Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal

Volume 1 | Issue 1

Article 5

2013

Coaches Opinions on the Use of Genetic

Screening for Assessment of Collegiate Athletes
Kalin Beal
Southern Utah University, kalinbeal16@gmail.com

Trevor Laursen
Southern Utah University, trevorlaursen@gmail.com

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Part of the Medicine and Health Sciences Commons, and the Sports Studies Commons
Recommended Citation
Beal, Kalin and Laursen, Trevor (2013) "Coaches Opinions on the Use of Genetic Screening for Assessment of Collegiate Athletes,"
Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal: Vol. 1: Iss. 1, Article 5.
Available at: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol1/iss1/5

This Research Article is brought to you for free and open access by Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal. It has been accepted for inclusion in
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Coaches Opinions on the Use of Genetic Screening for Assessment of

Collegiate Athletes
Acknowledgments

Faculty Mentor - Paul Pillitteri, Ph.D.

This research article is available in Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol1/iss1/5

Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

Abstract
The objective of this study was to ascertain the opinions of collegiate
coaches on the bioethical issue of using genetic screening to assess potential
athletes. Numerous studies have identified various human genes that can be
factors in determining athletic performance. The most proven and exciting of
these genes is the ACTN3 gene, which is used to determine if an individual has
more potential for strength/power activities versus endurance activities. The
testing for these genes has become inexpensive and readily available for any
individual at sports genetics labs across the country. Collegiate athletics already
use genetic analysis for medical purposes. It seems possible, if not likely, that the
next use for genetic screening will be for the recruitment/assessment of potential
athletes by coaches. This raises the question of whether or not it is ethical to use
genetic information in evaluating potential athletes. NCAA Division I coaches
were surveyed for their opinions on the ethics of using genetic screening as well
as determining any correlation between their views and factors such as gender,
age, what sport they are involved with, how long they have been coaching, and
criteria they currently use in evaluating athletes. After coaches were surveyed the
process of gathering and analyzing this data to further investigate and correlate
this issue was done. Given the emerging ethical issues associated with the use of
genetic information, it is important that society as a whole begin to address issues
such as the one presented in this study. The information gathered and
disseminated from this study may not only raise awareness of the issue with a
wider audience but also serve as the basis for establishing regulations for the use
of genetic screening in collegiate athlete recruitment and evaluation.

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Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, Vol. 1 [2013], Iss. 1, Art. 5

Preliminary Studies/ Introduction

Numerous studies have identified various human genes that can be factors
in determining athletic performance. Some examples of these genes are
apolipoprotein E (ApoE) which codes for recovery of head injuries (Teasdale et
al., 1997), Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which increase endurance performance
(Holloszy, 1967), KIF5B that increases blood flow in response to training (Ju et
al., 2012), Creatine Kinase Gene (CKMM) increases peak oxygen intake by
increasing lung capacity (Fedotovskaya et al., 2012), angiotensin I-converting
enzyme (ACE) gene has been found to increase endurance performance in elite
athletes (Myerson et al., 1999), ciliary neurotrophic factor gene (CNTF) increases
muscle strength and quality (Conwit et al., 2005), myosin light chain kinase
(MLCK) helps increase the strength of nerve impulses in fast-twitch skeletal
muscle (Zhi et al., 2005), and Na-K-ATPase helps to raise peak oxygen intake
with training (Green et al., 2004).
The most proven and exciting of these genes is the -actinin-3 gene,
commonly known as ACTN3, which is used to determine if an individual has
more potential for strength or power activities versus endurance activities
(MacArthur & North, 2004). The classification of an individual's potential comes
from the nonsense polymorphism mutation of the R577X allele found on the gene.
As Roth et al. (2008) showed, the ACTN3 R577X nonsense allele was
underrepresented in elite strength athletes (bodybuilders and power lifters) and
since the majority of these elite strength athletes lacked the -actinin-3 deficiency
it was consistent with other studies showing that the deficiency must impair
muscle performance.
This research and others on the ACTN3 gene erupted after a study was
done by Blanchard et al. (1989) describing what -actinin looked like, how they

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Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

worked, and why they were important. In particular, North et al. (1999) was the
first to describe the nonsense polymorphism mutation of the R577X allele. The
study added to this understanding by showing that -actinin-3 is only present in
type 2 fast fibers of skeletal muscle, while -actinin-2 is expressed in all skeletal
muscle fibers. Further studies looked more into how the two -actinin work
together in order to improve the performance of athletes. Saunders et al (2007)
showed in their paper that there is no association of the R577X polymorphism
with endurance performance from results of the 2000 and 2001 South African
Ironman Triathlons. This proved that the 577R allele and 577RR genotype are
only associated with stronger performance in sprinting or power based events, for
example the elite bodybuilders and power lifters in the study from Roth et al.
(2008). As others studied this effect the same results were continually found
confirming that -actinin-3 deficiency is only relevant in muscle performance
when it comes to sprinting or power based sporting events.
MacArthur et al. (2008) confirmed that the -actinin-3 deficiency
increases muscle endurance at the cost of power generation. They then reported
that muscle from Actn3 knockout mice displayed a reduced generation of force
that was consistent with results from human studies. The results of these knockout
mice were the first findings to provide a mechanistic explanation for the reported
associations between the R577X polymorphism and human athletic performance
and muscle function. This was because the mice showed a shift in the properties
of fast fibers to slow fibers.
MacArthur et al. (2007) talked about the evidence of the actinin evolving
in humans. This evidence came about from a study across cultures, comparing
individuals with ancestors from northern and western Europe and individuals
from Nigeria, Japan, China, and even a chimpanzee. The results were astounding

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showing that those from Asia were the most likely to have the deficiency, whilst
those from Nigeria were the least likely. This showed proof that the ACTN3 gene
has the ability of evolving to accommodate the energy expenditure requirements
of people across the world.
Other studies showed that the genes ability to evolve has caused it to
change as compared to those other animals that possess similar genes affecting
their -actinin. The 577X allele results in deficiency of the -actinin-3 in all
mammals, however, amazingly enough humans are the only known organism
where the polymorphism does not show a phenotypic effect (North et al., 1999,
MacArthur & North, 2004). Mills et al. (2001) also showed that ACTN2 takes
over for ACTN3 in humans, but not in mice making it possible for humans to
survive without ACTN3 at all.
Learning that the gene has been seen to evolve, others became curious as
to how the gene evolves in a single subject over time. This lead to studies on
older humans and how the role that the ACTN3 gene has in affecting their lives
(Judson et al., 2010) and studies on the effect of ACTN3 in muscle aging of mice
(Seto et al., 2010) that were both fairly recent.
As research and news of the ACTN3 gene has spread among concerned
athletes, hopeful athletes, and parents that are hopeful their kids will develop to be
athletes more sports genetics companies have begun to develop. The role of the
sports genetics lab is easy; swab the cheek and gums of the customer to collect
DNA, return it to the lab where analysis can be done for the certain aspects of the
ACTN3 gene that determine athletic ability, and print the results in order to make
them available for the customer (Macur, 2008). After paying roughly $170 the

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Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

results of the lab are given to the customer to do what they would with them
(Atlas Sports Genetics, 2009).
The research done on the ACTN3 gene and the rise of these sports
genetics labs ultimately poses a list of questions: if even one gene like ACTN3
can make such a difference in athletic ability, what would occur if genetic
screening was done for the entire list of genes that deal with athletic ability?
Would genetic screening yield results that would help others decipher the abilities
of one individual over another? And ultimately would these practices be ethical?
Genetic screening and analysis is already in use by the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA) for medical purposes. For example, in 2010 the
NCAA made genetic testing for sickle cell anemia a mandatory test in all
collegiate athletes. Many questioned the ethics behind this test because it so
heavily favored one race over another (Park, 2010). The ethical dilemma of the
test did not stop the NCAA, however, and this test is still in effect today. This
raises the question that if genetic screening and analysis was implemented for
recruiting purposes would we then see a similar ethical dilemma presented to the
NCAA? And would they still implement these practices despite the dilemma?
In order to begin assessing the ethicality of such a process as genetic
screening the objective of this study was set forth to ascertain the opinions of
collegiate coaches on the bioethical issue of using genetic screening to assess
potential athletes. The research done here could help aid coaches and recruiters in
assessing potential collegiate athletes in the near future if such a practice becomes
accessible to them.

Methods

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All procedures were approved by the Southern Utah University IRB. An

anonymous online survey was sent out via email request to the entire coaching
staff of all various athletic programs at colleges and universities throughout the
country. This included all NCAA schools that participated in Division I athletic
programs, the total of which accumulated approximately 8000 coaches. These emails were sent out between the times of November 2010 to February 2012 to the
various coaches and their responses were received and documented.
The survey included questions about their current methods for evaluating
potential athletes and their opinions on the possible use of genetic screening.
Response data was analyzed for coaches opinions on the ethics of using genetic
screening as well as determining any correlation between their views and factors
such as gender, age, what sport they are involved with, how long they have been
coaching, and criteria they currently use in evaluating athletes.

Results

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Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

Out of the approximate 8000 surveys that were sent out, 586 responses
were received. In the survey we asked the coaches and recruiters if they had ever
considered using genetic testing or screening in the evaluation of potential
athletes prior to the survey being sent to them. The result to the question came
back as a resounding 91.4% that had never considered the process in their
evaluation (Fig. 1). After the survey was completed we asked if they would ever
consider using genetic testing in the evaluation of prospective collegiate athletes
and 58% said that if they knew more about genetic testing maybe they would use
it as a tool of recruiting. While 14.1% said they would indeed use it for recruiting
(Fig. 2).

When
asked if genetic testing for athletic ability would be useful or not, coaches
responded with a decisive 89.5% saying that they would consider genetic testing
to be at least somewhat useful in their recruiting purposes (Fig. 3). Following the
question if coaches believe it would be useful, the coaches were then surveyed

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and asked if they believed that this kind of testing was ethical and 73.2% of the
them responded that they believe that it is (Fig. 4).

As some coaches stated in our comments section:

I coach diving so genetics are very important to make sure the diver is the
proper size, as well as determining whether their muscles are more fast
twitch or slow twitch would be good information to have to better know
how to train the athletes In diving it is more important for the athletes to
have a strong base of fundamentals in order to be able to perform the skills
than to base recruiting on scores from a competition alone.
Genetic testing would be useful. However, it does not gauge the level of
commitment, desire, work ethic, and character. These characteristics are
just as important, if not more, than genetic talent alone. Just because an
athlete has natural talent doesn't mean that he or she will be willing to
work to maximize this talent. For this reason, I would be concerned that

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Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

recruiting would become more tainted in order to get the best performers
and not the best student athletes who are role models for their peers and
younger children. Also, depending on the cost, all schools may not have
access to this testing, so this gives an unfair recruiting advantage to some
schools.
Genetics can't measure dedication, work ethic, mental-toughness, passion,
and unselfishness.

As a coach, Genetics plays a major role in the overall "talent" of an

athlete; it is one of many factors that must be looked at when deciding if
that athlete is a good fit for your program. No matter how hard working an
athlete is, talent, or genetics, must be present.
If genetic testing results were available for reviewing a prospective student
athlete's (psa's) athletic ability I would be interested in the results and
would likely use them in determining my level of interest in the psa. At

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Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, Vol. 1 [2013], Iss. 1, Art. 5

the same time I would not necessarily like to see genetic testing used
commonly in collegiate recruiting.
I think the topic of genetic testing for athletic ability would be more
valuable to a parent than a coach. I firmly believe there are coaches that
would utilize the concept if it were available to them, but I firmly believe
that genetics is only a part of the equation. I would have missed out on a
lot of great players over the years if genetics was the only thing I paid
attention to.

Conclusion
From the comments received from coaches we can conclude that different
sports require a greater need of genetics than others. We can also see that
genetics would be useful for most coaches; however it does not replace the need
for every other recruiting assessment available to coaches. As Dr. Stephen M.
Roth has stated, The idea that it will be one or two genes that are contributing to
the Michael Phelpses or the Usain Bolts of the world I think is shortsighted
because its much more complex than that (Macur, 2008). Going along with
Roths statement there are many other genes and factors, such as the personality
and characteristics of the athlete that can influence their potential abilities.
Coaches know and firmly believe that, but clearly wouldnt mind adding another
tool in their recruiting methods.
The ACTN3 gene has opened a door to an ethical debate on genetic testing
and screening that could even evolve into other aspects of life; including
admissions into colleges and universities for undergraduate or graduate programs,
potential employment opportunities, and election of high-government positions.
There is no telling how early in an individuals life genetic testing could be done

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Beal and Laursen: Genetic Screening

or the possibilities it could open for those individuals that have it done. With
genetic sports labs increasing in number, the opportunities to obtain genetic test
results is more accessible than ever before.
Seeing that 89.5% of coaches believe that genetic testing for athletic
ability would be at least somewhat useful (Fig. 3) and 73.2% of coaches believe
that it is ethical (Fig. 4), genetic testing could be a future trend in recruiting
collegiate athletes. Given the emerging ethical issues associated with the use of
genetic information, however, it is important that society as a whole begin to
address issues such as the one presented in this study. The information gathered
and disseminated from this study may not only raise awareness of the issue with a
wider audience but also serve as the basis for establishing regulations for the use
of genetic screening in collegiate athlete recruitment/evaluation.

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Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal, Vol. 1 [2013], Iss. 1, Art. 5

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