Born in Karnal, India, on July 1, 1961, Chawla was the youngest of four children.

The
name Kalpana means "idea" or "imagination." Her full name is pronounced CULL-
puh-na CHAV-la, though she often went by the nickname K.C.

Chawla obtained a degree in aeronautical engineering from Punjab Engineering

College before immigrating to the United States and becoming a naturalized citizen
in the 1980s. She earned a doctorate in aerospace engineering from the University
of Colorado in 1988, having previously obtained her masters degree from the
University of Texas. She began working at NASA's Ames Research Center the same
year, working on power-lift computational fluid dynamics.

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In 1994, Chawla was selected as an astronaut candidate. After a year of training,

she became a crew representative for the Astronaut Office EVA/Robotics and
Computer Branches, where she worked with Robotic Situational Awareness Displays
and tested software for the space shuttles.

Chawla's first opportunity to fly in space came in November 1997, aboard the space
shuttle Columbia on flight STS-87. The shuttle made 252 orbits of the Earth in just
over two weeks. The shuttle carried a number of experiments and observing tools
on its trip, including a Spartan satellite, which Chawla deployed from the shuttle.
The satellite, which studied the outer layer of the sun, malfunctioned due to
software errors, and two other astronauts from the shuttle had to perform a
spacewalk to recapture it.

Disaster strikes

In 2000, Chawla was selected for her second voyage into space, serving again as a
mission specialist on STS-107. The mission was delayed several times, and finally
launched in 2003. Over the course of the 16-day flight, the crew completed more
than 80 experiments.

This image of the STS-107 shuttle Columbia crew in orbit was recovered from
wreckage inside an undeveloped film canister. The shirt colors indicate their mission
shifts. From left (bottom row): Kalpana Chawla, mission specialist; Rick Husband,
commander; Laurel Clark, mission specialist; and Ilan Ramon, payload specialist.
From left (top row) are astronauts David Brown, mission specialist; William McCool,
pilot; and Michael Anderson, payload commander. Ramon represents the Israeli
Space Agency.

This image of the STS-107 shuttle Columbia crew in orbit was recovered from
wreckage inside an undeveloped film canister. The shirt colors indicate their mission
shifts. From left (bottom row): Kalpana Chawla, mission specialist; Rick Husband,
commander; Laurel Clark, mission specialist; and Ilan Ramon, payload specialist.
From left (top row) are astronauts David Brown, mission specialist; William McCool,
pilot; and Michael Anderson, payload commander. Ramon represents the Israeli
Space Agency.

Credit: NASA/JSC

On the morning of Feb. 1, 2003, the space shuttle returned to Earth, intending to
land at Kennedy Space Center. At launch, a briefcase-sized piece of insulation had
broken off and damaged the thermal protection system of the shuttle's wing, the
shield that protects it from heat during re-entry. As the shuttle passed through the
atmosphere, hot gas streaming into the wing caused it to break up. The unstable
craft rolled and bucked, pitching the astronauts about. Less than a minute passed
before the ship depressurized, killing the crew. The shuttle broke up over Texas and
Louisiana before plunging into the ground. The accident was the second major
disaster for the space shuttle program, following the 1986 explosion of the shuttle
Challenger.
The entire crew of seven was killed. In addition to Chawla, the crew included:

Commander Rick D. Husband

Pilot William C. McCool

Payload Commander Michael P. Anderson

Payload Specialist Ilan Ramon, the first Israeli astronaut

Mission Specialists David M. Brown and Laurel B. Clark

Over the course of her two missions, Chawla logged 30 days, 14 hours, and 54
minutes in space. After her first launch, she said, "When you look at the stars and
the galaxy, you feel that you are not just from any particular piece of land, but from
the solar system."

2.

Biography of Neil Armstrong

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

John H. Glenn Research Center

Lewis Field
Cleveland, Ohio 44135

Neil A. Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon, was born in Wapakoneta,
Ohio,

on August 5, 1930. He began his NASA career in Ohio.

After serving as a naval aviator from 1949 to 1952, Armstrong joined the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1955. His first assignment was with
the NACA Lewis Research Center (now NASA Glenn) in Cleveland. Over the next 17
years, he was an engineer, test pilot, astronaut and administrator for NACA and its
successor agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

As a research pilot at NASA's Flight Research Center, Edwards, Calif., he was a

project pilot on many pioneering high speed aircraft, including the well known,
4000-mph X-15. He has flown over 200 different models of aircraft, including jets,
rockets, helicopters and gliders.

Armstrong transferred to astronaut status in 1962. He was assigned as command

pilot for the Gemini 8 mission. Gemini 8 was launched on March 16, 1966, and
Armstrong performed the first successful docking of two vehicles in space.

As spacecraft commander for Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing mission,
Armstrong gained the distinction of being the first man to land a craft on the moon
and first to step on its surface.

Armstrong subsequently held the position of Deputy Associate Administrator for

Aeronautics, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. In this position, he was
responsible for the coordination and management of overall NASA research and
technology work related to aeronautics.
He was Professor of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Cincinnati between
1971-1979. During the years 1982-1992, Armstrong was chairman of Computing
Technologies for Aviation, Inc., Charlottesville, Va.

He received a Bachelor of Science Degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Purdue

University and a Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering from the University of
Southern California. He holds honorary doctorates from a number of universities.

Armstrong was a Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and the Royal
Aeronautical Society; Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, and the International Astronautics Federation.

He was a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the Academy of the
Kingdom of Morocco. He served as a member of the National Commission on Space
(1985-1986), as Vice-Chairman of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle
Challenger Accident (1986), and as Chairman of the Presidential Advisory
Committee for the Peace Corps (1971-1973).

Armstrong was decorated by 17 countries. He was the recipient of many special

honors, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom; the Congressional Gold Medal;
the Congressional Space Medal of Honor; the Explorers Club Medal; the Robert H.
Goddard Memorial Trophy; the NASA Distinguished Service Medal; the Harmon
International Aviation Trophy; the Royal Geographic Society's Gold Medal; the
Federation Aeronautique Internationale's Gold Space Medal; the American
Astronautical Society Flight Achievement Award; the Robert J. Collier Trophy; the
AIAA Astronautics Award; the Octave Chanute Award; and the John J. Montgomery
Award.

Armstrong passed away on Aug. 25, 2012 following complications resulting from
cardiovascular procedures. He was 82.

3.

Rakesh Sharma
Born On: January 13th, 1949

Born In: Patiala in India

Career: Test Pilot and Cosmonaut

During the mid-80's, Rakesh Sharma proved to be a pioneer in the field of piloting.
He was the first Indian to venture into space and bring a new perspective into the
country. It was almost 26 years ago that since Rakesh undertook that historical
journey to space, although it is still remembered among the people. Owing to his
dedication and struggle, he became a part of the most distinctive space program
that involved only the best military cadets. The Intercosmos Research Team was a
program that was conducted by the Soviet Union and included active participation
from allied countries such as India, Syria and France. Rakesh Sharma was chosen for
this assignment and ever since, he has been an inspiration to upcoming
cosmonauts. If you are interested in learning more about this great personality, read
the following.

Early Life
On January 13th 1949, Rakesh Sharma was born in the well-known district of Patiala
located in the state of Punjab. As a young boy, he enrolled at St. George's Grammar
School in Hyderabad and received his early education from there. Thereafter, he
was admitted to the National Defense Academy as an Air Force plebe in July 1966.
Rakesh proved to be a focused and dedicated student and by 1970, he was
commissioned into the Indian Air Force to become a pilot.

Career

In 1970, after joining the Indian Air Force as a test pilot, his passion for flying
opened up several opportunities such as being a part of war operations against
Pakistan. He flew various Mikoyan-Gurevich aircrafts starting from 1971. Rakesh
swiftly progressed through many levels and in 1984 he was appointed as the
Squadron Leader and pilot of the Indian Air Force.

After some years, he was asked to go on an extraordinary mission as a combined

space program between Indian Space Research Organisation and the Soviet
Intercosmos.

He spent eight days journeying around the Earth's orbit in a space station called
Salyut 7. The flight Soyuz T-11 also carried two other astronauts from Soviet Union.
On 3rd April 1984 when the space flight took off, Rakesh had made history by being
the first Indian to travel in space. His responsibilities included capturing multi-
spectral images of the Northern part of India with a view to construct a hydroelectric
power station close to the Himalayas. In an interview to the press, he described this
experience as the best feeling ever. Rakesh also said that the space venture
involved rigorous training (zero gravity exercises) for him and Rakesh Malhotra, his
colleague.

A few years later he retired from the Indian Army as a Wing Commander to become
a part of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) as a test pilot. He was posted in the
Nashik Division. He then shifted to National Flight Test Center (NFTC) in Bangalore
and began to work on Light Combat Aircraft program, along with a few others.

In 2006, Sharma took part in a conference involving a gathering of the best

scientists of ISRO, who were responsible for one of India's space missions. Currently,
he has retired from his services and is now the chairperson for the Automated
Workflow.

Awards And Accolades

Apart from the first Indian to be on space, he has been awarded by the Government
for his gallantry on successfully completing the given mission. The Hero of Soviet
Union and the Ashoka Chakra Award were two of the accolades given to honor his
courageous deeds.

Timeline

1949: Rakesh Sharma was born in Patalia into a Punjabi family.

1966: He joined the National Defense Academy as an Air Force trainee.

1970: Appointed as a test pilot by Indian Air Force.

1971: Rakesh Sharma flew the Mikoyan-Gurevich, a Russian jet.

1984: He was a part of a space mission owing to which he became the first man to
travel to space.

2006: He took part in a space conference held by ISRO.

2. Major Crops

India is top producer country of many crops. The major crops in India can be divided into four
categories viz. Food grains (Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets and Pulses), Cash Crops (Cotton, Jute,
Sugarcane, Tobacco, and Oilseeds), Plantation Crops (Tea, Coffee, Coconut and, Rubber) and
Horticulture crops such as Fruits and Vegetables. On the basis of seasons, the crops in India have
been divided into Rabi, Kharif and Zaid crops.

Rice:
Rice is predominantly a Kharif or crop. It covers one third of total cultivated area of India. It
provides food to more than half of the Indian population. Rice is produced in almost all states.
Top three producer states are West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Other rice growing states
include Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Kerala, Gujarat and Kashmir Valley.

Wheat: Wheat is the second most important crop of India after Rice. Its a Rabi Crop. It is the
staple food in north and north western India. Its a winter crop and needs low temperature. Ideal
temperature for wheat cultivation is between 10-15C at the time of sowing and 21-26C at the
time of harvesting. Wheat thrives well in less than 100 cm and more than 75 cm rainfall. The
most suitable soil for cultivation of wheat is well drained fertile loamy soil and clayey soil. Plain
areas are most suitable. The wheat crop is highly mechanization oriented and may need less
labour. Top three states producing Wheat are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
http://www.gktoday.in/major-crops-of-india/

Cotton Cotton is the most important fibre crop and cotton seed is used as a vegetable oil and a
part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk production. Cotton is a Kharif Crop and grows in
tropical and subtropical areas. Cotton requires modest rainfall and in India, it is one of the
predominant rainfed crops. Cotton requires uniformly high temperature (21C to 30C). It grows
in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year. Optimum soil for cotton is the Black soils of
Deccan and Malwa plateau. Also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red
and laterite soils of the peninsular region. Cotton growing is known as less mechanised farming
in India so needs cheap labour. Main cotton producing states are Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
http://www.gktoday.in/major-crops-of-india/

Tea India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in the world. Tea is grown in 16
states in India. Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala account for about 95 per cent of
total tea production. More information about tea production in India can be obtained from this
link.

Coffee Coffee needs hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15C and 28C. It
is generally grown under shady trees. Strong sun shine, high temperature above 30C, frost and
snowfall are harmful for coffee cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of
berries. Rainfall between 150 to 250 cm is favourable for coffee cultivation. Well drained, rich
friable loamy soil with humus and minerals are ideal for coffee cultivation. Coffee also needs
cheap and skilled labour. Major coffee producing states of India are Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.

Maize:

Maize is an important khaki crop of rainy season. Maize is cultivated in different areas and in
different climates but it is suitable where temperature is 35 Celsius and rainfall is 75
centimeters. Sloppy fertile soil is suitable for the cultivation of maize. Though rocky soil is
unsuitable for maize cultivation, but it is cultivated in hilly areas-of Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh. Maize is cultivated throughout our country but it is cultivated more in Punjab,
U.P., Bihar, M.P. and Rajasthan.

Oilseeds:

Groundnut, mustard, rapeseed, linseed and caster help us to get our edible oil. Oil is also
extracted from coconut. Out of these oils, some oils are used in the preparation of cosmetics.
India occupies the first position in the world in the production of groundnut. Groundnut
cultivation needs temperature varying from 20 to 30 degree Celsius and needs 60 to 80
centimeters of rainfall. Groundnut cultivation needs loamy, sandy and light soil. Groundnuts are
produced more in Tamilnadu. But this is also found in the States of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

India occupies second position in the world in the production of linseed (Argentina first).
Linseed is produced in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Linseeds are
used to produce color.

Mustard cultivation takes place in West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Assam. Castor is
cultivated in the southern Indian plateau. India occupies second position in the world in the
production of caster (Argentina first). Coconut cultivation takes place in the costal area of India.
Kerala occupies first position in coconut in India.

Silk in the Indian subcontinent is a luxury good. In India, about 97% of the raw silk is produced
in the five Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu and
Kashmir.[1] Mysore and North Bangalore, the upcoming site of a US$20 million "Silk City",
contribute to a majority of silk production.[2] Another emerging silk producer is Tamil Nadu
where mulberry cultivation is concentrated in Salem, Erode and Dharmapuri districts.
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh and Gobichettipalayam, Tamil Nadu were the first locations to have
automated silk reeling units.[3]

Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibres, which are traditionally used to make paper,[1]
cloth, or rope. The fibers may be chemically modified, like in viscose (used to make rayon and
cellophane). In recent years materials scientists have begun exploring further use of these fibers
in composite materials.

Fiber crops are generally harvestable after a single growing season, as distinct from trees, which
are typically grown for many years before being harvested for such materials as wood pulp fiber
or lacebark. In specific circumstances, fiber crops can be superior to wood pulp fiber in terms of
technical performance, environmental impact or cost.[2]

There are a number of issues regarding the use of fiber crops to make pulp.[3] One of these is
seasonal availability. While trees can be harvested continuously, many field crops are harvested
once during the year and must be stored such that the crop doesn't rot over a period of many
months. Considering that many pulp mills require several thousand tonnes of fiber source per
day, storage of the fiber source can be a major issue.

Botanically, the fibers harvested from many of these plants are bast fibers; the fibers come from
the phloem tissue of the plant. The other fiber crop fibers are seed padding, leaf fiber, or other
parts of the plant.
3.

Carbon based combustible fuels used in our daily life

Carbon-based fuel is any fuel whose energy derives principally from the
oxidation or burning of carbon. Carbon-based fuels are of two main kinds,
biofuels and fossil fuels. Whereas biofuels are derived from recent-growth
organic matter[1] and are typically harvested, as with logging of forests
and cutting of corn, fossil fuels are of prehistoric origin[2] and are
extracted from the ground, the principal fossil fuels being oil, coal, and
natural gas.

From an economic policy perspective, an important distinction between

biofuels and fossil fuels is that only the former is sustainable or
renewable. Whereas we can continue to obtain energy from biofuels
indefinitely in principle, the Earth's reserves of fossil fuels was determined
millions of years ago[3] and is therefore fixed as far as our foreseeable
future is concerned. The great variability in the ease of extraction of fossil
fuels however makes its endgame scenario one of increasing prices over
one or more centuries rather than of abrupt exhaustion.[4]

From the perspective of climate and ecology, biofuels and fossil fuels have
in common that they contribute to the production of atmospheric carbon
dioxide, which has emerged in recent decades as the fastest-changing
greenhouse gas, whose principal impacts are global warming and ocean
acidification. However biofuels actively participate in the carbon cycle
today by photosynthesizing carbon dioxide, unlike fossil fuels whose
participation was long ago, and can therefore in principle bring
atmospheric CO2 into an equilibrium not possible with the continued use
of fossil fuel. But in practice photosynthesis is a slow process, and the
additional fuel produced by artificial methods of accelerating it such as
application of fertilizer tends to be offset by the energy consumed by the
accelerating processes,[5] to a degree currently under active debate.[6] In
contrast the speed of photosynthesis is immaterial for fossil fuels because
they had millions of years in which to accumulate. Burning of both fossil
fuels and biofuels usually also produces carbon monoxide, which is toxic
and can kill a person after mixing with the haemoglobin of the blood,
increasing its concentration in the body. Biofuels and fossil fuels may also
produce many other air pollutants depending on the contents of the fuel.

Types of Carbon Fuels

While all carbon fuels are generally used for the same purpose, producing
energy, there are different types of carbon fuels. Carbon fuels are the
hydrocarbon fuels that are found underneath within the Earth. They were
produced millions of years ago during the Carboniferous period of history.
These fuels are very important to the Earth's population, as most of our
energy is produced by their burning. Formed from decayed plant and
animal matter that was both compressed and heated underground, carbon
fuels are a non-renewable resource because they are no longer being
created.

The three major types of carbon fuels are coal, oil and natural gas. Coal
has been used for thousands of years since cavemen first began burning it
to heat their caves and cook their food. A solid, shiny black substance,
coal is a carbon based fuel that became especially important in the 1800s
when both the industrial revolution and the locomotive combustion engine
relied on its use. Machinery, as well as transportation, grew quickly once
coal was found to be a portable and easy to use power source.

Generally, the hardest types of coal, bituminous and anthracite, are used
in the burning of coal. These forms of coal are fairly prevalent. They are
mined by strip mining or digging down into coal veins with the raw
material then being transported to the surface for refinement. Coal is not
clean burning, very efficient or environmentally friendly. The material is
also very hazardous to the miners given the dangerous work environment
and the coal dust that imbeds in their lungs.

Oil is the most widely used of the types of carbon fuels. Oil (petroleum) is
found in natural reservoirs underneath the Earth's surface. Pumps and
piping are drilled down underground to reach these stores of oil, and then
it is pumped up to the surface. Crude oil is then refined for use as heating
oil, gasoline and many other combustible fuels. Oil's portability and easy
to burn properties make it an excellent source of energy. The burning of
oil has a number of drawbacks. It produces significant air pollutants and
carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas. Furthermore, oil reserves are
not spread equally over the planet, giving rise to political and military
tensions associated with the control of the resource.
Natural gas is the last prevalent carbon fuel we use in modern society.
While oil and coal formed the backbone of the industrial revolution,
natural gas has become more of a player recently. Natural gas is primarily
comprised of methane, another greenhouse gas. Natural gas is found in
many of the same places as oil and coal, but was not originally a popular
energy resource due to transportation and a lack of stability. In fact, it
was simply burned off using flaring pipes in many oil fields. With modern
advances, natural gas is now much easier to control as it is reduced to a
liquefied form for transportation. In fact, flaring of natural gas is no illegal
in many countries. As with oil, natural gas has many problems related to
the production of greenhouse gases and the fact it is found in abundance
in only a few countries such as Iran. While oil gets much of the attention,
natural gas reserves are actually under much more stress.

The different types of carbon fuels used in the world today are fast being
depleted. With the economies of countries such as India and China
growing at shocking rates, the demand will only increase. This will putt
the different types of carbon fuels under more stress and inevitably lead
to political and military conflict.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS WITH COAL, OIL, AND GAS

Over the past quarter century, we have come to realize that there is more
to life than material goods and services, that "some of the best things in
life are free." The pleasure we derive from breathing fresh air, drinking
pure water, and enjoying the beauty that nature has provided is priceless
and must not be sacrificed. Moreover, losing them will lead directly or
indirectly to incalculable economic losses. We have come to appreciate the
importance of our environment.

Much has been said and written about environmental problems with
nuclear power, and they will be discussed at great length in this book. But
in this chapter, we consider the wide variety of environmental problems in
burning fossil fuels coal, oil, and gas. They probably exceed those of
any other human activity. The ones that have received the most publicity
in recent years have been the "greenhouse effect," which is changing the
Earth's climate; acid rain, which is destroying forests and killing fish; and
air pollution, which is killing tens of thousands of American citizens every
year, while making tens of millions ill and degrading our quality of life in
other ways. We will discuss each of these in turn, and then summarize
some of the other problems that have drawn lesser attention. But first we
must begin with some basics.

Coal, oil, and gas consist largely of carbon and hydrogen. The process that
we call "burning" actually is chemical reactions with oxygen in the air. For
the most part, the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide
(CO2), and the hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water vapor (H20).
In both of these chemical reactions a substantial amount of energy is
released as heat. Since heat is what is needed to instigate these chemical
reactions, we have a chain reaction: reactions cause heat, which causes
reactions, which cause heat, and so on. Once started the process
continues until nearly all of the fuel has gone through the process (i.e.,
burned), or until something is done to stop it. Of course, the reason for
arranging all this is to derive the heat.

The carbon dioxide that is released is the cause of the greenhouse effect
we will be discussing. A large coal-burning plant annually burns 3 million
tons of coal to produce 11 million tons of carbon dioxide. The water vapor
release presents no problems, since the amount in the atmosphere is
determined by evaporation from the oceans if more is produced by
burning, that much less will be evaporated from the seas.