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( 1977- 1979)
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1990-1993 .... ,
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2.1.

27
2.2.0
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2.3. :

2.4. :

2.5.
44
.48
III. .
3.1. .
.51
28
37
32. .... ..55

33.
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63
3.4. .
70
IV. .
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4.1. .
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75
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115
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6.4. '
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6.5. " " 158
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167
6.7.
174
6.8.
182
VII.
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7.1.
189
72.

201
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231
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1.1.
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(Balacheff 1991, .191).
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15 ,75 (Fischbein et al 1985, .10-11).
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H P. Nesher,
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15
L. Pacioli,
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4
1.2.
.

:
, G. Bachelard
- ,
J. Piaget .
G. Brousseau,
, 28

(CEEAEM) (Brousseau 1976). ,
(Brousseau 1983),

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, (signification)
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G. Bachelard "La formation de
esprit scientifique"(1938/1975) J. Piaget "L' quilibration des structures
cognitifs" (1975): To ,
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G. Glaeser, Bachelard Brousseau
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1994). , ,
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Bachelard

(Brousseau 1983, . 173).
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1 1
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Brousseau,
(Glaeser 1981. . 304).
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A. Duroux, (D.E.A.)
, 1982 Brousseau.

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1983.14 Brousseau
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Bouazzaou 1988) -
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1.4.
Brousseau ,
. Herscovics ,
,
(Herscovics 1989).

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Herscovics ,

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Brousseau
Duroux, Cornu, Sierpinska .. , Herscovics
.
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of scientific revolutions") ,
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.5),

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Kuhn Bachelard.
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(Herscovks 1989, .61- 63).17

, Herscovics J. Piaget

(equilibration).
(assimilation), .
(accomodation), .

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(., .62).
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IIA.
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S. Wagner C. Kieran,
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Kieran 1989).
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19

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Brousseau .

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Sierpinska, (Sierpinska 1990, 2 1992, 30). 20
2 0
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Herscovics Gagatsis
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Brousseau,

(Brousseau 1983, . 165).
25
Sierpinska
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(Sierpinska 1992, 57).
26
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2.2.
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G. Schubring,
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(Schubring 1986 1988 1988).
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Bachelard
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(. . . 5), Bachelard

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"Dissertation on the Use of the Negative Sign in Algebra" (1758)
"Principles of Algebra" (1798) .
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"Die Lehre von den entgegengesetzten Grssen in einem
neuen Gewnde"5,
a+ = 0, 1817 W. . Frstermann
"Ueber den Gegensatz positiver und negativer
Grssen"6, - ,
a - b = a + b + = 0 (b )
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tov d' Alembert -
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L. Camot :
Carnot

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1810
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S. F.
Lacroix.
Ecole Polytechnique,
(..,
L. . Francoeur "Cours Complet de Mathmatiques Pures", tome L 1819).
Schubring
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1938/1975, 0.66). , "" , Bachelard
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(oji., .97 ..).

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Schbling
Brousseau Duroux.
Glacser (1981) , ,

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Glaeser (Sdmbring 1986, 27 .8 1989, .63).
35
(Schubring 1986,
2& 1988 . 143).
Schubring

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(error analysis) (Balacheff 1990, .261-62
Brousseau et al 1986, .210 .. Callahan 1983 Hiebert and Carpenter 1992, .88-89 Nesher
1987). . Radatz 1980 : (
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2.3.
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1990 1992).
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19 , . Hankel "
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(Broosseau 1986/1991, .76-78 Broasseau & Otte
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41
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(Attigue 1990, .202-203 1990, .261-62):
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2.
; ,
* ;
;
Artigue
-
- y ' = f(x,y),
..

,
,
.

,
y ' = f(x,y), , ,
.
Artigue , 3
300 ,
. , ,
- ,
,
:
17
OQO "" , Aitigue,

' R. Douady:
,
' ,
' .

( )
.
(Aitigue 1992, . 109)
" "
, . (Douady 1991).
44
f(x)x, QIO ,
QIO f(x>ax, ...
,

( ),
y ' = f(x,y).
: ..
- .
-
,

.
,
.

.18
,
Attigue,

(Artgue 1992, . 132).
Attigue, ,
,

,
, ""
"" .
.
2.4. :
.
Schubring Artigue
"" ,
,
18

, , ,

' .
,
(Attigue 1992, . 126-28).
45
G. Brousseau.
.

. Herscovics 1989
""
"" ""
,
() .
D. Tau, Herscovics
,
,
Herscovics
,
(Tall 1989).
Tall,
.

. , '

"
", '
.

, , ,
(manipulative skills)

( ).

,

.
Tall,

, .
,
, ( )
.
46
,
,
. Tall
,
,
,
.
Herscovics ,
S. Wagner,

.
,
,
(Wagner 1981). Herscovics
,
,
-
(Herscovics 1989, .77). Herscovics,
Tall,

.
(Tall 1989, . 89-90).
R. Sutherland,
, ; ,
Herscovics

Logo (Sutherland 1991). ,
Sutherland,

. ,
' ,
. ,
,
,
.
,

, . -
47
,

'
.
, Sutherland,
. '

. Herscovics,
.
" "
"
". , "
,

".
, Sutherland,
, .
Vygotski
.
Piaget, '
.
Vygotski
.19 ,
, ,
,
. '

Piaget
,
/
. ' ,

(. .,
.41).
19

Piaget,
- (Brousseau 1986/1991, .75).
,
(PME) . '
L. S. Vygotski ( Sutherland 1993, . 103-105 Vergnaud et al 1990, 17-19).
48
H Sutherland ,
Logo

. ,
,
:

; (ojt, .44)
2.5.
.
,
,

.

,
"
" .

.20 ,

"" .
,
,
"" .

;
,

,

2 0

, >
OQOU " |" "" (Metaens 1992, .43).
49
""
.
,
,

.
,
,
, ,

.
,

,

.

.

,
.

,
.
:

,
, ;

;

,
-,

.
,
50
^ ^ , "
", Y. Chevallard.
,
,

.
III
MET.
3.1.
.

,
.

. ,

, ,
.
,

19 .
U. Bottazzini, ,

,
. ,
, 19 , ""
, , Gauss ,
,
grand coles.
.
( .. ,
, , , ...)
,
.
.1
1
0 Schabring ,
Destutt de Tracy , 1801, <}
:
,
, , .
,
,
. (Schubring 1988, .141)
52
,, Cauchy ,

19 ,
' . (Botta/Tini 1986, .91).
, Bottazzini
R. Dedelrind, "Stetigeit
und irrationale Zahlen" (1872)2
,

. Weierstrass
. ' Weierstrass
, ,
, .

,

.
,
.
G. Vergnaud, 6
1988,
, ,

. Vergnaud

, ,

(Vergnaud 1988, .43).

- ,
-

Scbubring
, ' (17941800),
(., .146 .4).
2
" ".
Dedekind "" .
53
( ). , ,
, . Vergnaud Y. Chevallard "La
transposition didactique-Du savoir savant au savoir enseign" (1985),
,
( )
.
Chevallard :

,

. "" ^
-~^
.(Chevallard 1985, .39).3
,
Chevallard, ,
,
.

.
G. Arsac, ,

(Arsac
1992, .7,10):
- .
-
,
.
, Kang
Kilpatrick,
, ,
3
"transposition didactique" "

" (BalacbeS/EwiaoJio-oXoc 1985), " " ( 1985
et al 1991), " " ( 1987 1991), "
" ( 1987 1991 & 1990), "
" ( 1990 1991). " ",
. "transposition
didactique" , ,
Chevallard
.
54
.
,
,
. ,
.
.
. ,
, ' . ,

.
, .

.
,
.4
'
.
.

' . ,
,
. */
-

""
.
,
.

,
.
.
" "* " ".
Kang & Kflpairick
("
"),
(Vite 1591/1968, 333).
,
. Descartes , 3 La Gomtrie (1637)
,
,
. ""
,
( )
(Newton 1673-1683, .75 Euler 1770/1840, .80).
55
(Kang
& Kilpatrick 1992, .2-4 Chevallard 1988).
3.2.
.
,
Chevallaid 1985 5
,

.

.
Chevallard ,

(Chevallard 1992).
Chevallard ,

' .
, ,
.
,
.
"" (
Chevallard )
, , ,
, ,
, ,.

, . '
, -
/ Chevallard > 1980,

(ita
.
(Chevallard & Johsua 1982),
(. 3.3.)
56
,
. (Chevallard 1985, all .. 1992, .216-17).
, Chevallard

-

, , .
, , " "

if (Chevallard 1992, .220).
,
Chevallard, "" ,

.

,
. 7

,
(
).
,
(
). Chevallard
, " "
(-| )
( "" ),
( )
" Venn" (Chevallard 1985, .42).
""
6
Chevallard
" ".
, , ,
.
-
(Chevallard 1992, .217).
. (Keitel 1986).
7
Chevallard "" ,
"" . " "
,
(Chevallard 1992, .223).
57
.
, Chevallard,

(Chevallard 1992, 229):
)
,

.
) ,

, .8
) ,
,
.

,

.

,
Chevallard
.

( ),
, .., "" 3
"" +3. ..
(+7-3-5)
:
1 "" "",
: (+7>+3)+(-5).
2 "",
"" : 7 +3 -5.
3 , ,
: 7+3-5.
CbevaOaid "'* ,

,
, '
(ChevaUard 1992, 216).
58
,
+3 3,
(

).
, "
" (Chevallard 1992, 223).9

,
Chevallard . ,

,

" ". ,

. , ,
,
"" (.., 226).10

,
" "
"" . Chevallard
/
, , ,
Weierstrass
'
. ,
" ",
9
Artgue "
",
(. 23.). Brousseau
, " ", ""
""

. (Brousseau 1986/1991, .85-89).
10

( ) . Newton, J.
Wallis, L. Etiler, .. '
, (.
6.2.).
59
.

,
.
,
(OJI., .228).11
'
,

, :

.
( '
),
,
. '

(Chevallard 1985, .33 ..).

, Chevallard
11
' ( ) ""
. . Freudenthal
1972, 2 ,
, ,
"
" ( , ...).
' , Freudenthal
/:
,
; .
"" J. Bruner, "
".
Bruner . Inhelder,
: "

".

, .
,
'
-.
'
. ,
.
,
.
(Freodenthal 1973, . 113)
60
, ,
(Chevallard 1985, .49 ..) (
)
.
(

, . ).
, ,

, .

,
,
( Chevallard
, ).

,
(..
)
.

,

. ,
"" (
, .. 4x2-36x,
" " "
" .).

, ..
12

CbevaUard
, -.

, .%. ""
** " " (Tall & Thomas
1991). ,
, m
& , Brousseau.
61
R,
' .
, [ 2 - 2 = ( - +)],
() ,
() "'*
,
"oo,' [ ..
"" 2 - V2 = ( - "+V),
"** "** ].
,
,

.

, " ".

. Chevallard . Verrat,
13
,
,
. ,
.
, ,

() .
(Chevallard
1985,0.63).

.
,
.

. .., ""
,
Le temps des etudes, 2 volumes. Librairie Honor Champion, Paris (1973).
62
( )
.
,

/ . Chevallard

(OJC, .72 ,.).

.

-
: ,
,
,
.
,
,

.

- -

(/),

(OJC., .92).
,
Chevallard,
" ",

.
,
.
63
3.3.
.
,
Chevallard 1985,

(Chevallard & Johsua 1982 Cerane 1981 Tonnelle 1979).
Chevallard & Joshua
"",

.
, .
- ,

M. Frchet 1906. ,
(
,
) ,
,

.
,
, "" ,
. Frchet
,

(Frchet 1906).
Chevallard & Johsua
Frchet, ,

:
, , , .,
. ,
( ) .
:
64

. -
Frchet ,
.14
,
,
(.. ),

.
Chevallard & Johsua

,

.
,
,
,
. "
'' ,
, "
", " " ...
1970.
"' ".
, Chevallard & Johsua
"" ,

. 1971,65
Frchet, (distance)
'
"" (cartement) .15 Chevallard
14
- ( [])
"" ,
d(f,g) = sup jf(x)- g ( x r ,
,
d(f,g)=sup |f(x)-g(x)|+sup Jnx)-s'(x)|.(CflevaUard& Joshua 1982, .175-76).
15
"
" (droite physique) " " (droite euclidienne).
,
65
& Johsua

(.. ). '
,
(),
() ,
, .

,
.
, Chevallard & Joshua
*
( )
Chevallard
1985.

( ).

,

.
Chevallard
,
,

.

.
G. Brousseau,
,

.
F
R, (Chevallard Sc. Joshua 1982, .189,202).
66
/ ^/ (Brousseau 1986/1991).
,
,
.
,

.

-
,

. , , '
-
, , ,
, .

. (Brousseau 1986/1991, .63-66).
, Brousseau,

(., .68-71, 87):
) ,

, ..
.
)
, ,

.
) Topaze, ""
. ,
,
.
) Jourdain,
,
,
.
67

,
. , Topaze

, Jourdain
.16

Broosseau,

, , .

(Strsser 1989). Strsser

Chevallard,
.
,

.. (.. ),

(,. ). " "
16
Broosseau

.
, '
. 60 . ,
" ",
Topaze :

, ' .
. .
, ,
, ,
.
... .

. ( 1934, .24)
Topaze, ,

(Bauersfeld et al 1988, . 183).
68

(OJI^ .132).
, ,

.

Strass,

(Strsser 1992). ,
* ,
" '*
(OJI,
249).
Strsser
Schubring
Chevallard,
(. 2.2.). , Schubring,
,
,

. ,

.
,
- ,
.
-
.
,
,
.

.

' ,
(Schubring 1988, .145- 1988, .184).
Th. Eisenberg T. Dreyfus
Chevallard
69

(Esenberg & Dreyfus 1991).
( ),

,
. ^
,
, "'*
-
,

' (OJt., .32).17
,
/
/, W. Kang
J. Kilpatrick
' (Kang & Kilpatrick
1992).

.

.

, ,
, . '
,
.
.
-,
, ,
17

Attigue ,

(. 2.3.).
70
,
(^ 5).

, Kang & Kilpatrick
' 4
, ,
, Topaze
Jourdain.

.

. Kang ,
HILA.

, (Kang
1990).
. ,
(
) (
) ,

.

' (Kang & Kilpatrick 1992, .6).
3.4.
. :

,
,
.

Chevallard
.
. Balacheff,
" "
,
(Balacheff 1990, .261-64).
71
Balacheff,

.

, Balacheff

.
,
.

,

.
,

.
, ' ,
,
,
.

. ,
-
,
. ,
.
,
.

,

. ,
,
.
Balacheff
, -
72

. ChevaUard
,
.
, Balacheff,

, .. :
1. *
. '
. ,
,
.
2.
.
,
.

. , Bachelard,
.
-
-
, :

;
Balacheff
-

' (., 269):

;

,

:

;
;
73
,
;
3 4

Chevallard
.
,
,
,
.
G. Aisac
,
(Aisac 1992).
Aisac :
. " "
"" .
2. "".
3. "
" " ".
4. .
5.
.
6. ,
, .

,
.
, , " "
Arsac (OJC, .17):
-
;
- (
) ;

, (

),
. ,
74

,
,
.
IV
,

4.1.
.

:
)
,
.
) ,

.
)

.
""
Duroux Brousseau 1983
, V

. ' ,
Brousseau

. ,

,

. ,
, Argue Comu Sierpinska,

.
76

Herscovics,

. ' , ,
Tall Sutherland
.
"
"
,
. ,
""
: Brousseau
Duroux, ,

Sierpinska
, ,

Schubring .
,

,
Brousseau Duroux .

,

.
,
""

.
:
Attigue,
,
,

:

, ,
77

;

;
(Attigue 199CP, 261)
M. Schneider , ,

,

:

["
" (G. Brousseau 1983)];
;

, ,
"" ;
(Schneider 1991, 285)

,
,
, .

, ,
""
"" .1
, ,
1

. . .
Krygowska 1971 :
""
. , , .

.
. , , *
-. (Krygowska 1971,
.118- Skovsmose 1985, .337, )
, 20 ,

(Brousseau 1994Fischbem 1990 Kpatrick 1992- Steiner 1988)
78
-/uni
,

.

,

.
' , Schubring

,
. Sierpinska
,

. , Sutherland

.
Artgue, ,

,
.

,

.2 2
,
. .
. ,
TJLL, , ^> :
_

( ) . ( ]
. ,
( , ),

79
,
"" ,

,
.

:

.3

,
,

.
.
,
, .
(. 8), Brousseau

,
"
". Artgue
,
" ",

. Schubring
,
" " ,
.
,
, ,
. ( & 1993, .131,138)
3
" "

. '
" ' (Artgnc 1990, .241 Petrm-Gknan 1994,
.132 Schneider 1988, ..7-8).
Brousseau (. 1.2.).
80

.
,
, Sierpinska
.
"'* " '

(
)
""
.

.

, ' ,
' .
""
.

,
.
, Chevallard
(.. )
( ) .

-, Brousseau Duroux,

.

. Chevallard ..,
,

.

. Balacheff , ,

, '
-
81
.

" "
,
" ".
.. taxrutov ,

,
Chevallard
.
Attgue, ,
.

, .
:
- - ,

.
-
-

. , Chevallard
" ",

(
"" Kang Kilpatrick).
Chevallard
,

' .
"", Chevallard Johsua,
.4
4
* ""

Pogorelov ( ).
82

,

.5
,

( )
.
:
<
,
.
,
,

.
, ,

.
- ""
,
: ""

.
1983,
to :
...

9 xatfaymytxa

(.... 1983, .4 ).
, " " ""
taxTtx "" ""
, .
,
: Mai * ;
5
,
,
.

, -
(Freadenttal 1983. .484- Wheeler 1989, .281).
83

:

,

.

,

.

:

,
. ,

.

,
.
, '
,
"
" , ""
.
' "
",

Balacheff (. 3.4.):
84

,

.

,
.
4.2.

,
,

.
, .
Duroux,
, ,
. ,

, ( )
.
Duroux,
.
,

.
, , Glaeser Schubring

, Cornu,
Sierpinska Artigue.

, , ""
.

,
Chevallard Johsua,
85
ChevaHard
" ".
,

^:
,

. ,
(
) ,
'
. ,

. (
)

, '.

. . Pollak,

, ' :
,
,
... ,
. ,
,
||. ||=
- . :
||=\?7
. ||
-.
,
.
,
. .

86
;
,
.
(Pollak 1987, .256- )
,
. R.
Fischer :
() :
" " ( )
; |5|=5, |-3|=3, |2|=2, ||=0, .
:
( ). :
.

110)=; |-7|=; |5-7+|=; . ;
;
"|-51" "5";
.
;

/, +, :, " , - (
)- '
.

' .
;
'
.
'
2 =||.

"" ,
.
(Fischer 1988, .21 )

"'*

: ,
.

87
,

. ,

,
.

,
. . ,
...
1947 1984,

( 1986, .40).

, ' "
.

,
,
.
,

,

.

, '
(
, , , ).

,
( ). Fischbein,

" " (PME),
:
88

. , ,

.

.
'
( ),

, ,
- , (
, ).

.
, ,

.

.

,
, , ,
, , ,
.
. ,
. (Fischbein 1990, . 10)
G. Vergnaud,
,
:

( )

, , ,

.

,
89

...
... '

--
:
, ,
, ;
,

;

,

- .
/
'

.

.

,
,

(Arsac, 1987 Sierpinska, 1985).

,

.
(Vergnaud 1990, .15-16)

. . Sierpinska,

, :

90
.

.
,
' .
,
,

.
,
' .

( ' ) .

.6 ,

.
,

/ .
""

.
(Sierpinska 1991, .13 )

,
.
,
6
Sierpinska " " " Hclcet ,

,
( ) ( & 1993,
.147). ""
- ,
, ,
.
Sierpinska, ""
(Byers 1982 Harper 1987 Steiner 1989).
91
""
.

,
,
.
)
,

.
,

.
)
,

.
(
Duroux Schubring ),
*
, 3 .
)
,
" ", ,

. ,
;'' ,
,
.
)
, "
"

. * ""
,
,
.
92

:

. ,
,
,

.
5.1.
: .
""
,

,
" ".' H.-J. Vollrath
"" - ,

(Vollrath 1971).
,
. ,
:
) |-x|=x
.
)
.
) Vx2 =x 2 =||.
) - < < <=> ja n | <
.
) -]|, x s R .
Vollrath ,
(
)
(
).
"
'*, 2 =
1
,
,
. '
( 7.3.).
94
' '' ". ..
|-x|=x (
"" )
( ).

"" Vollrath,

" ". |-x|=x,
Vollrath ,
.
,
x-|-x|, e R -, xe R
. ,

x-|-x|,xeRJ X - M C X S R J .
'
,
|-|=
>0.
,
!-|= <=> >0.
, Vollrath

' -
. ,
, '

.

.
,
, . Revuz
"
R, R xR
R+ (x, y)-|x-y| " (Revuz 1972, .281).
,
, Revuz
:
95

.
,
.
, (., 282)
Revuz
R,
, ,
.
Revuz
" " (..,
297 ).
,
,

( ).

,
" ". Dorofeev et al,

, ,
(Dorofeev et al 1973).
2 :
) , "
:
, " (., 31 ).
)
. ' .
, , ( )
: x
f(),
f f(x) f () SO
|f(X
H-f(x) f(x)<0
W
.
,
f ff(*)
0
, |f(x)|
=
^ i

n
(*./
(., .33).
< 0
96
, ,
.
, .. ,

. ,
,
,
.
,
, .

. , ,
, ,
(-., .34).
V ,
,
, :

'
. ,

.
,
.

.
(ojt., .40 )

,

. ,

:
,
.
97
H J. Robinet,
(
),

(Robinet 1983). :
) 0 {f ()| 10" ,
( f() l~n
.

(.., 257).
)
.
, 32
:
1)
: R - R () = |2 - | .
2) *
n
*/ () ]2-xj
... "
f:R - R f () =
=J
.
4 +1 4 +1
3)
lim f(x) , lim f(x) , "lim f(x) , lim f(x) , lim f(x).
X- -V.
X-2
X-0
X->-oo
X-W-oo
' ,
:
15 ()
.
10 f ()
.
9
Robinet
. 25 26 32
10
(ojt., .285).
' (3me),
,
(Guzman-Retamal
1989).
2 : 20
Logo
98
24 .
2 3 3 ,

:
) |x+y| =0 y .
2) |x+y|=l y .
( )
, () 55%
60% . 25%
29%
. () 15%
25% , 30% 15%.
2

(., .245). 60%
50% ,
() .

3

(.., .258).
,
- = 2 --- =0
14/15 ,

(Hejny 1992). .
,

"" (oji., .76).
,
, :
) 2 = 4
- x = V4
-* ! = 2, 2 = -2.
)2 = 9
- |=9
-> = 3, 2 = -3.
- ||=2
- x t = 2, 2 = -2.
)2-4=0
- 2 = 4
2
) 2-16=0
-> =16
- = 4
-> 1 = 4, 2 = -4.
' , Hejny,

99
2 = 2 = Vx2 = 2 => || = => = = - ( > 0).
,
, ,
( 3
). Hejny,
" " :
2 = '
, " "
=V, 2 =-. ,

. ,
Hejny, -
() (): ",
; " (,., .77).

, Hejny
...
-.

-
.
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et al ,

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:
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1991):
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Chiarugi et ai.
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(1989 1990), 4
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Duroux,
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( Duroux, 20% 0%).
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62%
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121

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: 3 4 ""

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14%
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: 5

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7
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.12). ,
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( -
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3.4.),

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, 1992
87
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3: . 2 .

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( = 78)
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38%
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( =81)
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24
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127
6: 2
4 .
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4 6 87
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1 " |]= >0, = =-".
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Jx-!x-2||=-3 .
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27 , kxMx tah-c
7 2
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4 "" lx-yf=txMy|.
128
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(
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Duroux ' ,
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( 74%) " " "
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( 75%, 60% 100% ).

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, 245 (
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10
VII VIII.,

.
11

"" (concept image) "" (concept
definition) .

.

(Davis & VTnner 1986 Dreyfus et al 1990* Tall
1992' Tall & Vinner 1981' Vinner & Hersbkowitz 1980 Vinner & Dreyfus 1989).
( )
,

(Cornu 1981- Schneider 1988' Sierpinska 1985). Cornu ,
,
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130
) 5 6

|2x+l|=8,
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"'* "",

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.158 Vinner & Hersnkowitz OJI., . 178-79).
131
" "
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(
4 )

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=1). ,
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Davis & Vinner, ""
"" (Davis
& Vinner OJT,).
JI-A.,

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(.. ,
,
Artque). Davis & Vinner
,
.
132

"" .

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' ,
,
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,

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.
VI
6.1.
;
,
F. Vite.
" artem analyticen isagoge" ( ,
1591),
, Vite (=),
"" .
Vite, ,
.
(
),
,
.
Vite :

,
. ...

, " "...

,
, " D"
, " D" ,
D .
D " D"
, "
D",
D
134
.
D .
, ,
- ,
"" "".

, ,
=, [minus incerto].
, ,

" = " " = ".
(Vite 1591/1968, .331-32 Cajori 1928, .184 ).
' , " ", Vite

.
" "
Vite JA2 - BJ (Arcavi & Bruckheimer
1983, .2 Loria 1931/1972, .85 Meschkowski 1979, .166 Rosenfeld 1988,
.163).
,
. Vite "'
" .2
" "
- <
(..
). = (
R. Record 1557),
~. F.
Cajori,
" ",

1
, Vite ,
""
, "" A-(B+D)=A-B-D A-(B-r=A-B+D.
2
, , xat
, .. .
|-|<<+ (AB, , ), -
AB
|-|
( & 1989, .24 .... 1991, .66).
135
. 18 19 (Cajori 1929,
.120-22). 3

. ( )
"" ()
, "" ,
.

,

"" ' (..,
($, (,) e x
()3(,)<=>+=+
"" ""
.

:
"".

,
.

- .

,
.
17 ,

, ,
" " " "
3
. L.
Bostock S. Chandler ... "Pure Mathematics",
,
- " ".
|,| - | 2 | | , | - | 2 ( (Bostock & Chandler 1983, \506).
136
. " "
'" , - ""
.

17
.
6.2. " " "
"
17 .

,
.
16

. ,

0 12 3 4 5 6 7
8
9
10
11
12
13 ...
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192 ...

(. ) 2 (.
) (..
64.128=8192 6+7=13
2048:64=32 11-6=5).
.4
^ , .. 256:1024 (
1:4). ' "" , 8-10
( "" 0-2).
2 ;
: ,
;
M. Stifel
"Arithmetica Integra" (1544). ""
4
D. E. Smith 16 ,
(Smith 1915).
137
8-10 0-2,
" "
- 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4
5 6 ...
1 1 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 ...
8 4 2
:

,
""
[fictitious] ""
.
(Geriete 1970, 56)5
, 2
2, ""
. J. Brgi
( 1620),
, . J.
Napier ( Nepair)
,
,
(
) " "1
.6 Napier
:
... "'"
[abounding], ,
+ .
- to , - "
"" [defective],
- . (Nepair 1616, .6)

Napier :
,
, ...
16
12
,
, ' .="-
. , 2
.
6

J. J. Napier ( 1987).
138
,

...
,
, :
+ - ...
,
...

. (Nepair 1616, .17-18 )
Napier
,
* .
(" "),

, '

. Napier (
)
' .

.
(
, .).
. 17
,
, 3 "La Gomtrie" (1637) R.
Descartes. (racines fausses, . -
) (racines vraies, .
) :
... ,
, 7 .
. , x
2 -2 =3 -3=0 -2=0 -3=0 ,
x2-5x +6=0 2=5-6.
Descanes .
139
2 3. -4=0
8 2-5 +6=0,
3-92 +26-24=0,
, ,
, 2,3 4.
,
, . , x
, 5,
+5=0,
3-92+26-24=0

4-43-192 +106-120=0,
,
2,3,4 5. (Descartes 1637, .158)
, *
, "
" (quantit inconnue),
.
, ""
""
.9 ,
,

" ".

- , ,
.

,
Descartes
:
_. 3
4+43-192-106-120=0
8
Descartes "" , '

.
9
Descartes
,
.
10
, 5, -2, -3 -4,
4-43-92+)6_20=0
140
y , y
3, y-3 ...
,
y4.gy3.y2 +8y=0 y3-8y2-y+8=0
8 5... ,
3 5, 3
- , 4
1, 3 2
1, -2 +3 +1.
(., .162,165 )
, Descartes
,
:
... ,
,
.
(., . 169)
' , Descartes

'
( -4 -1
). ,
R, :
... ,
'
, ...
Descartes, Napier,
.
( )
.

,
.
'
"" (1673) J. Wallis,
. Wallis ,
. Descartes, "
" (..,.161).
141
, ,
:
, (
) .

.
( )
. ,
,
: ,
+
.
(Wallis 1673, .46)
, Wallis
,
:
D
_!
, 5 ,
8 D ,
D, :
-3 . ( +5-8=-3) 3
.
, (
).
AB, .
( )
, D, 3 . (
D).
, -3 ,
( )
3 3
. ... u
-3, D-
+3 C. , ,
.
11

Descartes, " "
142
to +3, 3 - -3,
3 : .
( )
...
(., .47)
(
+3 -3)
Wallis " " " " (
).
, ,
L Newton
.
Newton 1673-1683 (
"Arithmetica Universalis" 1707) ,
' , .
, ,
("", Newton) :
...
, 12
:
.
,
4 4
6
6 : ' .
13
, 39/ 6^, 6^
1,
2,3, -5. 4 4
, "V723- 5j -
-S, .
(Newton 1673-1683, 363 )
" " '

12
Newton
, , , ...
.
13
4-3-192+49-30=0, 1,2,3 -5.
143
,
. Newton

Descartes,
. ,

" " ,
"... ' '..." ,
, "... ' ...".
,
,
", [ ]" (., .365).
Newton
. ,
,
:
... ,
. .
(., .67 )

17 ,
,
. ""
, "",

. , ,
,

.
"" "" "",
" " .

, ,
,

.
144
6.3.
.

18 , " " (. 6.1).
G. W. Leibniz, "Monitum De Characteribus Algebraicis"
( ),
1710 , Vite
1591, :
... b, a-b,
, b-a b,
moles a-b, (
) molem +2 -2 , +2
, a-b e, molx, moles e +2,
[quantitas affirmativa] e
, , e +2, e
-2.
molem .
(Cajori 1928, .220)
'
, (
"moles", "" "")
("moLc").

" ". 14

18 ,

.
J. L. Lagrange 24 1768
, A=u2-Bt2
(, u, t ).15 u = - , t = ~ (p, q,
), Lagrange Ar2 = p2-Bq2
, '
14
Leibniz
< ' ,
( ), (Boyer 1968, .444).
15
, Lagrange,
.
145
2 -, < .
Lagrange :
, , '
, < ,
[soient pris positivement],

- '
.
(Lagrange 1768, .390 )
Lagrange,
,
:

1 y ,
[. 2-
],
.
,
:

Ar2=p2-Bq2
<
( ano A) [abstraction faite
des signes de et Al, 2 -
2- ,

AAi=a2-B
= ,
,
< 1 (
ano
), , , ...
(0Jt., )
16
' / Vz^xZ-y2
(.., .398).
146
"
" " "
,
. (" ")
18 ,

.17
" "
"" ,

- :
"" .
,

.
Lagrange,
1774 "" L.
Euler, :
, ,
, ,
. , ,

.
(Lagrange 1774/1840, .468)

"" Euler ( 1767 1
1770), " ,
, ,
""
.
17
ano J. Grabiner,

,
Cauchy 19 . Grabiner
d* Alembert, 1768, "abstractionfeitede
signe" Lagrange
(Grabiner 1981, .60-68). on "_. Lagrange
" (., .67).
Lagrange x2-oy2= 1, 20
1768 (Loria 1933/1974, .183),
(Lagrange 1768)
147

18 .18
Euler ",
+*', "
- "
"". Euler,
" ". (Euler
1770/1840, .4-5) Euler
' Lagrange
. ,
" "
,
:
, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7, +8, +9, +10, ...
, -L -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, ...
(ojt., .5)
, "
,
[], ",
" , 0 -1" (..,
.9). Euler , ' ,
"
", Lagrange.
' "" Euler
,
, - .
:
-
:
-, +2, - 3 , + 4 , -5, +6, ...

, ,
,
.
(.., .52)
18
C TniesdeU, "" L. Euler
"" (Truesdell 1972, ojcodii).
148
[ :] , d
, :
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
a d a2d a3d a 4 d a 5 d a 6 d ...
..., (- l)d.
(oje., . 132)
...

ax 2 bxc=0
,
,
.
( Jt., .217)
Euler
-
,
:
, , x2=49.
+7, -7,
=7.
,
' ,
.
(-., .218-19)
""

,
Euler
:
.19
Lagrange,
,

19
Schubring
18 ,
II ( 2.2.). t o . (Volkert 1987, .35). .
Schneider "
" ,
. (Schneider 1992,
.331).
149
.
" "
. , Lagrange "'"
Euler ( " , ^ , ^ . . .
*
),
:
, 7
-eq
, .-
, (
, .)
(Lagrange 1774/1840, oiOO)
,
~ > 1 -1 < **- < 0. Lagrange
p'-aq'
p"-aq"
"
- 1 " "",
" " (
- r ) ,
" "20
,

.
.. ax-by=c (a, b, c, x, y ), Lagrange
= y=y0 L
,
xsxtf+mbt ysy^fma t m .
:
, m
, ,
m , x
20
Lagrange
. ..
"... 9..."
( ) " " (Lagrange 1769, .575).
150
-r 1 , y -r 1 (
ano
) ,
ax-by=c
, x
, ,
- 1 - -r 1 ,
:
y ,
, -r1 - -r 1 .

,
.
(Lagrange 1774/1840, .531 )
' Lagrange ,
,
ix|< ** - < ( > 0) .

"" Lagrange
, .
Lagrange , ,
,
( )
Taylor ( ).21

18 ,
C. F. Gauss
"Disquisitones Arithmeticae" ( , 1801).
,
, Gauss
"", " ":
b e,
b e , b e
. [modulus].
b e ,
. (Grabiner 1981, .64 ..), ( 1993, .233 ..).
151
[residue] .

,* .
a
[ Gauss]
, .
(Gauss 1801/1966, . 1)
" "

, Gauss
' ,
:
r
4+1, -

.1
d
[ Gauss]

4+1,
.
(OJt., .73)22
,
"" " " "
" . ""
Gauss
,
.
, ax2+2bxy+cy2,
( Gauss (, b, e)
"" D ^ - a c ) :
- (, ,')
=D: (, ,
Q ,
<yD , , -,
, "VD + yD-B.
22
* Gauss ,
" "
rsa 2 (modp)
23
Gauss F F ' (property
equivalent) tumourr tue uooite x=ax ' +6 '. = ' + ' &-ftv(tetiitAc nnifliuSc (nrt a 117\
152
. ... ; (, , Q
D
\D+B YD-B ( < D),
....
1) (, b, e) , e
. =D,
ac=b2-D b < V D.
2) e, , ,
"vD+b \D-b. -c=(D-b2)/
, e (D-b2)/
V+b (D-b2)/ VB-b V-b V+b.
3) (e, b, )
.
4) e < 2"V D. <
"VD+b , , < 2 D .
5) b "VD V D+a
( ,
).
V7T+& -b, a-(V5-b) b-o/ia)
b-"V D - b
"VD D+a. ...
(.., .151- 53
)
' , Gauss
,
(, , -
): Gauss
,

' . ..,

VD-b<|a|<VB+b,
"
\D-b ND+b" " /D+b YD-b".24
24
-
R- ,
. 1799,
Gauss ,
" V - " (Streik 1969,.120).
Gauss 1831
153
b > D- | |,
, Gauss ' .

,

.
.
6.4. '
.

, ,
.

""
19 . L. Carnet ,
"Gomtrie de Position" (1803),
,
""
"" :
. , -3 2 (-3)?
2 2 ,

,
.
(Glaeserl981,a326)
,

, -
, ,
"Ankndigung der Theorie der biquadratischen Reste" (
) (Jahnke & One 1981, .36-37).
154
.25
19
,

. . Bolzano ,
( ),

:
a+ae+ae^Kxe^...
' ,
e * 1. e > 1,
e < 1.
(Bolzano 1817/1980, .169)
Bolzano
"e <-1 e > 1" "-1 < e <1" (
, |e|>l |e|<l). ,
, <0 >0,
Bolzano ,
(.., .179).
Bolzano
" ".
(. 6.6.).
,
19 " ",
.

, (Dunmore 1992 Jahnke
1983 Jahnke & Otte 1981" Pycior 1987- Schubring 1986). 25
Schubring (. , 2.2.) tov

19 ,
"'*,

Caiaot . (Glaeser 1981, .327- Schbling 1986, .13).
Glaeser
Schubring :
"... .. , Canot
. ,
"'*. ,
, Bachelard:

."
(Schubring 1988, . 143)
155
,
,
.
' , ""
,
,
.
.. (
)
,
"" (
"" )
. "
" ' "" "" .
,
,
""
" ". ,
19 ,
,
R. Argand "Essai sur une manire de reprsenter les quantits
imaginaires dans les constructions gomtriques"26.0 Argand,

,
, ""
"". ,
,
:
, , ,
, .... 4, 3, 2, ,

1 3, 2 1 ,
0.
-
2 6
" * XQJIO >
"
156
, ,
[]
...
n
' , 2,
3, 4,... , 2',3',4',
...,
: 0
.
, 2, 3,...,
n ' , 2 ', 3 ',..., , 3 ',
, , 2 ', ', 0.

, .

- , ,
- ', -2 ', -3 ',...,
, ,
.
, ,
, 3 ' , -3',
,

0.

.
(Argano 1806, .6-10 )
Argano ,

"" '
. ,
,
,
. ' ,
" "

"" .
Argand
:
157
...
.
,
-...

, .
: 1
2
,
, (ojt., .6-12 )

.
Argano (.. , Euler),
"" ""

. ,
,
.
,
.
,
, " " (
) " " (
" " ).

Argano
:
... , ,

,
,

27
,
2 7
Argand <jva -1, x
=- ( En
).
158
'
;
(-, .8-12)
. Argand
, ""
:

, * .
, ,
.
, ,
...
(OJI., .8-17)
, 1814, Argand
"modulus" "vn^+in2,
" "
' n+nW-1.
Gauss ( , , 1801
"modulus" ), 1831
n 2 +m 2 "norm" n+nW-1.
(Hankel 1867, .71 Novy 1973, .121 IL23).
$6.5.
" ".
,
. L. Cauchy "Cours d' Analyse" (1821)

" "(15 algbrique).
, ,
'
(.. ,
, , ..).
,
, Cauchy
" "
.
, Cauchy
, .
159
(Prliminaires) "Cours d' Analyse", Cauchy

:
, " " (la
mesure absolue des grandeurs), " " (quantits relles)
+ -
.28
"
" (valeur numrique d'une quantit):

,
,
,
....
,
,
. ' ,
, - '
,
.
(Cauchy 1821, .18)
, "
", Cauchy, ,
"" (module) =2+2 " " (expression ima
ginaire) +\-:
+"-1
,
...

"? ...
(..,.161)
"Va?, Cauchy
"Cours d'Analyse"
- "
". ,
, Cauchy
, .. ,
=.
28
, to , Cauchy
.
160

:

xQ+p=0,
.
=-
, ,
= .

=,
- ,
=-
- ...
(ojt., .288-89)
Cauchy

.
,
:

(1)
Uo,Ui,U2
un,...
(2)
, Q i , Qz
Qu,...
,
Uo=po , Ui==Qi , =
=,...
>,.. <..-.
Uo + U, + U2 + . . . + Un.i

Qo + Qi + fc + . - . + O,,.,
(2)
(1).
(.., .128-29)
, Cauchy

|uo+Uj+u2+... +u.i| S luol+Iutl+iuilH-... +|un.,|
,

161
.-9

(
), Cauchy
, R C
.
" " ""
:
, ,
,
. , '

,
. II
, .
, :

.
,
,
( W-1 ) + Q'(COSQ' W - 1 sin0') + . . .
=R(cosT + "-1 sinT),
, ', ..., R ,

R2 = (Qcose +Q'cose' + . . . + ( +' sin6'+.. .
= 2 + '2+...+2'(-') + . . .
< 2 + ' 2 + . . . + 2 ' + . . . = ( 2 + ' 2 + . . . )2,

R<Q+Q' + . . .
(0.,.448)
29

" Cauchy". . .. ( et al 1987, .81-82
1956, .518-20). "" Cauchy
"Cours
d'analyse":
Sa= Uo+Ui-Mi2+...+Ua.i n , n
. , ,
SQ (indfiniment) ' ,

.
(Cauchy 1821, . 114)
. (Pringsheim 1898, .80 .162 Grabiner 1981, .108. 210
. 106). Cauchy , .
(Grabiner -., .97 . Bottazzini 1986, .108 ..).
162

" 2 " 2 + 2 , Cauchy ,
, .
" "
"
> < ",
"" (moyenne)
: 3

. , , -1
-2 +3,
2 3.
n , ', ", ...,

2 , ' 2 , " 2 ,...
.
( ji., .370)
""
Va 2
, Cauchy ""
n , ', ",...,
V a 2 + a ' 2 + a " 2 + ...
Vn
2
Va + ' + " + ...

:
,
,
[module] , ', ",...
30 "" , ', ",... x

inf( , *, ",...) Ssup( , ', *,...)
Cauchy : "
" (-,
(327). Cauchy "" , /, ",... ( , *, *,...)
..
+/ + "+...
? ?
= M r < h .
(...368)
b+b'+b"+...
\r>
)
"" Cauchy
.
163
b
+-1... (., .371)3
"", Cauchy
"vaL num."
.
vaLnum.(a+ '+ "+ ...)< V n V a 2 + a , 2 + a / , 2 + ...

,
+ ' + " + . V a 2 + a ' 2 + a " 2 + ...
vaL num.
<
n
Vn

, ', *,... ""
(ojt., .372-73).
" ,
" ", "val.
num."

. Cauchy
"mod"
,
mod.(a-b) < r,+r2
a=rl(cost1+V-l sintt) b=r2(cost2+"v -1 sintj)

x m -KiiX011 +a2xm-2 + . . . +am.lx -^ = 0
(.., .397)3^
,
|a-b| |a|+|b| ( ,
|a+b| |a|+|b|),.o Cauchy

module. ""
.
31 Cauchy "",
\ 2 + /2 + " 2 + ...

.
norm - ,
.
( 6.8.).
32
F. Cajori "mod"
Cauchy, 1829,
Gauss
(Cajori 1929, . 124). (6.7.),

20 .
164
,

, Cauchy "Cours d'Analyse"

.33
,
, Cauchy
(Beihoste 1991, .76
Bottazzini 1986, .106). , -
Cauchy,
"Mmoire sur les fonctions continues" (1844),

. Cauchy
:
Euler Lagrange,

,
, ,
.
,
" ,
,
". ,
,
,
,
,

,
. :
33
Cauchy "
" :
,
,
, , |
,
, , (oji., 31)
, ""
Cauchy
,
.
f((x)).
165

,
,
, , ,
, . ,
Euler Lagrange
, ,

. ,
, ,
+

,

x2dt_
34
Jt2+x2 ' "
,
,
.
Euler '
Analyse algbrique 35
(Bottazzini 1986, . 107-8 ;.
18 ,
' " ",
:
, ,
"" ( -
34
n f(x) =
~
[ < 0
dt 1
-"* - =- arctair- +c ,
Jt2 + x 2-x
Jt22
j - ocvxO
=- <0
. 2
Caucy
.
35
166
), ,
"" ' ,
'
(Edwards 1979, .302-4 Bottazzini 1986, .34-35
Youschkevitch 1976, .72).36
,
Cauchy ,
19 .
J. . J. Fourier "Thorie analytique de la chaleur" (1822),

:
...
osg| d q
Jl
,
y

y=e" x .
' . , ~2 ^ * 0 e " x
'
"**
, e x x .
(Fourier 1822, .395-96 )
, Fourier
e" x > 0
^ ( ) = x
~ "
e
<
",
. Cauchy
, 36 , -

>0 . , " . 2
; -2+ 2
[- <
J
(
) .
" - " , Cauchy,
.
f(x)H
167
,
""
-Ix
( f(x)=e ' .
""
,
"Cours d'Analyse". ,
, .
6.6.
'
.

, "Cours d' Analyse"
"" ,

Cauchy.
,
Cauchy " ",
"".

, Cauchy :
f(x) ,
, ,
. ,
x '
, ,

f(x+a)-f(x),

. , f(x)
, ,
' ,
f(x+a>f(x)
' .
(Cauchy 1821, .43 )
. Bolzano
:
168
... f(x)
x
, : ,
f(x-M)-f(x)
.
(Bolzano 1817/1980, .162)37
Cauchy,

: Cauchy
() Bolzano .

"" Bolzano . S. Russ,

Bolzano, "... Bolzano

.
... " (Russ 1980, . 183
.4), J. Grabiner : "... [ Bolzano]
|f(x-Ko)-f(x)| ..." (Grabiner 1981, .204 n.4). , U.
Bottazzini "...
( )
Bolzano, Fimctonenlehre
1930... " (Bottazzini 1986, .124 .12).
' ,

Bolzano . (
) '
,
:
. , f(x) (),
x
,
f(a)< () f() > (),
x f(x)=<p(x).
3 7
Bolzano Cauchy
, , .

Caucby (Freudisnthal 1971 Grattati- Guinness 1970).
(Belhoste 1991, .255
.6- Bottazzini 1986, .123 . 10).
169
. '
f(x) ()
,

...
(Bolzano 1817/1980, .177 < )
(
"abstraction faite de signe"),

Bolzano ,
. ,
,
'
.
Bolzano, 6.4.,
,
, "...
< ... " (.., .179).
,
, Lagrange,
" ". Bolzano
.
Bolzano
1817 Cauchy 4
,
.
.- ,

. "Cours d' Analyse", G.
Peacock "A treatise of Algebra" (1830),
,

(Pycior 1987). ,
" " a+b"V-l
V a ^ b 2 ,

"'* . ...
170
Peacock, "" a+b"V -1
,
a+b>r"l=V2+b2
bVÎ
, :
a+bV^ = â2+\l{ cos6 +> sine } = âZ+b2. 9
z=c^
(Peacock 1830, .412-13)

, Peacock
b " "
AD DC ADC,
a+b\-l ACWaZ+b2
AD (OJI., .414).

Peacock ,
, "
" ""
19 .

" ", "Cours d'Analyse"
Cauchy.

Cauchy , ,
. ,

R,' ( ""
) C
mod. Cauchy
"Vo^+b2.
. . Abel
, 1826,

l+^(a+bi)+âtml(a+bi)2
" m n a 2 +b 2 <1."
(Bekken 1992, .10). '
,
,, Nm , m
m(m-l) 2 m(m-l)(m-2) 3
(1+x) = l + y x + 1 2
12 3
"
171
"... m 1." (ct., .5),
-1 < < 1 ( ||<1). Abel
,
. Bol
zano x < 1 (. 6.4.)
. Liouville,
1844
1851,

. Liouville f(x)=axn + bx"1 +... + gx + h
x
( )
^ x ,
" " (abstraction faite de signe),
|-x>-iT
(Liouville 1851,.137-38)38

. ,

, Liouville
Cauchy

mod.(-)>9.
A(mod.q)
(..,.142)
mod.
p. L. Tchebychef,
" ". ,
Taylor ,
Tchebychef :
. Cauchy
f(a)+Ina)+|r(a)+...+n^^f<"-1>(a)+1^f(-)(aH...

38
"
Liouville" (SpivaJc 1967, .368-69), Liouville
.
172
lim mo<LL2
, ,
n
lim (mod.z) .mo(L-i
1.2.3...
n)
f< (a)
<1
<1...
(Tchebychef 1844, .90)
Jn=
Tchebychef
,
"" .
""

.
, Tchebychef "
" Cauchy "
". :
3
' --logx, yia x=, .
- 1 . 3 9
. L --r -logx =~. '

, > -logx
(;
L- L+. , .
, , > ,
^ - 1 0 > " " 1 < - +

(Tchebychef 1849, .38)

, ,.
dx
^- '
*x)<2.fe+oI5x-
, Tchebychef
39
() ,
(). Tchebychef
" " (prime
()
number theorem) lim
=1
-*
tog
173
x-(logx-l)
L+K-
Iogx " lognx
x-(logx-l
+ L+l>-
logx lognx
-
dx
logx "*ognx
logx " lognx
2
2
:

L+1
. ,
,

?
dx _
x-Oogx-1)
n
logx
+ log x
V2
dx
logx
n
log x
, x=>,
.

L+1 ,
L+1=0 L=-l,
. (.., .39 )
Tchebychef ""
(.., < < | < max{ ||, ||})
|L+l| < |g(x>|+8
.

Tchebychef,
;,
.
,
19
, .
174
6.7. .
mod. ,
,
.

.

1840,
Cauchy Weierstrass (Bottazzini 1986, .162 .. Manning 1975, .358 ..)
, 2
, .
Weierstrass "Zur Theorie der Potenzreihen", 1841,
" Cauchy" .

:
-
F(x) = ,* x . r
, [absolute Benag] F(x) ,
x |xi=r,
g :
.
(Weierstrass 1841, .67)

.
Weierstrass '
,
.. "":
[Umgebung] (^ ^... )
[Gebiet] ,. 2 ,. xQ
[Bereich] : ([, \,... x'Q)
,
(x", XJ,... xjp
175
|--<4 ^ - ^ - ,
ft-ajsfc-aj
(oJcoJOn^yw
'
, ,

Weierstrass.410
, 1841, ,
" Laurent * ".
"Darstellung einer analytischen Function einer
complexen Vernderlichen, deren absoluter Betrag zwischen zwei gegebenen Grenzen
liegt"42, Weierstrass
, , "
" (Weierstrass 1841).
*

. , Weierstrass 1841
, ,

.
Weierstrass,
1842,
(Weierstass 1842).

Weierstrass
,
"" ,
(Weierstrass 1894, .-vi). Weierstrass
,
. ,
. .
4 0
"Gebiet" "Bereich"
Weierstrass (- . ). . (Geliertet al 1978, .182).
41
1839-1841 Weierstrass Mnster
Chr. Godermann.
, "" 1894.
1841 . Cayley
1813 . L.
Creile Taylor (Cajori
1929, .92.216).
42
" ,
"
176
Schwarz 1861, " "
(Schwarz 1861).43
1872 . Heine "Die Elemente der Funconenlehre",
Weierstrass.

G. Cantor,
" " " ".
,
:.
.
,
.
(Heine 1872, . 178)

, Heine

, .44
1872 G.
Cantor R. Dedekind .
Weierstrass
Cauchy :
43
p. Dugac, Weierstrass.

.
Weierstrass Cauchy,
.. " "
(Dugac 1973, .63). Schwarz, ..
:
,
h, ' , f(x+h)- f(x)
,

... ,
,
._

f(x+h>- f(x). Schwarz jhk
G. Cantor, 1870 (Schwarz 1870/1964, .88).
4 4
,
Schwarz, Heine:
f(x) =,
,
% , , ^
f(X )- f(X) .
(Heine 1872, .182)
, ()
,
.
177
,

, , ... , ...
, ,
, On+m-On ,
m, ,
(, ) !,
> m
, |a,. m -a n | < .
(Cantor 1872, .92-93)
Dedekind, ( "Stetigkeit und irrationale
Zahlen") "",

. ..
Dedekind :
x

, x

, , , -

.
(Dedekind 1872/1901, .24)

,
1870. 1876 Weierstrass,
"Zur Theorie der eindeutigen analytischen Functionen",
|-| > ,
:
||
(Weierstrass 1876, .78)
1870
,

. Cantor, Weierstrass
1860 ,
1870
,
178
(Cantor 1870 1871). To 1874,
(
),
:
(), 4 5

,
,
-1, n
,
, :
= -1 + lad + lotit + + tanl
(Cantor 1874, .116 )
Dedekind,
,

:
() [Modul]
[Absolute Betrag] ,

M(a b) <, M(a) + M(b) M(ab) = M(a)M(b)...
(Dedekind 1878, .91)

( Dedekind)
:
w = f(z) z
>1, , h
,
f(z+h)= w+w'h + w/^l2+...+w()h',

m, m , m ,... m

(0>
w, /, w",... w
1. : w , :

, ,
45
, + " 1 + ... + On =0 , *
a l t ... , , , 1 ( ... OQ .
179
h, < ,
f(z+h)-f(z) .
. ,
(, )
1
m + m' + m/"+...+m('1)
k < , k < 1,
M{f(z+hH(z)} * m'k+m''k 2 +...+m (,,) k e
k(m' + m''+...+m U) )<A, . . .
, h
m- < Mf(z+h) < m+,
M(a b) M(a) + M(b).
( ., .92)
,
,

.
25 19
,
, . ,
Dedekind (
Modul), L. Kronecker D. Hilbert
, Weierstrass, Cantor .., ! (Kronecker
1887 Hilbert 1893), F. Lindemann . Gordan
abs mod (Lindemann 1882 Gordan 1893).

,
Cauchy , ,
" " "". . Laurent ..
"valeur absolue'' val abs
"module" mod (Laurent 1894). Cb, Hermite

mod . Hennite,
Weierstrass ,
,
mod
. ..
(, , Q AC 2||,
2 ,
180
"... '
..." (Hermite 1884, .139). Hermite
19
, () L. Fuchs.
(Hermite 1896, .432 ..).
mod G. Peano,
"Formulaire Mathmatique" (1895-1908)

. Peano
,
Leibniz (. 63.)
Weierstrass, mod

.46

Peano (""
"Formulaire") :
,
0.
mod(+a)=a, mod(-a)=a, modO=0
.
, b ,
01.
moda=x, x 0 =+ =-
1.
moda
2.
mod(-a)=moda
3.
mod(a+b) moda +modb
4.
mod(axb)=(nioda)x(modb)
{(^, )}
5.
m 0, (moda) = mod(am)
(Peanol903, .93)
,
20 " "
,
,
4 6
,
20 , ,
, "", ..
f(x) fx. 1910, , G. Vacca
:
. bel ,
modx Cauchy, mod
, sin, cos,... (Vacca 1910, .369)

(Cajori 1929, .133,138).
181
.. "Cours d' Analyse" C. Jordan.

:
6. e
, , -e, e
.
|c|.
| IbNobl
|a|-|b|-|c| | a b c | Ia|+|b|+|c|
(Jordan 1909, .7)
,
, Jordan
:
185. +bi
,
Oy b.
,
-
pcosq>=a, osin(p=b, ^ 2 ^ 2
a
b
coscp=-, sincp= , ,
a+bi
|a+bi| mod(a+bi).
186. a+bi, ' +b ' i, . . .
(+'+ . . . )+(b+b'+ . . . )i

a+bi, a'+b'i, . . .
,
:

- ,
, ,
, (OJI., .173-76)
Jordan ""
mod,
,
182
Weierstrass .
.47
6.8. .

,

.
Cauchy,

(. . 31).
W. R. Hamilton

.
, Hamilton 1843
(quaternions),
"" =+1+22-33 ( , , ., 03
tx, t?, 13 "" tx2 = t ^ = t32 = tx.t2.t3 = -1).
""
.
, , "norm"
=< +2 +?2 +32
""
Ta=Va<r +2 +22 + 3 2 =
,
, a=Ta(cosq> + isincp)
. a x t ^ + a ^
ai
Va^W

âi2+a22-HX32
(Hankel 1867, .141 ..).
4 7
, ,
" " "" mod
( )
20 . .. 6 "Cours '
Algbre suprieure" J. . Serret,
mod
(Serret 1928, .92 ).
H.A. ,
mod 11 . (Metzler
et al 1908, .80 ,, 150 ..)
183

. Grassmann "Ausdehnungslehre" (
),
(Struik 1967/1982, .278).
" ",
=!+22+... -
, 2,..., "" ei, tz,..., e n .
Grassmann 16
,
[AlBMaxei-Kfcer-- +)(+22+~. +)=+22+- +Onn []=2, Grassmann
" ",
:
151. . [numerischer Werth]

.
, .
.
. , ,
, '
,
- , .
.
+iW-l,
1 "V-1. i
V-1, i 2 =-l, . . i,
+bi
"^+2,
+bi.
- ...
(Grassmann 1862, .112)
, ,
" ", Grassmann
,
,

(o-t., 286-87,310-11):
184
414. .

,
, , 2, ...

= + 22+...,

/2 + 2 2 +...
. * 151.
415. ,
,
, .
....
416. .
b.
b
num. < b.
417. , 2,... ,
. . ?, ,
b ,

a num. <b.
a r + 22 +... < 2 + 22 + .
"....
418. p, q, ... a, b, ...
( ),

a num. <p, b num. < q,...

+ b +... num. < +q +....
....
419. . q b
( ),

a num. < p, bnum.<q
185

- b num. < + q.
457. b, e,... ,
() abc ...
(a, , , ...)
0 =aY ....
458. b, e,..., bi, c l t ...

num. < at
b num. < bj, c num. < Ci, ...

abc ... num. < aifyct...
,
( ), Grassmann
norm 1=^ 2 + 2 +... + 2
Rn
' . " 415,
, " ) =0", 418
+bll S liail+llbll (
) 457
Hall. Grassmann
457 458
:
,
419,
.
(ojr., .311 )

,

, ,
, ' .
, 20 ,
"" "norm"
"** .
, "" .
FrchetTO 1906
Chevallard & Johsua,
186
(3.3.)

.
M. Frchet
"" "" .
,
Frchet
,

. Frchet
,
(Frchet 1906, .4-5 1971, .119).
' ,

, Frchet "" (voisinage),
:
; (V) , ,

, (. )=(, )>0
;
1 (, )
.
2 1:(),
(, ) ,
(, Q S (A, Q () ,
, C. , (, ) (, Q
(A, Q.
(, ).
,
(V): A l t 2,... ,
(A, ) - .
, 2,... ,
, ,
(An, ) (, An) - ,
(, ) (2 ). (, )
187
, (
).
(Frchet 1906, . 18)
-,

, Frchet
"" (cart)
(OJt., 30):

,

, (, )>0,
:
) (, )
) , , C ,
(A,B)<(A,Q+(C,B)
, J. Kiirschk
'
"" (Bewertung),
"" (Kiirschk,
1913 .211-15- ):
9
Hall, -
:
1. 11011=0, llall>0,
2. II 1+ $ Wtall,
3. a, b, llabl!=llall.!lbll,
4. 9 Hall
.
91
Hall ...

91
.
...

. ..
HablHIalLllbll
b=l, 11111=1.
188
a=b=-l 1=-12, 11-111=1.
-.

llnll<n.
=1 .
,
Hl+nllSl+llnll<l+n.

lla+bllSllcdWIbll.
=0 .
:
lla+blHlall.lll+^H< lldl.(l+-jgj) IlalWIbll.
' b a-c c-b,

lla-bll<lla-cll+llc-bll.
lla-bll
, 48 ...
a-b , ,
,

.
, ,
...
,
, 9 ,
S. Banach norm *
(Banach 1922). Banach ,
Grassmann, (
) ,
.
Kinscbk Frchet 1906.
VII
7.1.
.

,
19
20 . , '

.

.

,
.
. ,
Weierstrass , "
"
" " (
1898, .7,21, 32, 157). ,
(
) :

, (.
(OJ., .34)
. Schaben, "Encyklopdie der mathematischen Wissenschaften",

. Ohm (1828-29) . Hankel (1867),
" " -b a<b (Differenzformen),
a-b a>b (Schubert
1898, . 12).
J. Pierpont, "Lectures on the Theory of Functions of Real
Variables", R
190
, ( '
) ,
:
R > 0.
< 0, .
(Pierpont 1905, .14)

" ",
.1

,
"
" ( .., .94 Schubert OJI., .12).
'

.

, :
, ,
. ( .., .35)
Schubert , '
:
,
[ ],
.
(Schben .., .13)
Pierpont, ,
R, :
*0 R
'"* ' '"''' ="
) .
,
|.
,
||=.
(Pierpont . all)1
1
,
,
tov D. Hbet. (Hilbert 1899).
2
Piapont,
Caochy ,
aitoenfrott :
191
Pierpont (
)

:
loi
|a-b| = |b-a|
+ bl sla|+|b|
|abU||a|-|b||
kbMal.lbl
=
b
Ibi
b*0
|ai a 2 - a m | S ^^- - +|a m |

|ai. a 2 ... amj = |ai|.ja 2 |... |a m |
Av A> 0 lai <A, -A < a <A
la-bj < A |b-c| < , |a-c| < A+B
a-b < x < a+b, |x-a| < b
(_., .22-23)

Pierpont,

woux .
, ,

.
( ..)
, ,

.
(..,.90)
,
, -
a l f 2 , . . . , lai ,
latl, ^, _ (Pierpont , .55-56).
192
, (
) .
( )

(.., . 113).3
Schubert , ,

.

"Encyklopdie der mathematischen Wissenschaften",

(Pringsheim 1898Runge 1899).

, ,
""
,

(.. ) .
,
19
20 (Caratheodory 1918- Hall & Knight 1891 1916 Weber
1898- 1929).
, ,
, ,

.
19 20 ,
"" '

+ -.
. Laurent "Trait d' Algbre",
Cauchy,

, :

( 190 1911-12).
193
, ' ,
, +,
-
.
(Laurent 1887, 3)
Laurent, ,
:

,
' ,
. , ,
-4,
-4, ..
5-4=1, 2+7-4=5, ...
(..)
C. Bourlet , "Prcis d' Algbre"
,
(
, , ) :

+.
:

-.
,
,
.
(Bourlet 1907,
.8)
,
,
" ":

, '
+ - .
(Laurent, OJt., .4)
,
.
(Bourlet, .)
194
"Trait d'Algbre",
, Laurent
.4
Bourlet, ,

.

() .
Bouriet

.
(.., .9)
,

(+) (-),
.
(.., .17)5

"" Laurent Bourlet
"" .

, ""
,

. , , Schubert Pierpont
4
Trait d* Algbre",
, Laurent val
abs mod .
.
5

,
20 . . ,
" "
"" " " (.
), .
.2 ..
" +=,
" :
[] .
(-),
(-),
tirai * .
( 1923, . 161- ).
. " "
( )
"" (
1924).
195
,
.6

( "" ),

.
""
.
Bourlet , "Leons de Trigonometrierectiligne" " "
, ""
"" .
, .. = -~- ,
, "" :
1 : (
"").
2 :
( ,
"" ).
(Bourlet 1898, .58 ..)
' , ""

,

.
,
""
. Bourlet, "Leons d'Algbre",

"" ,
|a|-|bUla+b|s|a|+|b| |ab|=Iajx|b|

. ' 6
"" ""
( M. FWchet. (. 6.7.). Chevallard &
Johsua, >
, "
" (Chevallard & Johsua 1982, .166).
196
, ,
a(b+c)=ab+ac
(Bourlet 1921. .23,33,46).

"
"
(Camman & Grignon
1924 Estve & Mitault 1928 1944, ) 7

" "
1960.
,
, (..,

,
..). "
" , ,
.

,
:

,

.
(Bourlet 1907, .8)

.
(Hue & Vagnier 1918, .13)
7

.
(Runion de professeurs 1948, .17)

,

.
(Maillard & Caralp 1959, .75)

,
. , ,

.
197
,

,
, ,
, .
.
( 1966, .222)
( 1924, 5)

,
, .. 2 =|| R.

, 2 = (Ballore 1921, 58 Eussric
& Pascal 1907, .137 Hue & Vagnier 1918, .32 F. L C. 1926, .88
1924, .125).
. , 2=4,
, =2
4 (Hue & Vagnier 1912, .103
1945, .204).
"" " 2 =
, ..
.
"
" xy+2xNxy-x2 + xy- 2x^xy-x2 = 2x"
( 1939, .47).
, ""
Vxy+2xvxy-x2 = / (+"xy-x2 ) 2 = xWxy-x 2
\xy-2x'Vxy-x2 = \ (-Vxy-x2 ) 2 = xWxy-x 2 ,
, ye R,
(.., =3 y=15, 12=6).

,
,
(Camman & Oignon
1924, .11 Hawkes et al 1926 .419,422- Estve & Mitault 1928, .18). Estive
& Mitault, .., :
-
198
.. : \ 2 = >0 " 2 =- <0...

a-flW(a-l) 2
r
,
,
1 - >1 <1 .
(Estve &
MitaultOJt.)
"2
,
,
. 20

'

, (Bourlet 1921
Metzler et al 1908 1944, ). Bourlet. "Leons d'Algbre",
:
+bi

L , a+bi
"v'a^b2.
.
" 2 =||.
,

. (
11 ) .
,
|a+bi| = "V a ^ b 2 .
(Bourlet .., .517)

,
, ,
25 19
. ,
19
20 ,
(Bailore 1921 Bourlet 1907 Laurent 1887).
199
' ,
,

(.., , .)-
, ,
(Bourlet 1921 Camman & Grignon 1924
Estve & Mitault 1928 1944 ).

" ",
.
Camman & Grignon :

,
.,
.
(Camman & Grignon ., .96)8
'
,

. ,

,

"" .

,
""
. , '

,

.
,
,
, ..
8
Boari 1895,
"Leons d'Algbre" . "0>" >
, G. Darboux
(Bourlet 1921, .).
200
.
,

1930.
,

. W.
Drfler R. R. McLone,
,
:
[
] -

.

.
:

. .

.

.
:

.
(Drfler & McLone 1986, .63 )

,
* ,
,
.
201
7.2.

.

20 , "" ,
"" (, ,
, ),
( 2 , , ,
, ), ,
, . ,
( ,
). ( )
,

(Bailore 1921 Camman & Grignon 1924 Eussric & Pascal 1907 Ferva!
1949; p. I. C. 1926 Hawkes et al 1926 Hue & Vagnier 1912 1918- Radford 1926
Runion de professeurs 1939 1948 1939 1944
1945 1937 1940).
'
" ",

.

, .. :
/+ + \-
2ab
. = - = 2
+--
^+1
(Hue & Vagnier 1918, 213 Estve & Mitault 1928, .144)
,
,
. . ..,
, x
,
lb+11-lb-ll . ,
.
.
. .
=
. , ,
lb+11+lb-ll
= b -1 < b < 1 = b <-1 b > 1 (
1940, II, .77). ,
202

, 3915
'
.9

, ..
.
. :
y= ( 1-2)2 - *
( 1937, V, .924)
y=|l-2x|-|x|
:
x+y-l=0 < 0
3x+y=l
0<<2
x-y-l=0 >

.10

,
.
,

,
1930.
,
, ""
1934:

|x|+2|y-l|=2. ( ... 1934, .29, .464)"
9
- ^^.. ,
,
( 1970, .47 1952, .18).
, 3744

.

(
_., , .4).
11
"" ..., "",
1930, "
, . -
203
:
|x|+|y|=l
2 + y2 =1.
(-. 1935, .36,. 576)
A.|x|+B.|y|+r=0, Oxy.
Alxl+Blyl+IV,, 0.
(ojt. 1936, .43,. 688)
"" 2
,
""
:
<1 <1 | |<1
.
(.1936,.41,.656)
(xMx +3) + 2|2-6 +8| = - 2 +8-13
(. 1940,.31,.480)12

E.MIL).

,
.
"" ,
E.MJI.13

,
.
" ",
..." (
.. 1930, . 1, 3)
12

"L' Education Mathmatique", "".
13
,
, \
. , ' ,
" " Cmmm Grignon:
, bcka,
Ex 3 -5x 2 -xl< 0,001
(Camman & Grignon 1924, . 176)
204
" ".
,

( , ,
.).14 1940,
,
Vu (1941):
|x+l|-|x|+3|x-l|-2|x-2|= +2
(Galperin Tolpigo 1986, o2fr Shklarsky et al 1962, .40)

,
,
.
,

, (.. |x|+2|y-l|=2
|x|+iy|=l). ' ( )

. ' , Weierstrass , ' ,
, ""
(Bostock & Chandler 1983, .434 ..
Smogorzhevsky 1980, .37 .. 1964, 240, 335 1962, .
96). 15 , ,
,
(..
14

- x2+Sx-13 = (2- 4+3) - 2(2- 6+8)
, ,

r(x2-4x+3Xx2-6x+8)0
\x 2 -4x+32(x 2 -6x+8)
( +2=-2
{ >2
) ""
, ,
.
" Hermite
( 6.7),
!al<ixl<]b!
Ibi (Hermite 1896, .432).
205
|x|+|y|=l, 4 xy-)
. WotaxQunj
" " "

.16
""
,
,
.

, ' ,
'
. ,
"",

(Christiansen & Walther 1986, .271 .. Niss et al 1988, 237 Schoenfeld 1985,
.74). ,
,

1950.
, |x|+|x-l|+|x-2|=a
(Straszewicz 1965. .5) 1957 |3-2|+|3+|=3
2 ( 1981, .318).17

.
16

,
(
, |
"
").
17
T. Dreyfus . Eisenberg,
, l3x+2t+Gx-5kl2 '
10 .

- ,
, "" .
-
.
-
.
,
,
(Dreyfus & Eisenberg 1986, .6-7).
206

.
.
1940,
,
.

:
,
, . -7
7 +7 7 7.
: |-7|=7 17|=7.
.
( 1940, .9)
,
,

586 .
"" ,
( "") ,

.MIL ' ,
1926,
1940.

:
1. y=
, x
1-||
||<1, = .
i+ly|
2. *0 ||-||>1
2
+ +=0 .
. x|y|+y|z|+z|x|=0
3.
x, y,
y|x|+z|y|+x|z|=0
;
4. x =||-|-|-||
, x .
207

.
5. ||+||+||+ +
||
+ +3=0
||
||
6. ,
2(1+||)=1++|| |2-|<1, (1-|2-|)=2-1
, .
, ;
7. "
2|| +!|=1
, ,

. " "
.
( 1944).
'
,
(.. Leons d'Algbre lmentaire C. Bourlet). '
,
"" ,
.
- -

( '
). :
28 " - "
( 59 )
7 "
" ( 84 )
5 "
" ( 53 ).

,
. ,

( .. 4 '
208
. 1 ,
E.MJI. 1940).
"" ...
1946, .
1948-49,
( ' . 3,4,5,
6 7 ),
"'' :
1. : 3|x|-5|y|=7, 2|x|-3|y|=5
2. || 2 - 5 ||+6=0
3. [ 2 + 1 - |x| 2 v + 1 ]-[x 2 x + 1 +lxl 2 x + 1 ]=0
+
W+M
||
Ixl-lyl
>-
( ... 1948, 16 .509 .17 .562 1949 .18, .576)

,
, ""
. . "
" (1944) . . , .
...,

""
. ,
1950 3
E.MIL, 1950/1951
' (

).18

.
( 1950).19 ' ,
, :

0 ,
18

,
" , .
.
19
"" . ,
, 25 .
209
() ...
.. -5 : |-5|,

11 . |-5|=5.
: ||
0, ||=, ,
||=-.
( 1950, .14)

,
(
). ,

.

. "
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:
||+=0, ||++=0, || 2 +2 +=0

( 1950, .233-36).

" ' " 2 0

1950 1960,
E.MJI.21
:
;
2 0
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,
( 1924- 1936). ,
1930 ( 1961),
. "'*
1950,

1940.
21
, 30 1950
: EJMJI. 25, 2, .
1, 1.
210

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.

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( =
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, 1963,
tao ^ (
. 1964 ( ,
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.
2 3

, . .. (Anderson & Hall 1972, .27-34 Spivak 1967,
. 16-17,66-67- et al 1987, .10).
211
numerus clausus) ( 5
10) .24

.
1962,
.
,
EMIL:
x, y
,
||
lyl
+
|x+y| |x-yl
M
+
W-M
lyl
>2.
||x|-|y||
;
( 1962, .8,60 1963, .47 )

, ' . ix|<|y| (.. x=0, y=l).
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,
. E.MJI.
,
:

|x|>|y|,
lx|<ly|
!x|>|y|.
,
( ""),
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2 4

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1966,036S- 1994 1994 Flato 1993, .24-25 Revuz 1981. .57-59).
212

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E.MJ1.,
1962, .
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( 1962). . ( 1974, .246-48).
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1950 I960.28
1.

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2
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+1=0 (3) .
(2) .
(1) : | | . (3)
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(CHeason et al 1980. .438-39.632).

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.
- E.MJI. ( 1986, .35).
.
28
20
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214
; 02 ,
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5. x ~\j | 2 +8x-9j-24
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).
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1 (0 < || < 1)
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8.
2 + +=0,
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y+y|x|=6, |y|-|x|=2;
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|2-3-4|=, y
- * < < - ;

y.
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+l
leti
Il
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+
1+|+| 1+|| 1+||
=0 =0.
.
215
12. ^||+||>2.
13. |x|+|y|=a, ay=x2
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15
5+!6
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4+20
15.
(-2|+|2-! ^ " ^ ^
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uy 3Z
(). 2, +2=2, ()=(2).

16. Q\, QZ 2-2+
9rr2 ft
^ 1| * |2- =2
(D.^.^x^(|i,^
=|
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-1

( ) ,
,
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. 1950,

,

( 1967 1956 1966
1954 .. .. 19620- &
1968 1952- 1959 1961 1962 1961).
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. , 5 ""
... ( 1960-61).29
2 9
...,
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216
,

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1954-1978:
1) . : . 1954.
2) . : .
1954.
3) . :
. 1954.
4) . : ,
'.1955.
5) . :
. 1955.
6) . : . .. ( 1960)
7) . - :
. . 1962.
8) . : . .. ( 1960)
9) . . : . 1969.
10) . : . .. ( 1970)
11) . : .
1978.30
,

, ,
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.31
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100 180
217
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1950-1980,

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1944, (1950),
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At 209 217 222
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1962 . , E.MJI. ( 1962, .8,60).
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218
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( 1955, .3 )

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35

Chevallard,
( IX).
3 6
20 Royaumont 1959, n
3

(OJLE.C. 1961, 560 (h)). , E.MJI.
:
S v (}
=-5 =^- > 3 ^ = - - 1 \
j-=--Sj<8 .
220

, ""
....
'" . 1960,
, ""
, :

Vx2+6x+5 Wx 2 -4x+4 - ^2+5+4 = -2.

,
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= V(x-2)2 = -2
,
, =-1,
(
"V 9 =-3).

.
1950. ""
( .. 16 =4)
.
(.. )

( 1950, .164 . ).
2
/ -4+4
,
Six 2 -4x +4 = "V (-2) 2 = |-2|,
.
152x3-601x2
+952 +31=0,
37
.
,
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( 1960, .28).
3 7
.
(-1,0),
.
221
,

.
,

" '*
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7.3.
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1950,
" ".38
,
,

(....).
1959 Royaumont ,
:

-
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.
(OJLE.G 1961, 374,377 )
38
,
. . (Kline 1973/1990, .35 ..
1989, . 37 ..)
??

.
:

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.
(.., 384 )

Dubrovnik
1960
.

,
:
, ,
, .

' . ,

.
(O.E.E.C. 1961. .292 ;)

. . G. Steiner, '
,

(Steiner 1962). , Steiner,
- ,
,
,
, .
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Steiner

(Steiner .., .84-85 ):
223

.

||, [] ( ) signx. ,

, '
(.. [x R -[x]+x],
[xR-> signx],
[xrt-*(-l)w].
[x,R -> |sinx|] .)
,
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] .
lyl=|x|, [y]=M. lyhM. y=x2+5|x|+6,
, '
[]=2, 2-5]|+6=0, [2-5+6] (-10)=0 .,
( :
5-V5
5 + V5
- 2 ^ - < X S 2 V 3 S X < ^ Y V X = 10VX = -10V)

.

.
,
,

.....
1964,
,

.
, ^ ,

:
R, ,
39
, .
39

" " (Bruner 1960, .64 .. Heftete 1975, .187).
J. Fey -...
,
,
224
,

:

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, .
(O.E.C.D. 1964, .84)
, ,
,

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,

.... ILA-

.
Histein et al,
HH.A. 1955-1980 :

.
,
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. (Fey 1980, .421)
4 0

( DC).
225

.
,
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, 1950 (
),
.
||
:
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|| ={_ m 0 ^ .
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.
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(Hirstein et al 1980, .377-78 )

,
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226
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()
> 0
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.
. ...
* [ ]
, ,
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.
.
(Keedy 1963, .195)

,
:
{(x.y)| |x| < 2 |y| < 3 }, {(x,y)| || > 2 |y| > 2}, {(x.yj| y < ||}
(..,.291).

.
Mathematical Association of America 1950.
1950
. , 1957-1959,
:
1. y s V x ^ x + l +Vx2 +2+1 y : (A) 2 () 2(+1) ()
0 () |x-l|+|x+l| () .
2. |xj , -,
.
4 1
(
- ),
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227
|| 2 +||-6 =0 : () ()
+1 () 0 ()
+4 () -6.
3. | +,
-,
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x |3-|< 4
: () * < 49 () 2 > 1 ( ) 1 < 2 < 4 9
()-1<<7 ()-7<<1.
4. OoXn + -1 +... + ^, + ,, n
.
. h=n+cto+|a,|+|a2|+ ... +||.
h=3 () 3 () 5 () 6 () 7 () 9.
(Salkindl961,oaj0-68)

ILA.,

:

H J I . . ^
,
... ...
...
(..,.3,5)

.

(.. ),
( 1973-1982)
" " (Aitino et al 1982, .179).

" ",

.
, "Mathematics
Teacher" National Council of Teachers of Mathematics HJI .,
228
30

.42

, ...
,

(
"" ,
, ).
1957-1958,

.43
, ,
4 3
( ' ' )
1958. ,

. :
1.
y=|x-4| y=|x|+|x-l|
7
x
txl
2.
+ +3=0
1
^
'
1x1+1 +1
3. 3\ 2 -||=5 3/: -||=.
( ^ =||)
4. 2 2 -||> 0. (
--" <0) "
3+7
5. ,, , ? < -1 .
6.
f4H-2H8
f5M+3|y| = :
\6W-5ly| = 5
= :2
I3|x|-2|y|1 =
= 24
( ).
(Maillard et al 1962, . 195,215,241,270)
42

(8.1.).
43
, " "
1969, Lichneiowicz (Magni 1980).
229

, ..
2m,
. V A ;m = | | ,
2m
>0
VA 2m = - < 0 <

(Combes 1964, .47-48).

, "L* ducation Mathmatique'* "Journal de
Mathmatiques lmentaires".
(..
)
. :
1.
||x|-l|<|x-m|
(L' ducation Mathmatique 1958-59, 12, .96)
2. ax2 +b|x|+c=0 (1) x
a, b, e
. = ^ -4ac.
1. (1) ac<0.
2. (1) aoO >0
3. : ) c=0 ) =0.
3.1) y =

2
2(3+2x-x )
(e).
+3
2) *-- =|x|+m(3+2x-x2)
m .

3)
3+cost
1
.. _ _
...
= .
+m(sin2t +2cost +2)
z
Vl+tg2t
(Journal de Mathmatiques lmentaires 1959-69, N 20, .165)44
4 4

" "
R (Combes 1977- Queysanne & Revuz 1971).
230

L' ducation Mathmatique, 195859. 8000 F
2
:
. ABC a, b,
e a-b=R ab=R2 R
.
2. ) a b
, | | a | - | b | | |a- b|
) a ,
,
,
yi=J|a|-|ax|| y2=|a-ax|

().
, , ; :

:
. ,

. .
(. 12, .89- )

"
".
,
, ""

. :
,
,

"" "" ;
229

, ..
2m.
. Alm =| | .
2m
>0
vA 2 m = - < 0
r

(Combes 1964, .47-48).

, "L* ducation Mathmatique" "Journal de
Mathmatiques lmentaires".
(..
)
. :
1.
||x|-l|<|x-m|
(L* ducation Mathmatique 1958-59, 12, .96)
2. ax2 +b|x|+c=0 (1) x
a, b, e
. A=b2 -4ac.
1. (1) ac<0.
2. (1) aoO >0
3. : ) c=0 ) =0.
(L* ducation Mathmatique 1959-60, 11, .88)
3.1) y = -
2(3+22)
(e).
2) i y =|x|+m(3+2x-x2)
m .

3)
=
+m(sin2t +2cost +2)
Vi+tg2t
(Journal de Mathmatiques lmentaires 1959-69, N 20, .165)44
^~1
4 4

" "
R (Combes 1977 Queysanne . Revuz 1971).
230

V ducation Mathmatique, 195859. 8000 F
2
:
1. ABC a, b,
e a-b=R ab=R2 R
.
2. ) a b
, | | a | - | b | | |a-b|
) a ,
,
,
yi=||a|-|ax|| y2=|a-ax|

().
,
, :

:
. ,

. .
(OJ. 12, .89- )

"
".
,
, ""

. :
,
, ot

"" "" ;
231
'
.
7.4.
.

1960 ...,
.45

. ,

, 1968-1970
.46
"
"

. ,
( 1991 Toumasis 1990),
.

1968-69, ,
,
: ,
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' ' .
45

, ,
' ' .
"' :
,
. * :
=5.
2
3
+2 2
" "5 5, -=
( 1962, \57 1967, .8).

E.MJI. . , .
, . ,
. .
. , . . ,
.
4 6
232
OL
(... 225 (. AV10-U-1969):
'

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'

.
()
.

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,
,

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.

. 1950,
, ,
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( : .... 1973, .12,15).47
' ( et al 1969)
,
4 7

(
1964) . 3
.
233

* .
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.
,

:
,
||=
||=
||=0.

, ,
.
, ..:

, .
(
) .
:
a e Q + , eQ" ||>|| =>+=+(||-||), ||-||>0
aeQ + ,eQ- ||<||=>+=-(||-||), ||-||>0
,

, , ,
.
:
, eQ , ,
.=||.||
, ,
.=- (||.||)

|+| M+Il |.|=||.||.

. ..:
|+3|=5 +3 .

:
234
... |(-3HxH-3|+|-l|;
, , veQ, |..|=||.||.||.

' .
" ",
:
-1, |(-3)+(-l)l=|-3l+l-l
(, = |+|=||+|| )
( ... .., .39)

,

"" . 7
x
"" ,
TUJTXJJ
/ .43
""
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/ :
, :
Vcr"=|ai
( & 1968, .70)
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) '
.
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1969),
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48

"^"
(Donnolen 1986, . 157-58 Kieran 1981).

.
235
3 ,
) :
,49 (
)
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,
"":
(
) ,
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:

VaeR;=>|a| = a
VaeR" => |aj = - (- > 0)

5 "" :
V a e R => || = |-)
VaeR = | 5 5 | |
V a e R . v e N => | a f = a 2 v
V a s R ; , v s N = > |cf "a**1
V a, x e R: j x | < a s * - a < x < a
, 2.5 ,
:
|-10| 55, 5 5x515
+*

8||+1
-5 < <12,
=-3|-6+|+13|- 2|2-11|-|12-|
XI

.

""
, (
4 9
' (. .45) 1969 et al.
236
) . ""
,
,
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36
,

( 1970). ""
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, .
, , 32
" ",
,
.50 :
1. - .
2. R.
3. .
4. R.

, (9
8 ).

:
||+=0 a,eR,a*0
'
||++=0
a,^sR-{0}
30

: L (14), IL
(19), IIL (32), IV.
(71), V. (36), VI.
(22), VII. (31), VIII. -
- (43). . - - (12),
. (10), XL
(30), . (26).
237
2+||+=0 , , yeR, *0
|()|+|()|+ ... +|P(x)|+Q(x)=0 (), ()
(), Q(x)
.51
""
,

=
f ||+||++=
aJxJ-tfJyK,
|a1x|+1yl+rx + o'y=x'
, ,
27 () 134 ,
. ..
3||+2-4=0
||++=0 ,
.
,

.

.

'
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.52 ,
51

("")
. '
Royaumont
"" (trinomialitis),
(O.EE.C 196 , 263).
5 2

, ' 1
, 1960,

""
. , 1964,
( )
7
. ..., ... ._
( 1964) , ,
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. .. " " L
238
" " "
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),
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,
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" ".53

.
,
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.
, ,
' (

, ).
'
" ",
"
" (Aufgabendidaktik).
Lenn,
Christiansen Walther :
, -
-
Lenn
(1969). -
, Lenn, ,

. Lenn
1966, ,
, ( 1966).
5 3

" "
" " ( 1989, .280)
239
,
,

, .
(Christiansen & Walther 1986, 245- Lenn 1969, . 50 ,.)54

'
.
" "
'
( ..). .
' ,

:

.
,

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,
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.
( & 1969, .1)
1970
"
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,
( 1973 1976
1971 1978* 1975 1975
.. 1976).

5 4
( Clicvallard
,
"" (- 3.2.)
240
"" .

, ..
1|4412 + |+2124 +22 + 2 |+ 4 42 + > 0
( 1971)
, 20
y=o(x)
' ( 1975). ""
,
,
11 .
""
(..
, , , .) ( &
1979).55
,

,
.
...,

( .. .....).
1970,
1976
"" .

" ",

1968.

55 4
... 1974 ()
, " ".
... . , "
" ( 1974, .72).
241
"Aufgabendidaktk"
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:
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,
.
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,

, .
(... 1978, .6).5
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||=||||, '
( et al 1980).57 32
' , 4
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56
"" to 1966
.
.
, , :
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200 .
Legendre,
, ,
MQOV "",
baccalaurat,

. , ,
y etc
tutore iev tor . ,

.
{ 1967, .3-4- )
,
1968 (
),
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( 1994, .37).
57
' 1969, .
242
1980). ,
( ),
R
.

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.
, "
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1960

.
"
" .
1980 , ,

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Vili

.
8.1. "
"
.

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.
1960,

.

,
''"
" -' .

30 H.A.
"Mathematics Teacher" National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics.

3 :
)
.
)
( )
.
)
.
1
( )
'
. ,
"" " " . (Ernest 1989
Thompson 1992).
244
to
, ,
|x|=-x, <0.

- .

(Sink 1979- Wagner 1983 Johnson 1986).
, -
"<0" ( )
.

:

,
(Sink ..), " "
-x (Johnson ..)-
,
, ,
-
(Wagner ..).

. ' ,

,
.

, ..
|x|=max{x, -x} |x|=VxT
(Brumfiel 1980).
,
,
" " " "
.
,
1960,
.

245
(..
)

1960.
, |f(x)| |f(x)| >

|f(x)|s <=>-< f(x) |f(x)|> <=>f(x)S-a f(x)>a (1)

( ).

(Chachere 1964- Green 1967).
"".

(1)
. ,
|f(x)| Sa [
|f(x)| >] ( =* q) ( => ) ,
: f() > 0, q: f(x) < a, r.-f () < .
[ : f () > 0, q: f () > a, . - f () > ]

()[( )( )]
(2)
|f(x)|a |f(x)|>a
(Chachere ..). '
" ", |+2|>-1 xsR
(2) , |+2|<-1
(2) . |+2|< 7
x s (-9,5) (2) '
. , ,

(1) 2
5.1.,

" " (Vollrath 1971).
246
"", ;
,

.3 .. |3+4|>1
4 (Green .):
()
I 1 1 I ! ! I)
R >1.
0 1 2 3 * 5
() ,

,
z-l.
() () || > 1.
() ,
y=z-4 (. 4
),
|y+4|>l.
-5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1
2 3 4
() ,

x=Ty
(.
),
|3+4|>1.
L< ^ n
\
^ -- .| i j 1 '
3
'
'
'

" ".
1970 1980
HJIA.
"Back to the basics",
(problem-solving) .
""
,
,
:
4
, ._
3
,

> " ".
*
,
247
,
-
(Ahjua 1976)
,

(" "),
(Sink 1979 McLaurin 1985 Wagster 1986).
,
"-"

. '
,

(..
IxlWx*,
..) (Ballowe 1988- Dean 1985 Roberti 1985).

,

'" .
" " "",
:
,

. E. Wallace '

"" :

. ,
,
.

, |-|, .

" " (Vollrath 1974, .68,99).
248
,
,
( " ")
( R) . ...
'
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'
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. ,

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. ,
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(Wallace 1988, .33,36).
-
. D.
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323
DIDACTIC TRANSPOSITION
OF MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
AND LEARNING OBSTACLES
(The case of absolute value)
by
Yannis C. Thomaidis
Ph. D. Thesis
Department of Mathematics
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki, Greece
1995
ABSTRACT
The present research aims to study the knowledge-obstacles appearing during the
learning of mathematical concepts, especially the so-called didactic obstacles, originating from specific choices of the teaching system. The theoretical background of the
research is the work of G. Brousseau on the epistemologica! obstacles in didactics of
mathematics as well as the one of Y. Chevallard on the didactic transposition of mathematical concepts.
It attempts a synthesis between the concept of obstacle and that of the didactic
transposition. The theoretical frame formed around the didactic transposition is used to
trace and interpret the obstacles owed exclusively to choices of the teaching system. At
the same time and in order to characterize and "evaluate" a particular didactic transposition, a study is made on the way the latter deals with the matter of obstacles.
The former synthesis is attempted by means of a special mathematical concept, that
of the absolute value, which becomes an object of a detailed historical, epistemological
and didactical analysis. This analysis shows that the obstacles usually characterized as
"epistemological", with references to the historical evolution of mathematical concepts,
obtain at the teaching environment certain peculiar characteristics. There, they reveal the
existence of a special function of the mathematical knowledge in serving social
demands and teaching needs. Moreover, this function leads to the appearance of certain
obstacles which have not been historically located and which express a distorted
conception regarding the sense and the meaning of mathematical concepts.
The findings of this research prove that the students' difficulties and "wrong"
conceptions originate from the peculiar character of the mathematical knowledge taught
at school, thus imposing the need for its radical revision.

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iJ^~ 4"'-- /

32. .... ..55

Sierpinska, Brousseau, Glaeser Duroux,

oxtjv . "" ""

' 18 (Grabiner 1981,0.84).

OQO "" , Aitigue,

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Descartes "" , '

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Va + ' + " + ...

30 "" , ', ",... x

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(Tchebychef 1844, .90)

^ - 1 0 > " " 1 < - +

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|ai a 2 - a m | S ^^- - +|a m |

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- 2 ^ - < X S 2 V 3 S X < ^ Y V X = 10VX = -10V)

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