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UNOK dF nO buI UL
w UAMU UOI pOK 5R sc s WU
UA
w v UAM c cOHM U%
UM bO bO u (NaoH) uuB bO bO uK
UOU UOC dDI U 5OU 5Q Cu(OH)2
5OUe 5QJ w dDI* U* l{
_ QJ w uuB bO bO uK s OK c l{
b U k wUe VOCI bU QJ u d
WOU bu
U* w uuB bO bO uK X q
QJ w U? M b? O? ? b? O u? ? ? s WDO? W? O? L? l{
wU
b U k r wUe VOCI bU d
U* w UM bO bO c q
\ uD) s ZM U
b? U?? uu? B b? O?? ? b? O? U* w c W? uKI bu? I
U* w c qN Wu WuK
U* WuK U UM bO bO q
bUI iL( 5 eOOL pMJ1 nO
UNOK oKD U dG cN WKLF * u* U
u* c qLF nO
w UAMU UOI pOK U c s WU
UA
iL??? uK? ?? d???L??? U?? u???L???O d???O???B?? w? U?? Q???
pOd? J iL uK pd? M iL uK puKb? ON
u? O U? J bO? ? bO? uK uu? B b? O? b? O uK?
U VOU uOu_ bO bO uK
buI uL(
U VOU w u UA s UQ c

d w p q UA u U
d? O??B? s? dD lC v_ Wu?? w U??A v n{
uLOK
UA uK qB U
iL?? uK?? puKb??O? N? iL? s? dD n{
vK U??? ??_ VOU w pO??d? J i? L? uK?? pd? ??OM
U qJA w UL VOd
qJ
iL( WU{ bF Wu q w UA uK qB U

ZM U
U u
qJ
WOU bu
U? Wu? q w U? NdC? w bu? I s q s dD l{

UA vK Wu;
Wu q w tO bUI WU{ bF UA uK qB U
bUI WU{ bF q UA u U
w tM? W? O??C??L? ( q? OU??; w U? A? u 5 ??? U? M q
p `{ WbUI qOU;
buI uL( 5 eOOL w c b nO
qJ
ZM U
buI uL( 5 odHK nU UA dF
UA dO eU d nu d< qUF* w b
nuJ c qLF nO
w UAMU UOI pOK p vK dFK
UA
VOU? wU? I? d? q? O? ??O* nU?? _ fL??A uK??
WbU WOCL qOU 5U? HuMOH nU VOU qU U
iL??? pd???M? iL??? pO???d??? J iL??? q??? W???uM???
u? Ou_ b? O ? bO u? O UJ? bO? b? O puKbO? N
uuB bO bO
buI uL(
UN U VOU
WbU qOU
qJ
UN U VOU
WOCL qOU
qU? b? qJA? w UL? U? ? VO? U wKU? dC?

c VOU_ qU WO? CL qOU v? K u c VOU_
ULNM q vK o l{u WbU qOU vK u
b uK? v _ fLA uK? s dD lC n{
uL(
wCL( uK; uK b U k
pbUA q
uK?? v d? L??_ fL? A u? K? s dD? lC n{
buI b
uK; uK b U k
tOK XKB c uK U
WOU bu
Wb???U??I qO? U??; W??O???C??L??( q? OU??; vK? uD) fH? d??

5UHuMOH wUId qOO*sd 5HUJ ULFU
w UL? NM q v dD WU? { bM tOK qB? % c uK q
d U bUI uK; w U wCL( uK;
pbUA pE q wUU b jD
nuJ w WbUI WOCL( qOU; d b
?
r

5UHuMOH wUId qOO* fLA nU? J K? ? ?; u? ?
u? ? ?
wCL
bU
w dO? WO? L uL? K uLK e? O2 WH? iU( rFD

q? bb? bzu? U? N W? UMB w U? L? N? VFK YO? UMU? O?
uL? OK dOB? Ue 6K q)U UMUM w U? NKLF? w u*
U? HE? M qO? ??G u? d? O??' U? u? L??( vK u? ??% u?
buI vK u% u d_
`B? M c? r? ???K d? ?? U??? d??OQ? u??L???( iF???
c bF
buI uL(
bK' vK? lI w d?? b? ???? Wd??? ??< u? L??(

uOF vK f*
u??F? H?? UD v? K b? U??N W??U W??OzU??O? L??O?? U? ??d?? b? u??I
uL( WUF lOD w U* w bUI uL(
qO? * uK? fL? A uK? q nu? J b? ? sJ1
u??L??( s nAJK? U? A? c? 5? U? ??HuM? O? H? uK?? wU??Id??
nuJU XOL c buI
uK; ju V ? u? K W? OU? U? G? ? s U? ? nuJ
WHK< qOU; w WHK u UN nuJ c tO l{u c
WOU bu
H d
U? F qU? I W? W? O? B U? F qU? I W? l{

.QD)

. iU rF UN u uL(

. U* w c UNFOL u buI

. WuCF dO u* nK uL(

. tO lC c uK; uK nuJ

. Wu bU uuB bO bO

. uLK UHU b sJ1 UA
. bUI wCL( uK; w UA u 5 d
. uLK uFH UD vK bI UNb buI
WFDI c X UL dJ WFD vK W? OCL U s dD XF
p V d XLH
bU d wCL ULb 5uK pb UD
nAJ nO bU U? LN wCL 5uK; rKF pMJ
ULNM
u_ pK U UA dO nuJ s d u UM
b uI uL( UH
wU b
s W? U?? vK? U?? uJ? b c c???O??HM? b??F p? M l u???

WO WK_
buI uL( s qJ uBI* U
buI uL( s q UH U
buI uL( s qJ wzUOLOJ VOd U
U??N? L??F u r? c? N u??L??( W? O??L?? V?? U? I? U? Xd??
uLK bOu w WHB c q sJ iU
s n? U?? q? w uK? d??O? Q fH U???N? u??L???( X? d?? U???L???
nuJ
nuJ w dOQ WId w rFD w uL( tUA d H nO
uLK wzUOLOJ VOdU tUA p W U
w UAMU UOI pOK WK_ c s WU
UA
pd? ? M iL? puKb??O? N iL? s? qJ nH? ? u? K?
UI WK u 5U UO WIFK U u
w HCl nH? < puKbO? N iL? uK s ? OK l{
U Wu
WOU bu
5U) U s dOG WIFK uK; v n{

k U
c Wu_ Wu s td UI u qF
lL U
H2 5bON U bUB WO wN WHOH WF d XFL
pd? M iL? uK? U? b? ? ? u? D) d
HNO3
bUA U
UC 5bON U bUB q
d q w bUB* 5bON U bB U
WO uLK WOzUOLOJ mOB v dE
HNO3
H2SO4
HCl
pdM iL
pOdJ iL puKbON iL
W uLK WOzUOLOJ mOB 5 tA t U
uL( pK UH uL( w dBMF c u 5 W F U
V? c uL? K wzUO? LOJ? VOd? w 5bO? N qb

UHB w UNNUA U_
uL( UH w 5bON dBM u d U
wzUdNJ UO uL( q=u q
buI uL(
UA
tbU? l wzUd? N U? B Xu? [ WUD XOd? wD
pu? Kb???O iL??? uK? ??? q W? F W? OU??? Q???
uK? pO? d? ? iL? uK?
pdM iL
u? ? K? ??????? s? ? q? l? ? {
p? u? K? b? O????N? iL?
WOUe QJ q
XOd' s? sOD fL
qJA w UL QJ w
k U
qJ
U* wzUdNJ UO d q
iL? s b pO? dJ? iL uK? U? LF? ? U Wd? d?
d U pdM iL uK U puKbON
b U k
wzUdNJ UOK UNKOU qu w u* wL U
wzUdNJ UO uL( qu U*
wzUdNJ UO qu uL( pJH
puKbON iL
HCl
H+ + ClpdOM iL
HNO3
H+ + NO-3
WOU bu
c 5bON vK b H S HX edU U iL( Ue

e? ' VU? oA vK X b iL? ( e? ' Vu* oA q1
WO WUF*U iL( pJH WOKL qO9 sJ1 tS iL(
H+
HX
X-
UNJJH bM WO uL( s qJ WOzUOLOJ WUF* V

H3 PO4
H2SO4
iLK pHdF u U
Vu? u U? Lb 5I? s u? J wzUO? L? O V? d u iL?(
d iL s nK VU u wU H+ u
UNd w WDA_ u{ w uL( u d w q
bu? IK qN? uL? ( UN nB? w UH? B iF Xd b? F
wzUOLOJ UNOd p W U UeO9 UH
w UAMU UOI pOK R s WU
UA
b??O?? ??b??O? uK?? NaOH uu??B? b??O?? ??b??O u? K??
NH4OH u? Ou? _ b? O? ? b? O uK? KOH u? O? Uu?
uK?? U?? q? U??NM q W??F?? W??O???U?? R?? W
U VOU wUId qOO uK 5UHuMOH
UA s OK Q q w l{ W RJ bU
buI uL(
w W? Wb? U? I qOU? ; s uK? q s? dD lC n{

UA u% w RJ
Q q w "UM uK U
d w p q
tO iL( WU{ bM tOK XKB c UA u U
U VOU w UNdC w buI qOU s OK l{
w? W????? nuJ? qO? U???????? s q? s dD? lC? n{
W VOU_ w buI qOU v UNdC
U qJA w UL
b? uI qOU? ? WKL? F? * nuJ vK Uu? ? b? jD
qOU; v nuJ c WU{ bM "UM uK
wU? Id qO? * 5UHuMOH fLA
UA
J

buI
nU
NaOH
KOH
NH4OH
WOU bu
qJ
buIK d UH UM q
uL(U wzUdNJ UO buI qu q
UA
wQ U v UAM c cOHM U%
wzUd? NJ U? O? K U? L_ q? Ou U? b? ? ? * UN? '
bO ? bO NaOH uuB b? O b? O s WHH? qOU?
WOU R W uO? UJ bO bO KOH uOUu
q WF
q WF Q w W qOU; s uK q l{
w qJA w UL UN' V
W qOU; w UBLK b U k
wzUdNJ UOK UNKOU qu w u* wL U
wzUdNJ UOK buI qOU qOu b U vK
buI uL(
qJ
WO buIK WOzUOLOJ mOB dE

KOH
NH4OH
NaOH
uOUu bO bO uOu_ bO bO uuB bO bO
buIK WOzUOLOJ mOB 5 tA t U
buI pK UH buI w OH u 5 W F U
V NaOH uuB bO bO pJH U
WO WUF*
H2O
u
NaOH
Na+ + OHKOH uOUu? bO bO s q pJH 5 WU? F V
U* w NH4OH uOM_ bO bO
bUI dF nO
u OH- U? Lb? 5I? s uJ wzU? O? L? O? Vd? w b?U?I
d v bU s nK Vu u d VU
WOU bu
H d
U? F U U W? O? B U? F? U U l{
wQ ULO QD)
5bON dBM uLK wzUOLOJ VOd w qb
u iL KOH w wzUOLOJ Vd*
wzUdNJ UOK uL( qu

H2 U bUB UL_ l eKH qUH bM
Wu bU HCl wzUOLOJ Vd*
wzUdNJ UO qu WbUI qOU;

iL UNM WbUI WOCL? ( WOzUOLOJ Ud* iF pO
p w V U bU UNM
NaOH
HC l
Ca(OH)2
,
,
HNO3
NH4OH
,
KOH
H2SO4
WO UF* qL
NaOH
.............. +
OHH+
+
Cl-
H2O
...........
H2SO4
...........
............ + ............
K+ +
OH-
H2O
wQ U2 d
iL( bUI
UN u w b uI uL( b
YU b
s W? U?? vK? U?? uJ? b c c???O??HM? b??F p? M l u???

WO WK_
p u? H+ Uu U?? vK iL? ( b?? 5 W? ??F U?
iL(
pK u? OH- Uu U? vK b? UI b? 5 W? F U?
bUI
buI uL( s q u UI nO
w u? u* (H+) Uu d? OQ? WDd? WO? C? L? ( UH? B Xd?
u? u* OH- Uu d? OQ vK b? U? I U? HB b? L? ? F U? LMO uK;
V ? uK w UN? u nuJ vK Xd? F U? L U? C uK; w
tO l{u c uK;
WO? CL? bb% t? Du sJ1 W? d? d nU? bu q sJ
uK; WbU
b nO nUJ c vL U
w UAMU UOI pOK WK_ c s WU
UA
w v UAM c cOHM U%
i? L????? uK? ????? dD? I????? U????? u? K????? w? w*U????? n? U?????
uK? ?? CH3COOH pO? K) iL??? uK??? puK? b??O???N
WOU bu
uOu_ bO bO uK uuB bO bO

wb* d??? ??< w b? u? c w u w*U??F nUJ qL??F? ??
dDI* ULK wMObON r d bb
tOK XKB c uK U
r d uK? c VUM c r? dU t??OK XKB?? c uK U??
(pH e wMObON r d vL tOK XKB c b;
dDI* ULK (pH) wMObON r d q
HCl iL s eOd? wU 5uK dC? pb bU 0
CH3COOH pOK) iL
ULNM q w w*UF nUJ s W fL
WU q w tOK XKB c uK U
5uKLK PH WLO U
d w p q
d s u 5CL(
qJ e? Od? w 5U? ? 5uK d? C? UC pb? bU? 0
bO ? bO ( NaOH) uuB b? O bO 5b? UI s
( NH4OH ) uOu_
ULNM q w w*UF nUJ W fL
WU q w tOK XKB c uK U
5uKLK pH WLO U
d w p q
d_ s u 5bUI
buI uL(
UA
w v UAM c cOHM U%
VOU U* w UcK WKU W? bU WOC? L WuN? WHK qO? U
dDI U w w*U nU U
U VOU w UNF{ U* w u* c s b
vK uK? q s WDI l{ t? Du U? OU? U? O? C b? ?
tOK X? KB c uK U? d q w w*UF n? UJ W
w u w*UF nUJ vK WMO* u_U
pH wMObON r d U
b??? w U???A? M c s? U???NOK? XK? B??? w? ZzU? M U?
wU
uK; u
r d WLO
nUJ u
d* u*
UF bU wCL pH wMObON UNuK w w*UF UNM nAJ
WOU bu
UA
w v UAM c cOHM U%
d? _ nEM wF? O? D U? Id d? O? B? wF? O? D uL? OK dO? B?
w*U? nU q) uK? U U? dA? VOK UL? (
w
w u? * s q u?? h? ?? w u w? *U??F nU? J b???????U
UNu s UNdC
uK q w UNF{ bF w*UF nUJ W u U
uK qJ pH wMObON r d WLO U
s W??O??C???L??( qOU??; b?? r? u??I YO?? s u? * c V
WbUI qOU;
V ? p nOF? { u? tQ iL( b? U? I s q nu
sQ U? Ud Uu? iL( U S? U* w ULNM q U? e sQ
c s UD? O? U??L? ?? S? U??H? O??F? { U?? U* w t??IzU? rE? F?
sQ U??N? M d????_ e??' vI?? U??LMO? tU bM sQ??? ozU?? b
bUI ULMO dO UNMQ uJ WuI bUIU buIK W MU cJ
W M bu? I uL( sQ u s dF OK UNMQ uJ? WHOFC
uKLK UC* wKJ bF v UNM q s sQ U b
UU e w b? UI? iL( sQ u? W? M c vL?
UNUBIM hIM bUI iL(
v dH s b UOI ULF? U buI uL( u bb% r
buI uL(
u pH e? dU t e? d wMO? b? ON r d? UOI? vL

e? O? d? _ U? F? ? ? ? zU? d? D? I? ? * U? ? * U? ? ? v? K? r? zU?????
d ULK pH d? b U ? tO H+ OH-Uu
fJFU s q v dH 5 U U W? OCL( qOULK pH rO
v s d 5 d WbUI qOULK pH rO S
UU? O UMODF wMO? bON r d U? OI WU? eN UM
w U? L pH meters wMO? bO? N r d fOUI? vL ? W d?
U qJA
(pH)
wMObON r d UO UN qJ
WOU bu
H d
qU? I? W? ?? W? ? O? ??B U? ? F qU??I? W? ? l{

wQ ULO QD) UF

u iL pOK) iL

Wu bU uOUu bO bO
d pOdJ iL( pH wMObON r d

r d s

u dDI* ULK pH wMObON r d

lHd UNMQ uJ WuI bUI
uL( u s nAJK b * nUJ vL

w*UF nUJ buI u
w b' qL
pH wMObON r d
U*
s q
bUI
dDI* U*
buI uL(
bu W
UN W? UMB w UL? N VFK U? N YO d? O W? OL u? LK
u% w uL( iF WOzUOLOJ mOB iF Xd b bb bzu
w b' w UL 5bON dBM vK
iL( UNO bu w U* WOzUOLOJ tGO
bF* UB
UUL( UHEM
UO UUD
W? U?????G? U? d?????A? *
VMF
q)
6???K???? U???e???
HCl
HNO3
H2SO4
H2CO3
CH3COOH
iL( r
puKbON iL
pdM iL
pOdJ iL
pOudJ iL
pdd iL
pOK) iL
pO iL
uUB W? UM w qb wN WO? uO UO( w d? WOL b? uIK

W? UM VB? I s dJ? d? ? UM? w WdJ U? B? F W? O? IM
od s b? ze b? F* W??{u? L?? W? 'U? F?? b? L??_ nOEM q? zu?
buI iF WOzUOL? OJ mOB s dNE qzU u qJA UNUM
w b' w UL qO bON WuL vK u% UN WuQ*
bUI UNO bu w U* WOzUOLOJ tGO
uUB
bF* W{uL W'UF W
bL_ nOEM qzu
NaOH
Mg (OH)2
NH4OH
bUI r
uuB bO bO
uO MU* bO bO
uOu_ bO bO
WOU bu
u u Vu u ULb 5I s uJ wzUOLO Vd iL(

d iL s nK VU u wU H+
VU u OH- UL? b 5I s? uJ wzUO? LO? Vd bU?I
d v bU s nK Vu u d
uu???B? b???O?? ???b???O? q??? U* w? c b???U u? wK?I
c ju Wb? U? W? {u? L? V? ? U? Nu d? O? G? U? nUJ
e? O? d s d? ? F U? O? I? pH e? wMO? b? O? N? r d t? O? b? u
uK; w H+ Uu
U? N u? I iL(U? b U? Nu W? V ? uL? ( VOd sJ1
nOFC iL(U
iL( u be U& CH3COOH , H2CO3 , H2SO4 , HNO3 , HCl

U? N? Wu? I b? UI? U b? UN? u W? V ? b? u? I VOd c?
wQ UL WHOFC bUIU
bUI u be U&
NH4OH , Ba(OH)2 , KOH , NaOH
U* w ULNM q sQ W s dF UOI bUI iL( u

wN uL( UH U
iU UNLF
nuJ w t H dOQ UN
H+ Uu ZM U* w UNKOU sQ
wzUdNJ UO UNKOU qu
ULIK W U bKK WU WuI uL(
buI uL(
w buI UH
uUBU rU t LK d tLF UNCF
uL( s nK WIdD sJ nuJ w t H dOQ UN
wzUdNJ UO UNKOU qu U* w pJH w buI
bKK WU WuI buI
bu .uI
s d
nUJ bUI iL(
WOA WIFK0 wA) VOCIU iL( d U* qK
qOU? ; b? w U? N? F{ b? M d? L( fL? A U? ? W? X
dL? Q W? u U _ v d? uK nO{ U? bM sJ
bU iL s U uK; U S
U* bUI ULN iL( ULNQ
wzUdNJ UO qu UN uL( UH s
wzUdNJ UO pdM iL qu nO d
eOL ULNM nAJ nO 5u w uN uK pb
bUI uK; s wCL( uK;
WOU bu
eK l i? L? qU??H Wu* W??OzU? O??L??OJ WU??F*U `{

K uOUu u eKH HCl u iL( XLK
WO buI uLK WOzUOLOJ mOB V
iL? u? O MU? * bO? ? b? O uO? Uu? b? O ? b? O
pu????H???? ???H? iL???? pd????M i? L??? p? O???? d???? J
uU bO bO uOu_ bO bO
U???? _ qL????% U????N b???? W????OzU? * qOU????; i? F XB????????
WO pH WOMObON
WOCL( U _ U
WUF* U _ U
UNM WbUI U _ U
W U b u
uL K WOzUOLOJ UH
UM UO w b uI
vK U? uJ b?u c? W s? U?N? b?F pM lu?

WO WK_ s WU
pUO 5% w buI uL( UH pLN s bOH nO
UNC q tuH qR U*
WOCL( UD_ UH sJ1 nO
b uI uL( q UH
_ b
s WU vK U uJ b c s UN bF pM l u
WO WK_
UFU uBI* U
pUO w UF uNH nu nO
UOzUOLO UNM dF nO UF UH r U
qJ
qJA w bUA U n
pIDM w U WKJA* pK q r nO
UMUO w uLK WOzUOLOJ UH
wC? L U? I? t b? U? bM dF? A U0 U? J pU? b Q?

tbF w
w b c qL??F nO? VO? ? D p t? H? B sJ? 1 c b U?
pbF
w UAM d WK_ c s WU
UA
qJ
v U? AM c cO? HM U? %

WO u* _
p? ? ? u? K? b? ? ? O? ? i? ? ? L?????????
W???????{u??????L???????( n? H? ? ?
U??O??M? U* VO? K
qO? d??L??? U??? fL???A
UD? wI? U??? w? w*U????
WOU Q uOF
dL? fLA w? tO? fL r dDI? U t U? Q d? C

pd w tE U U
U* ju c u U
U? b? ? ? puKb? O? N iL? s dD b? U* v n{
d? L? ( fL? A w? tO? fL? r uK; d? u? O? F UD
k U U e
U* ju c u U
WU bu
uOF UD bU U? OMU* VOK s WOL qzU v n{

uK; w fL? d? q w dD q W? U? { bF pd? ? l
pE U e dL( fLA w "UM
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