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ENGINEERING METALLURGY
LABORATORY MANUAL
Semester- III
Experiment No 1
Aim: - Study of Metallurgical Microscope
Introduction: - The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of the
metallurgist. It consist an objective and an eye-piece. Its primary function is to
reveal the details of the object. The clarity and the extent to which the details are
revealed depends on the degree to which these optical systems are created.
Principle: - A horizontal beam of light from the light source is reflected by means
of a plane glass reflector downwards through the microscope objective on the
surface of the specimen some of these incident light reflected from the specimen
surface will be magnified and passing through the plane glass reflector and
magnified again by upper lens system of the eye-piece.
Constructional Details: - The table type microscopes are consist of
1. Stage:- A flat movable table supporting specimen. This can be moved up or
down by knobs.
2. Tubes :- The vertically movable tube containing eyepiece, objective and
plane reflector. The tube length varies from 160 mm to 250 mm.
3. Rough & fine focus Adjustments - The limbs of microscope carry the
coarse & fine adjustments to facilitate the
4. Objective The body tube carries revolving nose piece carrying the three
objectives. This enables quick change of
the objective which helps for a quick resolving the structure of
metal, the magnification of lenses is
enlarged on focal length of the lens used
The important properties of an objective are1) Magnifying Power
2) Resolving Power.
It is the property by which an objective shows distinctly
represented two small adjacent bonds in the structure of the object. This is
usually expressed as number of lines per mm that can be separated which
depends on the numerical operator, the wavelength of the light used. Resolution
is particularly important during the microscopy of the micro constituents of metals
consisting of fine lamination with core resolution which appears as one uniform
area, where as an objective with higher numerical appearance reveals deeper
nature of the structure.
Experiment No. 02
Experiment No. -3
Aim: Preparation of Mounted samples with the help of mounting
press/cold setting resins.
Theory- Specimens that are very small or awkwardly shaped should be
mounted to favorite, intermediate & final polishing wires small rods steel, sheet
metal specimens, thin sections etc. must be approximately mounted in a suitable
material or rigidly damped in a mechanical mount
Synthetic plastic materials applied in a special mounting press will yield a
mount of uniform convenient size (usually 1 inch or 1.25 inch or 1.5 inch. in
diameter) for handling in subsequent polishing operation. These mounts when
properly made are very resistant to attack by etching reagent ordinarily used. The
most common thermosetting resin for mounting is Bakelite. Bakelite molding
powders are available in variety of colors which simplifies the identification of
mounted specimen. The specimen & the correct amount of bakelite powder are
available in variety of cloves which simplifies the identification of mounted
specimen. The specimen & the correct amount of bakelite powder are placed in
the cylinder of the mounting press. The temperature is gradually1500 C & a
molding pressure of about 4000 PSI is applied simultaneously since bakelite is
set & curved when this temperature is reached, the specimen mount may be
ejected from the molding die which is still hot.
Lucite is the most common thermosetting plastic resin for mounting. It is
completely transparent when properly mounted. This transparency is useful when
it is polished or when it is desirable for any other reason to see the entire
specimen in the mould mount unlike the thermosetting plastic, the thermosetting
resin dont under go curing at the molding temperature, rather they set on
cooling. The specimen & a proper amount of Lucite powder are placed in the
mounting press & are subjected to the same temperature & pressure as for
Bakelite (1500 c, 4000 PSI) After this has been reached, the heating coil is
removed & cooling fins are placed around the cylinder to cool the mount to about
750 c in about 7 minutes while the molding pressure is maintained. Then the
mount be rejected from the mould, ejecting the mount while still hot, or allowing it
to cool slowly in the molding cylinder to ordinary temperature before ejection will
cause mount to remain opaque.
Small specimens may be continently mounted for metallographic
preparation in a laboratory made damping device. Thin sheet specimens when
mounted in a damping device, are usually alternated with metal. Filler sheet
which have approximately the same hardness as these specimens. The use of
filler sheet will preserve surface irregularities of the specimen & will prevent to
some extent the edges of the specimen from becoming rounded during polishing.
Experiment No.- 4
Aim: Study and drawing of microstructures of Steels.
Draw Iron Carbon Diagram / Fe-Fe3C/ Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram and show the
range of following steels on it
1. Hypo eutectoid
2. Eutectoid and
3. Hypereutectoid steels
Also draw the microstructures of
(0.2% C)
(0.4 % C)
(0.6% C)
4. Eutectoid Steel
5. Hypereutectoid Steel
(0.8% C)
(> 0.8% C)
Experiment No. :- 5
Aim: Study and drawing of microstructures of Cast Iron..
Experiment No. :- 6
Aim: Study of effect of Annealing & Normalizing on properties of
the steel
.
Equipment Used for Annealing AND Normalizing
: Muffle Furnace
Equipment For checking Hardness after Annealing and Normalizing
: Rockwell Hardness Tester
during
solidification,
Types of Annealing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Full Annealing
Isothermal Annealing
Diffusion Annealing
Partial Annealing
Re crystallization Annealing
for some alloy steels which are air hardened by nature for such steels, cooling
in air dont lead to normalized structure. Slower cooling rates are read since
the temperature involved in this process is more than that for normalizing, the
homogeneity as austenitic increases & it results in better dispersion. Results
in enhanced mechanical properties. The grain size in finer in normalized
structure that in annealing grain size of normalized steel is governed by
section thickness. As cooling rates differ considerably from case to case,
there is variation in grain size of normalizing steel over its cross section.
Refinement of grain size is on of the most important objectives of normalizing
& it is to be a great extent due to high temperature involved in these operation
are subjected to a great extent .
Normalizing treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to gain
refinement, improvement in mach inability & enhanced mechanical properties
such as hardness, strength & toughness.
Experiment No. - 07
Aim: Study of Pack carburizing of steel samples.
C + O2 = CO2
-----------------(1)
CO2 + C = 2CO
-----------------(2)
---------------(3)
The carbon is not form of iron carbide but is in elemental form dissolved in
gamma forming austenite. As the carbon content at the interface between solid &
gas is increased, the carbon by diffusion migrates towards region of lower carbon
concentration i. e. centre of part being carburized; CO2 produced by this reaction
is liberated at surface & reacts with carburizing compound to from more CO at
expense of carbon of charcoal. The penetration of carbon into steel depends on
temperature, time & Carburizing agent. The boxes covered by lids & lusted
(sealed & airtight) by fire flame to exclude air & escape of gases. Box heated
unto 900 0 950 0 C requires time of 6 15 hrs depending on case depth. A
portion of the part which doesnt need to be hardened is covered & protected by
mixture of asbestos & fire plate or copper plating (0.003 inches).
Energizer Ba CO3 = Ba O + CO 2
------------------------(4)
Experiment No. 8
Aim: Determination of Harden ability of steel by Jominy end Quench
Test
Theory :- When a piece of steel of any appreciable size is heated to its
austenization temperature & then quenched, the cooling rates during quenching
vary across the cross section. The cooling rate at the surface & the center are
not same. The difference in their rate increases with rise in severity of quenches
or decreases in the speed of heat absorption. At the centre of the cross section,
the cooling rate is slowest. This may give rise to the formation of pearlite.
The relatively permanent & most common method of determining the
hard ability of steel is the Quench test. This is also called as Jominy End
Quench Test. In this test, the steel bar of 1 inch diameter & 4 inch long is
heated to proper austenization temperature. After being soak for sufficient time
the specimen is quickly placed in a fixture as shown in figure. A water jet is
opened quickly. Water comes out at a constant pressure through the orifice of
inch diameter. The distance between orifice and bottom of steel is 0.5 inch. The
temperature of water is kept around 240 C (R.T). A stream of water strikes at
lower end of specimen. The end is quenched and is continued to about 20 min.
to cool.
Figure shows the typical Jominy curve for a no. of AISI steel. Jominy
curved is strictly valid only for a given heat of particular steel, because other is in
tolerance range. In chemical composition which allows the appropriate range of
hardness. Figure shows the harden ability for AIST 4145-H steel. Harden ability
occurs for all steel will lies within the range, for many commercial grades of steel.
Harden ability limits of specimen standards have been adopted by the society of
automotive Engineerings (SAE). These limits are termed as Harden ability
Bands.
Attempts have been made by several words correlate the cooling rates in
the different distances along the quenched end of Jominy bar with the cooling
rates at different distances of the cylindrical bar. It can be quenched end of
Jominy bar with cooling rates at different distances in two steel rods are same
then the cooling conditions are also identical at these portions
Determination of Harden ability:-.
When a appreciable size is heated to the austenization temperature and then
quenched, the cooling rates varies across the surface. The cooling rate at the
center and surface are not the same. The difference in these rates increases with
the rise in severity of quench and decreases with speed of heat absorption. At
the center of cross section, the cooling rate is slowest. This may give rise to the
formation of pearlite. Marten site may be formed on surface and hence gradient
of hardness exist from the surface to centre.
Experiment No. -9
Aim: Tensile test on mild steel & Aluminum Test Specimen
Objective To observe the behavior of mild steel & Aluminum under gradual axial
tension to plot & interpret the stress strain curve. To calculate physical
quantities.
Apparatus Universal testing machine, venire caliper, steel rule
Observation Tables
For Aluminum - Diameter of rod before load apply (mm) =
Gauge Length (cm) =
Diameter of rod after load applies (mm) =
Elongation (cm) =
Ultimate load =
KN
Breaking Load=
Sr,. No.
LOAD (KN)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Elongation
(mm)
KN
Breaking Load=
KN.
Sr. No.
Load (KN)
Elongation
(mm)
KN.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Calculate
1. Elongation
2. Ultimate Stress
3. Breaking Stress
Experiment No 10
Aim: - Measurement of Hardness of Ferrous & Non- Ferrous materials by
1. Rock-well Hardness Tester
2. Brinell Hardnes
3. Vickers Hardness Tester
Micro hardness