Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2. General
relevant studies in the field of fishermen. This review would facilitate the
studies and to adopt, modify and formulate an improved conceptual framework for
SECTION: I
CMFRI (1977)1 points out that fishermen of our country have a distinct
tradition of their own. They belong to all the major religions namely Hinduism,
Christianity, Islam and several communities which differ from State to State. In
the society, the fishing community occupies a low status. Majority of the
1
CMFRI, Indian Fisheries 1947-1977, Issued on the Occasion of the Fifth Session of the Indian
Ocean Fishery Commission, Cochin, 1977, pp.74-77.
methods of fishing employing indigenous crafts and gears. The average size of the
fisherman family varies between 4.7 and 8.6 in different States. By and large, they
are perennially indebted to the middlemen who advance financial help to them in
times of need in return for their entire catch assessed at a low price. Several factors
such as a low social status, poor economic conditions, illiteracy, heavy inter
Right from the beginning of the first Five Year Plan, this sector has been receiving
housing facilities, dispensaries and community amenities, approach roads etc, are
our country.
Problem of Fishermen in the Marine Fishing Industry point out that over-fishing
threatens the fishery resources of our country and therefore regulation of a type,
technology, practically it has not reached the poor fishermen. Several factors such
2
Nammalwar, P., and Prakasam, V.R., Present Status and Problems of Fishermen in the Marine
Fishing Industry, Sea Food Export Journal, 11(2): 1979, pp.27-30.
25
middlemen, traditional fishing equipments and methods etc. influence the socio-
south of Trivandrum, Kerala. The fishermen of the coastal villages borrow year
after year and they are heavily indebted. But they are not in a position to repay the
loan, either because the loans are larger or the income is not enough to pay off the
debts. As such, the debt of the fishermen goes on increasing. This may be termed
as coastal rural indebtedness. The fishermen of Vizhinjam borrow mainly from the
moneylenders since institutional credit is not available to them. There are two
types of moneylenders, namely, the moneylenders who combine fish trading with
charge high rate of interests, often 30 per cent and more. They dont keep proper
accounts of repayment. They do not issue receipts for repayments. The boat
owners also lend to the fishermen. In this system, for getting a loan, the fishermen
as a wage earner has to enter into a contract with the boat owner that he should
work only in the boat of the owner from whom he has received the loan till it is
among higher income groups and lowers among the lower income groups
Considering all these facts, the author suggests that Rural Banks and Co-operative
3
Panikkar, K.K.P., Coastal Rural Indebtedness - A Case Study, Marine Fisheries Information
Service, 18: 1980, pp.8-12.
26
Societies should be established the activities of moneylenders should be regulated
when they are supplied with mechanised boats. To study this impact, Calicut
(ARDC) had supplied 50 mechanised boats of size 36 inches so that each boat was
allotted to seven fishermen families, thus involving 350 fishermen families in this
operations, sorting, auctioning, transporting and fish trading. The absence of such
techniques.
Maharashtra. According to him, the living conditions on the whole are deplorable.
27
of labour from the coastal region. As a result, the females have to bear most of the
facilities, water supply and power should have to be provided on priority basis.
Kurien (1981)6 pointed out that there are two reasons for the poverty of
fishermen, namely the inequality in the asset holdings among them and secondly
the exploitation of all of them by those who are involved in the process of buying
what they produce. As a result for the average traditional fishermen, saving from
his income for investment is a painful task. Indebtedness among the fisherfolk is
pledging ration cards, gold and fishing nets with individuals in the village who are
per cent for the mortgage of their products. Fish merchants are a source of big
credit. They normally lend large amounts to fishermen who own fishing
equipments.
economic conditions of fishermen at all fishing centres, sufficient cold storage and
6
Kurien, John., Socio-Economic Conditions of Traditional Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.35-53.
7
Fernando, Ambrose, Community Development and Infrastructure Facilities for Improving the
Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30: 1981, pp.45-55.
28
ice plants facilities must be provided to prevent fish from going waste. Internal
market facilities must be developed with suitable transport facilities. Every fishing
village should be provided with suitable road facilities with adequate feeder roads
fish at the catching point itself. Modern fish processing units must be established
in all the important fishing centres along with State fisheries units. Fishermen in
the coastal area should be provided with proper sanitation and medical facilities,
drinking water, wells and electricity. All important minor ports must be given top
priority for berthing facilities and processing units with freezercumice plants for
the use of small fishermen. Alternate jobs during off-season should be provided to
months in a year. Their equipments are not usable beyond a certain depth. 10
per cent of them have access to boats and nets, the other 90 per cent remain idle
for a substantial part of the year. Underemployment is a major problem in the area.
The scanty income and the numerous demands upon it, keep the fishermen in a
permanent state of bondage to the moneylenders. The interest rate varies from 36
per cent to 120 per cent. In short, the rebuilding of the life of the fishermen group
8
Paul Valiakandathil, S.J., Poonthura, A Case Study of Socio-Economic Conditions of Fishermen
in Kerala, CMFRI Bulletin, 30: 1981, pp.56-59.
29
is a national challenge. Along with economic measures should go a systematic and
district has discussed the distribution of income, indebtedness and the annual
average return per craft of both the mechanised and non-mechanised sectors. The
study revealed that the distribution of income in the worker groups in both the
sector was more equitable than in the owner-worker groups and also revealed that
workers in the mechanised sector could get a higher income than a owner worker
in the catamaran sector. The author stressed the need to improve the efficiency of
catamarans by suitably modifying the traditional craft. The study identified that
the annual net return per craft in catamaran sector was more than that of the
mechanised sector. The low return per craft in the mechanised sector was mainly
Sathiadas et al., (1981)10 point out that the impact of mechanised fishing in
the last two decades on the living conditions of the people of Sakthikulangara and
Neendakara of Kerala has been manifold. One of the major benefits is the
indigenous boats in the area. At the same time there has been significant increase
9
Durairaj, N., A Study of Marine Fishing Industry in Thanjavur District, Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, 1981, p.230.
10
Sathiadas, R., Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara-Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1-19.
30
impact on the total landing of fish and prawns in that area. This has resulted in
better exploitation of resources. The export of marine products has also increased.
There has been an eight-fold increase in income since 1954. But the financial
position of the lower income groups could not permit them either to purchase
have a good scope in this area enable these people to be gainfully employed during
off-season.
types of fishing crafts used in Tamilnadu. The return per unit investment of non-
powered boats was estimated to be twice that of powered boats. The traditional
fishing crafts categories, it was suggested that additional income and employment
be obtained by making all fishing requisites mainly fishing nets, fish processing,
transport, marketing and use of catch to raise the village poultry units.
conditions of fishermen in these two states analysed the literacy, size of family,
number of earning members, number of annual fishing days, house holds income
11
Srinnivasan, A., The Small-scale Marine Fisheries of Tamilnadu, CMFRI Bulletin, Vol.30,
1981, pp.34-38.
12
Sehara, D.B.S., and Karbari, J.P., An Evaluation of Fishermen Economics in Maharashtra
Gujarat - A Case Study, CMFRI Publication, Maharashtra, 1983, pp.40-45.
31
Babaji (1984)13 in a research project had analysed the production,
Vishakapatnan.
small fishermen in India. Artisanal fishermen landed 40 per cent of the marine fish
hours a day in the sea to earn an income of `10-20 or even less. A square meal a
day is a dream for many artisanal fishermen. The standard of living of these
people is generally low. The villages are remote with little transport,
communication and sanitation facilities and are exposed to the fury of nature.
Educational status is low and drop outs are found both among boys and girls. One
of the major constraints in the development of artisanal fishing industry has been
the lack of broad network of extension service with trained manpower reaching the
fishermen at large and motivates them. The most important step in helping the
fisherfolk is to educate them and make them aware of the programmes available to
them.
13
Babaji, Indian Institute of Management, Marine Fish Marketing in India, Vol.VI,
Ahamadabad, 1984, pp.176 -179.
14
CMFRI, Newsletter, Focus on Artisanal Fisherfolk, Vol.27-28: 1985, pp.8-12.
32
Librero (1985)15 investigated the economics of small-scale fisheries
particularly, total catch, costs and returns, employment and income for the
Daniel Viswasam Samuel (1986) 16 in his study estimated costs and returns
in different fishing units. The study also included economics efficiency of fishing
in the selected fish landing centres of the erstwhile Thoothukudi district. The fitted
a linear multiple regression function to find out the determinants of net income in
fishing.
out that very little information is available on the health and nutritional status of
small-scale fisherfolk of Indias east coast. A few micro-level studies and base line
surveys in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal give a basic idea. In
Andhra Pradesh for instance, it is stated that the dietary habits of fishermens
considerable number of women and children suffer from partial blindness because
of vitamin A deficiency.
15
Librero, Mechanisation: Its Impact on Productivity, Cost structure of Profitability of the
Philippine Municipal Fishery, Proceedings of the Small-scale Fisheries in Asia Socio-
Economic Analysis and Policy, IDRC, Canada, 1985, pp.151-162.
16
Daniel Viswasam Samuel, An Economic Analysis of Employment, Income and Consumption
of Fishermen Households in Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.F.Sc., Thesis, Fisheries
College and Research Institute, Thoothukudi, 1986, pp.31-32.
17
Bhavani, V., (BOBP/INF/9), Food and Nutrition Status of Small-Scale Fisherfolk in Indias
East Coast, April, 1986, pp.1-19.
33
The CMFRI (1988)18 has studied the socio-economic conditions of
fishermen in North West coast. Maharashtra and Gujarat are the important
coastal districts of Gujarat and 375 villages in five coastal districts of Maharashtra
are dominated by marine fishermen with a population of about four lakhs. The
study point out that illiteracy is high in all the villages (48.75%). A significant
group and also between the villages existed. The level of indebtedness is found to
be high in Maharashtra. Infrastructure facilities like jetty, link roads, ice and cold
storage, transport, drying, curing yards are found meagre in most of the fish
landing centres. The fishermen are not getting remunerative price for their catch
catches. Fishermen are generally unemployed and are not able to meet even their
Selvaraj (1988)19 in his study has identified the fishing seasons for
important species of fish groups and estimated the economics of different craft
18
CMFRI, Special Publication, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and
Gujarat- A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-80.
19
Selvaraj.P., Status of Marine Fisheries of Kanyakumari District, Fishing Chimes 8(1): 1988,
pp.72-79.
34
Sathiadhass et al., (1988)20 have studied the small scale fishermen with
Catamarans with hooks and lines are found to be suitable for the small investors.
many parts of the world, fisheries development for women has taken positive
market fish caught by their own men in Ghana where they own business which
involves leasing out fishing boats to men or in a Gambia where men process fish
on a large scale for export while women transport the catch in pans loaded on their
head from canoes to smoke huts. Great potentials exist for integrating women into
womens views are not considered in planning. Women articulate their needs and
20
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Socio Economic of Small Scale Fishermen with
Emphasis on Cogs and Earnings of Traditional Fishing Units along Trivandrum Coast, Kera1a-
A case study, Seafood Export Journal, 9(19 & 20): l988, pp.21-26.
21
Hanna King, Fisheries Development Programmes and Women, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly,
1989, pp.6-7.
35
Samuel (1989) 22 points out that the study of the socio-economic conditions
economists. The fishermen have a very low status in the social hierarchy, which
leaves them worse off than their counterparts despite the fact, that the involvement
of the fishermen in the industry is considerable. But their role stands unrecognised.
In a survey conducted in Tirunelveli district by the author, it was found that the
motorised unit to 37.19 per cent in mechanised unit. Being illiterate and have no
other opportunity to work, the fishermen of artisanal unit help their menfolk in fish
marketing and related sundry activities. More than 90 per cent of fishermen in the
artisanal fishermen families possess skills in net making and fish processing. It is
degree.
36
fishing is carried out and Pudumanikuppam where fishing is done using
mechanised craft. The study reveals that the average annual income of fishermen
household works out at `7,600 and 4,500 and the per capita income at `1,417 and
active fishing but also in diversified fishery related activities. They realise better
in daily expenses for catamaran owners, wage earners and families engaged in
fishery related activities in these areas. The expenses incurred on health and
education purposes are found to be very low in both these villages. Credit
availability in these villages is also not sufficient. The average outstanding debt
per indebted household ranged from `200 to `1,000 for different categories of
suggested that village level co-operative should be formed to cater to the needs of
the fisherfolk. The fishermen should be initiated for the effective utilisation of the
harbour that is available. Since the employment pressure on the traditional sector
37
Senthilathiban et al., (1989)24 discussed the cost of production and net
income of the fishing households in the selected fishing households in the selected
fishing village of the undivided Thoothukudi district. The increase from fishing
was found to be highly variable while fish catch was almost static due to
benefit relationship of three types of trawlers of sizes 8.5, 9 Meter and 9.5 Meter.
Their initial investment, fixed cost, operating cost and returns were analysed. They
had also calculated various key economic indicators for these types of trawlers.
They concluded that the capital turn over ratio, rate of return to capital and pay
back period were better for smaller boats. But in terms of labour productivity,
wages, quantum of catch, gross revenue and net profit, the bigger size boats were
Tiruchendur area of Tamilnadu had analysed the marine fish supplies and studied
the various marketing problems of the fishermen. They had made an empirical
24
Senthilathiban and Selvaraj, Economics of Marine Capture Fisheries in Tirunelveli District of
Tamil Nadu, Fishing Chimes, 9(5): 1989, pp.52-55.
25
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Costs Earnings of Trawlers Operating at Thoothukudi
Fishing Harbour, Marine Fish Information Service, CMFRI, Kochi, 100: 1989, p.8.
26
Chidambaram, K., and Soundrarajan, A., Marine Fish Marketing in Tiruchendur Area in
Tamilnadu, Fishing Chimes, 1(12): 1990, pp.43-55.
38
the relevant data were collected from 81 fishermen. In their analysis they had
found that the fishermen played only a minor' role in the actual distribution of fish.
These fishermen were at the mercy of the middlemen. The co-operative marketing
union had remained dormant. The authors had suggested that the fishermen should
James (1990)27 in his article titled Marine fisheries not fully tapped had
analysed, the total marine potential and the average production in the mechanised
and traditional sector. He had found that the coastal areas had been more or less
fished at optimum level. However, the potential in offshore and deep sea fishing
had not been fully tapped. He had suggested for joint ventures with countries
having expertise and experience in high sea fishing for tapping the vast off-shore
efficiency: A case study of Allahabad fish market (U.P.) have studied the
operational and pricing efficiency and made a comparison between them. They
have found that the consumer price leaves high profit margin to retailers. They
27
James, P.S.R., Marine Fisheries not Fully Tapped, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture,
13 (7): 1990, pp.203-205.
28
Pradeep, K., and Ravish Chandra, Fish Marketing Efficiency: A Case Study of Allahabad Fish
Market (U.P.), Fishing Chimes, 10(5): 1990, pp.21-28.
39
Rajan (1990)29 in his article on credit and capital structure of small scale
fishing units in Kerala had studied to what extent did fishermen depends-on credit
for investment in fishing units and also the association between magnitude of
ratio and solvency ratio. He had also examined the correlation between investment
and debt. He had found that the investment in the small scale fisheries was
Shukla (1990)30 in his article had outlined the basic characteristics of the
Indian fishery sector and stated that the contribution of the Indian fisheries to
world fisheries was just three percent even though investment to employment ratio
was very high. According to him necessary provisions were to be made in regard
income, indebtedness, marketing problems etc. The study reveals that catamaran is
the lone craft operating in that area. Chalavalai alone accounts for the major
investment on gears. The major source of income comes from active fishing. The
29
Rajan, J.P., Credit and Capital Structure of Small Scale Fishing Units in Kerala, Fishing
Chimes, 7(45): 1990, pp.9 -11.
30
Shukla, S.M., Undertake Fishery Mahayagna, Fishing Chimes, 11(6): 1990, pp.17-19.
31
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar., K.K.P., Socio-Economics of Traditional Fishermen in Tirunelveli
Coast, Tamil Nadu, Biol. Ass. India, 33 (1 and 2): 1991, pp.175-181.
40
institutional agencies, opportunities for supplementary occupations and better
infrastructural facilities for marketing are some of the suggestions given for the
Chhaya et al., (1991)32 in their article had studied the total cost and net
profit per trip of a trawler, a gill-netter and a dugout with out board motors. The
study was made to find the cost benefit relationship and the ability to repay, if loan
was extended to the respective owners. It was found that the gill-netter with
inboard motor was more profitable than the other two types.
members of two fishing villages along Madras Coast and found that diversified
activities and better infrastructural facilities were necessary for better income of
the fishermen households and suggestions for the overall development of the
Sehara et al., (1992)34 described the monsoon fisheries in the west coast of
about 10 per cent of the total units and non-mechanised units are reduced to 25 per
cent. The household income during monsoon is very low and consequently
32
Chhaya, M.D., Jani, G.M., Amrelliya, J.A., Economic Viability of Trawlers, Gillnetters
Dugouts with outboard Motors, Fishing Chimes, 38(23): 1991, pp.51-55.
33
Sathiadhas, R., and Panikkar, K.K.P., Economics of Catamaran Fishing along the Madras
Coast, Journal of Marine Bio Assn. of India , 33(192): l991, pp.241-245.
34
Sehara, D.B.S., Panikkar, K.K.P., and Karbhari, J.B., Socio- Economic Aspects of the
Monsoon Fisheries of the West Coast of India, CMFRI Bulletin, 45: 1992, pp.242-250.
41
fishermen become permanent debtors. To overcome these difficulties, it is
whenever there is a glut at the landing center, and to provide adequate finance at
month. The most favourable season is the post monsoon period during which
diving activity also goes on. Most of them used lobster nets. In Thiresapuram,
shingi valai is the main gear used by the fishermen. FebruaryApril are the months
good for diving. MayJuly are good for net operation. Another interesting point is
that there is a co-operative society in Vethalai village. Apart from this unit, 300 of
the fishermen are members of the Mandapam fishermen co-operative society. But
programme has even deprived the traditional fishermen of their legitimate claim
35
Ayyakannu, K., SocioEconomic Profile of the Mandapam and Thoothukudi Sectors, South
East Coast India (GOM) with Special Reference to the Fishing Villages of Vethalai and
Thiresapuram, In Proceedings, Second Workshop of Tropical Marine Mollusc Programme at
Annamalai University, India, 1992, 4-14 May. Mar. Biol. Cent. Spl. Pub. 10: 1992, pp.39-43.
36
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar, K.K.P., Kanakkan, A., Traditional Fishermen in Low Income Trap- A
Case Study in Thanjavur Coast of Tamil Nadu, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 135,
1994, pp.5-10.
42
for fishing in the near shore areas. There are also frequent conflicts between the
mechanised and non-mechanised fishermen over their fishing rights. It was found
that the level of employment for hired labourers as well as those not having
sufficient equipment was low and they were very much underemployed. The
seasonal nature of fishery and the risk and uncertainties associated with marine
fishing work of the fishermen which leads to low-income trap. The poor economic
conditions coupled with less availability of finance from the institutional agencies
compel them to sustain with less equipped fishing equipments which in turn
factor responsible for lesser returns to the fishermen. Therefore, extensive and
comprehensive area development programme for the entire coastal belt is required
Kuala Sepetang, a coastal village in the west coast of peninsular in Malaysia. This
village has all the public amenities like transport, sanitation, telephones, drinking
water etc. The illiteracy rate is low. Fishing is the primary income generating
activity in the village. Majority of the fishing households are vesselowners and
they are mainly involved in shrimp trawling. About 29 per cent of the total
37
Nuruddin Adnam Bin, (BOBP/WP/98), Bio Socio-Economics of Fishing for Shrimp in Kuala
Sepetang, Malaysia, 1994, pp.1-52.
43
are actively involved in fish processing. It is interesting to see that nearly all
fishing households in the area are above the poverty line. Less than one per cent of
the households in the area are living below the poverty line and all of them are
Tamil Nadu and Orissa. The main livelihood of fishermen wholly depends on the
catch of fish from fishing and marketing. Fishing season starts from August and
continues upto March. Fishing is generally not undertaken for about 60 days in a
year when the sea is rough or due to cyclonic weather. On the other hand
mechanised fishing vessel owners are able to carry out their normal operations
during the off-season also. The funds raised for the purchase of traditional craft or
mechanised vessels are partly from their own sources and partly through money
lenders. They are hesitant to avail bank finances because of the conditions of
repayment of loans and lots of formalities they have to undergo. About 70 per cent
of the persons interviewed were indebted for meeting their day to-day
maintenance in time of poor catch or poor marketing, marriage expenses etc. The
fish merchants or moneylenders are the source for providing loans at a higher rate
of interest of 36 per cent. In the light of the above conditions, it is suggested that
the fishermen should be motivated for undergoing training so that bank loans are
availed by them for the purchase of fishing crafts or gears. Efforts should be made
38
Siddiqui, A Study of the Socio- Economic Problems of the Fishermen in Tamil Nadu and
Orissa, Fishing Chimes, August, 1995, pp.48-49.
44
to provide basic infrastructural facilities like pucca road, drinking water supply,
They have also given policy suggestions for the development of the fishermen.
Seaweed collection is a routine work for a section of coastal people along Tamil
seaweed and sell it to local companies and earn their livelihood. But they face
many problems in their work, which are as follows; physical strain in collecting
the seaweeds is a major problem. They are not allowed to stay in the islands for 2
or 3 days for collection. Hence, they have to travel back the same day and go again
the next day, which adds to their physical strain. Apart from this, the unfavourable
weather conditions make them remain unemployed for many months, less price
and poor quality of seaweeds, lack of adequate places for drying the seaweed,
taking care of children and other household activities etc. add to their plight.
39
Chidambaram, K., and Soundrarajan, A., Marine Fish Supplies in Tiruchendur- A Case
Study, Fishing Chimes, 2(9): 1997, pp.58-61.
40
Sheela Immanuel, Problems of Fishermen and Fisherwomen in Seaweed Collection. Journal of
Extension Education, 8 (3): 1997, pp.1785-1786.
45
Roy (1997)41 in a study on the fisher people of Bangladesh highlights the
plight of the fisherfolk there. A large number of people living in the coastal zone
depend directly or indirectly on fishing for their livelihood. They are not only
trapped by problems in every direction, but the very nature of the problemstheir
difficult. Fish they catch are bought by traders at a ridiculous price because the
fishers are bonded by the credit they have received from the traders. Every year,
there are natural disasters, floods tidal, bores and cyclones depriving them of life
and property. They are thus trapped from both sides from the land by the fellow
human being and from the sea-by nature and have nowhere to go. In addition to
destruction has stressed fisheries stocks and catches and the catch per unit effort is
a reduction in the quality of life and finally migration and desperation. Therefore,
the urgent need is to decide alternate income options to get out of fisheries, reduce
fishing efforts and improve their quality of life. This requires real decentralisation
Girija et al., (1998)42 stated that in India, the development plans for marine
41
Roy, BOBP News, Nowhere to Coastal People of Bangladesh, June, 1997, pp.9-12.
42
Nair, M.K.R. Girija, S., Application of Low Cost Technologies in Fish Processing and Its
Prospects as a Vocation for Fisherwomen of Kerala, In Hameed, M.S., Kurup, B.M., (Eds.)
Technological Advancement in Fisheries, Publ. No.1, School of Industrial Fishing, Cochin,
1998, pp.478-484.
46
effort to coordinate fishing would improve the subsidiary activities of fishermen
the fish landed and also would definitely go a long way in improving the socio-
economic conditions of this sector. The post harvest technology for handling fish
cold storages, processing space, transportation network and sales outlets are to be
the co-operative set-up now existing in the marine fish harvest sector in Kerala by
involving the potential work force of fishermen, the apex body of the co-
Fishermen in North West coast of India points out that illiteracy was high (48-
75%) in all the fishing villages along the coast. Significant difference existed in
the annual income between the mechanised and non-mechanised groups and also
Infrastructural facilities like jetty, link roads, ice and cold storage, transport,
drying, curing yards were found meagre in most of the fish landing centres. The
fishermen were not getting remunerative prices for their catch owing to the
43
CMFRI, Special Bulletin, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and Gujarat-
A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-18.
47
involvement of middlemen who advance money and do marketing of catches.
Fishermen remained unemployed and were not able to meet even their household
Reserve, point out that there are 49 villages along the coast, of which 38 are in
biosphere area. The fishermen from these villages depend solely on fishing for
their livelihood. The fishermen are well trained in sorting fish, cleaning, drying
and marketing them. They also act as agents for the boat owners at auction centers
and earn a good commission. The fishermans daily income depends upon his
days catch, which is not regular, and at a steady level. It ranges from `100-200 a
day in the peak season and `20-30 in normal days. The fishermen market their
the fishes are auctioned at the landing centres. The community of the biosphere
area feels that with the support of the government agencies, better decisions can be
made on planning, allocation of area within the Gulf of Mannar for certain uses,
fishing gears etc. The government should provide economic and other
44
Shanmugaraj, T., Upreti., Ashok., Socio-Economic Status of Fisherfolk Communities in the
Gulf of Mannar, Marine Biosphere Reserve A Survey of Tamil Nadu Forest Department,
1998, pp.2-4.
48
infrastructure facilities through society or village level organisations to improve
their livelihood.
which inhabit the 68 km stretch of the coast. Over the years, the intensity of
fishing has increased partly on account of the increase in the active fishing
and partly due to motorisation and mechanisation of fishing crafts. The resource
has not kept up with the increase of effort, which results in a sharp reduction in
catch per unit effort. Since the usage of mechanisation in 1958, artisanal fishers
have with dismay compared the landings of the mechanised crafts with their own
meagre catches. Besides, the artisanal fishers have often seen their nets destroyed
by mechanised boats. With this background, the survey points out that the major
fishermen in two marine fishing villages of Orissa State viz., Pentakota and
Belinoliasahi. They measured the economic status and the mean scores of
respondents in the two villages, which differed significantly at one per cent level.
45
Verduijin, J.C., (BOBP/MM/1), Basic Needs of 39 Coastal Fishing Communities in
Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, India, 2000, pp.1-24.
46
Balasubramanian, S., Socio-Economic Status of Marine Fishermen in Two Fishing Villages of
Orissa, Fishing Technology, 38(1): 2001, pp.51-55.
49
The results also revealed that the fishermen had a favorable attitude towards the
paper was examined the threat to the substantially of the fisheries in India and in
particular in the Gulf of Mannar region. It is widely quoted that the depletion is
due to the introduction of trawler fishing techniques, which scrape the bottom of
the sea and end up catching juvenile fish. In viewing this problem of over fishing
(by the trawlers) as a negative externality to the traditional fishing community, the
best way to internalize the social cost inflicted by the people who over fish is the
question that this study attempts to seek the answer for. One of the most
commonly practiced techniques to sustain the fisheries resource is the blanket ban
on fishing during specific months of the year like the one practiced in the coastal
Ganesh Kumar et al., (2008)48 this study has been conducted in all the
major coastal states and some selected inland states to understand the domestic
47
Ragupathy Venkatachalam., Sustainable Fisheries and Community Management Systems,
Paper presented in Environment and Growth of the 2nd South Asian Economics Students
Meet 2005 at Lahore, Pakistan, Jan28-30, 2005 being organized by the Lahore University of
Management Sciences (LUMS).
48 Ganesh Kumar, B., Dattaa, K.K., Joshia, P.K., Katihab, P.K., Sureshc, R., Ravisankard, T.,
Ravindranathe, K., and Muktha Menona, Domestic Fish Marketing in India-Changing
50
marketing of fish in India. The total marketing costs of auctioneer, wholesaler,
fishermen cooperative society have been found to be `0.98, `8.89, `6.61, `4.50,
`6.00 and `3.51, respectively. The marketing efficiencies for Indian major carps
(IMC), sardine and seer fish have been found to vary from 34 per cent to 74
per cent depending on the length of market channel. The marketing efficiency has
been found more in the case of marine species than freshwater species, since the
latter travel longer distances from the point of production to consumption centre,
consumers rupee has shown variations across species, marketing channels and
fishing harbours and wholesale and retail markets have been found grossly
inadequate and poorly maintained. The study has highlighted the need for
formulating a uniform market policy for fishes for easy operation and regulation,
so that the countrys fish production is efficiently managed and delivered to the
fishers.
51
In a study on the Role of Women in Small Scale Fisheries of the Bay of
fishery is very substantial. It is estimated that about 30 per cent of women in rural
the hands of women. They also work as fish hawkers or run fish stalls in
permanent market places or weekly bazars. Drying and curing of fish is to a large
activities. The most important sector is the processing of fishery products in small
Women are employed as cheap labour in the processing line for sorting and
packing prawns and dressing fish for canning, while the management of the plants
and supervision and operation of machinery are very much a male preserve.
49
BOBP/REP/4, Role of Women in Small Scale Fisheries of the Bay of Bengal, October, 1980,
pp.4-7.
52
in the larger fishing villages and towns however women are actively engaged in
(1981)50 a survey conducted by the Women Bureau in fishing villages of Sri Lanka
shows that eight per cent of women from fishing families did any work connected
with fishing industry or for that matter any income generating work at all. The
bulk of the women from these communities just stay at home and are content or
compelled to be plain and simple housewives and mothers. Along the southern
coastline, women from fisher families are usually engaged in occupations, if at all,
other than those connected with fishing. The Negombo fisherwomen are quite
different. They migrate with men to other fishing grounds. Apart from their
domestic work, they are mending the nets. According to the Women Bureau
Survey, 66 per cent of the women do nothing else except cooking and looking
after the children. It is felt that the quality of their life needs drastic improvement.
Pollnac (1988)51 points out that in many communities, women take over
the function of buying and selling fish. Sometimes, they are only involved at the
primary level- the initial buying from the fishermen. In some areas they deal with
the fish at all levels including retailing and processing. These middle women are
50
Mallika Wanigasundara, Women in Srilankan Fisheries, Bay of Bengal News, 4: 1981,
pp.22-24.
51
Pollnac, Richard, B., Evaluating the Potential of Fishermens Organizations in Developing
Countries, International Center for Marine Resource Development, The University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, 1988, p.14.
53
found throughout the world in regions as widely spread as the Caribbean, West
Africa, India, Asia, the Pacific, and Latin America. This division of labour can
function to keep more of the profit within the familythe men fish and their female
relatives sell the product. The female role of fish trader results in their being the
Christiansen 1982). The menfolk fish intermittently while females work year-
the post- harvest sector. From landing the fish to processing and selling in the
market, women are often in charge. They may clean and salt-dry bigger species
including shark. Women and youths also play an important role in production. The
Nigerian fisherwomen in the village Gabon for example go fishing. The capture
and collection of seafood in canals, mangroves, small ponds, fish holes etc. for the
family or trade is a familiar practice in most places. Still females often suffer
lower social status than males and on the average have inferior access to food,
52
Cornelia E. Nauen, Women in African Artisanal Fisheries, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly, April,
1989, pp.14-15.
54
Nandeesha et al., (1994)53 points out that in Cambodia, women make up
more than 65 per cent of the adult population. They play an important role in all
been found to contribute more than men in almost all activities. Most of the
housewives play a major role in fish culture and the success rate and maintenance
of data are better wherever there is any involvement of the housewives. In almost
all cases, the wives of the fishermen manage ponds. Daily harvest of fish for
family consumption is also done by the female members with the help of children.
management can be done better by women than by men. Further, fish culture is
less risky than rice and pig cultivation, in terms of return on investment, provided
adequate care is exercised from the beginning to the end of the culture period.
in the Pacific islands. Women are extensively involved in many types of fishing
activities in the Pacific islands. These activities range from collection of reef
invertebrates to fish, to the processing and marketing of fish and fishery products.
Up until lately, their role in fisheries in their countries have been underestimated
and overlooked mainly due to the fact that fisheries are commonly known to be
mens. The fishing activities of women are mainly confined to shallower, inshore
53
Nandeesha, M.C.Ngan Heng, Kuong Yun, Role of Women in Small-Scale Aquaculture
Development in South Eastern Cambodia, NAGA, ICLARM Quarterly, 1994, pp.7-9.
54
Lilian Fay- Sauni, Womens Fisheries Involvement in the Pacific Islands; Specific Reference to
Kiribati and Fiji, Newsletter of the Marine Studies Programme and IoI South Pacific,
Vol. 5: 1998, p.10.
55
and reef areas even though some do have accessibility to fish offshore using
motorised crafts and canoes. Substantial changes over time in the role of women in
India. The status of women is intimately connected with their economic position,
which depends upon the opportunities for participation in economic activities. The
sector, which not only provides low return but also is characterised by return in
accessibilities to credit, technology, training and other facilities. Women have still
not been recognised as producers of their own right. Moreover the traditional
competition with the more advanced technologies. There are about 30 per cent
rural households headed by women who bear all the burden of earning and caring
for the families and suffer on account of lack of access to means of production and
ownership of land and other property. In spite of the initiatives taken during the
last four and a half decades of planning process in India, women still face some
55
Veenakumari, Socio-Economic Status of Women in India, Southern Economist, August, 1,
1998, pp.3-6.
56
limitations and apparent handicaps and constraints due to the lack of education,
separate economic planning for women within the overall planning system can be
integrated in the development process and to see what kind of resources need to be
allocated.
Conditions of Marine Fisherwomen in India. The changes that have been brought
technologies besides increasing the yield from capture and culture sector should be
standards of fishermen and this will help identify the constraints obstructing the
56
Narayanakumar, R, Panikkar, K.K.P., Sehara, D.B.S., Sathiadas, R., Pillai V.N., and Menon,
N.G., (Eds) Socio-Economic Analysis of Marine Fisherwomen in India, Marine Fisheries
Research and Management, CMFRI, Cochin, Kerala, 2000, pp.895-906.
57
relaisation of full potential of development schemes and adoption of new
technologies.
Workers Union that fights for their rights. The women also assert their rights
through selfhelp groups (SHGs) and through participation in the Panchayat. The
girl children are now sent to school. Women in the area with the help of the local
NGOs began to protest against child marriages and child labour. They have also
The age, body weight, marital, maternity status and education do not significantly
influence their income. They spend bulk of their time on fishery and household
activities. There is no scope for leisure and pleasure. They are being exploited by
the middlemen and traders belonging to their own community and others. The
appreciation. The natural fishery capital stock in the sea and land resources in the
57
Nirmal Chandra Sahu, Aleyamma Issac and Santosh Kumar Bali1, Economy of the
Fisherwomen in Ganjam District of Orissa: Conditions for Environmental Governance and
Sustainable Development, Fifth Biennial Conference of the Indian Society for Ecological
Economics (INSEE) on Environmental Governance, Ahmedabad, January 2009.
58
coast needs protection. The fisher people's council should be recognised as a
socio-political institution.
have never been educated about basic business management, they have learned a
lot about it first hand over the years by selling at the markets. They have also
gained knowledge about the importance of keeping their resources as clean and
fisherwomen, small business owners, and female employees of the two fishing
fishing companies and nation as a whole. In both fishing companies, more than 50
per cent of all employees are women. A significant contribution of the income
generated by women in both artisanal and industrial fisheries goes towards their
childrens education (e.g. primary school, high school and tertiary level). This
research has noted that womens involvement in fisheries in Fiji, although under-
58
Jese Verebalavu1, SPC Women in Fisheries Information Bulletin, Vol 20, November 2009,
pp.18-22.
59
Gupta (2006)59 in this work on Challenges in sustaining and increasing
fish production to combat Hunger and poverty in Asia has concluded that while
there are amble opportunities for fish and fisheries to make a major contribution to
food and nutritional security and to contribution to the eradication of the poverty,
the number of challenges that need to be addressed, their requirements and that
political will, policy change and effective and efficient implementation. Our fight
against hunger is a long process and we need patients, endurance and great
commitment.
over view, observed that the marine food export fetches several croves of foreign
directly and indirectly. To increase the export of marine food products to various
countries, the hurdles such as exim duties, over tax in the exports is to be taken
Ganesh Kumar et al., (2010)61, their study has been conducted with the
fisheries sector and to draw lessons from the success stories to upscale and
59
Gupta, M.V., Challenges in Sustaining and Increasing Fish Production to Combat Hunger and
Poverty in Asia, Naga World Fish Center, Quarterly, INTACT Communication (Pub), Vol.29,
No.1, 2006, pp.4-17.
60
Namasivayam, N., Indian Marine Export: An Overview, Southern Economist, Bangalore,
2007, pp.41-42.
61
Ganesh Kumar, B., Ravisankarb, T., Sureshc, R., Ramachandra Bhattad , Deboral Vimalab, D.,
Kumaranb, M., Mahalakshmib, P., and Sivasakthi Devia, T., Lessons from Innovative
Institutions in the Marketing of Fish and Fishery Products in India, Agricultural Economics
Research Review, Vol. 23 (Conference Number), 2010, pp 495-504.
60
replicate in a similar socio-politico-economic scenario in other parts of the
of India, namely Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh with the
hypothesis that the institutional arrangements in the marketing of fish and fishery
products reduce the transaction cost and improve the market access and its
efficiency. The study has reported the primary activities of those institutions in the
marketing and sales promotion and support activities like infrastructural facilities,
access, credit access, etc. The study has suggested replication of such successful
61
SECTION: II
concepts employed is essential and thus the main concepts are discussed in this
section.
2.2.1. Fisheries
The term fishery is used in singular as well as in plural depending upon the
context. It is used synonymously with fishing industry. The term fishery also
comprises one more stocks of fish that can be traded as a unit for purposes of
enterprises that have the potential of exploiting them.63 Fishery is the phenomenon
62
Younis, A.S. and Donaldson, G., Fishery Sector Policy Paper, The World Bank. Washington,
December, 1982, p.10.
63
Anderson, Lee G., The Economics of Fisheries Management, Baltimore and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press1977, p.XV Introduction.
64
Devanesan, D.W., and Chidambaram, K., The Common Food Fishes of Madras Presidency,
Department of Industries and Commerce, Government of India, p.13.
62
renewable free source located in dynamic environment, dynamic both in the sense
In the present study, fisheries refer to the stock, species or habitat and also
district.
2.2.2. Fishing
As indicated by Lorena Aguilar fishing here means capture through the use
of fishing gear or equipment of live aquatic organisms that move with a certain
speed.
2.2.3. Fisherman
defines fishermen as that category of persons who earn their main source of
process or market the same. The All India Census of Marine Fishermen Craft and
65
Banerji, S.K., 1993, Continuing Resource Survey and Development of Fishing, Proceedings of
the Symposium on Living Resource of the Seas around India, CMFRI, Cochin, 1948,
pp.137-145.
66
Bailey, C., Small-Scale Fisheries of San Miguel Bay, Philippines; Occupational Geographic
Mobility, ICLARM, Technical Report, 1982, No.10.
67
John Kurien, Socio-Economic Conditions of Traditional Fishermen, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.35-53.
68
Prasad, N.S.H., Measures to Improve the Working and Living Conditions of Fishermen.
Fishing Chimes, 1985. pp.23-31.
63
Gear69 defines marine fisherman as one who is engaged in marine fishing and
associated activities.
2.2.4. Fisherwoman
being are determined by the uncertanities of fishing. In a strict sense, the term
woman in fisheries is used to indicate women who are involved in fish related
activities like marketing, processing, net making, picking etc. Daniel Viswasam
Samuel72 defines fisherwoman who engages in fishing and its related activities.
a fishing family. In the present study, the term fisherwoman means women who
belong to the fishing community engaged in fishing and fishing related activities
69
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information Service,
30: 1980, pp.1-30.
70
Sathiadas, R., Panikkar, K.K.P., Socio - Economic Status of Marine Fishermen along Madras
Coast, Marine Fisheries Information Service, 96: 1989, pp.1-6.
71
Gracy, M.M., Impact of Technological Advancement on Socio-Economic Conditions of
Women in Fisheries, Kerala, In Hameed, M.S., Kurup, B.M., (Eds.) Technological
Advancement in Fisheries, Publ. No.1., School of Industrial Fishing, Cochin, 1998,
pp.552-558.
72
Samuel, Daniel Viswasam, A., An Economic Analysis of Mechanised and Artisanal Fishing in
Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Madurai, 1986,pp.125-126.
73
Veeraputhiran, K, Training Needs of Fisherwomen, Unpublished M.Sc (Ag) Thesis. Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, 1988, p.9.
64
2.2.5. Marine Fishing Workers
2.2.6. Labour
Saxena says, any work, whether manual or mental, which is taken for a
unoragnised and there is no specific prescription of working hours per labour per
day. Hence, labour is measured in terms of standard mandays of eight hours in the
present study.74
The fishermen operating both mechanized boats and traditional crafts belive
that more fish can be caught in the dawn and in the dusk which they call
the concentration of crafts in the fishing grounds during dawn and dusk.
2.2.8. Wages
The wages are paid to labour for its services. In fishing industry labour is
given a share in the value of total catch after deducting the cost of inputs like
74
Saxena, R.C., Labour Problems and Social Welfare, Jai prakash Nath & Co, Tenth Edition,
1963, p.1.
65
2.2.9. Fishing Ground
Fishing ground refers to the area in which fishing is carried on, whether the
fishes are taken at the surface or at the bottom, whether near the coast or at a
As per All India Census of Marine Fishermen Craft and Gear the present
study considers that the fish-landing center is a place where fishermen land their
catch.76
The All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear refer to a
called vallam are used. Vallam is used for all types of fishing. It is a sailing craft
75
John George Clover and William Bouch Cornell, The Development of American Industries-
Their Economic Significance, New York; Prentice Hall, 3rd Edition, 1955, p.79.
76
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information Service,
30: 1981, pp.1-30.
77
Ibid. p.34.
66
like any other traditional craft. The general measurements of a vallam are 8 to 11
meters in length, 1.2 to 2 meters in width and 1.2 to 1.7 meters in depth.
An advanced type of fishing craft of about 29-60 feet in length made of steel
usually fitted with engines for propulsion, mechanized devices for handling gear
and other operations enhancing fish catch and for fish preservation and storage,
the mechanized boats with effect from April 16 to May 31 every year to encourage
breeding of fish.
usually fitted with in-board engines or outboard motors for propulsion but without
facilities for enhancing fish catch or for preservation of fish operated in off-shore
waters.
67
A fishing unit is one particular combination of type of craft and kind of
they tend to have a number of features in common which include, generally a rural
have high post harvest from near-shore and in shore stocks with small biomasses.79
outlets, employment and social security and financial dependence keep the
operating constraints placed upon them by those who buy their production.
78
John Kurien, Economics of Artisanal and Mechanical Fisheries in Kerala, Bay of Bengal
Program Working Paper No.34, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the U.N., 1982,
pp.4-5.
79
Poggie, John, J, Pollnac, Richard, B., Small-Scale Fishery Development, Socio-cultural
Perspectives, International Center for Marine Resource Development, The University of Rhode
Island, Kingston, 1988, pp.2-3.
68
Marine Products include all varieties of fishery products known
animals or plants or part there of and any other products which the authority may,
their spatial distribution, the time spent in fishing and the skill of crew.80
The strip of land that lies immediately after the sea on the dry land covering
the area that is directly affected by the ocean is called coast, it includes cliffs,
lowlands (coast plains) steep marine terraces, swamps and lagoon systems.
Coastal area is that area delimited at its uppermost part by the level of high
south to the north of Chennai. The total length of the sea extends to 357.2 km. Surf
80
Jagota, S.P., The Sea Around Us, Illustrated Weekly of India, Bombay, 67(51): 1976, p.13.
81
Lorena Aguilar, Itza Castaneda, About Fishermen, Fisherwomen, Oceans and Tides: A Gender
Perspective in Marine Costal Zones, 2001, p.215.
69
2.2.22. Palk Bay
north to the south of Pamban in Ramanathapuram district. The total length of the
sea extends to 293.9 km. The sea is identified by sandy shallows, intermittent
chains of coral reefs, a chain of islands and rocky patches found in depths varying
from 7 to 40 pathoms.82
production is maximized.83
The CMFRI84 Points out those fisheries related, allied activities include fish
boat building, repairing or any other activity directly related with fishery.
82
Anon, Export Potential Survey of Marine Products of Tamil Nadu, Marine Products Export
Development Authority, 1984, p.19.
83
Lee G. Anderson, The Economics of Fisheries Management, Baltimore and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977, p.15.
70
Sathiadas and Venkataraman85 point out that those who are engaged in
activities like fish trading, net making, repairing, curing and processing and boat
building, repairing come under this category. In the present study all shore-based
The All India census of Marine Fishermen Craft and Gear88 defines a
84
CMFRI, Special Publication, An Evaluation of Fishermen Economy in Maharashtra and
Gujarat- A Case Study, 44: 1988, pp.1-80.
85
Sathiadas, R., Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara - Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1-19.
86
Maherunnessa Islam, Women Oriented Projects in Bangladesh, BOBP/REP/14, 1987.
87
Kalawar, A.G., Socio- Economic Conditions of the Coastal Rural Sector, CMFRI Bulletin, 30:
1981, pp.42 - 44.
71
fishing, related activities. A fisherman household is one wherein at least one
On the other hand, Reveendran and Varadarajan90 and Senthilathiban91 pointed out
that a fisherman household has got license for fishing in the reservoir with fishing
and allied activities as their major source of income and consists of a family with
persons living in the same house, by pooling their income and sharing the same
kitchen, for not less than one year during the reference period.
Any household wherein at least one member of the family is engaged either
present study.
2.2.28. Insurance
substitution of a small known cost for the possibility of a larger but uncertain loss.
In the mechanized boat sector, the capital investment is high and hence insurance
has become necessary. The boats and nets in traditional sector are not insured.
The engines used in mechanized vallams are insured. Insurance does not cover the
88
All India Census of Marine Fishermen, Craft and Gear, Marine Fisheries Information
Service, 30: 1980, pp.1-30.
89
Sathiadas, R. Venkataraman, G., Impact of Mechanised Fishing on the Socio-Economic
Conditions of the Fishermen of Sakthikulangara - Neendakara, Kerala, Marine Fisheries
Information Service, 29: 1981, pp.1 - 19.
90
Raveendran, R., and Varadarajan, S., Marine Fisheries Information Service, T&E Series,
No.29, CMFRI, Cochin, 1981, p.42.
91
Senthilathiban, R., An Economic Analysis of Empowerment, Income and Consumption of
Fishermen Household in Tirunelveli District, Unpublished M.F.Sc Thesis, 1985, Department
of Economics, Fisheries College, Thoothukudi , p.13.
72
repair charges of the boats and nets. It gives protection only against the unforeseen
The mechanized fishing boats berthed in the fishing harbour are to pay
berthing charges every month. They also pay a licence fee every year.
The mechanized boats and motorised vallams consume diesel, oil and
multiplying the main products and the by-products by their respective prices and
then adding the two figures. In fishing industry, gross income is derived from the
computed by deducting all fixed and variable expenses from the gross income. In
fishing industry the net income is derived by deducting the fixed costs such as
depreciation, interest on capital and variable cost such as wages, fuel, cost of
73
2.2.33. Exclusive Economic Zone
Under the law of the sea, an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a sea zone
over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine
resources, including production of energy from water and wind[1]. It stretches from
the seaward edge of the state's territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from its
coast. In casual usage, the term may include the territorial sea and even the
durables, and productive investment like machineries. The immovables are house,
debts earned by the household together with the interest charges payable by the
households.
2.2.35. Debt
Debt refers to the excess expenditure over income. It arises due to low
74
2.2.36. Livelihood
necessary of life.
Sea is the largest habitat as it covers about 71 per cent of the surface of the
earth. The remaining 29 per cent includes fresh water and terrestrial habitats.
Unlike the fresh water and terrestrial habitat, the sea is continuous and is inhabited
92
Krishnan, N.T., and Santhanakumar, G., Environmental Biology, J.J. Publications, Madurai,
1992, p.40.
93
Simmons, G, The Ecology of Natural Resources, (2nd edition), English Language Book
Society, Edward Arnold, 1981, p.206.
75
2.3 Research Gap
significant insights into the several aspects, dimensions, prospects and the labour
conditions and problems of the fishing workers at various places and stages. Still,
any one can identify a few gaps in the previous studies or past literatures with
In the light of such research gaps, the present research study has been
designed and completed. This study tries to fill the research gaps in a modest
manner. The researcher has been optimistic that this task is well met to a very
great extent.
2.4. Summary
Thus, the past studies indicate that the fishing workers carry out a multiple
role as regards the development of the marine fisheries and the coastal economy.
However, often their economic activities are undervalued and are not adequately
certain type of jobs like fish catching and marketing the fishermen are
fishermen for the formulation of the much needed policy aiming at addressing the
76
The above discussion of literature points out that most of the studies
pertaining to the east coast of India are carried out in and around Madras city and
therefore, the status of the fisherman in the rural region of the coast is to be
studied further. Hence, the present research studied on the labour conditions of
marine fishing workers in Thoothukudi of Tamil Nadu. The studies have also
enlightened the researcher on the concepts, data and methodology relevant to this
research.
77