1. Stylistic as a branch of science.

Subjects, methods, related research and

the differences between them.
S. is a branch of ling. which studies style.
There exists several definitions of style, few
schools with diff. approaches. Style as the
way of doing it (encyclopedia of lang. and
ling.). Style should be treated as an alternative
ways of expressing the same content. Choices
can occur on all levels of lang. (phonetic, morf.,
lex., synt.). In certain context choices may not
be available. The choice may be determined
by preceding sent. S. as a part of general
linguistics tends to focus first on the
relationship between the ling. structure and
textual meaning. In Russ. tradition S. covers
the research into both literature and other
applications of lang: , ,
,
,
.
.
understood stylistics as research
into lang. media which secure the desired
effect of the utterance as well as into types of
texts
determined
by
their
pragmatic
characteristics. S. subdomain of ling. dealing
with stylistic resources of the lang. and with
functional styles. The methods of research
vary and rely not only on traditional ling.
methods but on those of cognitive ling.,
pragmatic,
literary,
criticism,
socioling.,
rhetoric. Links between S. and other branches
of ling.: overlaps with pragmatics and socioling
in their study of social relationships which exist
between the writer and the reader. It looks at
how the context situation subj. matters of
function can constrain the choice of ling.
means and features. S. overlaps with
discourse analysis trying to answer why certain
means were used or why the text or a
message is organized in certain ways.
Cognitive ling. relates stylistically significant
facts and our choice of them to cognitive
structure and process. Rhetoric developed into
study of affective speaking and writing.
Fundamental notions of S.: func. style,
expressiveness, imagery, emotive charge,
evaluation, expressive means, stylistic devices.
2. The notion of style.
There exists several definitions of style, few
schools with diff. approaches. Style as the
way of doing it (encyclopedia of lang. and
ling.). Style should be treated as an alternative
ways of expressing the same content. Choices
can occur on all levels of lang. (phonetic, morf.,
lex., synt.). In certain context choices may not
be available. The choice may be determined
by preceding sent. S. is construed as ling.
choice. S. of the text the aggregate of the
contextual probabilities of its ling. items. S. is
more than 1 ling item. S. can be treated as a
link between context and ling. form. The
Encycl. of L&L states that S. is described in
context of Literary studies, it includes the
research into: the s. of individual, the s. of a
group, the s. of a text. Indiv. s. can be
observed outside of literary boundaries. S. as a
part of general ling. tends to focus on
relationships between the ling. structure and
textual meaning.
3. The notion of stylistic markedness
SM is prominents of some lang. units either in
a lang. as a syst. or in the context. Sometimes
instead of the prominents = salients. A lang.
unit is considered to be stylistically marked if
its just characterized by stylistic connotation
either sintagmatically or paradigmatically. Ex
thin-skinny-slim. Syntagmatic markedness is
called for-grounding () This term
is usually applied to literary text. They describe
St.M. in terms of expressiveness, imagery and
emotiveness.
6.Expressive means and stylistic devices.
They are particular means that foreground
certain utterances that make them more
prominent, more effective and carrying
additional info. EM are ling. means which are
part of lang. They are registered in dict-s,
singled out in textbooks and may have
corresponding neutral synonyms. SD reflects
the creative ability of the lang. user. They are
unique, individual, carry a great amount of
important info and require a considerable effect
to be understood.
The birth of SDs is a natural process in the
development of language media. Language
units which are used with more or less definite
aims of communication in various passages of
writing and in various functional styles begin
gradually to develop new features, a wider
range,
of
functions,
thus
causing
polyfunctionality. Hence they can be presented
as invariants with concrete variables. The
interrelation between expressive means and
stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the
theory of information. Expressive means have
a greater degree of predictability than stylistic
devices. The latter may appear in an
environment which may seem alien and
therefore be only slightly or not at all
predictable. Expressive means, on the contrary, follow the natural course of thought,
intensifying it by means commonly used in
language. It follows that SDs carry amountof
information and therefore require a certain
effort to decode their meaning and purport.
SDs must be regarded as a special code which
has to be well known to the reader in order to
be deciphered easily.

4.
Expressiveness,
evaluation,
emotiveness.
E. a notion which refers to the emotional
content of an expression as well to the degree
to which this expression reflects the personality
or the individual creativity of a lang. user. The
notion expressive overlaps with the notion
affective, connotative, emotive. E. is
always broader than emotiveness. Affective
implies that the choice of words reflects the
users
attitude
to
the
contents
of
communication.
Connotative
suggests
emotional associations with words. Emotive
refers to the emotional effect on the
reader/listener. Evaluation presupposes that
the lang. user compares a phenomenon with
his system of values and places the
phenomenon along the respective scale.
Expressiveness includes emotiveness.
The category of expressiveness has long been
the subject of heated discussions among
linguists. In etimological sense expressiveness may be understood as a kind of
intensification of an utterance or of a part
of it depending on the position in the
utterance of the means that manifest this
category and what these means are. But
somehow lately the notion of expressiveness
has been confused with another notion, viz.
emotiveness.
Emotiveness,
and
corresponidingly the emotive elements of
language, are what reveal the emotions of
writer or speaker. But these elements are not
direct manifestations ^f"the*^molT6nsthey
are just the echoes of real emotions, echoes
which have undergone some intellectual
recasting. They are designed to awaken coexperience in the mind of the reader.
Expressiveness a broader notion than
emotiveness and is by no means to be
reduced to the latter. Emotiveness is an
integral part of expressiveness and, as a
matter of fact, occupies a predominant position
in the category of expressiveness. But there
are media in language which aim simply at
logical emphasis of certain parts of the
utterance. They do not evoke any intellectual
representation of feeling but merely serve the
purpose of verbal actualization of the
utterance.
5. The notion of variation. Variation is
English language.
In stylistics and socioling. the notion of v. is
used to refer to any system of ling. expression
whose use is governed by situational variables.
Lang. varieties can be determined by the aims
of communication. Lang. varies because of the
wide range of uses it is put to a wide range of
contexts as well as several identities of a
person. Number of factors which would bring
lang. variations: 1) codification factor divides
the English lang. into standard and
substandard. Standard eng. elaboratd form
of a lang. which is based on phonetic, morf.,
lexical, synt. & styl. norms. these norms are
recognized by the majority of native speakers.
This variety of eng. is acceptable anywhere.
Substandard eng. is that form of lang. which is
considered to be beyond the established
norms. It includes slang, vulgarisms, jargons,
grammatical illiteracies. Slang can be divided
into general slang which is admitted into
standard eng. and is understood as colloquial
departure from standard usage. Special slang
the lang. of the underworld. Standard and
substandard eng. form national eng. 2)
geographical factor: reflects physical spac
between lang. and culture communities.
National variants of eng (American, british..) &
dialects. National lang. are characterized by
both ling. diff-s and referential diff-s. Dialects
are recognized by phonetics but they may also
differ in grammar and structure. 3) social
factor: it reflects social space between
communities or social groups. It creates
sociolects. Sociolects are determined by a
number of factors: social status by birth,
education, occupation, ethnic group, gender,
age.
4) medium factor: it divides lang. into spoken &
written. Each of them can be also divided:
spoken spontaneous & non-spontaneous ->
spont. monologue & dialogue$ non-spont.
reciting & speaking on whats written -> to be
spoken & to be spoken as if not written. Written
speech -> written text to be spoken, written to
be spoken as if not written, written not
necessarily to be spoken. 5) relationship
factor/attitudional/tenor: it takes into account
the proximity of the interlocatives, 5 varieties:
frozen (church, court of law), formal,
consultative (neutral, less-formal), the one
which doesnt have any styl. markers, casual,
intimate. 6) subject matter/function: registers
which are described as lang. in action (horseracing, womens eng.) 7) functional factor: it
determines functional styles. the term func.
styl is used in russ. tradition (in eng
discourse types). diff varieties within the lang.
have no rigid borders. they intersect each other
and their confrontation in one text may have
styl. significances.

7. Spoken English and Written English.

Of the two varieties of language, diachronically
the spoken is primary and the written is
secondary. Each of these varieties has
developed its own features which in many
ways may be regarded as opposed to each
other. The situation in which the spoken variety
of language is used and in which it develops,
can be described concisely as the presence of
an interlocutor. The written variety, on the
contrary, presupposes the absence of an
interlocutor. The spoken language is
maintained in the form of a dialogue, the
written in the form of a monologue. The spoken
language, has a considerable advantage over
the written, in that the human voice, comes into
play. This is a powerful means of modulating
the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures,
which, together with the intonation, give
additional information.
The written language has to seek means to
compensate for what it lacks. Therefore the
written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse,
more explanatory. In other words, it has to
produce an enlarged representation of the
communication in order to be explicit enough.
The forms of the written language replace
those of the spoken language when
dissemination of ideas is the purpose in view. It
is the written variety of language with its
careful organization and deliberate, choice of
words.
The gap between the spoken and written
varieties of language, wider & narrower at
different periods in the development of the
literary language, will always remain apparent
due to the difference in circumstances in which
the two are used.
It must be borne in mind that in the belleslettres style there may appear elements of
colloquial language (a form of the spoken
variety), but it will always be stylized to a
greater or lesser degree by the writer.
The spoken language cannot be detached
from the user of it, the speaker, who is unable
to view it from the outside. The written
language, on the contrary, can be detached
from the writer, enabling him to look upon his
utterance objectively and giving him the
opportunity to correct and improve what has
been put on paper. That is why it is said that
the written language bears a greater volume of
responsibility than its spoken c6unteifpart;
The most striking difference between the
spoken and written language is, however, in
the Vocabulary used. There are words and
phrases typically colloquial, on the one hand,
and typically bookish-, on the other.
There is another characteristic feature of
colloquial language, namely, the insertion into
the utterance of words without any meaning,
which are appropriately called "fill-ups" or
empty words. To some extent they give a touch
of completeness to the sentence if used at the
end of it or, if used in the middle, help the
speaker to fill the gap when unable to find the
proper word.
12. The stylistic devices of zeugma and
pun.
Z. is defined as the use of the word in the
same grammatical, but diff semantic relations
to the 2 words in context. Sometimes the head
word may be repeated. Syntactically every z. is
a combination of a verb with 2 nouns within
each pair the semantic relationship is different.
Zeugma - a SD, when a polysemantic verb that
can be combined with nouns of most varying
semantic groups is deliberately used with two
of more homogeneous members, which are
not connected semantically. This SD is
particularly favoured in Eng. emotive prose &
poetry. Is a strong & effective SD to maintain
the purity of the primary meaning when the 2
meanings clash. By making the 2 meanings
conspicuous in this particular way, each of
them stands out clearly.
E.g. All girls were in tears and white muslin
Pun is more independent syntactically and
some may require a rather big context to be
understood. P. may be used to create a
humorous effect. pun another SD based on
the interaction of 2 well-known meanings of a
word or phrase. The main distinction between
Z. & P. is a structural one. Z the realization of
2 meanings with the help of a V which is made
to refer to different subjects/objects. The P. is
more independent. Is often used in riddles &
jokes. P & Z are found in poetry & poetical
descriptions, in emotive prose. E.g. Did you hit
a woman with the child? No, Sir, I hit her
with a brick.

9.The stylistic device of metaphor.

Was first described by Aristotle. Is a matter of
words. Its deviant from literal usage because
the name is transferred to where it doesnt
belong. M. is based on similarity between 2
things and therefore an implicit comparison
created on the principle of analogy. Its function
is purely ornamental. M/ is a kind of
compressed or folded comparison. M. is based
on an image and that comparison should occur
between classes of objects and not individual
objects. M. has a dual semantic nature. both
literary and transferred meaning should be still
perceived in a M. 4 notions to describe the M.:
topic(tenor) the word used literary, vehicle
(word used metaphorically), the ground
(relationship between these 2 words), the
tension (the incompatibility between these 2
words). Black developed 2 theories: 1)
substitutional theory M. terms can be
replaced with literary terms which fit the same
context in order to understand the M. 2)
comparison theory M. is a presentation of
some underlying analogy or similarity in the
form of a condensed or elliptical simile.
Another
(anomaly)
theory

M.
is
grammatically
deviant,
semantically
anomalous, conceptually absurd or false. As a
SD M. can be classified into genuine and trite,
or dead M. (degree of unpredictability) a trite
M. can be revived if its converted into a
sustained or prolonged M. ex. the car shot
down the drive snorting explosive fury from the
exhaust. Conceptual metaphor is not a stylistic
device. Its a pattern of thought. Its a method
of explaining smth. we do not know with a help
of smth. we know. ex. time is money
A metaphor is the interaction between the
logical and contextual logical meanings of a
word which is based on a likeness between
objects and implies analogy and comparison
between them.Similar to all lexical stylistic
devices metaphor may be genuine, that is
original, invented by the writer, or trite, that is
hackneyed, often used in the language. The
metaphor suggests an analogy. An implied
analogy and likeness to concrete objects
makes abstract ideas more concrete, complex
ideas more simple and the thoughts more
comprehensible. The metaphor may be
expressed through nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs.
The noun metaphor may consist of one word
or may have an attribute in the form of an ofphrase. The verb-metaphor is very emphatic
as it throws the metaphorical light on the
subject of the sentence too. Metaphors
expressed by adjectives and adverbs are
called metaphorical epithets and will be dealt
with in the chapter on the epithet. Sometimes a
metaphor is not confined to one image. The
writer finds it necessary to prolong the image
by adding a number of other images, but all
these additional images are linked with the
main, central image. Such metaphors are
called sustained or prolonged metaphors.
e.g. But there was no May morning in his
cowardly human heart.
13. The stylistic devices of oxymoron and
antonomasia.
O. structurally consists of an adj + noun or adv.
+ noun. the meaning of 2 members clash being
opposite in sense. ex. disagreeably pleasant.
the adj + noun is more widely used. If the
primary meaning of the qualifying word
changes or weakens, the stylistic effect of
oxymoron is lost. We may notice a peculiar
change in the meaning of the qualifying word.
It assumes a new life in oxymoron. oxymoronic
groups, if repeated frequently, lose their
stylistic quality and gradually fall into the group
of acknowledged word-combinations which
consist of an intensifier and the concept
intensified.
Antonomasia the use of a common noun in a
function of a proper name or the use of a
proper name with the func. of a common name
to point out the lading most characteristic
feature of an obj or event. Prof. Galperin points
out that to certain extent a. may be likened to
an epithet because
it characterizes the person
or event. 1st type of ndA. point to the most
characteristic feature; 2 type the proper name
would acquire the grammatical characteristic
of a common noun and it would start an
event or a of a person by that name (no more
Hirosimas)
Depending on the character of the contextual
meaning there are two types of antonomasia:
1) That based on the interaction between the
nominal and contextual logical meanings.
2) That based on the interaction between the
logical and contextual nominal meanings.

8. The notion of stylistic function

One of the most use definition of the function is
the context:
cognitive tune, emotive tune, meta-linguistic
tune, communicative tune
Stylistic focuses on the expressive potential of
a linguistic phenomena in the context we can
talk about their stylistic function.
Stylistic tune ability of language means to
interpret in such way in the text so it to
convey in addition to the factual information
they expressive, emotive, evaluate, estetic
information.
the role played by certain classes of words
in units of a higher level, senteces, text,
utterances.
There`s no one correspondence between
the tune and linguistic means which
performed
Quite often several different means are
used to express the same function this
allows to channel the addresses attention in
a right direction.
On the contrary one or two examples can
color a substantial passage in the text.
Stylistic function is often expressed with the
help of the interaction between various
expressive means and stylistic devices as
well as it works with the help of interaction
between the units of different levels.
The notion of the stylistic tune is separately
connected
with
notion
of
stylistic
information.
In order to decipher the stylistic information in
the text as well as their textual linguistic and
extra-linguistic links. On one hand English
posses a number of linguistic units.
Theory of deviance 2. Theory of foregrounding
We can`t do without the notion of the norm.
Norm can be defined as the recognized or
received standarts.
: is the invariant of the phonetic,
morphological and stylistic patterns circulating
in language in action of given period of time.
The norm is characterized by a certain degree
of flexibility.
The variations made end of becoming of a
new norm if the variation show patterns of
repetition. If something is different of the norm
it would stand out additional information.
bad-------------good deviation - transposition
2.This notion first appeared in the research
carried out by Prague linguistic group. This
school standing the language of literature. The
readers attention is directed what the language
itself and not the information.
Within this theory the norm is not the violated.
The theory implies that some language forms
are made more visible. As these forms are
made more visible are attention is drown to
these forms. And we need to seek a possible
interpretation as to why they are so visible in
comparison with the rest of the context. This
theory reflects the ability of the language uses
to predict t the possibility of this or that
language uses to predict the possibility of this
or that language form on the bases of one`s
previous experience and the degree to which
the prediction differs from the observe fact
determines the intensity of the stylistic effect.
14. The stylistic devices of simile and
hyperbole.
Another SD which also has the function of
intensifying one certain property of the object
described is hperble. It can be defined as a
deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a
feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the
object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this
exaggeration is carried to an illogical degree.
Like many stylistic devices, hyperbole may
lose its quality as a stylistic device through
frequent repetition and become a unit of the
lan-guage-as-a-system. Hyperbole differs from
mere exaggeration in that it is intended to be
understood as an exaggeration.
S. is a stylistic device expressing a likeness
between different objects. The formal element
of the simile is the following conjunctions and
adverbs: like, as, as like, etc. S. is based on
the comparison of objects belonging to
different spheres and involves an element of
imagination. S. interprets the object by
comparing it with some other objects of an
entirely different nature, and produces the
desired effect on the reader. S.usually serves
as a means to clearer meaning. By comparing
the object or phenomenon the writer describes
with a concrete and familiar thing, he makes
his description clearer and more picturesque.
Besides making a narrative more concrete and
definite, the simile helps the author to reveal
certain feelings of his own as well.
Besides the original similes created by writers
there are a great number of so-called
traditional similes in the language which must
be regarded as phraseological units. In the
authors narrative traditional similes are most
often used to stress the highest degree of
quality. e.g. Funny how ideas come, he said
afterwards, like a flash of lightning.

10. The stylistic devices of metonymy and

irony.
M. is a stylistic device based on some kind of
association between 2 objects. transfer a
name of author to piece of art or a book etc.
(He has 2 Shagals in his countryside).
transfer material to smth. made of this material
(ex. pay in silver). from the place name onto
the vent that takes place there (all of us can
have our own Waterloo). from the event to its
participants (ex. the conference greeted the
Speaker with applaud). from parts to hole
(ex. have you got wheels?) its called
synecdoche. M. concerns concrete concrete
objects which are then generalized. this is why
instances of M. are very often used with the
definite article (from the cradle to the grave).
Irony occurs when a word is used in a
meaning opposite to its dictionary meaning (I
love being scolded by her). I. must not be
confused with humor. The function of I. is not to
produce a humorous effect but rather to
express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity
or regret. As I. is used to convey negative
meaning, only positive concepts which are
then negated can be uncounted as irony. All
these devices the stylistic effect is created
thanks to the context in which new meaning
appear.
M. It is based on definite relations between the
object implied and the object named. The
interaction between the logical and the
contextual meanings of the words is based on
close relations objectively existing between the
part and the body itself. In M. relations
between the object named and the object
implied are various and numerous. Here are
the most frequent types of relations:
1) The relations that exist between an
instrument and the action it performs (or
between an organ of the body and its function).
2) The relations that exist between an article of
clothing and the person wearing it. 3) The
relations that exist between the symbol and the
phenomenon it symbolized. Apart from this
group of Ms some other trite types of
metonymies should be mentioned that is
metonymies based on very close, common
relations between objects. They are: a) The
relations between the creator and his creation.
b) The relations between the material and the
thing made of it. c) The relations between the
singular and the plural. This type of M. is called
synecdochy. The stylistic effect of trite
metonymies is in most cases weak. M. as a
genuine stylistic device is used to achieve
concreteness of description. By giving a
specific
detail
connected
with
the
phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete
and life-like image and reveals certain feelings
of his own. By mentioning only one seemingly
insignificant feature or detail connected with
the phenomenon the author draws the readers
attention to it and makes him see the character
he describes as he himself sees it. e.g. Then a
pause, as the bonnet and dress neared the top
of the Square.
Irony is such a case of interaction between
logical and contextual logical meanings when
the contextual logical meaning of the word
becomes the opposite of its logical meaning.In
most cases the sentence suffices to make
irony clear. In certain cases, though, a much
wider context is needed to understand that the
word is used ironically and to perceive its
stylistic effect.I. may be expressed by any part
of speech, most often by a noun, adjective and
adverb. The effect of irony largely depends on
the unexpectedness and seeming lack of logic
of a word used by the author in an
incompatible context. The reader is fully aware
of the contrast between what is logically
expected and what is said. This contrast, this
interaction of the contextual logical and logical
meanings of the word often produces a
humorous effect.Irony may be used to achieve
an effect of bitter mockery and sarcasm as
well, especially when it concerns some social
phenomena. e.g. Perhaps you had a grand
passion. Soames looked at her intently. Yes
if you want to know and much good it did
me.

11. The stylistic devices of epithet.

Aim to characterize an object & to point out
to the reader sometimes even impose on him
some of the properties or features of the object
with the aim of giving an individual perception
or evaluation of them. E. theres no clash. its a
complex device. Semantically E. may be
divided into associated & unassociated.
Associated E. will point to a feature to a certain
extent inherent in the concept of the object.
Unassociated E. will characterize the obj. by
adding a feature not inherent in it to strike the
reader with its novelty. ex. voiceless sands.
repeated E. would become stable wordcombination fixed e. true love, emerald
grass. A lot of e. are in folklore. Compositional
structure divides e. into simple e. (1 w. only)
the devil-inspired twins$ phrase e. has my
good-for-nothing son been here, sentence e.
that i-dont-care-about-anything look. In this
sentence are usually used words look and
attitude; reversed e. a big brute of an animal.
Distribution of e. divides into string chain of e.,
transferred e. unbreakfasted morning.
Epithet is a stylistic device based on the
interaction of the logical and emotive
meanings. It shows the purely individual
emotional attitude of the writer or the speaker
towards the object mentioned. Epithet is
expressed by: 1) adjectives; 2) adverbs;
Adjectives and adverbs constitute the greatest
majority of epithets. 3) participles, both present
and past; 4) nouns, especially often in ofphrases; 5) word-combinations; 6) whole
phrases.
The last two groups of epithets help the writer
in a rather concise form to express the
emotional attitude of a personage towards an
object or phenomenon. In most cases it is a
direct quotation of the characters remark.
Such a usage of a quotation for an epithet
stresses the subjectivity, individuality of the
characters perception. It renders the emotional
attitude of the personage. Phrase-epithet helps
not only to reveal the individual view of the
author and his characters but at the same time
to do it in a rather economical manner. One
more structural type of epithet is monopolized
by the English language. It is based on the
illogical syntactical relations between the
modifier and the modified. Such constructions
enable the writer to use nouns of high
emotional coloring, supplying them with
additional characteristics without overcrowding
the description. Epithets vary not only in
structure but in the manner of application too.
So, most often we meet one-word, or simple
epithet. Rather often epithets are used in pairs.
Not seldom three, four, five and even more
epithets are joined in chains. From the
viewpoint of their expressive power epithets
can be regarded as those stressing qualities of
the object or phenomenon and as those
transferring the quality of one object to its
closest neighbour. When the same definition is
given to a smile it becomes an individual
evaluation of the same, and is classified as a
transferred epithet. A metaphoric epithet
presents a metaphor within an epithet. In most
cases metaphoric epithet is expressed by
adjectives and adverbs. Into the same group of
metaphoric epithets must be included
compound epithets, the second element of
which is -like. As all the other stylistic
devices, epithets become hackneyed through
long usage. Epithets should not be mixed up
with logical attributes which have the same
syntactical function but which do not convey
the subjective attitude of the author towards
the described object, pointing out only the
objectively existing feature of the same. e.g.
Can you tell me what time that game starts
today? The girl gave him a lipsticky smile.
16. The stylistic devices of allusion and
decomposition of set phrases.
An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or
phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological,
biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made
in the course of speaking or writing. The use of
allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact,
thing or person alluded to on the part of the
reader or listener. As a rule no indication of the
source is given. This is one of the notable
differences between quotation and allusion.
Linguistic fusions are set phrases, the meaning
of which is understood only from the
combination as a whole, as to pull a person's
leg or to have something at one's finger tips.
The meaning of the whole cannot be derived
from the meanings of the component parts.
The stylistic device of decomposition of fused
set phrases consists in reviving the
independent meanings which make up the
component parts of the fusion. In other words,
it makes each word of the combination acquire
its literal meaning which, of course, in many
cases leads to the realization of an absurdity.
In the sentence "It was raining cats and dogs,
and two kittens and a puppy landed on my
window-sill" the fusion to rain cats and dogs' is
freshened by the introduction of "kittens and a
puppy," which changes the unmotivated
combination into a metaphor which in its turn is
sustained.

15. The stylistic devices of periphrasis and

euphemism.
Euphemism is a word or phrase used to
replace an unpleasant word or expression by a
conventionally more acceptable one. The
origin of the term 'euphemism' discloses the
aim of the device very clearly, i.e. speaking
well. Euphemism is sometimes figuratively
called "a whitewashing device". The linguistic
peculiarity of euphemism lies in the fact that
every euphemism must call up a definite
synonym in the mind of the reader or listener.
Euphemisms may be divided into several
groups according to their spheres of
application. The most recognized are the
following: 1) religious, 2) moral, 3) medical and
4) parliamentary. The life of euphemisms is
short. They very soon become closely associated with the referent (the object named)
and give way to a newly-coined word or
combination of words, which, being the sign of
a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant
or indelicate concept. political euphemisms.
These are really understatements, the aim of
which is to mislead public opinion and to
express what is unpleasant in a more delicate
manner. As has already been explained,
genuine euphemism must call up the word it
stands for. It is always the result of some
deliberate clash between two synonyms. If a
euphemism fails to carry along with it the word
it is intended to replace, it is not a euphemism,
but a deliberate veiling of the truth.
Periphrasis is a word-combination which is
used instead of the word designating an object.
Every periphrasis indicates the feature of a
notion which impressed the writer and conveys
a purely individual perception of a given
phenomenon. As a result of frequent repetition
periphrasis may become well established in
the language as a synonymous expression for
the word generally used to signify the object.
Such
word-combinations
are
called
periphrastic synonyms. In contrast to
periphrastic synonyms genuine periphrasis is
created in the process of writing and is an
element of the individual style of a writer.
Periphrasis may be logical and figurative.
Logical periphrases are based on logical
notions. Figurative periphrasis may be based
on metaphor and on metonymy. Euphemistic
periphrasis is a variety of periphrasis which
substitutes a mild, delicate expression for one
which seems to be rude or unpleasant.
Euphemistic periphrasis has some features in
common with euphemisms. Periphrasis is used
for various stylistic purposes, usually to
achieve a humorous or satirical effect.
e.g. He bore under his arm the instruments of
destruction.
20. The stylistic devices of asyndeton,
polysyndeton and the gap-sentence link.
The connection of sentences, phrases or
words without any conjunctions is called
asyndentic.
Asyndeton helps the author to make each
phrase or word sound independent and
significant.
Asyndeton generally creates an effect that the
enumeration is not completed.
Asyndeton also creates a certain rhythmical
arrangement, usually making the narrative
measured and energetic. e.g. She watched
them go; she said nothing; it was not to begin
then.
Polysyndeton is the connection of sentences,
phrases or words based on the repetition of
conjunctions or prepositions. The repetition of
the conjunction and before each word or
phrase stresses these enumerated words or
phrases. Polysyndeton is sometimes used to
retard the action and to create the stylistic
effect of suspense. Besides, polysyndeton is
one of the means used to create a certain
rhythmical effect. e.g. He put on his coat and
found his mug and plate and knife and went
outside.
There is a peculiar type of connection which for
want of a term we shall call the gap-sentence
link. The connection is not immediately
apparent & it requires a certain mental effort to
grasp the interrelation b/w the parts of the
utterance, in other words, to bridge the
semantic gap. GSL is a way of connecting 2 sces seemingly unconnected & leaving it to the
readers perspicacity to grasp the idea implied
but not worded. The proper intonation also
helps in deciphering the communication. THE
GSL is generally indicated by AND or BUT.
There is no asyndatic GSL. The GSL as a
stylistic device is based on the peculiarities of
the spoken l-ge & is therefore most frequently
used in represented speech. The GSL has
several functions: it may serve to signal the
introduction of inner represented speech; it
may be used to indicate a subjective
evaluation of facts; it may introduce an effect
resulting from a cause which has already had
verbal expression.

17. The stylistic devices of inversion,

chiasmus and parallel structures.
Inversion a stylistic device in which the direct
regular word order is changed either
completely when predicative or predicate
precedes the subj. Correspondently we
differentiate between partial and complete
inversion. ex. Out came the couchman. Compl.
i. predicate is in the front of the subj.; partial
i. the obj. precedes the subj. I. deals with
rearrangements of the regular word order for
the sake of producing emotional effect. I. is
always sense motivated! I. has typical
structural patterns: 1) obj. is placed at the
beginning (part. i.); 2) the predicate is placed
before the subj. (complete i.); 3) the adv.
modifier is placed at the beginning of the sent.
(part. i.); 4) the adv. modifier and predicate
stand before the subj.; 5) the attribute is placed
after the word it modifies (part. i.) a picture
beautiful in its sight. I. is characterized by
specific intonation.
Parallel constr-n is a device which may be
encountered not so much in the s-ce as in the
SPU & the paragraph. The necessary condition
in parallel constr-n is identical, or similar,
syntactical structure in 2 or more s-ces or part
of a s-ce in close succession. PCs are often
backed up by repetition of wds (lexical) &
prepositions (Polysyndeton). Pure PC doesnt
depend however on any other kind of repetition
but the repetition of some parts of successive
s-ces
or
clauses.
Complete
parallel
arrangement, also called balance, maintains
the principle of identical structures throughout
corresponding s-ces. PC is most frequently
used in enumeration, antithesis & in climax.
The device of parallelism always generates
rhythm. Chiasmus (reversed PC) belongs to
the group of SDs based on the repetition of a
syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of
w-ds & phrases. The structure of 2 successive
s-ces or parts of a s-ce may be described as
chiasmus, the word-order of one of the s-ces
being inverted as compared with that of the
other. Chiasmus is smt achieved by a sudden
change from active voice to passive or vice
versa. This device is effective
in that it helps to
lay stress on the 2nd part of the utterance,
which is opposite in structure. Syntactical
chiasmus is smt used to break the monotony
of parallel constr-ns. Repetition is an
expressive means of l-ge used when the
speaker is under the stress of strong emotion.
When used as a SD repetition acquires quite
different functions. It doesnt aim at making a
direct emotional impact. On the contrary, the
SD of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an
emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the
reader on the key-word of the utterance.
Repetition
is
classified
according
to
compositional patterns. If the repeated word
(phrase) comes at the beginning of 2 or more
consecutive s-cs, clauses or phrases, we have
anaphora. If the repeated unit is placed at the
end of consecutive s-ces, clauses or phrases,
we have epiphora. Repetition may also be
arranged in the form of the frame: the initial
parts of a syntactic unit, in most cases of a
paragraph, are repeated at the end of it/ This is
called framing. Among other compositional
models of repetition is linking or reduplication
(also known as anadiplosis). The structure: the
last word or phrase of one part of the utterance
is repeated at the beginning of the next part,
thus hooking the two parts together. Smt a
writer may use the linking device several times
in one utterance. This compositional pattern of
repetition is also called chain-repetition. In
root-repetition it is not the same words that are
repeated but the same root. Another variety of
repetition may be called synonymical
repetition. This is the repetition of the same
idea by using synonymous wds & phrases
which by adding a slightly different nuance of
m-ing intensify the impact of an utterance.
Constructions formed by the same syntactical
pattern, closely following one another present
the stylistic device of parallelism. Parallelism
strongly affects the rhythmical organization of
the paragraph, so it is imminent in oratoric
speech, in pathetic and emphatic extracts.
Parallelism can be complete when the
construction of the second sentence fully
copies that of the first one. Or parallelism can
be partial, when only the beginning or the end
of several sentences are structurally similar.
Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. In
chiasmus the central part of the sentence the
predicate remains the hinge around which
occur syntactical changes the subject of the
first sentence becomes the object of the
second and vice versa. e.g. The coach was
waiting, the horse were fresh, the roads were
good, and the driver was willing.

18. The stylistic devices of repetition,

enumeration and suspense
Enumeration is a stylistic device by which
separate
things,
objects,
phenomena,
properties, actions are named one by one so
that thy produce a chain, the links of which,
being syntactically in the same position
(homogeneous parts of sp), are forced to
display some kind of semantic homogeneity,
remote though it may seem. As a SD it may be
conventially called a sporadic semantic field.
Enumeration can be heterogeneous as well,
when words in a string result in a kind of clash,
a thing typical of any stylistic device. E-n is
frequently used to depict scenery through the
tourists eyes.
Suspense is a compositional device which
consists in arranging the matter of
communication in such a way that the less
important, descriptive, subordinate parts are
amassed at the beginning, the main idea being
withheld till the end of the s-ce. Thus the
readers attention is held & his interest kept up.
The device of suspense is especially favoured
by orators. This is apparently due to the strong
influence of intonation which helps to create
the desired atmosphere of expectation.
Suspense is framed in one s-ce, for there must
not be any break in the intonation pattern.
Suspense & climax sometimes go together.
Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct
successor of repetition as an expressive
language means, which serves to emphasize
certain statements of the speaker, and so
possesses considerable emotive force. It is not
only a single word that can be repeated but a
word combination and a whole sentence too.
As to the position occupied by the repeated
unit in the sentence or utterance, we shall
mention four main types, most frequently
occurring in English literature:
1) anaphora the repetition of the first word of
several succeeding sentences or clauses (a
, a , a );
2) epiphora the repetition of the final word (
a, a, a);
3) anadiplosis or catch repetition the
repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at
the end of the preceding and at the beginning
of the sentence (a, a );
The combination of several catch repetitions
produces a chain repetition.
4) framing or ring repetition the repetition of
the same unit at the beginning and at the end
of the same sentence (a , a).
Stylistic functions of repetition are various and
many-sided. Besides emphasizing the most
important part of the utterance, rendering the
emotions of the speaker or showing his
emotive attitude towards the object described,
it may play a minor stylistic role, showing the
durability of action, and to a lesser degree the
emotions following it.
Repetition, deliberately used by the author to
better emphasize his sentiments, should not be
mixed with pleonasm an excessive,
uneconomic usage of unnecessary, extra
words, which shows the inability of the writer to
express his ideas in a precise and clear
manner.
Morphological repetition, that is the repetition
of a morpheme, is to be included into the
stylistic means.
e.g. I might as well face facts: good-bye,
Susan, good-bye a big car, good-bye a big
house, good-bye power, good-bye the silly
handsome dreams.

38. The newspaper headline.

The headline (the title given to a news item or
an article) is a dependent form of newspaper
writing. It is in fact a part of a larger whole. The
specific functional and linguistic traits of the
headline provide sufficient ground for isolating
and analysing it as a specific "genre" of
journalism. The main function of the headline is
to inform the reader briefly what the text that
follows is about. But apart from this, headlines
often contain elements of appraisal, i.e. they
show the reporter's or the paper's attitude to
the facts reported or commented on, thus also
performing the function of instructing the
reader. English headlines are short and
catching, they "compact the gist of news
stories into a few eye-snaring words. A skilfully
turned out headline tells a story, or enough of
it, to arouse or satisfy the reader's curiosity." l
In some English and American newspapers
sensational headlines are quite common. The
practices of headline writing are different with
different newspapers. In many papers there is,
as a rule, but one headline to a news item,
whereas such papers as The Times, The
Guardian, The New York Times often carry a
news item or an article with two or three
headlines, and sometimes as many as four,
e.g.
BRITAIN ALMOST "CUT IN HALF"
Many Vehicles Marooned in Blizzard
(The Guardian)
The functions and the peculiar nature of
English headlines predetermine the choice of
the language means used. The vocabulary
groups considered in the analysis of brief news
items are commonly found in headlines. But
headlines also abound in emotionally coloured
words and phrases, as the italicised words in
the following:
End this Bloodbath (Morning Star)
Milk
Madness (Morning Star) Tax agent a cheat
(Daily World)
Furthermore, to attract the reader's attention,
headline writers often resort to a deliberate
breaking-up of set expressions, in particular
fused set expressions, and deformation of
special terms, a stylistic device capable of
producing a strong emotional effect, e.g.
Cakes and Bitter Ale (The Sunday Times)
Conspirator-in-chief Still at Large (The
Guardian)
Other stylistic devices are not infrequent in
headlines, as for example, the pun (e.g. 'And
what about Watt'The Observer), alliteration
(e.g. Miller in Maniac Aiood The Observer),
etc.
Syntactically headlines are very short
sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns:
a) Full declarative sentences, e.g. 'They Threw
Bombs on Gipsy Sites' (Morning Star), 'Allies
Now Look to London' (The Times)
b) Interrogative sentences, e. g. 'Do-you love
war?' (Daily World), 'Will Celtic confound
pundits?' (Morning Star)
c) Nominative sentences, e.g. 'Gloomy
Sunday' (The Guardian), * Atlantic Sea Traffic'
(The Times), 'Union peace plan for Girling
stewards' (Morning Star)
d) Elliptical sentences:
a. with an auxiliary verb omitted, e.g. 'Initial
report not expected until June!' (The
Guardian), 'Yachtsman spotted" (Morning
Star)]
b. with the subject omitted, e.g. 'Will win'
(Morning Star), lWill give Mrs. Onassis $
250,00(Xa year'.(77i New York Times);
c. with the subject and part;of-the predicate
omitted, e.g. 'Off to the sun' (Morning Star),
'Still in danger' (The Guardian)
e) Sentences with articles omitted, e. g. 'Step
to Overall Settlement Cited in Text of
Agreement' (International Herald Tribune),
'Blaze kills 15 at Party" (Morning Star) ^
Articles are very frequently omitted in all types
of headlines.
f) Phrases with verbalsinfinitive, participial
and gerundial, e.g. Tog^US aid* (MorningStar),
To visit Faisal' (Morning Star), \Keep-ing Prices
Down' (The Times), 'Preparing reply on cold
war' (Morning Star), 'Speaking parts' (The
Sunday Times)
g) Questions in the form of statements, e.g.
'The worse the better?' (Daily World), 'Growl
now, smile, later?' (The Observer)
h) Complex sentences, e. g. 'Senate Panel
Hears Board of Military Experts Who Favoured
Losing Bidder' '(The New York Times), 'Army
Says It Gave LSD to Unknown GIs'
(International Herald Tribune)
i) Headlines including direct speech:
a. introduced by a full sentence, e.g.', 'Prince
Richard says: "I was not in trouble"' (The
Guardian), 'What Oils the Wheels of Industry?
Asks James Lowery-Olearch of the Shell-
and B. P. Group' (The Times);
b. introduced elliptically, e.g. 'The Queen: "My
deep distress'" (The Guardian), 'Observe MidEast CeasefireUThant' (MorningStar)
The above-listed patterns are the most typical,
although they do not cover all the variety in
headline structure.
The headline in British and American
newspapers is an important vehicle both of
information and appraisal; editors give it
special attention, admitting that few read
beyond the headline, or at best the lead. To
lure the reader into going through the whole of
the item or at least a greater part of it, takes a
lot of skill and ingenuity on the^part of the
headline writer,

19. The stylistic devices of detached

constructions,
climax(gradation)
and
antithesis.
Detached Constructions
placing one of the secondary parts of a
sentence by some specific consideration of the
writer so that it seems formally independent of
the word it logically refers to. The structural
pattern of DC have not been yet classified. The
essential quality - the isolated parts are placed
in position that makes the phrase seem
independent. But a DC cannot rise to the rank
of a primary member of the sentence it
always remains secondary, structurally it
possesses all the features of a primary
member. In the Eng. L. DCs are generally used
in the belle-letters prose style & mainly with
words that have some explanatory functions.
DCs have been little investigated. Connected
with the intonation pattern of the utterance. A
variant of DC is parenthesis (a qualifying,
explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause,
sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a
syntactic construction without otherwise
affecting it, having often a characteristic
intonation and indicated in writing by commas,
brackets or dashes).
Isolated members of the sentence are
regarded as a special kind of inversion.
Isolated members are syntactically separated
from other members of a sentence with which
they
are
grammatically
and
logically
connected. The violation of the traditional word
order and connections between the members
of the sentence make isolated words more
independent
and
give
them
greater
prominence. Only secondary parts of the
sentence, generally attributes, adverbial
modifiers and apposition, may be used in
isolation. In written speech isolated members
are separated from the words they modify by
graphic means: by a comma, brackets, dash,
and even a full stop.
Isolated members of the sentence give
prominence to some words and help the author
to laconically draw the readers attention to a
certain detail or circumstance or help the
author to emphasize his emotional attitude
toward what he describes. e.g. I have to beg
you for money. Daily!
Climax presents a structure in which every
successive sentence or phrase is emotionally
stronger or logically more important than the
preceding one. Such an organization of the
utterance creates a gradual intensification of its
significance, both logical and emotive, and
absorbs
the
readers
attention
more
completely. Climax may be of three main types:
1) quantitative, when it is quality or size that
increases with the unfolding of the utterance.
2) qualitative, when intensification is achieved
through the introduction of emphatic words into
the utterance, which fact increases its emotive
force.
3) logical, the most frequent type, in which
every new concept is stronger, more important
and valid.
A peculiar variety is presented in those cases
when a negative structure undergoes
intensification. As counterpart to climax stands
Anticlimax,
where
emotion
or
logical
importance is accumulated only to be
unexpectedly broken and brought to a sudden
cadence.
e.g. Silence fell upon Closter. Place, peace,
oblivion.
Antithesis is a stylistic device presenting two
contrasting ideas in a close neighbourhood.
The phenomena opposed to one another can
be pictured in an extended way. Or else the
contradictory ideas may intermingle, thus
creating the effect of not only the contrast, but
also of the close unity of the contrasting
features. E.g. The smell of life and richness, of
death and digestion, of decay and birth, burden
the air.
e.g. The smell of life and richness, of death
and digestion, of decay and birth, burden the
air.
Antithesis- a figure of speech based on parallel
constructions with contrasted words (usually
antonyms). It is based on relative opposition
which arises out of the context through the
expansion of objectively contrasting pairs, as
in: "Youth is lovely, age is lonely, Youth is fiery,
age is frosty." Here the objectively contrasted
pair is 'youth' and 'age'. 'Lovely' and 'lonely'
cannot be regarded as objectively opposite
concepts, but being drawn into the scheme
contrasting 'youth' and 'age', they display
certain features which may be counted as
antonymical. It is not only the semantic aspect
which explains the linguistic nature of
antithesis, the structural pattern also plays an
important role. Antithesis is generally moulded
in parallel construction. The antagonistic
features of the two objects or phenomena are
more easily perceived when they stand out in
similar structures. This is particularly
advantageous when the antagonistic features
are not inherent in the objects in question but
imposed on them. The structural design of
antithesis is so important that unless it is
conspicuously marked in the utterance, the
effect might be lost. Antithesis is a device
bordering between stylistics and logic. The
extremes are easily discernible but most of the
cases are intermediate. However, it is essential
to distinguish between antithesis arid what is
termed contrast. Contrast is a literary (not a
linguistic) device based on logical opposition
between the phenomena set one against anthr.
21. The stylistic devices of ellipsis,
aposiopesis
(break-in-the-narrative),
question in the narrative.
Ellipsis. Among the cases of the particular use
of colloq constructions are ellipsis, break-inthe-narrative,
question-in-the-narrative
&
represented speech. Ellipsis is a typical
phenomenon in the conversation, arising out of
the situation. Ellipsis, when used as a stylistic
device, always imitates the common features
of
colloq
l-ge,
where
the
situation
predetermines not the omission of certain
members of the s-ce, but their absence. It
would perhaps be adequate to call s-ces
lacking certain members incomplete s-ces,
leaving the term ellipsis to specify structures
where we recognize a digression from the
traditional literary s-ce structure. Ellipsis being
the property of colloq l-ge doesnt express hat
can easily be supplied by the situation. This is
perhaps the reason why elliptical s-ces are
rarely used as stylistic devices. Aposiopesis
(break-in-the narrative) is a device which
dictionaries define as a stopping short for
rhetorical effect. In the spoken variety of the lge a br-in-the-nar is usually caused by
unwillingness to proceed; or by the supposition

that what remains to be said can be

understood by the implication embodied in
what has been said; or by uncertainty as to
what should be said. In the written variety a brin-the-nar is always a stylistic device used for
some stylistic effect. In writing it is the context
which suggests the adequate intonation, that is
the only key to decoding the aposiopesis. A-s
is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to
the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions.
The idea of it is that the speaker cannot
proceed, his feelings depriving him of the
ability to express himself in terms of l-ge. Smt
a br-in-the-nar is caused by euphemistic
considerations. Here the role of the intonation
implied cannot be overestimated. Question-inthe-narrative changes the real nature of a q-n
& turns it into a stylistic device. A q-n in the nar
is asked & answered by one & the same
person., usually by the author. The q-ns asked
unlike rhetorical q-ns do not contain
statements. Smt q-in-the-nar gives the
impression of an intimate talk b/w the writer &
the reader.
The deliberate omission of one or more words
in the sentence for definite stylistic purpose is
called the stylistic device of ellipsis.
The omission of some parts of the sentence is
an ordinary and typical feature of the oral type
of speech. In belle-letters style the peculiarities
of the structure of the oral type of speech are
partially reflected in the speech of characters
(for example, the informal and careless
character of speech).
Some parts of the sentence may be omitted
due to the excitement of the speaker.
The stylistic device of ellipsis is sometimes
used in the authors narration but more
frequently it is used in represented speech.
The stylistic device of ellipsis used in
represented inner speech creates a stylistic
effect of the natural abruptness and the
fragmentary character of the process of
thinking.
It is difficult to draw a line of demarcation
between elliptical sentences and one-member
sentences.
One-member sentences may be used to
heighten the emotional tension of the narration
or to single out the characters or the authors
attitude towards what is happening.
e.g. A dark gentleman A very bad manner. In
the last degree constrained, reserved, diffident,
troubled.
AposiopesisA sudden break in speech often
occurs in the oral type of speech. It is caused
by strong emotion or some reluctance to finish
the sentence. In belle-letters style a break in
speech is often used in dialogue to reflect its
naturalness. A sudden break in the narration
when used in written speech for certain stylistic
purposes, creates the stylistic device of
aposiopesis. Aposiopesis is marked graphically
by a series of dots or a dash. It is often used in
represented speech.
Graphical expressive
means, such as dash and dots are
indispensable in aposiopesis.
e.g. I still dont quite like the face, its just a
trifle too full, but I swung myself on the stool.

22. The stylistic devices of litotes and

rhetorical question.
Litotes & rhetorical Q. Every syntactical
structure has its definite function, which is smt
called its structural m-ing. Among syntactical
stylistic devices there are two in which this
transference of struct.m-ing is to be seen. The
rhetorical q-n is a special synt styl device the
essence of which consists in reshaping the
grammatical m-ing of the interrogative s-ce.
The q-n here is no longer a q-n but a statement
expressed in the form of an interrogative s-ce.
There is an interplay of 2 struct.m-ings 1) that
of the q-n & 2) that of the statement (either
affirmative or interr-ve). Both are materialized
simultaneously. Negative-interr s-ces generally
have a peculiar nature. There is always an
additional shade of m-ing implied in them: smt
doubt, smt assertion, smt suggestion. They are
full of emotive m-ing & modality. !!!Both the q-n
m-ing & the statement m-ing are materialized
with an emotional charge, the weight of which
can be judged by the intonation of the speaker.
The int-n of rhet.q-ns differs materially from the
int-n of ordinary q-ns (double nature). Litotes is
a styl device consisting of peculiar use of
negative constr-ns. The negation + N/Adj
serves to establish a positive feature in a
person or a thing. However this positive m-ing
is diminished in quality as compared with a
synonymous expression making an assertion
of the positive feature. Still we cannot say that
the 2 negative constr-s produce a lesser effect
than the corresponding affirmative ones. They
have an additional connotation => they are
regarded as stylistic devices. The negatives
NO & NOT are more emphatically pronounced
than in ordinary negative s-ces, thus bringing
in mind the corresponding antonym. The
stylistic effect of litotes depends mainly on
intonation. A variant of litotes is a constr-n with
2 negations, as in not unlike, not unpromising,
not displeased & the like. Litotes is used in
different styles of speech excluding official
style & scientific prose.
Rhetorical question presents a statement in
the form of a question. A question appealing to
the reader for an answer, is emphatic and
mobilizes the attention of the reader even
when the latter is not supposed to answer
anything, when the only possible answer is
implied within the boundaries of the question.
The form of a rhetorical question is often
negative.
Rhetorical question preserves the intonation of
a question, though sometimes the assertive
sentiment is so strong that both the intonation
and the punctuation are changed to those of
the exclamatory sentence. Rhetorical question
is an indispensable element of oratorical style,
but is not confined to it only, more and more
penetrating into other style. So it is widely
employed in modern fiction for depicting the
inner state of a personage, his meditations and
reflections.
Through frequent usage some rhetorical
questions became traditional (for example,
What business is it of yours? What have I to do
with him? etc.) Such questions usually imply a
negative answer and reflect a strongly
antagonistic attitude of the speaker towards his
interlocutor or the subject discussed. e.g. Can
anybody answer for all the grievances of the
poor in this wicked world?
Litotes presents a statement in the form of a
negation. The stylistic device of litotes is used
to weaken the positive characteristics of a
thing or phenomenon. It is based upon
discrepancy between the syntactical form,
which is negative and the meaning which is
positive. E.g. She said it, but not impatiently
We have here an assertion of a certain positive
fact but its form is negative. The obligatory
presence of the particle not makes the
statement less categorical and conveys certain
doubts of the speaker as to the quality he
mentions. The structure of litotes is rather rigid:
its first element is always the negative particle
not and its second element is, too, always
negative in meaning, if not in form. If the
second element of litotes is expressed by an
adjective or adverb, it has as a rule a negative
affix. If the form of a noun or a wordcombination,
presenting
the
second
component of litotes is not negative, its
negative meaning is implied.
The final result of litotes is always the
assertion of a positive, though weakened
quality or characteristics. e.g. She said it, but
not impatiently.

24. The stylistic devices of onomatopoeia,

alliteration and assonance.
Onomatopoeia. The stylistic approach to the
utterance is not confined to its structure and
sense. There is another thing to be taken into
account which, in a certain type of
communication plays an important role. This is
the way a word, a phrase or a sentence
sounds. The sound of most words taken
separately will have little or no aesthetic value.
It is in combination with other words that a
word may acquire a desired phonetic effect.
The theory of sound symbolism is based on
the assumption that separate sounds due to
their articulatory and acoustic properties may
awake certain ideas, perceptions, feelings,
images. Onomatopoeia is a combination of
speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds
produced in nature, by things, by people and
by animals. There are 2 varieties of
onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct
onomatopoeia is contained in words that
imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, cuckoo
and the like. Indirect onomatopoeia is a
combination of sounds the aim of which is to
make the sound of the utterance an echo of its
sense. It is sometimes called echo-writing.
Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention
of what makes the sound. It is sometimes very
effectively used by repeating words which
themselves are not onomatopoetic. Alliteration
is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at
imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The
essence of this device lies in the repetition of
similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds.
Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive
means, does not bear any lexical or other
meaning. Alliteration is generally regarded as a
musical accompaniment of the authors idea,
supporting it with some vague emotional
atmosphere which each reader interprets for
himself. Alliteration in the EL is deeply rooted in
the traditions of E. folklore. The laws of
phonetic arrangement in Anglo-Saxon poetry
differed greatly from those of present-day E.
poetry. In OE poetry alliteration was one of the
basic principles of verse and considered to be
its main characteristic.
23. Free indirect thought and free indirect
speech
Represented speech. There are 3 ways of
reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the
exact utterance as it was spoken (direct sp); b)
conversion of the exact utterance into the
relaters mode of expression (indirect); c)
representation of the actual utterance by a
second person, usually the author, as if it had
been spoken, whereas it has not really been
spoken but is only represented in the authors
words (represented sp). There is also a device
which conveys to the reader the unuttered sp
of the character, thus presenting his thoughts &
feelings. The device is also termed
represented sp. To distinguish b/w them we call
the representation of the actual utterance
through the authors l-ge uttered represented
speech, & the representation of the thoughts &
feelings of the character unuttered (inner)
represented speech. Uttered represented
speech demands that the tense should be
switched from
present to past, the personal
prns from 1st &2nd to 3rd person as in indirect
speech, but the syntactical structure of the
utterance doesnt change. Nowadays the
device is used not only in the belles-lettres
style, but in newspaper as well. But I the
former it is generally used to quote the words
of speakers in Parliament or at public
meetings. // The thoughts & feelings going on
in ones mind & reflecting some previous
experience are called inner speech. Inner
speech is a psychological phenomenon. But
when it is wrought into full utterance it ceases
to be inner speech, acquires a communicative
function & becomes a phenomenon of the l-ge.
The reader is presented with a complete l-ge
unit capable of carrying inf-n. This device is
called inner represented speech. In.rep.sp
retains the most characteristic features of inner
sp. It is also fragmentary, but only to an extent
which will not hinder the understanding of the
communication. Inn.rep.sp unlike uttered
rep.sp expresses feelings & thoughts of the
character which were not materialized in
spoken or written l-ge by the character. That is
why it abounds in excl.words & phrases,
elliptical constr-ns, breaks & other means of
conveying feelings & psychological states. Therd
tense forms are shifted to the past;
the 3
person personal prns replace the 1st & the 2nd.

26. The stylistic classification of the

English vocabulary. Special colloquial
vocabulary.
a) Slang The term slang is ambiguous and
obscure. The New Oxford English Dictionary
defines slang as follows: 1) the special
vocabulary used by any set of persons of low
or disreputable character; language of a low
and vulgar type; 2) the cant or jargon of a
certain class or period; 3) language of highly
colloquial type considered as below the level of
standard educated speech, and consisting
either of new words or current words employed
in some special sense. In England and USA
slang is regarded as the quintessence of
colloquial speech and therefore stands above
all the laws of grammar.
b) Jargonism Jargon is a recognized term for
a group of words that exist in almost every
language and whose aim is to preserve
secrecy within one or another social group.
Jargonisms are generally old words with
entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most
of the jargonisms of any language are
absolutely incomprehensible to those outside
the social group which has invented them.
They may be defined as a code within a code.
Jargonisms are social in character. In England
and in the USA almost any social group of
people has its own jargon. There is a common
jargon and special professional jargons.
Jargonisms do not always remain on the
outskirts of the literary language. Many words
entered the standard vocabulary.
c) Professionalisms Professionalisms are the
words used in a definite trade, profession or
calling by people connected by common
interests both at work or at home. Professional
words name anew already existing concepts,
tools or instruments, and have the typical
properties of a special code. Their main feature
is technicality. They are monosemantic.
Professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They
fulfill
a
socially
useful
function
in
communication, facilitating a quick and
adequate
grasp
of
the
message.
Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to
depict the natural speech of a character. The
skilful use of a professional word will show not
only the vocation of a character, but also his
education,
breeding,
environment
and
sometimes even his psychology.
d) Dialectal words Dialectal words are those
which in the process of integration of the
English national language remained beyond its
literary boundaries, and their use is generally
confined to a definite locality. There sometimes
is confusion between the terms dialectal, slang
and vernacular. All these groups when used in
emotive prose are meant to characterize the
speaker as a person of a certain locality,
breeding, education, etc. Some dialectal words
are universally accepted as recognized units of
the standard colloquial English. Of quite a
different nature are dialectal words which are
easily recognized as corruptions of standard
English words. Dialectal words are only to be
found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely
in other styles. And even here their use is
confined to the function of characterizing
personalities through their speech.
e) Vulgar words The term vulgarism is rather
misleading. Websters New International
Dictionary defines vulgarism as a vulgar
phrase or expression, or one used only in
colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech.
I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives
or swear-words and obscene words and
expressions. There are different degrees of
vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene
ones, are called four-letter words. A lesser
degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives
and they sometimes appear in euphemistic
spelling. The function of vulgarisms is almost
the same as that of interjections, that is to
express strong emotions. They are not to be
found in any style of speech except emotive
prose, and here only in the direct speech of the
characters.
f) Colloquial coinages Colloquial coinages
(nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive.
Most of them disappear from the language
leaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and
meanings may acquire legitimacy and thus
become facts of the language, while on the
other hand they may be classified as literary or
colloquial according to which of the meanings
is being dealt with. When a nonce-word comes
into general use and is fixed in dictionaries, it is
classified as a neologism for a very short
period of time. This shows the objective reality
of contemporary life. Technical progress is so
rapid that it builds new notions and concepts
which in their turn require new words to signify
them.

25. The stylistic classification of the

English
vocabulary.
Special
literary
vocabulary.
In accordance with the division of language
into literary and colloquial, we may represent
the whole of the word stock of the English
language as being divided into 3 main layers:
the literary layer, the neutral layer and the
colloquial layer. The literary layer of words
consists of groups accepted as legitimate
members of the English vocabulary. They have
no local or dialect character. The literary
vocabulary consists of the following groups of
words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and
learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic
words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6.
literary coinages including nonce-words. The
aspect of the neutral layer is its universal
character. That means it is unrestricted in its
use. It can be employed in all styles and in all
spheres of human activity. It is this that makes
the layer the most stable of all.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in
most English or American dictionaries is not
infrequently limited to a definite language
community or confined to a special locality
where it circulates. The colloquial vocabulary
falls into the following groups: 1. common
colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4.
professional words; 5. dialect words; 6. vulgar
words; 7. colloquial coinages. The common
literary, neutral and common colloquial words
are grouped under the term standard English
vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer
are regarded as special literary vocabulary and
those in the colloquial layer are regarded as
special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the
English vocabulary, are used in both literary
and colloquial language. Neutral words are the
main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is
the neutral stock of words that is so far prolific
in the production of new meanings. Common
literary words are chiefly used in writing and in
polished speech.
Common colloquial
vocabulary overlaps into the standard English
vocabulary and is therefore to be considered
part of it. It borders both on the neutral
vocabulary and on the special colloquial
vocabulary, which falls out of the standard
English altogether. The stylistic function of the
different strata of the English vocabulary
depends not so much on the inner qualities of
each of the groups, as on their interaction
when they are opposed to one another.
Specific literary vocabulary
a) Terms Terms are generally associated with
a definite branch of science and therefore with
a series of other terms belonging to that
particular branch of science. They know no
isolation; they always come in clusters, either
in a text on the subject to which they belong, or
in special dictionaries which, unlike general
dictionaries, make a careful selection of terms.
All these clusters of terms form the
nomenclature, or system of names, for the
objects of study of any particular branch of
science. Terms are characterized by a
tendency to be monosemantic and therefore
easily call forth the required concept. Terms
may appear in scientific style, newspaper style,
publicistic style, the belles-lettres style, etc.
Terms no longer fulfill their basic function, that
of bearing an exact reference to a given notion
or concept. The their function is either to
indicate the technical peculiarities of the
subject dealt with, or to make some references
to the occupation of a character whose
language would naturally contain special words
and expressions. A term has a stylistic function
when it is used to create an atmosphere or to
characterize a person.
b) Poetic and highly literary words First of
all poetic words belong to a definite style of
language and perform in it their direct function.
If encountered in another style of speech, they
assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the
two notions, poetry and prose, have been
opposed to each other from time immemorial.
Poetic language has special means of
communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement,
some syntactical peculiarities and certain
number of special words. The specific poetic
vocabulary has a marked tendency to detach
itself from the common literary word stock and
assume a special significance. Poetic words
claim to be, as it were, of higher rank. Poetic
words and ser expressions make the utterance
understandable only to a limited number of
readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that
poetical language is sometimes called poetical
jargon.
c) Archaic words The word stock of a
language is in an increasing state of change. In
every period in the development of a literary
language one can find words which will show
more or less apparent changes in their
meaning or usage, from full vigour, through a
moribund state, to death, i.e. complete
disappearance of the unit from the language.
Well distinguish 3 stages in the aging process
of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process
when the word becomes rarely used. Such
words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in
the stage of gradually passing out of general
use; 2) The second group of archaic words are
those that have already gone completely out of
use but are still recognized by the English
speaking community. These words are called
obsolete. 3) The third group, which may be
called archaic proper, are words which are no
longer recognized in modern English, words
that were in use in Old English and which have
either dropped out of the language entirely or
have changed in their appearance so much
that they have become unrecognizable. There
is another class of words which is erroneously
classed as archaic, historic words. Words of
this type never disappear from the language.
Archaic words are used in historical novels, in
official and diplomatic documents, in business
letters, legal language, etc. Archaic words,
word-forms and word combinations are also
used to create an elevated effect.
d)
Barbarisms
and
foreign
words
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which
have not entirely been assimilated into the
English language. They bear the appearance
of a borrowing and are felt as something alien
to the native tongue. The great majority of the
borrowed words now form part of the rank and
file of the English vocabulary. There are some
words which retain their foreign appearance to
greater or lesser degree. These words, which
are called barbarisms, are also considered to
be on the outskirts of the literary language.
Most of them have corresponding English
synonyms. Barbarisms are not made
conspicuous in the text unless they bear a
special load of stylistic information. Foreign
words do not belong to the English vocabulary.
In printed works foreign words and phrases are
generally italicized to indicate their alien nature

or their stylistic value. There are foreign words

which fulfill a terminological function. Many
foreign words and phrases have little by little
entered the class of words named barbarisms
and many of these barbarisms have gradually
lost their foreign peculiarities, become more or
less naturalized and have merged with the
native English stock of words. Both foreign
words and barbarisms are widely used in
various styles of language with various aims,
aims which predetermine their typical
functions. One of these functions is to supply
local color. Barbarisms and foreign words are
used in various styles of writing, but are most
often to be found in the style of belles-lettres
and the publicistic style.
e) literary coinages Every period in the
development of a language produces an
enormous number of new words or new
meanings of established words. Most of them
do not live long. They are coined for use at the
moment of speech, and therefore possess a
peculiar property that of temporariness. The
given word or meaning holds only in the given
context and is meant only to serve the
occasion. However, a word or a meaning once
fixed in writing may become part and parcel of
the general vocabulary irrespective of the
quality of the word. The coining of new words
generally arises with the need to designate
new concepts and also with the need to
express nuances of meaning called forth by a
deeper understanding of the nature of the
phenomenon in question. There are 2 types of
newly coined words: 1) those which designate
new-born
concepts,
may
be
named
terminological coinages or
terminological
neologisms; 2) words coined because their
creators seek expressive utterance may be
named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism.
Neologisms are mainly coined according to
the productive models for word-building in the
given languages. Most of the literary coinages
are built by means of affixation and word
compounding.
30. Poetry. The notion
of poetic
conventions. Types of poetic conventions.
Language of poetry
The first substyle is verse. Its first
differentiating property is its orderly form, which
is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic
arrangement of the utterances. The rhythmic
aspect calls forth syntactical and semantic
peculiarities which also fall into a more or less
strict orderly arrangement. Both the syntactical
and semantic aspects of the poetic substyle
may be defined as compact, for they are held
in check by rhythmic patterns. Syntactically this
brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary
sentences, in detached constructions, in
inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical
peculiarities.
Rhythm and rhyme are immediately
distinguishable properties of the poetic
substyle provided they are wrought into
compositional
patterns.
The
various
compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are
generally studied under the terms versification
or prosody.
The poetical language remains and will always
remain a specific mode of communication
differing from prose. The poetic words and
phrases, peculiar syntactical arrangement,
orderly phonetic and rhythmical patterns have
long been the signals of poetic language. But
the most important of all is the power of the
words used in poetry to express more than
they usually signify in ordinary language.

27. The notion of functional style.

Approaches to the research into functional
style. Classifications of FS.
F.S. is a variety of the lang. used to identify
specific socioling. situations. Concept of F.S.
we need to mention that there are 2 major
approaches to the concept of f.s.: functional
and variation ones. 1) Func. app. - -I 925 a
russ.
researcher
Vinokur
differentiated
functionally motivated ling. syst. For ex.
colloquial, poetic, scientific, newspaper, bellelettres. The notion of F.S. was introduced by
Prague ling. group. F.S. lang. mans which
function as instrument for stylistic purposes.
These ling means form only a specific manner
of organization of concrete utterances. F.S. do
not exist separately from the rest of lang. The
func. app. falls into monofunc. & polyfunc. apps. Monofunc. app func. corresponds to style
or 1 func can correspond to several styles.
F.S. a syst. of interrelated lang.
means & the syst. serves a definite aim in
communication. singles out 3
functions and 5 f.s.: communicative func.,
which corresponds with style of conversation;
informative func. style of scientific prose;
style of official docs; pragmatic belle-letrres
style; journalism. Polyfunc. app. the same
fun car inherent in diff. styles. : a f.s.
as a historically developed & socially cognized
subsist. within the syst. of a national lang.
assigned to certain communicative situations
known as speech situations and characterized
by a set of means of expressions and the
underlying principles of their selection from the
national lang. : spoke about f.s. as
not a particular social speech situation but a
class of such situations. 2) Variation app.
offers a number of definitions of f.s.
a kind of ling. variation., it can be described
as fuzzy set of texts, conditioned variation.
. : f.s. socially recognized and
functionally conditioned model of syst. ling. var.
Conditioning factors: 1) aim of communication
2) sphere of communication 3) sociocultural
development 4) individual and communal
choices. the features of the style can be
divided into 2 categ.: primary & secondary.
Primary predominant specific features
conditioned by extra-ling. properties of th style:
prescriptive, mandatory, precise & impersonal.
Secondary: style markers, they are lang.
properties attributed to this or that f.s.: passive
constr., parallel struct.
Classific. of F.S.^ by Galperin: belle-lettres,
publicist, newspaper, scientific, official docs.
: + technical style. :
+ style of conversation. &
+ style of religion, style of legal docs. The
syst of f.s. is in constant development. F.S. is a
patterned variety of literary text characterized
by the greatr or lesser typification of its
constituence, superphrasal units, in which the
choice & arrangements of interdependent and
intervowen lang are calculated for the purpose
of communication.
29. Emotive prose.
The substyle of emotive prose has the same
common features as has for the belles-lettres
style in general; but all these features are
correlated differently in emotive prose. The
imagery is not so rich as it is in poetry; the
percentage of words with contextual meanings
is not so high as in poetry; the idiosyncrasy of
the author is not so clearly discernible. It is a
combination of the literary variant of the
language, both in words and syntax, with the
colloquial variant. It is more exact to define it
as a combination of the spoken an written
varieties of the language, inasmuch as there
are always 2 forms of communication present
monologue (the writers speech) and
dialogue (the speech of the characters).
The language of the writer conforms or is
expected to conform to the literary norms of
the given period in the development of the
English literary language.
Emotive prose allows the use of elements
from other styles as well. Thus we find
elements of the newspaper style, the official
style, the style of scientific prose.
Present-day emotive prose is to a large extent
characterized by the breaking-up of traditional
syntactical designs of the preceding periods.

28. The belles-lettres style

A style of language can be defined as a system
or
coordinated,
interrelated
and
interconditioned language means intended to
fulfil a specific function of communication and
aiming at a definite effect.
Each style is a relatively stable system at the
given stage in the development of the literary
language. Therefore style of language is a
historical category.
The development of each style is
predetermined by the changes in the norms of
standard English.
The belles-lettres style
The belles-lettres style is a generic term for 3
substyles:
1. the language of poetry or simply verse;
2. emotive prose, or the language of fiction;
3. the language of the drama.
The purpose of the belles-lettres style is to
suggest a possible interpretation of the
phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see
the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive
function of the belles-lettres style. An
aesthetico-cognitive effect is a system of
language means which secure the effect
sought.
The belles-lettres style rests on certain
indispensable linguistic features which are:
1. genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by
purely linguistic devices.
2. the use of words in contextual and very
often in more than one dictionary meaning, or
at least greatly influenced by the lexical
environment.
3. a vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or
lesser degree the authors personal evaluation
of things or phenomena.
4. a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary
and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical
idiosyncrasy.
5. the introduction of the typical features of
colloquial language to a full degree(in plays) or
a lesser one(in emotive prose) or a slight
degree, if any(in poems).
The belles-lettres style is individual in
essence. This is one of its most distinctive
properties.
a) Language of poetry The first substyle is
verse. Its first differentiating property is its
orderly form, which is based mainly on the
rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the
utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls forth
syntactical and semantic peculiarities which
also fall into a more or less strict orderly
arrangement. Both the syntactical and
semantic aspects of the poetic substyle may
be defined as compact, for they are held in
check by rhythmic patterns. Syntactically this
brevity is shown in elliptical and fragmentary
sentences, in detached constructions, in
inversion, asyndeton and other syntactical
peculiarities.
Rhythm
and
rhyme
are
immediately distinguishable properties of the
poetic substyle provided they are wrought into
compositional
patterns.
The
various
compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are
generally studied under the terms versification
or prosody. The poetical language remains and
will always remain a specific mode of
communication differing from prose. The poetic
words and phrases, peculiar syntactical
arrangement, orderly phonetic and rhythmical
patterns have long been the signals of poetic
language. But the most important of all is the
power of the words used in poetry to express
more than they usually signify in ordinary
language.
c) Language of the drama The first thing to
be said about the parameters of this variety of
belles-lettres is that the language of plays is
entirely dialogue. The authors speech is
almost entirely excluded, except for the
playwrights remarks and stage directions. The
degree to which the norms of ordinary
colloquial language are converted into those of
the language of plays, that is, the degree to
which the spoken language is made literary
varies at different periods in the development
of drama and depends also on the
idiosyncrasies of the playwright himself. Any
presentation of a play is an aesthetic
procedure and the language of plays is of the
type which is meant to be reproduced.
Therefore even the language of a play
approximates that of a real dialogue, it will
none the less be stylized.
33. The language of drama
The first thing to be said about the parameters
of this variety of belles-lettres is that the
language of plays is entirely dialogue. The
authors speech is almost entirely excluded,
except for the playwrights remarks and stage
directions.
The degree to which the norms of ordinary
colloquial language are converted into those of
the language of plays, that is, the degree to
which the spoken language is made literary
varies at different periods in the development
of drama and depends also on the
idiosyncrasies of the playwright himself.
Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic
procedure and the language of plays is of the
type which is meant to be reproduced.
Therefore even the language of a play
approximates that of a real dialogue, it will
none the less be stylized.

31. Rhyme, metre and rhythm.

Rhythm is a regular alteration of similar or
equal units of speech. It is sometimes used by
the author to produce the desired stylistic
effect,
whereas
in
poetry
rhythmical
arrangement is a constant organic element, a
natural outcome of poetic emotion. Poetic
rhythm is created by the regular recurrence of
stressed and unstressed syllables or equal
poetic lines. The regular alternations of
stressed and unstressed syllables form a unit
the foot. There are 5 basic feet: iambus(a foot
consisting of one unstressed syllable followed
by one stressed syllable), trochee(a foot
consisting of one stressed syllable followed by
one unstressed syllable), dactyl(a foot
consisting of one stressed syllable followed by
two unstressed syllables), anapest(a foot
consisting of two unstressed syllables followed
by one stressed syllable) and amphibrach(a
foot consisting of one unstressed syllable
followed by one stressed and one unstressed
syllable).
Rhyme is a characteristic feature of poetry but
in prose euphony final sound (ending). Such
recurrence takes place at the end of a poetic
line. With regard to the similarity of sounds we
distinguish: full rhymes, imperfect rhymes. With
regard to the structure of rhymes we
distinguish: masculine (or single) rhyme,
feminine (or double) rhyme, dactylic (or triple)
rhyme, full double or broken rhyme. The
arrangements of rhymes may assume different
schemes: couplet rhyme, cross rhyme, frame
rhyme. The functions of rhyme in poetry are
very important: it signalizes the end of a line
and marks the arrangement of lines into
stanza.
M e t r e is any form of periodicity in verse, its
kind being determined by the character and
number of syllables of which it consists. The
metre is an ideal phenomenon characterized
by its strict regularity, consistency and
unchangeability.2 Rhythm is flexible and
sometimes an effort is required to perceive it.
In classical verse it is perceived at the
background of the metre. In accented verse
by the number of stresses in a line. In prose
by the alternation of similar syntactical
patterns. He gives the following definition of
verse rhythm. It is "the actual alternation of
stress which appears as a result of interaction
between the ideal metrical law and the natural
phonetic properties of the given .language
material." 3 He holds the view that romantic
poetry regards metrical forms as a
conventional tradition, which hinders the
vigorous individual creativity of the poet and
narrows the potential variety of poetic material.
the most recognizable English metrical pa ft e r
n-s.
There are five of them:
1. Iambic metre, in which the unstressed
syllable is followed by a stressed one. It is
graphically represented thus: (w-).
2. Trochaic
metre, where the order is
reversed, i.e.. a stressed syllable is followed
by one unstressed (-^).
3. Dactylic me t r eone stressed syllable is
followed by two unstressed (-w).
4. Amphibrach i
metreone stressed
syllable is framed by two unstressed ^~w.
1 Many linguists hold that verse rhythm is
based on alternation between stronger and
weaker stresses. They maintain that four
degrees of stresses are easily recognizable.
But for the sake of abstractionan
indispensable process in scientific investigation
the opposition of stressedunstressed
syllables is the only authentic way of
presenting tne problem of verse rhythm.
5. Anapaestic me tr eiwo unstressed
syllables are followed by one stressed (w-).
These arrangements of qualitatively different
syllables are the units of the metre, the
repetition of which makes verse. One unit is
called a foot. The number of feet in a line
varies, but it has its limit; it rarely exceeds
eight.
35. The style of scientific discourse.
Scientific prose style
The language of science is governed by the
aim of the functional style of scientific prose,
which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new
concepts, to disclose the internal laws of
existence, development, relations between
different phenomena, etc. The language
means used, therefore, tend to be objective,
precise,
unemotional,
devoid
of
any
individuality; there is a striving for the most
generalized form of expression. There are
following characteristic features of scientific
style:
1. the logical sequence of utterances;
2. the use of terms specific to each given
branch of science;
3. so-called sentence-patterns. They are of 3
types:
postulatory,
argumentative
and
formulative.
4. the use of quotations and references;
5. the frequent use of foot-note, of the
reference kind, but digressive in character.
The impersonality of scientific writings can
also be considered a typical feature of this
style.

32. Lexical and syntactical features of

poetry.
Lexical and syntactical peculiarities, together
with those just analysed, will present the
substyle as a stylistic entity.
Among the lexical peculiarities of verse the first
to be mentioned is imagery, which being the
generic feature of the belles-lettres style
assumes in poetry a compressed form: it is rich
in associative power, frequent in occurrence
and varied in methods and devices of
materialization.
We here define imagery as a use of language
media which will create a sensory perception
of an abstract notion by arousing certain
associations between the general and the
particular, the abstract and the concrete, the
conventional and the factual. It is hardly
possible to under-estimate the significance of
imagery in the belles-lettres style of language.
Then the passive constructions ('fish was
brought', 'it was handed', 'the fish was taken
away', 'cutlets were handed', 'They were
refused', 'they were borne away', 'chicken was
removed', -'sugar was handed her', 'the
charlotte was removed', 'olives... caviare were
placed', 'the olives were removed', 'a silver tray
was brought', and so on) together with parallel
construction and asyndeton depict the slow
progress of the dinner, thus revealing the
strained atmosphere of which all those present
were aware.
This example illustrates the means by which
an image can be created by syntactical media
and repetition. Actually we do not find any
transferred meanings in the words used here,
i.e. all the words are used in their literal
meanings. And yet-so .strong is the power of
syntactical arrangement and repetition that the
reader cannot fail to experience himself the
tension surrounding the dinner table.
Another feature of the poetical substyle is its
volume of emotional colouring. Here again the
problem of quantity comes up. The emotional
element is characteristic of the belles-lettres
style in general. But poetry has it in full
measure. This is, to some extent, due to the
rhythmic foundation of verse, but more
particularly to the great number of emotionally
coloured words. True, the degree of
emotiveness in works of belles-lettres depends
also on the idiosyncrasy of the writer, on the
content, and on the purport. But emotiveness
remains an essential property of the style in
general and it becomes more compressed and
substantial in the poetic substyle. This feature
of the poetic substyle has won formal
expression in poetic words which have
beenjegarded as conventional symbols of
poetic language.
But poetical language remains and will always
remain a specific mode of communication
differing from prose. This specific mode of
communication uses specific means. The
poetic words and phrases, peculiar syntactical
arrangement, orderly phonetic and rhythmical
patterns have long been the signals, of poetic
language. But the most important of all is the
power of the wofds^used in poetry to express
more than they usually signify in ordinary
language.
Syntax also underwent noticeable changes' but
hardly ever to the extent of making the
utterance unintelligible* The liberalization of
poetic language reflects the general struggle
for a freer development of the literary
language, in contrast to the rigorous
restrictions imposed on it by the language
lawgivers of the 18th century In poetry words
become more conspicuous, as if they were
attired in some mysterious manner, and mean
more than they mean in ordinary neutral
communications. Words-in poetic language live
a longer life than ordinary words. They are
intended to last. This is, of course achieved
mainly by the connections the words have with
one another and^ to some extent, by the
rhythmical design which makes the words
stand out in a more isolated manner so that
they seem to possess a greater degree of
independence and significance.

34. Publicist style.

Publicistic style has spoken varieties, in
particular, the oratorical substyle. The new
spoken varieties are the radio commentary, the
essay and articles. The general aim of
publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep
influence on public opinion, to convince the
reader or the listener that the interpretation
given by the writer or the speaker is the only
correct one and to cause him to accept the
point of view expressed in the speech, essays
or article. Due to its characteristic combination
of logical argumentation and emotional appeal,
publicistic style has features in common with
the style of scientific prose, on the one hand,
and that of emotive prose, on the other. Its
emotional appeal is generally achieved by the
use of words with emotive meaning; but the
stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine.
Publicistic style is also characterized by brevity
of expression.
1. Oratory and speeches Oratorical style is
the oral subdivision of the publicistic style.
Direct contact with the listeners permits the
combination of the syntactical, lexical and
phonetic peculiarities of both the written and
spoken varieties of language. Certain typical
features of the spoken variety of speech
present in this style are: direct address to the
audience (ladies and gentlemen,
honorable
member(s), the use of the 2 nd person pronoun
you, etc.), sometimes constractions (Ill, wont,
havent, isnt and others) and the use of
colloquial words. The stylistic devices
employed in oratorical style are determined by
the conditions of communication. Repetition
can be regarded as the most typical stylistic
device of English oratorical style. Almost any
piece
of
oratory
will
have
parallel
constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax,
rhetorical questions and questions-in-thenarrative.
2. The essay The essay is a literary
composition
of
moderate
length
on
philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary
subjects. It never goes deep into the subject,
but merely touches upon the surface.
Personality in the treatment of theme and
naturalness of expression are 2 of the most
obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay
is rather a series of personal and witty
comments than a finished argument or a
conclusive examination of any matter. This
literary genre has definite linguistic traits which
shape the essay
as a variety of publicistic
style. In the 19th century the essay as a literary
term gradually changed into what we now call
the journalistic article or feature article which
covers all kinds of subjects from politics,
philosophy or aesthetics to travel, sport and
fashions. Feature articles are generally
published in newspapers, especially weeklies
and Sunday editions. In comparison with
oratorical style, the essay aims at a more
lasting, hence at a slower effect.
3. Articles Irrespective of the character of the
magazine and the divergence of subject matter
whether it is political, literary, popularscientific or satirical, all the features of publistic
style are to be found in any article. The
character of the magazine as well as the
subject chosen affects the choice and use of
stylistic devices. There are popular scientific
articles, satirical articles, political magazine
articles, newspaper articles, etc. Literary
reviews stand closer to essay both by their
content and by their linguistic form. More
abstract words of logical meaning are used in
them, they more often resort to emotional
language and less frequently to traditional set
expressions.
36. The style of official documents.
The style of official documents
In standard literary English this is the style of
official documents. It is not homogeneous and
is represented by the following substyles or
variants: 1. the language of business
documents; 2. the language of legal
documents; 3. that of diplomacy; 4. that of
military documents.
The main aim of this type of communication is
to state the conditions binding two parties in an
undertaking. The most general function of the
style of official documents predetermines the
peculiarities of the style. The most noticeable
of all syntactical features are the compositional
patterns of the variants of this style.
The over-all code of the official style falls into
a system of subcodes, each characterized by
its own terminological nomenclature, its own
compositional form, its own variety of
syntactical arrangements. But the integrating
features of all these subcodes emanating from
the general aim of agreement between parties,
remain the following: 1. conventionality of
expression; 2. absence of any emotiveness; 3.
the encoded character of language; symbols
and 4. a general syntactical mode of combining
several pronouncements into one sentence.

37. The style of mass communication. The

British Newspaper style.
English newspaper style may be defined as a
system of interrelated lexical, phraseological
and grammatical means which is perceived by
the community speaking the language as a
separate unity that basically serves the
purpose of informing and instructing the
reader. Since the primary function of
newspaper style is to impart information, only
printed matter serving this purpose comes
under newspaper style proper. Such matter
can be classed as:
1. brief news items and communiqus;
2. press reports (parliamentary, of court
proceedings, etc.);
3. articles purely informational in character;
4. advertisements and announcements.
The most concise form of newspaper
informational is the headline. The headlines of
news items, apart from giving information
about the subject-matter, also carry a
considerable amount of appraisal (the size and
arrangement of the headline, the use of
emotionally colored words and elements of
emotive
syntax),
thus
indicating
the
interpretation of the facts in the news item that
follows.
a) Brief news items The function of a brief
news item is to inform the reader. It states only
facts without giving comments. Newspaper
style has its specific vocabulary features and is
characterized by an extensive use of: 1.
special political and economic terms; 2. nonterm political vocabulary; 3. newspaper clich;
4. abbreviations; 5. neologisms. The following
grammatical peculiarities of brief news items
are of paramount importance, and may be
regarded as grammatical parameters of
newspaper style: 1. complex sentences with a
developed system of clauses; 2. verbal
constructions; 3. syntactical complexes; 4.
attributive noun groups; 5. specific word order.
b) The headline The headline is the title given
to a news item of a newspaper article. The
main function of the headline is to inform the
reader briefly of what the news that follows is
about.
Syntactically headlines are very short
sentences or phrases of a variety of patterns:
1. full declarative sentences; 2. interrogative
sentences; 3. nominative sentences; 4.
elliptical sentences; 5. sentences with articles
omitted; 6. phrases with verbals; 7. questions
in the forms of statements; 8. complex
sentences; 9. headlines including direct
speech.
c) Advertisements and announcements The
function of advertisement and announcement
is to inform the reader. There are 2 basic types
of advertisements and announcements in the
modern English newspaper: classified and
non-classified(separate).
In
classified
advertisements and announcements various
kinds of information are arranged according to
subject-matter into sections, each bearing an
appropriate name. As for the separate
advertisements and announcements, the
variety of language form and subject-matter is
so great that hardly any essential features
common to all be pointed out.
d) The editorial Editorials are an intermediate
phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the
newspaper style and the publistic style. The
function of the editorial is to influence the
reader by giving an interpretation of certain
facts. Emotional coloring in editorial articles is
also achieved with the help of various stylistic
devices(especially metaphors and epithets),
both lexical and syntactical, the use of which is
largely traditional.