kPa measured by Load Cell 1
and 640 kPa measured by Load Cell 2 in April 2008.
The decrease in reclamation load associated with settlement
and the resulting submergence of reclamation ll below sea level
are important considerations for settlement analyses of Kansai
Airport because of the large seabed settlements. The reported
reclamation loads, however, reach relatively constant values during
the period of observation. According to M. Kobayashi (personal
04014102-3
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Fig. 2. (Continued.)
communication, 2007), the reported reclamation loads reach a constant value because reclamation ll was added in small steps even
after the main reclamation was completed. This is evidenced by the
load cell measurements between July 2004 and January 2010 at
MP1-II. However, in the present settlement analyses, subsequent to
January 2010, the reclamation load at the seaoor was reduced with
time according to the submergence effect of airport settlement.
Calculated reclamation load at seaoor versus time reported by
Furudoi and Kobayashi (2009), Furudoi (2010), and Shibata and
Karube (2005) was used in the present settlement analyses at CT,
K-I, and MP1-I, respectively. The average of the reported load cell
measurements versus time at the seaoor was used for the present
settlement analyses at MP1-II and MP2-II.
04014102-4
Sublayer
wo (%)
wp (%)
wl (%)
Ip (%)
CFa (%)
Ac
eo
kvo (m=s)
Ck
28
1
110
35
102
67
45
2.10
2.933
2:3 3 10
1.5
1.3
2
96
35
99
64
45
1.60
2.560
1:1 3 1028
3
86
32
90
58
45
1.50
2.293
5:0 3 1029
1.1
1.0
4
74
30
78
48
45
1.50
1.973
2:2 3 1029
0.9
5
66
30
66
36
45
1.50
1.760
1:0 3 1029
Dtc
1
44
25
55
30
17
1.70
1.50
1.195
2:6 3 1029
0.6
0.6
2
48
25
61
36
30
1.19
1.50
1.297
9:8 3 10210
0.5
3
40
24
58
33
32
1.04
1.50
1.070
4:6 3 10210
1.1
Ma12
1
79
38
104
65
35
1.86
1.40
2.101
1:2 3 1029
2
55
29
76
47
39
1.19
1.40
1.453
5:4 3 10210
0.7
0.6
Doc1
1
47
22
71
48
29
1.67
1.40
1.260
4:6 3 10210
Ma11U
1
56
30
79
49
38
1.27
1.40
1.510
5:8 3 10210
0.8
0.6
2
41
26
62
36
40
0.90
1.40
1.112
3:1 3 10210
0.7
Ma11L
1
49
28
70
42
29
1.44
1.40
1.328
8:2 3 10210
0.6
Ma10
1
43
30
72
42
30
1.40
1.50
1.171
4:5 3 10210
0.7
2
56
35
92
57
23
2.54
1.50
1.499
8:0 3 10210
3
64
37
102
65
27
2.43
1.50
1.731
8:1 3 10210
0.9
0.6
4
48
32
84
52
29
1.82
1.50
1.292
4:2 3 10210
0.7
Ma9
1
55
35
91
57
28
2.04
1.30
1.480
6:1 3 10210
0.7
2
51
34
90
56
39
1.45
1.30
1.383
3:0 3 10210
Doc5
1
63
39
105
66
36
1.85
1.35
1.645
4:4 3 10210
0.8
0.7
2
52
36
84
47
52
0.92
1.35
1.378
2:4 3 10210
0.6
Ma8
1
44
31
83
51
33
1.55
1.30
1.174
2:4 3 10210
0.7
2
54
36
91
56
33
1.67
1.30
1.448
4:6 3 10210
3
46
32
60
28
33
0.84
1.30
1.241
1:1 3 1029
0.6
0.6
Ma7
1
48
33
80
46
28
1.64
1.28
1.280
5:6 3 10210
0.7
2
54
37
96
59
29
2.05
1.28
1.460
4:9 3 10210
3
46
33
83
50
45
1.12
1.28
1.231
1:8 3 10210
0.6
0.6
Doc6
1
46
34
89
54
36
1.49
1.28
1.243
2:3 3 10210
0.7
Ma4
1
49
34
87
53
30
1.75
1.30
1.303
3:8 3 10210
0.7
Ma3
1
50
35
86
50
29
1.76
1.35
1.348
5:5 3 10210
Ma2
1
41
31
82
51
28
1.83
1.35
1.096
2:4 3 10210
0.5
0.5
NMC-1
1
35
29
78
50
26
1.91
1.35
0.927
1:5 3 10210
0.4
NMC-2
1
29
23
57
34
30
1.13
1.35
0.774
1:3 3 10210
0.4
NMC-3
1
32
24
63
38
21
1.86
1.35
0.865
3:0 3 10210
Ma1
1
39
32
84
51
26
1.99
1.30
1.036
2:1 3 10210
0.5
0.3
NMC-4
1
25
18
35
16
6
2.58
1.30
0.659
4:6 3 1029
0.4
Ma0
1
32
25
63
38
14
2.67
1.40
0.861
4:8 3 10210
0.3
NMC-5
1
19
25
62
37
12
3.04
1.40
0.515
7:8 3 10211
Note: Natural water content, Atterberg limits, and clay-size fraction values are the average of all available data at the Kansai Airport site and are used to compute
eo and kvo for settlement analyses at MP1-I and MP2-II.
a
CF values for Ma13 represent percentage ,5 mm.
Ma13
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sp9=svo
9
The entire water content data for Ma13 and Ma10 are plotted in
Fig. 3. The data are shown with respect to the depth into the layer (z)
divided by the prereclamation layer thickness (Lo ) so that comparisons can be made at various boreholes at the Kansai Airport site.
This was a practical and convenient way to subdivide the marine clay
layers at the airport site, especially because the distance between
boreholes (e.g., maximum distance of approximately 8.5 km) across
the site is relatively small for a marine depositional environment. A
plot of available data similar to Fig. 3 was prepared for all the 21
Pleistocene clay layers from Dtc to NMC-5 listed in Table 1.
Permeability of Osaka Bay Sediments
The literature on Kansai Airport does not appear to include any
permeability data from direct permeability tests on Osaka Bay clay
or sand layers.
ASCE
For the present settlement analyses, the values of kvo for the
Pleistocene clay layers were computed using the Mesri et al. (1994)
equation together with representative values of prereclamation void
ratio (eo ), clay-size fraction (CF), and activity (Ac 5 Ip =CF) in
Table 1. Rocchi et al. (2006) compared permeability data for Osaka
Bay clays with kvo computed using the Mesri et al. (1994) equation,
concluding that the empirical relationship provides a good t to the
experimental data for Osaka clays. The values of kvo for Pleistocene
clays computed using the Mesri et al. (1994) equation are listed in
Table 1.
The values of kvo for Ma13 clay sublayers, in the absence of
reliable data on CF, were based on permeability data determined by
Tanaka et al. (2003) by interpreting, using the Terzaghi theory of
consolidation, compression rates observed in incremental loading
oedometer tests. However, Mesri et al. (1994) showed that the values
of permeability computed from cv and mv typically underestimate kv
04014102-5
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Fig. 3. Atterberg limits and natural water content for (a) Ma13; (b) Ma10
04014102-6
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Fig. 5. sp9=svo
9 for Ma13
04014102-7
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Fig. 6. sp9=svo
9 for Pleistocene marine clay layers Ma10, Ma9, Ma8, and Ma7 (symbols dened in Fig. 5)
2
2
de
1 1 eo
u9 k u9
u9 e
1 e kz 2 z
2 kz
z z
dt gw 1 e
z
z z
2
1e
1 u9 u9
k u9
kr
2 r
gw
r r
r
r r
(1)
The hydrodynamic equation used for the Pleistocene clay layers
with vertical water ow into sand layers that are treated as impeded
04014102-8
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Fig. 9. e-log s9v curves for t=tp . 1 for Pleistocene clay layer (a) Ma10, (b) Ma4, (c) Ma3, and (d) Ma2, constructed using the EOP e-log s9v curve
together with Ca =Cc ; the data points are from the long-term IL compression measurements by Tanaka (2005b)
drainage boundaries and horizontal water ow within the consolidating clay layer is (Funk 2013)
2
2
de
1 1 eo
u9 kz u9
u9 e
1 e kz 2
2 kz
z z
dt gw 1 e
z
z z
2
1e
u9 k u9
kx 2 x
gw
x
x x
(2)
Because the length to width ratio of Kansai Airport Island I and
Kansai Airport Island II is more than 3.5, the hydrodynamic equation for the Pleistocene clay layers was developed assuming vertical
water ow plus horizontal water ow perpendicular to the length of
each Airport Island (i.e., the x-direction).
The constitutive equation used in the ILLICON approach is
(Mesri 2001)
e
e
s9v
sv9
e
t
t sv9
t
(3)
explicit nite-difference approximation was used to solve the hydrodynamic and constitutive equations together (Funk 2013).
The compression of the Holocene Ma13 clay layer observed at
CT, K-I, and MP1-I, together with ILLICON predictions, is shown in
Figs. 10(ac), respectively [for MP1-II and MP2-II, see Funk
(2013)]. The settlements of the Pleistocene clay layers observed at
MP1-II, together with ILLICON predictions, are shown in Fig. 11.
The excess pore-water pressure observations in the Pleistocene sand
layers at MP1-II, together with ILLICON predictions, are shown in
Fig. 12. The settlements of Pleistocene clay layers observed at MP1I, together with ILLICON predictions, are shown in Fig. 13. The
excess pore-water pressure observations in the Pleistocene sand
layers, together with ILLICON predictions, are shown in Fig. 14. The
pore-water pressure increases in the Pleistocene sand layers through
redistribution from the reclamation of Airport Island II. This porewater pressure redistribution is expected to somewhat slow down
settlement of Airport Island I, as suggested by the open and solid
circles in Fig. 13.
04014102-9
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Fig. 10. (a) Load at seabed used in analysis together with observed and
computed vertical compression of Ma13 at CT; (b) load at seabed used in
analysis together with observed and computed excess pore-water
pressure and vertical compression of Ma13 at K-I; (c) load at seabed used
in analysis together with observed and computed vertical compression
of Ma13 at MP1-I
ASCE
Fig. 11. Observed (data from Furudoi and Kobayashi 2009) and
calculated settlement of Pleistocene layers at MP1-II to the year 2010
04014102-10
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Fig. 13. Observed (data from Kobayashi et al. 2005; Rocchi et al. 2007;
Jeon et al. 2012) and calculated compression of Pleistocene layers at
MP1-I to the year 2010
Fig. 12. Observed (data from Furudoi 2010) and calculated excess
pore-water pressures at MP1-II
04014102-11
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2.
3.
4.
Fig. 14. Observed (data from Kobayashi et al. 2005; Jeon et al. 2012)
and calculated excess pore-water pressures at MP1-I
5.
6.
Fig. 15. Seabed settlement at MP1-II, including compression of Holocene and Pleistocene clay layers
ASCE
7.
04014102-12
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Layer
Ma13
Dtc
Ma12
Doc1
Ma11U
Ma11L
Ma10
Ma9
Doc5
Ma8
Ma7
Doc6
Ma4
Ma3
Ma2
NMC-1
NMC-2
NMC-3
Ma1
NMC-4
Ma0
NMC-5
Lo (m)
24.1
7.6
15.1
9.5
10.8
9.8
25.6
26.4
15.5
12.8
17.6
10.5
8.1
21.3
10.4
5.1
4.2
10.7
10.8
15.4
13.6
2.4
tp from July
1999 (years)
5.1
67.8
67.8
67.8
43.5
bavg 5 92%
bavg 5 57%
bavg 5 90%
bavg 5 91%
80.8
92.8
22.2
5.5
7.5
7.3
6.3
6.2
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.0
5.1
Date when tp
reached
in
in
in
in
Sep. 2004
May 2067
May 2067
May 2067
Feb. 2043
year 2100
year 2100
year 2100
year 2100
May 2080
Jun. 2092
Oct. 2021
Jan. 2005
Feb. 2007
Nov. 2006
Nov. 2005
Oct. 2005
Jan. 2006
Jan. 2006
Jan. 2006
Aug. 2005
Sep. 2004
EOP
compression (m)a
Primary compression
in 2100 (m)
Secondary compression
in 2100 (m)
8.25
0.92
2.40
1.16
1.18
1.15
1.92
2.35
0.95
0.49
0.53
0.29
0.05
0.13
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.01
22.06
8.25
0.92
2.40
1.16
1.18
0.91
0.81
1.74
0.63
0.49
0.53
0.29
0.05
0.13
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.05
0.01
19.78
0.30
0.01
0.11
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.23
0.39
0.98
0.43
0.20
0.18
0.43
0.42
0.69
0.04
0.00
4.60
4.1325.34
1.972.15
1.791.91
1.63
1.441.49
1.36
1.121.20
1.191.23
1.091.11
1.091.10
1.071.09
1.05
1.01
0.92
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.83
0.83
P
Note: EOP compression calculated from EOP void ratio for Ma11L through Doc5.
a
EOP compression corresponds to bavg 5 95% for Ma13 through Ma11U and Ma8 through NMC-5.
Fig. 16. Seabed settlement at MP2-II, including compression of Holocene and Pleistocene clay layers
Fig. 17. Seabed settlement at MP1-I, including compression of Holocene and Pleistocene clay layers
ASCE
10.
04014102-13
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Layer
Ma13
Dtc
Ma12
Doc1
Ma11U
Ma11L
Ma10
Ma9
Doc5
Ma8
Ma7
Doc6
Ma4
Ma3
Ma2
NMC-1
Ma1
Ma0
NMC-5
Lo (m)
17.3
4.0
9.8
2.2
6.9
6.0
15.4
13.0
8.0
8.3
4.7
3.4
20.2
3.3
6.5
3.6
9.0
7.6
6.6
tp from Jan.
1987 (years)
Date when tp
reached
7.5
Jun. 1994
23.6
Aug. 2010
23.6
Aug. 2010
23.6
Aug. 2010
29.4
May. 2016
61.3
Apr. 2048
92.1
Jan. 2079
90.2
Feb. 2077
90.8
Oct. 2077
62.9
Nov. 2049
38.8
Oct. 2025
38.8
Oct. 2025
bavg 5 93% in year 2100
bavg 5 93% in year 2100
bavg 5 93% in year 2100
16.2
Mar. 2003
16.2
Mar. 2003
16.2
Mar. 2003
16.2
Mar. 2003
EOP
compression (m)a
Primary compression in
2100 (m)
Secondary compression
in 2100 (m)
5.79
0.46
1.75
0.35
0.95
0.73
1.45
1.31
0.64
0.60
0.30
0.21
0.96
0.03
0.07
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.05
15.76
5.79
0.46
1.75
0.35
0.95
0.73
1.45
1.31
0.64
0.60
0.30
0.21
0.89
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.05
0.04
0.05
15.66
0.56
0.03
0.16
0.02
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.09
0.22
0.26
0.28
1.98
4.3124.71
1.972.09
1.902.03
1.82
1.571.62
1.47
1.221.31
1.291.33
1.181.19
1.171.19
1.151.16
1.13
1.07
0.98
1.01
0.99
1.02
0.94
0.93
P
Note: EOP compression calculated from EOP void ratio for Ma4 through Ma2.
a
EOP compression corresponds to bavg 5 95% for Ma13 through Doc6 and NMC-1 through NMC-5.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge Mr. Naoki Nishimura for providing settlement and pore-water pressure observations at MP2-II
and Mr. Hiroyuki Tanaka for providing laboratory oedometer data
for Osaka Bay Pleistocene clays. Additionally, the authors acknowledge Mr. Yoshiyuki Morikawa, Mr. Masaki Kobayashi, and Mr.
Mamoru Mimura for useful email communications regarding the
Kansai Airport project.
Notation
The following symbols and abbreviations are used in this paper:
Ac 5 activity;
Cc 5 compression index;
C9c 5 secant compression index;
Ck 5 change in permeability index;
Cr 5 recompression index;
Ca 5 secondary compression index;
e 5 void ratio;
eo 5 initial or preconstruction void ratio;
ep 5 end of primary void ratio;
Gs 5 specic gravity of solids;
Ip 5 plasticity index;
kvo 5 initial or prereclamation coefcient of permeability in
the vertical direction;
Lo 5 initial layer thickness;
tp 5 time to end of primary consolidation;
u9 5 excess pore-water pressure;
wo 5 natural or prereclamation water content;
wp 5 plastic limit;
wl 5 liquid limit;
g 5 total unit weight;
gw 5 unit weight of water;
Dsv 5 increase in vertical stress;
ASCE
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