Unit-1 BOILERS

BOILER
INTRODUCTION
Boiler is a major component in a steam power plant. Combustion of fuel takes place inside the
boiler and water by taking up the heat of combustion turns into steam.

A simple boiler is a closed vessel strongly constructed of steel in which steam is

generated from water by the application of heat. The function of steam boiler is to convert
chemical energy of fuel into heat by combustion and thus to produce steam which is then
available for different purposes.

The boiler with accessories is called as steam generator.

Steam generation is done by evaporating water at constant pressure. The heat required for
vaporising may be obtained from any source-solid, liquid or gaseous fuels. Heat obtainable
from electricity, atomic reactors and exhaust of engines may also be used.
The generated steam may be employed for the following purposes:

1. Power Generation: Electrical power or mechanical work may be obtained by expanding

steam in steam engines or steam turbines.
2. Process Work: At low pressures, steam is used in many industries for different purposes.
For drying paper in paper industry, bleaching, sizing etc. in Textile, sugar and chemical
industries.
3. Heating : Steam is also used for heating residential and industrial buildings in winter and
for producing hot water.
BOILER TERMS
The following are the important terms related to a boiler.
1. Shell: It consists of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and rivetted or welded
together. Ends of the shell are closed by 'end plates' or 'heads' which are flat, concave
or convex. The shell together with closing heads is called drum.
2.Grate: It is a platform in the furnace upon which fuel is burnt and is made of cast iron
bars. The bars are separated slightly so that air for combustion can pass through them.
The surface area of grate over which firing takes place is called - Grate surface.
3. Furnace: It is the space above the grate and below the boiler shell in which combustion
takes place. It is also called as fire box.
4. Heating Surface : It is the part of boiler surface which is exposed to fire (or hot gases
from the fire).
5. Water Space and Steam Space: The volume of the shell that is occupied by the water is
termed as water space; while the entire shell volume less water and tubes space (space which
is occupied by steam) is called - steam space.
6. Mountings : These are the elements mounted directly on the boiler for its safe and proper
functioning. They include -safety valve, pressure gauges, stop valves, feed check valve etc.
7. Accessories : These elements from an integral part of the boiler; but not mounted on it.
They include Economiser, Superheater, feed pump etc. They increase the efficiency of
the boiler.
8. Scale : A deposit of considerable hardness occurring on the surface of heating because of

Elements of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by: G. Suresh Babu, Asst. Professor,

M.E.Dept. Page 1
undesirable elements in water is called scale. It reduces heat transfer to water.
9. Lagging : The insulation provided on the outside surface of a shell or pipes carrying
steam is called - Lagging. It reduces heat loss from the inside surface.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BOILER

A good boiler should meet the following requirements.
1. It should provide maximum quantity of steam at required pressure and temperature and
at required quality (dryness fraction) with minimum fuel consumption.
2. It should be safe in working and should confirm to safety regulations.
3. Initial, installation and maintenance costs should be low enough.
4. It should be capable of quick starting, rapidly meet the fluctuations of load.
5. All components should be easily accessible for inspection and repair.
6. It should be light in weight and occupy less space.
7. Minimum refractory material should be used.
8. The heating surface should be from any type of deposits.
9. The water and flue gas circuits should allow maximum fluid velocity without excessive
frictional losses.
SELECTION OF A BOILER
The following factors should be considered for selecting a boiler.
1. The power required and working pressure
2. Rate of steam generation
3. Geographical position of the plant
4. Availability of fuel and water
5. Probable load factor
6. Type of fuel to be used
7. Type of application
8. Floor area and erection facility
9. Accessibility for cleaning, repairs and inspection
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
Generally, boilers are classified based on the following factors :
1. Tube contents
2. Use
3. Tube shape and position
4. Furnace position
5. Number of tubes
6. Heat source
7. Circulation
8. Axis of shell
9. Pressure of steam
10. Gas passage
11. Type of draught
12. Shell material

According to contents in the tube, boilers are classified as :

(a) Fire tube boilers
(b) Water tube boilers
In fire tube boilers, the flue gases pass through the tubes while water surrounds the tubes.
Cochran, Lancashire, cornish, locomotive boilers are examples of fire tube boilers.

In water tube boilers, water flows through the tubes while products of combustion (Flue
gases) pass over external surface of tubes. Babcock and wilcox, Stirling boilers are examples
of water tube boilers.

According to use, boilers are classified as :

(a) Stationary boilers
(b) Portable boilers
(c) Mobile boilers
Stationary boilers are generally of large capacity and are used for power generation.
Portable boilers can be readily dismantled and transported from one place to another.

Mobile boilers are boilers fitted on vehicles that move from one place to another place.
Marine and locomotive boilers are examples of mobile boilers.

According to shape and position of tubes, boilers are classified as :

(a) Straight tube boilers
(b) Bent tube boilers
(c) Horizontal tube boilers
(d) Vertical tube boilers
(e) Inclined tube boilers
According to furnace position and method of firing, boilers are classified as :
(a) External combustion boilers or externally fired boilers
(b) Internal combustion boilers or internally fired boilers

In externally fired boilers, furnace is arranged underneath a brick work setting water tube
boilers are always externally fired.

In internally fired boilers, furnace is provided inside the boilers shell and is completely
surrounded by water cooled surfaces.
 Figure 2.1: Difference between internally&Externally Fired Boilers

The fig. 2.1 shows the difference between the 2 types.

Depending upon number of tubes, boilers may be classified as:

(a) Single tube boilers
(b) Multi tubular boilers
In single tube boilers, there is only one water or fire tube. Simple vertical and cornish boilers
are single tube boilers.

In multitubular boilers, there are 2 or more fire tubes or water tubes. Lancashire,
Locomotive, cochran, Babcock & Wilcox boilers are multitubular boilers.

The boilers may be classified according to the source of heat supply. The source may be any
of the following:
1. Combustion of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
2. Electrical or Nuclear energy
3. Hot waste gases which are by-products of other chemical processes.
According to method of circulation of water, boilers may be classified as :
(a) Natural circulation boilers
(b) Forced circulation boilers

In Natural circulation steam boilers, circulation of water is by natural convection currents

produced by application of heat. In most of the boilers, there is a natural circulation of water.
Lancashire, locomotive, Babcock & Wilcox boilers belong to this category.

In Forced circulation boilers, pumps are used to increase the circulation. Forced circulation
is used in high pressure boilers as - La Mont, Benson & Velox boilers etc.

Proper circulation of water is essential where rapid steam generation is required at high
pressure. With forced circulation, the bubbles of steam which are formed and adhered to
walls of tubes can be removed efficiently and heat is distributed uniformly throughout the bulk
of water.

According to axis of shell, boilers are classified as :

(a) Vertical boilers
(b) Horizontal boilers

In Vertical boilers, axis of shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boilers are vertical
boilers.

In Horizontal boilers, axis of shell is horizontal. Lancashire, Locomotive, Babcock & Wilcox
boilers are Horizontal boilers.

According to the pressure of steam generated, boilers may be classified as:

(a) Low Pressure boilers
(b) Medium Pressure boilers
(c) High Pressure boilers

A boiler which generates steam at a pressure upto 30 bar is called low pressure boiler.
Cornish, Cochran, locomotive boilers etc. are low pressure boilers.

A boiler which generates steam at a pressure higher than 80 bar is called - High pressure
boiler. Lamont, Velox boilers etc. are high pressure boilers.

According to the design of gas passage, boilers may be classified as :

(a) Single pass boilers
(b) Multi pass boilers

Depending upon the type of draught provided, boilers are classified as:
(a) Natural draught boilers
(b) Forced draught boilers

In Natural draught boilers, the draught is produced by natural circulation of air or gas. In
Forced draught boilers, draught is produced by Mechanical means -Fans etc.

On the basis of material used for shell, boilers are classified as:
(a) Cast Iron boilers
(b) Steel boilers
(c) Copper and Stainless steel boilers
FIRE TUBE BOILERS
These are also called as - Smoke tube boilers. In these boilers, the hot flue gases pass through
inside of the tubes and water surrounds the tubes.

In these boilers, the steam pressure is about 10 - 20 bar and evaporative capacities range from
200 - 9000 kgs of water per hour. Under Normal conditions, their thermal efficiency varies
from 65 - 70%.

These boilers may have one or more number of tubes passing through a cylindrical shell
which may be horizontal or vertical.
They have compact design and low cost. So, they are also called as - Economical boilers.

The following are the important fire tube boilers.

1. Simple vertical boiler
2. Lancashire boiler
3. Cornish boiler
4. Cochran or vertical multitubular boiler
5. Scotch marine boiler
6. Locomotive boiler

SIMPLE VERTICAL BOILER

This type of boilers produce steam at low pressure and in small quantities.

Figure 2.2 Simple vertical boiler

Figure shows a simple vertical boiler.

The cylindrical shell is vertical and attached to the bottom of the furnace or fire box. The
combustion takes place in the fire box. The top of the uptake tube which carries flue gases is
connected to a stack of chimney which is meant for discharging flue gases to atmosphere.
The man hole is used for cleaning interior of boiler shell. Hand hole is used for cleaning the
cross tubes. Fire door is meant for feeding fuel to the boiler.

The fire box is fitted with cross tubes. The cross tubes increase heating surface and
improve water circulation. There may be one or more cross tubes. The tubes are inclined
slightly to ensure efficient circulation of water.

The ash pit is for depositing ash so that it can be removed from time to time.

Working: The hot flue gases as a result of combustion, travel straight from furnace to
chimney. During the travel of flue gases, the heat contained by flue gases is given up to water
contained in the shell resulting in the formation of steam.

The circulation of water is marked by arrows. Water moves by natural circulation caused by
convection currents from lower end of cross tubes and emerges from the higher end. The
formed steam passes through the steam stop valve.

The working pressure of steam is about 7 - 10 bar and rate of steam generation is about
2500 kgs/hr.

These boilers are self contained and are particularly useful on account of their portability and
small floor area required for their installation and lower cost of construction.

These boilers are largely used on cranes, excavators, general contract work where temporary
supply of steam is required and for generation of small powers.

LANCASHIRE BOILER
This is a stationary boiler, with straight horizontal fire tubes, internally fired having natural
circulation.

This boiler is commonly used in sugar mills and textile industries where along with
power, steam for process work, is also needed. In addition, this boiler is used where large
reserve of water and steam are needed.

The working pressure of this boiler is about 15 bar and steaming capacity is about 9000
kgs/hr.
 Figure 2.3: Lancashire Boiler

Figure shows 2.3 views of a Lancashire boiler.

Construction Details: Feed water is supplied to the boiler underpressure and feed check valve
stops feed water coming back.

Fire bridge is used for deflecting the gases of combustion (Flue gases) upwards.

Flue tubes are the channels or passages metallic tubes through which the flue gases flow.
Water surrounds these tubes in the shell.

Flues are the passages of flue gases. (Generally made of bricks).

Anti priming device is meant for separating moisture from dry steam and allows dry
steam only to pass through the stop valve.

Fusible plug is for safety of boiler - to protect the boiler from excessive heat when water level
falls too low.

Dampers are meant for controlling the flow of flue gases. Generally, they are iron doors
which slide up and down by means of chains, pulleys etc.

Working: The boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with flat ends and 2 smoke tubes (Fire
tubes) pass through the shell. Some Lancashire boilers are fitted with number of smoke tubes.
These tubes increase heating surface.
The fuel is burnt on the grate and the resulting flue gases move along the furnace tubes or
main flue and are deflected by the fire bridge.

The flue gases pass front to back through 2 internal flue tubes, back to front through one
bottom flue, and front to back through 2 side flues. While flowing through flue tubes, bottom
and side flues, the flue gases give up heat to the shell. Finally, the flue gases meet again in
main flue, pass through the damper from where they are discharged to atmosphere through the
chimney.

The flues are built of ordinary brick work. The damper controls the flow of flue gases by
restricting the passage of flow; and this controls the rate of steam generation.

Advantages of Lancashire Boilers:

1. It can burn coal of inferior quality also.
2. It is reliable, simple in design, easy to operate and so operating and maintenance costs are less.
3. Easy to clean and inspect
4. It can meet sudden heavy demands of load without appreciable pressure drop.
Disadvantages :
1. Maximum working pressure is limited to 20 bar
2. More floor area is required due to brick work settings
3. Cracks in setting due to large temperature difference between inside and outside may
cause leakages.
4. If overload is continued for some time, boiler may stop working

CORNISH BOILER
This is very similar in construction and appearance to a Lancashire boiler except that there is
only one large flue tube instead of two.

Figure 2.4: Gornish Boiler

It consists of a cylindrical shell with flat ends through which a single fire tube (Flue tube or
smoke tube) passes. The boiler is supported on brick work flues, forming 2 external side flues
and one bottom flue.

The working pressure is about 11 bar and steaming capacity is 6500 kg/hr.

The flue gases pass front to back through one internal furnace tube, back to front through 2
side flues and front to back through one bottom flue. The hottest portion lies at the bottom of
the boiler and could result in overheating of plates due to scale and sludge deposits. To avoid
overheating, the scale and sludge have to be removed frequently.

The Cornish and Lancashire boilers are some times called as shell or tank boilers. In
these boilers, conical shaped cross tubes known as Galloway tubes may be fitted inside the
furnace tubes to increase heating surface and water circulation. Now a days, these have
become obsolete for their complexity and cost of fitting. Moreover, they cool the furnace
gases and retard combustion.

COCHRAN OR VERTICAL MULTITUBULAR BOILER

This is one of the best, most popular vertical, multitubular, internally fired, natural circulation
boiler. It is an improvement over simple vertical boiler and provides greater heating surface.
The steam pressure is about 6.5 bar and steaming capacity is 3500 kgs/hr.
The figure shows Cochran boiler

Figure 2.5: Cochran boiler

It consists of a vertical cylindrical shell with hemispherical dome. The fire box is also of
hemispherical form. Adjacent to the fire box or furnace, a combustion chamber is provided.
Close to the combustion chamber, number of horizontal smoke tubes of equal length are
provided. The tubes are arranged with space in between them and the shell to help convection
currents. A smoke box is provided on the other side of the smoke tubes. The stack or chimney
is provided on the top of the smoke box.
The furnace is surrounded by water on a l l sides except at opening of fire door and
the combustion chamber. The smoke tubes are completely surrounded by water.

Working: The hot flue gases from the combustion of fuel on the grate rise up and come into
the combustion chamber. The hemispherical form of the furnace gives maximum volume of
space for given mass of material and also permits maximum absorption of radiant heat.

The flue gases from combustion chamber pass through the smoke tubes and smoke box and
finally are discharged through the chimney.

SCOTCH MARINE BOILER

This is most popular type of boiler used for marine works especially due to their
compactness, efficiency in operation and ability to use any type of water. It is a self
contained, horizontal, multitubular, internally fired, natural circulation boiler. It provides
large area of heating surface for the space occupied.

These boilers may be single ended or double ended. A single ended boiler has one to four
furnaces which enter from front end of the boiler. A double ended boiler has furnaces on both
of its ends and may have furnaces from 2 to 4 in each end. For same evaporation capacity, a
double ended boiler is cheaper and occupies less space.

Figure 2.6: Scotch Marine Boiler

The figure 2.6 shows a single ended scotch type marine boiler; which consists of 4
furnaces. Each furnace has its own combustion chamber. A number of smoke tubes are
placed horizontally that connect combustion chamber to smoke box. All the tubes are
surrounded by water.
The stays are used to retain the walls in their position.

Working: The hot flue gases are deflected upwards by the fire brick bridge and pass to
combustion chamber. From combustion chamber, the gases enter the fire tubes from where
they go to smoke box and chimney.
The working pressure of steam is about 17 bar and steaming capacity is 1000 kgs/hr.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
It is a horizontal, multitubular, natural circulation, artificial draught, internally fired, fire tube
boiler. It can produce steam at high rate, can meet sudden and fluctuating demands of load. It
is used in railway engines, agriculture field, road-rollers, haulage engines, saw mill plants and
stationary power service.

The working pressure is about 14 bar and steaming capacity is about 9000 kgs/hr. The figure
2.7 shows a locomotive boiler.

Figure 2.7: Locomotive Boiler

It consists of a cylindrical barrel with a rectangular fire box at one end and a smoke box at the
other end. The fuel is introduced onto the grate through the fire hole. The grate in the furnace
slopes downwards. This helps in deflecting the products of combustion causing them to come
in contact more thoroughly with the whole heating surface of the fire box before passing
through the tubes.

A dome shaped chamber known as steam dome is fitted on the upper part of the barrel from
where the steam flows through a steam pipe into the chamber. Flow of steam is regulated by
means of a regulator. From chamber, it passes through super heater tubes and returns to super
heated steam chamber from which it is led to cylinders. This passage of steam creates
necessary draught. The vacuum created with the passage of steam sucks the flue gases and
discharges them to atmosphere.

With moving locomotive, we cannot provide chimney of necessary height for natural draught
and so artificial draught has to be employed.

Working: The generated hot gases are deflected up. From the furnace, the hot gases pass to
smoke box through a series of tubes. The fire tubes are placed inside the barrel, which are
surrounded by water. The water takes up heat from the flue gases and gets converted into
steam.

Compactness, high steaming capacity, low cost of construction, portability, low installation
cost are its advantages.

The disadvantages include vibrations due to movement of locomotive, inability to carry high
overloads without getting damaged by overheating, chances to corrode and formation of scale
due to accumulation of sediments and mud particles in water. Efficiency of this boiler is low.

WATER TUBE BOILERS

In these boilers, water passes inside the tubes while hot gases surround the tubes. These are
extensively used because they are built for high pressures and large evaporative capacities.
They are safe, quick steaming, flexible in construction and operation.

They consists of small drums which form small part of the total heating surface and greater
part of heating surface is provided by number of water tubes fitted outside the drum in the
furnace.

Water tube boilers may be mainly classified into 2 groups:

1. Straight horizontal tube boilers
2. Bent tube boilers

Babcock & Wilcox boiler is an example of straight tube boilers and Stirling boiler is an
example of bent tube boilers.

BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER

This is best known type of water tube boilers. The maximum working pressure is 40 bar and
maximum steaming capacity is 40,000 kgs/hr. It is suitable for small size thermal power plants
and other industrial works.

The figure 2.8 shows the details of a Babcock & Wilcox boiler.

Figure 2.8: Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

The boiler has 3 main parts. Steam and water drum, water tubes and furnace.
The drum is connected to headers by short tubes known as - Riser tubes. The headers are
common collecting chambers. A series of inclined tubes connect the uptake header to downtake
header. There are many rows of tubes. The inclination of the tubes promote water circulation.
The headers are curved and the tubes are expanded into headers which are provided with
zig-zag holes. This arrangement allows surfaces of all tubes to be exposed to hot gases.

The heating surface is the outer surface of the tubes and half of the cylindrical surface of the
drum.

A mud box is attached to the bottom of the down take header where foreign matter in the
water gets collected and can be blown off from time to time.

Below the uptake header, the furnace of the boiler is arranged. A damper is provided at the
inlet of the chimney to regulate the draught. The bridge wall deflector deflects the flue
gases upwards. Baffles are provided across the water tubes to act as deflectors for the flue
gases and to provide them with gas passes. Here, 2 baffles are provided which provide 3
passes of the flue gases. Superheater tubes are provided for producing superheated steam. The
superheater consists of 2 boxes : superheated steam box and saturated steam box.

Steam generated above water level in the drum flows to a dry pipe and into superheated steam
box. It then passes into saturated steam box. The steam during its passage through the tubes
gets further heated and becomes superheated. Now, the steam is taken through the outlet pipe.
The soot (particles carried by flue gases from combustion) from the flue gases that
accumulate on the surface of the water tubes is removed at frequent intervals either by
mechanical scrapers or blown off by high pressure steam blowers. This is necessary to keep
the heat transfer effective.

Working : The feed water enters the drum, from drum to uptake header, into tubes and from
tubes to downtake header and again to drum. Water circulates in this fashion and during its
travel, takes up heat and gets evaporated.

The hot flue gases are deflected upwards and pass over the tubes between the baffles. Baffles
are obstructions in the passage of flue gases provided to transfer heat to all tubes.

The circulation of water in the boiler is natural set up by convective currents. The steam
formed rises to uptake header and then through the riser enters the boiler drum. The steam
escapes through the water to the upper half of the drum.

Finally, the flue gases go to chimney through the damper.

STIRLING BOILER
This is an example of bent tube boiler. Large power stations use these boilers. The maximum
working pressure is about 60 bar and steaming capacity is about 50,000 kgs/hr.

The figure 2.9 shows a Stirling boiler.

 Figure 2.9: Stirling Boiler

The boiler consists of 3 upper drums known as steam drums and a lower drum known as
water or mud drum. The steam drums are connected to mud drum by series of bent tubes. The
steam and water space of the steam drums are interconnected with each other by means of
tubes called equalising tubes and balance of steam and water may be obtained. The steam
pressure can be equalised.

For cleaning, a man hole at one end of each drum is provided.

Working: The feed water enters the drum 1 and passes downwards through the tubes into mud
drum. If any foreign matter is present in the water, it settles down in the mud drum and can be
blown off at regular intervals. Only pure water passes to drum 3. Major portion of evaporation
takes place in the front tubes and drums because furnace is located below them. The water
from drum 3 passes to middle drum 2 and then through middle bank of the tubes to mud drum
and retraces its course.

The drum 3 is provided with safety valves to main steam outlet and a dry pipe to ensure dry
steam at the boiler outlet. The middle drum acts as a dryer and any moisture present is
effectively removed by baffle arrangement from which it passes to dry pipe and into super-
heater tubes. Finally, the steam moves to stop valve from where it can be supplied for further
use.

The flue gases are directed by baffles to pass from grate along first bank of tubes, then down
the middle bank and up the rear bank and finally discharged to the chimney. The flue gases
make 3 passes. To recover heat from flue gases, feed water is circulated through an
economiser before entering the drum 1.
The Advantages of using bent tubes in a boiler are :
1. They are flexible. Free to expand and contract
2. Headers are avoided
3. They can be connected easily with drums
4. Tube replacement becomes easy
5. The boilers are lighter

Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to clean and inspect the tubes
2. In case of rupture, it is difficult to seal the tube

COMPARISON BETWEEN WATER TUBE BOILERS AND FIRE TUBE BOILERS

1. Water tube boilers can generate steam of high pressure upto 165 bar. Fire tube boilers can
generate steam upto a pressure of 25 bar.
2. In water tube boilers, water is divided into small portions, heating surface is more and so
water tube boilers generate steam rapidly than fire tube boilers.
3. The steam generation capacity is more in water tube boilers upto 450 tons/hr. The
capacity of fire tube boilers upto 9 tons/hr.
4. Water tube boilers are of sectional construction. So, they can be transported and erected
more readily than fire tube boilers.
5. Water tube boilers are generally externally fired and fire tube boilers are generally
internally fired.
6. Water tube boilers are generally suitable for large power plants; fire tube boilers are
suitable for low capacity plants and for temporary work; for engines operating with rapid
changes in load.
7. Any accident to one tube in water tube boilers does not produce destruction of whole boiler.
So, water tube boilers are also called as safety boilers.
8. For a given power, water tube boiler occupies less floor area; fire tube boiler occupies more
floor area.
9. Construction of water tube boilers is simple and fire tube boilers is difficult.
10. Water treatment is more necessary for water tube boilers and not so necessary for fire tube
boilers.
11. In water tube boilers, various parts are more accessible for cleaning, repair and inspection;
not accessible in fire tube boilers.
12. Water tube boilers are highly efficient and fire tube boilers are less efficient.
13. Water tube boilers can take up large load fluctuations extending over long durations
without danger to the boilers. Although fire tube boilers are suitable for rapid changes in
load, large load fluctuations over long duration may damage the boiler.
14. In fire tube boilers, the circulation of water is poor and there are chances of a deposit of
impurities on the heating surface. The removal of impurities is difficult.
In water tube boilers, the circulation of water is better and there are less chances of
deposit of impurities. The impurities can be removed easily.
15. The fire tube boilers are rigid of simple mechanical construction, greater reliability and
are low in first cost. For same capacity, because of less number of parts, maintenance cost
is less compared to a water tube boiler.

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

As per Carnot cycle, the efficiency of a steam plant can be increased by adopting highest
possible average temperature of heat addition and lowest possible temperature of heat
rejection in condenser. The average heat addition temperature is increased by increasing
steam pressure and superheat. So modern trend is to use large capacity high pressure, high
temperature boilers.

These high pressure boilers can generate steam of 30 - 650 tons/hr and above with a pressure
upto 200 bar; maximum temperaturing being about 600C It is possible to generate steam
above critical pressure of water also (221.2 bar). As the properties of steam in the critical
range are difficult, these supercritical boilers are different in both design and operation.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

The high pressure boilers are characterised by the following features.
1. Method of water circulation
2. Arrangement of drums and tubes
3. Improved method of heating
In high pressure boilers, the circulation of water is forced. Water circulation is maintained
with the help of a pump which forces the water through the boiler plant.

In water tube boilers, if flow takes place through one continuous tube, large pressure drop
takes place due to friction. This is considerably reduced by arranging the flow to pass through
parallel system of tubing.

The following methods are used to increase heat transfer.

1. Superheated steam is used to heat the water
2. Saving of latent heat by evaporation of water above critical pressure
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased by increasing water velocity inside the
tube and increasing the gas velocity above sonic velocity.

THEORY OF WATER CIRCULATION

The water circulation in a boiler may be natural circulation of forced circulation.

In natural circulation, circulation of water takes place on thermosyphonic principle. The

natural circulation is due to static head difference and natural convection due to difference in
densities between rising fluid and down coming fluid. The down coming tubes contain
relatively cold water whereas riser tubes contain a mixture of water and steam whose density
is comparatively less. This density difference is the driving force for the mixture, circulation
takes place at such a rate that the driving force and frictional resistance are balanced.

As the pressure increases, the difference in density between water and steam reduces. So, the
hydrostatic head available will not be able to overcome the frictional resistance for a flow
corresponding to minimum flow requirement of water in all tubes. So, natural circulation is
limited to boilers with operating pressures around 170 bar.

Beyond the pressure of 175 bar, circulation is to be assisted with mechanical pumps to
overcome frictional losses.

At critical pressure, density of water and steam is same and hence natural flow becomes zero
at critical pressure. So, the use of natural circulation is limited to sub critical boilers upto about
140 bar and for higher pressures, forced circulation becomes essential.

In modern steam generators, there are many parallel circuits and adequate and equal
distribution in each circuit is difficult in natural circulation boiler because variation in heat
transfer causes variation in circulation. Alternative is forced circulation which ensures equal
distribution.

For increasing rate of heat transfer in boilers, velocities of fluids (gases, water or both) should
be increased. It is simpler and economical to employ high water velocities rather than high gas
velocities because a small volume of fluid (i.e. water) is dealt with and a considerable
increase in pressure is more easily produced with water than with gas.

Advantages of forced circulation:

1. The boiler may be designed to suit the site available as there is greater freedom for
disposing of heating surface. So, there is increased output from a given space.
2. Forced circulation boilers can meet rapid changes of load. Such boilers are suitable for
carrying peak loads or as stand-by in hydroelectric stations.
3. Due to large velocities of water, size of tubes is small. Number of drums are less. It
results in reduced weight of material for a given output.

Extra pumping equipment and power, are required for forced circulation boilers. Safety of
boiler depends upon pumping equipment. Water of highest purity is required to be used.

Following are some of the high pressure boilers.

1. La Mont boiler
2. Benson boiler
3. Loeffler boiler
4. Velox boiler
5. Schmidt-hartman boiler
6. Radiant type boiler
LA MONT BOILER
This is a high pressure, forced circulation water tube boiler. The figure 2.10 shows the details
of La Mont boiler.

Figure 2.10: Lamont Boiler

The feed water passes through the economiser to the drum from which it is drawn to the
circulation pump. The pump delivers the feed water to the evaporator which in turn sends a
mixture of water and steam to the drum. The steam in the drum is then drawn through the
superheater. The superheated steam so obtained is then supplied to prime mover.

These boilers can generate 45 - 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 130 bar and at
a temperature of 500C.

BENSON BOILER
In La Mont boiler, the main difficulty is the formation of bubbles and attachment of bubbles on
inner surfaces of heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce heat transfer and steam
generation as they offer high thermal resistance.

In Benson boiler, the pressure is raised to critical pressure (225 bar) and at critical
pressure, latent heat of vaporization is zero, steam and water have same density and so
there is no formation of bubbles and water transforms to steam directly with out boiling.

Benson boiler is a high pressure, forced circulation, water tube boiler. It uses no drum.
The figure 2.11 shows the details of a Benson boiler.
 Figure 2.11: Benson Boiler

The feed water passes through the economiser tubes where it gets radiant heat and
temperature almost rises to critical temperature. It then enters evaporator and may get
superheated to same degree. Finally, it is passed through the superheater to obtain desired
superheated steam.

These boilers can operate at a pressure of 250 bar and steaming capacity is about 150
tonnes/hr.

Advantages of Benson Boiler:

1. It can be erected in smaller floor area
2. Initial cost is low as there is no drum; so, weight is also less
3. It can be started very quickly
4. As there is no pressure limit, super critical pressures may be employed
5. The high pressure avoids formation of bubbles and so increases heat transfer rate
6. It can be operated economically by varying temperature and pressure at partial and over
loads
7. Superheater is an integral part of forced circulation system so no special starting
arrange- ment for superheater is required
8. Blow down losses are less
9. Explosion hazards are not severe as it consists of tubes of small diameter
LOEFFLER BOILER
In La Mont boiler another major difficulty is deposition of salt and sediment on the inner
surfaces of the water tubes. The deposits reduce heat transfer and steam generating capacity.
As these deposits offer high thermal resistance, there is danger of overheating of tubes. This
difficulty is solved in Loeffler boiler.

It is a high pressure, forced circulation water tube boiler.

The figure 2.12 shows a Loeffler boiler.

Figure 2.12: Loeffler Boiler

The main principle of working is to evaporate the feed water by means of superheated steam
from the superheater. The hot gases from the furnace are primarily used for superheating.

The feed water from economiser tubes is forced to mix with the superheated steam in the
evaporating drum. The saturated formed steam is drawn the from the drum by a circulating
pump. This steam passes through the tubes of combustion chamber walls and then enters the
superheater. From the superheater, about l/3rd of the superheated steam passes to turbine and
two-third is used to evaporate feed water in the evaporating drum.

These boilers operate at about 140 bar and generate steam of 100 tonnes/hr.

VELOX BOILER
When gas velocity exceeds sound or sonic velocity, heat is transferred from the gas at a much
higher rate than rates achieved with sub sonic flow. This fact is used in velox boiler to effect
large heat transfer from a smaller surface area. This boiler makes use of pressurized
combustion.
 The figure 2.13 shows the details of a velox boiler

Figure 2.13: Velox Boiler

The gas turbine drives the axial flow compressor which raises the pressure of air. The flue
gases after heating water and steam flow through the gas turbine to the atmosphere. The feed
water after passing through the economiser is pumped by a water circulating pump to the
evaporator section. Steam separated in separating section flows to superheater and then to
prime mover.

Advantages:
1. This boiler is very compact and has greater flexibility
2. Very high combustion rates are possible
3. It can be started quickly
4. Low excess air is required

RADIANT TYPE BOILERS

In these boilers, heat is transferred from the combustion gas to water walls by both radiation
and
convection, but is mainly by radiation, convection heat transfer is very much less. So,
such boilers are called as Radiant boilers. They generally operate at 125 -170 bar and generate
4500 tons of steam/hour.

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH PRESSURE

BOILERS
The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers :
1. Due to high circulation velocity, tendency to form scale is eliminated to a large extent.
2. There is reduction in number of drums which result in less weight
3. Due to uniform temperature of parts, parts expand almost equally
4. All parts are heated uniformly which eliminate danger of overheating' and setting up
 thermal stresses
5. Lighter structure for a given output
6. If external supply of power is available, rapid start from cold is possible
7. Steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements
8. Heat of combustion is utilised efficiently by employing larger number of smaller diameter
tubes
9. Pressurised combustion increases rate of combustion and rate of release of heat

SUPER CRITICAL ONCE THROUGH FORCED CIRCULATION

BOILER

When water at boiling point is heated, further at constant pressure, the additional heat
supplied changes the phase from liquid to vapour. During this change of phase, pressure and
temperature remain constant. The heat supplied is called latent heat of vaporization. The
amount of latent heat goes on decreasing with increasing pressure and finally becomes zero at
a pressure known as critical pressure. This point is known as critical point and corresponding
temperature is known as critical temperature.

For water, critical pressure is 221 bar and critical temperature is 374.15C.

The boilers in which steam is produced above this critical pressure are known as Supercritical
pressure boilers. Their design is different from that of sub critical boilers. The sub critical
boilers have a means of separating water from steam but in super critical pressure boilers this
is not required as boiling does not occur in these boilers.

The water is assumed to become gas where it passes the critical temperature. Thus, the boiler
becomes a continuous tube which is heated along its length with water going in at one end
and superheated steam leaving at the other end. So, this type of boiler is known as Monotube
once through forced circulation boiler. The length of monotube may be almost 1.5 kms in
large capacity boilers.

Benson boiler is an example of once through boiler.

J IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Steam is generated from water by the application of heat from combustion of fuel.
2. The boiler shell together with closing heads is called - Drum.
3. The drum space above water level is called - Steam space.
4. Cornish boiler is supported on brick work flues forming 2 external side flues & one
bottom flue.
5. Lanchashire boiler differs from cornish boiler in having 2 tubes instead of one.
6. Water tube boilers are those in which - water passes through the tubes & flue gases
around them.
7. Locomotive boiler is - horizontal, multi tubular fire tube boiler.
8. Boiler stays are used to - prevent flat surfaces from tearing apart.
9. Size of a boiler tube is specified by - outside dia. & thickness of the tube.
10. The water tubes in simple vertical boiler are inclined to promote circulation of water.
11. Lancashire boiler in a stationary, natural circulation, internally fired, horizontal, fire tube
boiler.
12. Locomotive boiler is best suited boiler to meet the fluctuating demands of steam.
13. Water tube boilers generate steam at a higher pressure that of fire tube boilers.
14. A boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by
combustion of fuel.
15. Velox boiler uses a forced pump for circulation of fluid.
16. Benson boiler is an example of once through boiler.
17. Loeffler & Schmaidt - Hartman boilers are indirectly heated boilers.
18. Benson boiler is drumless.
19. Water tube principle is used for high pressure boilers.
20. In Loeffler boiler, heat of steam is used to evaporate water.
21. Gas turbine & air compressor unit is provided in - velox boiler.
22. In a boiler whose walls are lined with water tubes, heat transfer to tubes is mainly by -
radiation.
23. In velox boiler, velocity of gases exceed velocity of sound which results in better heat
transfer.
24. Due to high velocity of water through tubes, tendency of scale formation is less.
25. Water tube boilers are mostly externally fired fire tube boilers are internally fired.
26. Formation of bubbles reduces heat transfer in Lamont boiler.
27. The steam generating capacity is higher for water tube boilers than that of fire tube boilers.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How steam boilers are classified?
2. What is the fundamental difference between internally fired & externally fired boilers?
3. Explain the difference between fire tube & water tube boilers. What are their merits &
demerits?
4. With a sketch, explain, about Cochran boiler. What are its special features ? How a
Lancashire boiler differs from a Cochran boiler?
5. With a sketch, explain about a locomotive boiler. How draught is produced when it is
stationary & when it is moving?
6. With a sketch, explain about Babcock & Wilcox boiler.
7. Why water circulation is needed in boilers? Where forced circulation is used ? What are
the advantages of forced circulation over natural circulation?
8. What is meant by high pressure boilers? How they differs from ordinary boilers?
9. What are the requirement of a good boiler?
10. With sketches, explain the working principles of Lamont, Benson & Velox boilers.
11. Compare fire tube boilers with water tube boilers.
12. What are the advantages of high pressure boilers?

BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

INTRODUCTION
For safe, proper, efficient and satisfactory running of the boiler and for complete control of
the process of steam generation, boilers are equipped with two types of components.
1. Boiler mountings.
2. Boiler accessories.

Boiler mountings are different fittings and appliances generally mounted over the boiler shell
directly and they form an integral part of the boiler. They are necessary for the safety of the
boiler and to have control on the working of the boiler.

Boiler mountings can be divided into two types :

(a) Safety fittings.
(b) Control fittings.
Safety fittings are meant for the safety of boiler. They are :
(i) Safety valve :
(ii) Water level indicator,
(iii) Fusible plug.

Control fittings are meant for having control on the working of the boiler. They are :
(i) Pressure gauge.
(ii) Feed check valve,
(iii) Junction or stop valve,
(iv) Blow off cock box.
(v) Man hole and mud.
(vi) Anti-priming pipe.

Boiler accessories are fittings or devices attached to a boiler. They increase the efficiency and
help in smooth working of the boiler plant. They are not necessary for the operation of a boiler
but incorporated to increase the efficiency of the plant and its proper working. They are not
integral with the boiler and are installed either outside or inside the boiler. The important
boiler accessories are :
(a) Feed water pump.
(b) Super heater.
(c) Economiser.
(d) Air preheater.
(e) Injector.
(f) Steam drier or separator.
(g) Steam trap.
(h) Pressure reducing valves.
(i) Soot blowers.

BOILER MOUNTINGS
The details of different boiler mountings are given below :

SAFETY VALVE
The main function of a safety valve is to discharge excess pressure generated in the boiler
than the designed or working pressure. This is done automatically by discharging the excess
steam to atmosphere as soon as maximum pressure is reached "and brings down the pressure
to the normal working limit. Usually, boilers are fitted with two safety valves as a pre
cautionary measure. They are placed on the top of the boiler and directly on the boiler. Safety
valves are also mounted on economisers and super heaters. The escaping steam while going
through the safety valve to atmosphere makes whistling sound and thus alerts the boiler
operator.

There are four types of safety valves :

1. Dead weight safety valve.
2. Lever safety valve.
3. Spring loaded safety valve.
4. High steam and low water safety valve.

The principle of operation of a safety valve depends on the fact that a valve is pressed against
a seat through some agency - also called as method of loading the valve such as spring, screw
or external weight. When the force of stefam generated in the boiler exceeds the external
force imposed by the agency, the valve gets lifted off from its seat and allows steam to escape
out until the pressure is restored again.

1. Dead Weight Safety Valve :

It is the simplest type of safety valves in which the valve is loaded by direct application of
weights above the valve.

The fig. 2.14 shows a dead weight safety valve.

 Figure2.14: Dead Weight Safety Valve

It consists of a large vertical cast iron pipe through which steam pressure acts. The bottom
flange of the pipe is bolted to the mounting block on the boiler shell communicating to steam
space. On the top of the pipe, a valve seat is fixed and the valve rests on it. A weight carrier is
suspended from the top of the valve. The dead weight consisting of cast iron rings are placed
n the weight carrier. The total load on the valve includes the weights of carrier, dead weights.,
of cover and weight of the valve itself.

During normal operation, the upward force exerted by the steam is balanced by the down
ward force equivalent to load on the valve.

When steam pressure exceeds the total weight, the valve lifts in the guides and the excess
steam escapes to the enclosed discharge casing to the atmosphere. The blowing off of the
valves is prevented by stop screw fitted on the discharge casing.

It is the most reliable safety valve, simple in design and gives satisfactory performance
during operation. It can't be easily tempered.

It is unsuitable for use on boilers where extensive vibrations and movements are encountered
as in locomotive and marine boilers.

This valve has very limited range of application. It is mainly used for low pressure, low
capacity stationary boilers like - Cornish and Lancashire boilers.

2. Lever Safety Valve :

The principle of operation of this type of safety valve depends upon the second system of
levers.

The fig. 2.15shows a lever safety valve.

 Figure2.15: Lever Safety Valve

The flange of the cast iron body is bolted to the mounting of the boiler to communicate with
steam in the boiler. The valve rests on the valve seat which is screwed in the body. The valve
is held by a mild steel or wrought iron lever fulcrumed at one end and loaded at the other end
by an external weight w. The thrust is applied to the valve through a strut against the steam
pressure. The guide prevents the lateral movement of the valve and also prevents its blowing
off. The weight can be moved on the lever and its position depends upon the boiler pressure.
To avoid tempering by unauthorised persons, the weight is firmly secured to the lever by a
pin and locked. As the weight is placed on a longer arm, a smaller weight gives a large thrust.

When the pressure of the steam in the boiler is equal to the working pressure, the valve
remains at its position firmly. When the pressure of steam becomes higher, the valve is lifted
with the lever and the weight. Consequently, the excess steam escapes through the passages
between the valve and seat and hence the pressure of steam decreases to normal working
pressure.

This valve is also affected by vibrations and hence its use is confined to stationary boilers:

Spring Loaded Safely Valve :

In this type of valve loading of the valve is effected by a spring.

The fig. 2.16 shows a Rams bottom spring-loaded safety valve which is widely used.
 FIGURE 2.16 : RAMS BOTTOM SPRING-LOADED SAFETY VALVE

It has a cast iron body which has two branches for the flow of steam. Two separate valves are
used each of which is placed over a valve seat. The whole assembly is mounted on the boiler
shell. The valves are held down on their seats against the steam pressure by applying load on
the valve through a helical spring and lever arrangement. The lever is provided with two
pivots - one is integrally forged with the lever while the other is pinned to the lever. Both
pivots rest on the centre of the valve. The lever is pulled down ward by the helical spring and
1/2 of this forces acts on each of the valves through pivots because the upper end of the
spring is fixed to the lever. The lower end of the spring is hooked to a shackle which is
secured in the body of the valve. A link is provided to prevent the valves being blown away
in the event of spring breaking. The tension of the spring and setting of the blow off pressure
can be altered by adjusting the spring tightening nut.

Under normal working conditions, the spring lies in its usual position and the valves touch
their seats tightly, when the pressure exceeds the rated pressure, the valve opens up.

The disadvantage of spring loaded valves is that the load on the valves increases as the valve
lifts. This indicates that the pressure required to just lift the valve is less than that required to
open it fully.

If line of action deviates from vertical, then, dead weight safety valve and lever safety valve
doesn't operate properly. Spring-loaded safety valves are not affected by vibrations and
operate satisfactorily even if they are inclined. So, this valve is used on locomotive and
marine boilers.
The spring may be loaded in tension or compression. In actual practice, the spring is loaded is
compression.

4. High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve :

This valve has two functions :
(a) It blows off or discharges the excess steam if the steam pressure exceeds the working
pressure.
(b) It discharges the steam when the level of water becomes too low.

It has two valves combined in one and serves the above purposes. One valve is a lever safety
valve to safeguard against excessive pressure and the other valve is to safe guard against too
low water level. If the water level becomes too low, then there are chances of overheating and
softening of tubes.

The fig. 2.17shows a high steam and low water safety valve.

Figure2.17: High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve

The valve V2 rests upon the valve seat and valve V1 which is of hemispherical shaft is placed
over valve V2 which acts as a valve seat for valve V1.

To safeguard against high pressure, it acts as a simple lever safety valve loaded by two
weights - one attached to the lever and the other to valve V1 Valve V2 is attached to external
lever. The lever is hinged at its one end and a weight is at the other end. A pivot attached on
the lever is placed on the valve which keeps it in position under normal working pressure. If
pressure exceeds the normal limit, valve V2 opens and steam escapes through the passage
between the valve seat and valve V2.

The low water safety arrangement is placed inside the boiler. A lever is hinged from the
boiler shell. At one end of the lever a weight is provided and at the other end a float is
provided. The hemispherical valve V1 is connected with a spindle, the lower end of which
carries another weight. The knife-edge provided on the lever touches a collar on the spindle
during normal operation. When the water level falls to a low level, the float gets uncovered
and causes an increase in its weight which in turn causes a swing in the lever. This swing
pushes the spindle upwards through knife edge collar arrangement and valve V1 opens. Steam
escapes between the passage between valves V1 and V2.

This valve is generally used on Cornish or Lancashire boilers. It can't be used on mobile
boilers.

WATER LEVER INDICATOR

The function of a water level indicator is to indicate the exact water level in the boiler
continuously - at any instant. It is also called as - water gauge.

Usually two water gauges are provided on front end of each boiler; so that they are constantly
visible. One water gauge is provided on right hand side and the other on left hand side.

The fig. 2.18 shows a water level indicator.

FIGURE 2.18: WATER LEVEL INDICATOR.

 ;
A is the front end plate of the boiler to which the water level indicator is attached. G is a
gauge glass tube which is very hard and tough to withstand boiler pressure. The lower end of
the tube is connected to water space and the upper end is connected to steam space in the boiler
shell. D and E are cocks provided to control the passage of steam and water from boiler to
gauge glass. Normally, the gauge glass has a mark showing the safe level of water in the boiler.
The drain cock serves to blow out water periodically to avoid accumulation of sediments.

The water level indicator is provided with a provision for automatically shutting off the steam
and water supply to the gauge glass in case it breaks. In normal working; the balls rest in
position shown. If the glass tube breaks, the streams of water and steam carry the balls to the
dotted position and disconnect the gauge glass with the boiler. Now; the controlling cockcan
be closed and broken glass tube can be replaced.

Along with gauge glass tube, there is a hollow metal column which also indicates water level
corresponding to glass tube but it is not visible.

FUSIBLE PLUG
Its function is to put off the fire in the furnace when water level in the boiler falls to a
dangerous level and thus avoids explosion which may take place due to over heating of furnace
plates and tubes.
The fig.2.18 shows a fusible plug.

Figure2.18: Fusible Plug

It consists of a hollow gunmetal body screwed into the crown plate of the furnace or
combustion chamber. A gunmetal plug is screwed into the gunmetal body. There is another
plug of copper with a conical top and rounded bottom. This copper plug is kept in the hole of
gunmetal plug and held firmly in position by putting a fusible metal between them. The fusible
metal may be tin or lead.

Under normal working conditions, the plug is submerged in water which keeps the
temperature of the fusible metal below its melting point.
When water level falls to a level low enough to uncover the top of the plug; the fusible metal
melts quickly by the heat of the furnace. Now, the copper plug drops out and the steam rushes
into the furnace and puts off the fire.

Generally, these plugs should be renewed at an interval of 2-3 years as they may become
defective over a long period of usage.

PRESSURE GAUGE
The function of pressure gauge is to indicate the pressure of the steam generated. The
pressure should be nearly constant and shouldn't change with fluctuations of load. The
pressure gauge is generally constructed to indicate upto double the maximum working
pressure. The pressure gauge is mounted on the top front of the boiler shell or drum.

The pressure gauge is connected to the boiler through a U-tube syphon. The syphon is
connected to the steam space of the boiler and contains condensed steam; which enters the
gauge tube. The condensed water transmits pressure to the gauge and prevents hot steam
from entering the gauge. If steam enters the gauge, it could over heat the spring and may
affect the accuracy of the gauge.

There are two types of pressure gauges :

1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
2. Diaphragm type pressure gauge.

The fig. 2.19shows a Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

 Figure2.19: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

It consists of an elliptical spring tube called - Bourdon tube, one end of which is plugged and
the other end communicates with the steam space through a syphon. The U-tune syphon
contains water which fills the Bourdon tube. The steam pressure acting though the water
causes the tube to become circular. As the tube is fixed at one end; the other end moves
outwards. The movement of the free end is proportional to the difference between internal and
external pressure on the tube and this motion is magnified by a mechanism consisting of a
connecting link and toothed sector. The sector meshes with a pinion mounted on the spindle
carries the pointer. So, any slight movement of the Bourdon tube is magnified considerably and
the pointer gives a maximum deflection that can be read easily. As the outside pressure on the
tube is atmospheric; the movement of free end is a measure of the boiler pressure above
atmospheric - Gauge pressure.

FEED CHECK VALVE

Water from feed pump usually enters the water space of the boiler. A valve is placed in the
feed pipe to regulate the flow of water into the boiler. It is called feed check valve.

The function of this feed check valve is to control the amount of water to be supplied to the
boiler and prevents back flow from the boiler. It is a non return valve.

The fig2.20shows a commonly used feed check valve.

 Figure2.20: Feed Check Valve

It consists of two valves - Feed valve and Check valve. The feed valve is operated
manually while check valve operates automatically due to pressure difference of water and
allows feed water to flow in the one direction only - from feed pump to boiler.

Under normal working conditions, the pressure on feed pump side is more than the boiler side.
This pressure difference lifts the check, valve and water enters the feed valve. The feed check
valve and water enters the feed valve. The feed valve is lifted manually and water enters the
boiler. By adjusting the position of feed valve amount of feed water to the boiler can be
controlled.

If the pressure becomes less on pump side or the pump stops or fails, then the check
valve remains closed and so prevents back flow of water from boiler.

It is fitted to the water space of the boiler shell slightly below the normal working level of
water.

JUNCTION OR STOP VALVE

It is the largest valve on the boiler and it is fitted to the highest part of the boiler shell. It is
used to

1. Control flow of steam from boiler to main steam pipe. Which carries steam to steam
engine or turbine.
2. To shut off steam completely when not required.

A valve placed near the steam engine or turbine in the steam pipe is called - stop valve
and when this valve is placed on the top most portion of boiler shell, it is termed as -
Junction
valve. There is essentially no difference between a stop valve and a junction valve.
Generally, smaller size valves are called - Stop valves and large size valves are called -
Junction valves.

The fig.2.21 shows a simple stop valve.

Figure 2.21: Stop Valve or Junction Valve

A hand wheel is provided at the top of the spindle which is screwed to the valve disc and is
used to raise or lower the valve disc. To check the leakage of steam along the spindle the
spindle is passed through glands and stuffing box.

Under normal working condition, the valve is open and steam flows from boiler to steam pipe
but when steam is not required, the valve is closed by operating the handle.

BLOW OFF COCK OR BLOW OFF VALVE

This is fitted to lowest point of the boiler. Its function is :
1. To blow out sand, sediment, mud and other impurities collected at the bottom of the
boiler that deposit from feed water.
2. To empty the boiler whenever required for cleaning and when water level in the boiler
becomes high enough and when boiler is to be kept out of operation.

The fig.2.22 shows a blow off valve.

 Figure2.22: Blow off Cock

It consists of a conical plug that fits into a corresponding hole in the casing or shell. The plug
has a hole. When water is to be discharged, the plug is so turned that the hole in the plug
comes in line with the passage of the casing and to stop the flow, the plug is so turned that
hole moves perpendicular to line of flow and solid part comes in line with the passage of the
casing.

MAN HOLE AND MUD BOX

A man hole is an opening in the boiler shell provided at a convenient place through which a
man can go inside a boiler for cleaning and inspection.

A mud box is generally provided at the bottom of a boiler to collect mud. Normally, the blow
of valve is connected to this box.

ANTI PRIMING PIPE

When a boiler generates steam rapidly, particles of water are thrown up into the steam. The are
carried way by the steam to the engine or turbine. It is known as priming.
Anti priming pipe is a pipe of 1 or 2 meters long with closed ends and contains perforations
on its top portion. It is fitted to the boiler shell just above steam space and below the
junction valve. Its function is to reduce the quantity of water carried over with the steam.

BOILER ACCESSORIES
The details of the various boiler accessories are given below :

FEEDPUMP
The function of a feed pump is to deliver feed water to the boiler under pressure. These
pumps may be of reciprocating type or rotary type. Some times they work from the engine
and some times they work using steam from the same boiler.

The rotary pumps are generally of centrifugal type and they're used when a large quantity of
feed water is to be supplied to the boiler. The reciprocating pumps are used for boilers of
small capacity.

1. Duplex Feed Pump :

The fig.2.23 shows a widely used duplex feed pump which is a double acting reciprocating
type feed pump.

Figure2.23: Duplex Feed Pump

In consists of two pumps mounted on the same block side by side. One is a water pump and
the other is a steam pump. The water pump has a water cylinder and the steam pump has a
steam cylinder, both cylinders are connected to its own piston rod which is finally connected
to a common cross head so that the steam pump also serves as a driver of the water pump due
to expansion of steam in the cylinder.

A D-slide valve is used to control the admission and exhaust of steam. The slide valve is
connected by a valve rod which is finally connected to the cross head through a lever and
rocker arrangement. One rocker arm has direct motion while the other has indirect. One valve
rod moves in the same direction as the piston while the other moves in opposite direction. On
each side of the pump plunger, there are suction and discharge valves. The packing glands are
used to check the leakage of steam.

The pumps work alternately and so the water supply is continuous. This pump is commonly
used for medium size boilers.

INJECTOR
This is an appliance used to deliver feed water to the boiler using live steam from the
same boiler. It is widely used in vertical and locomotive boilers and it is unsuitable for high
pressure and large capacity boilers. It is also used where the space is not sufficient to
install a feed pump.

The fig. 2.24 shows an injector.

 Figure2.24: Injector

In consists of a group of nozzles so arranged that the steam expanding in these nozzle imparts
its kinetic energy to a mass water and thereby increases the pressure and velocity of the feed
water.

Simplicity, compactness, low maintenance cost, absence of moving parts, very high thermal
efficiency, ease of operation, reduced thermal stresses, low initial cost are the advantages
possessed by an injector.

Low pumping efficiency, inability to force very hot water, irregularity of operation under
extreme variations in steam pressure are the disadvantages of it.

An injector is more economical than feed pump because all the heat in the steam is returned
to the boiler in addition to performing the work of a pump. So, it is used as a feed water heater
as well as feed water pump, but, they're not reliable. So, when large quantities of feed water
are to bee delivered, feed pumps are generally used.

ECONOMISER - FEED WATER HEATER

An economiser is a heat recovery appliance placed in the path of flue gases. The greatest heat
loss in a boiler plant is the heat carried away by the flue gases. If the flue gases which contain
considerable amount of heat are simply allowed to escape into atmosphere, there will be
wastage of lot of heat content which leads to lesser thermal efficiency of the boiler. So,
attempts should be made to recover heat from these flue gases; by placing some of the
accessories like economiser, air preheaters, super heater etc., in the path of flue gases.

Feed water to the boiler can be preheated in two ways.

1. Using exhaust steam from a non condensing unit of fresh steam direct from the boiler.
2. Taking heat from flue gases.
Feed water heaters of the second type are called - Economisers. An economiser is a feed
water heater that utilises the heat of flue gases. It is placed between boiler and chimney. A
saving of about 10% (5 - 6 C rise in temperature of feed water) is achieved by the use of the
economiser.

There are two types of economisers - Independent type and Integral type. Independent
economisers are installed apart from the boiler setting whereas integral economisers are
installed with in the boiler setting.

Figure2.25: Greens Economiser

An economiser consists of a number of vertical or horizontal tubes through which feed water
passes from the feed pump while the hot flue gases flow over the surfaces of the tubes. Heat
transfer takes place between flue gases and cold feed water; and hence temperature of feed
water increases. The feed water, which is the thus at relatively higher temperature needs less
heat for its evaporation into steam. This leads to saving in fuel consumption and time of
evaporation.

The fig.2.25 shows and independent type vertical tube economiser called Green's
economiser.

It is generally employed for boilers of medium pressure. It consists of a large number of

vertical, cast iron pipes which are connected with two horizontal headers or pipes one at top
and the other at the bottom.
The feed water from feed pump enters into bottom header and from it, the water passes
through the tubes and reaches the top header from which it goes to boiler. The flue gases flow
over the surfaces of the tubes.

While the flue gases flow over the tubes, fine dust called - Soot deposits on the tubes. It
reduces the heat transfer and so reduces the efficiency of the economiser. The removal of soot
deposit is achieved by scrapers, which move slowly up and down over the tubes to clean the
surfaces. A pair of scrapers for adjacent tubes are coupled together by a chain which passes
over a pulley. The pulley is driven by a mechanical device. The soot is collected in a soot
chamber from where it is removed.

To isolate the economiser when it is not required or when it is to be repaired or cleaned, a by-
pass arrangement can be provided. Fig. 2.26 shows such an arrangement.

Figure 2.26: By pass arrangement

When the economiser is to be used, the damper/4 is closed while the dampers B and C
are opened. When the economiser is to be isolated, damper A is opened and dampers B and C
are closed.

As an economiser is a pressure vessel, it is fitted with a safety valve. Every economiser is

fitted with a safety valve, pressure gauge, drain valve and two thermometers. The drain
valve or blow off cock is used to remove sediments deposited in the bottom header. The
thermome- ters are used to measure temperature of inlet and outlet water.

Advantages of Using Economiser:

The following advantages can be achieved by installing an economiser.
1. Feeding the boiler with cold water results in cooling of boiler material. By preheating the
feed water, temperature differences between different parts of boiler are reduced which
result in reduction of thermal stresses due to unequal expansion. So, life of boiler increases.
2. Economiser increases the heating surface of the boiler (As water in tubes of economiser
absorbs heat from flue gases of same boiler) and so evaporative capacity of boiler is
increased as it shortens the time required to convert water into steam.
3. Taking of heat from flue gases represents saving of energy. This results in saving of fuel
 and increase of overall efficiency of the plant.

The main disadvantage of economiser is that there is a loss of draught due to the
resistance offered by it for the flow of flue gases. So, natural draught becomes
insufficient. Hence, artificial draught is to be provided.

SUPERHEATER
Super heating is effected by passing steam through a nest of steel tubes bent to U-form and
expanded into headers. The whole arrangement is known as - super heater. The steam
generated by a simple, ordinary boiler is wet or dry saturated. To get super heated steam, the
device - super heater is employed. A super heater is a surface heat exchanger and its use
enables wet steam to be completely dried and raised in temperature. Generally, it is located in
the path of flue gases so that heat is recovered by super heater from hot gases. Super heating is
done at constant pressure. The wet steam flows through the tubes of super heater, absorbs
heat from flue gases and first gets dried at same temperature and pressure and then its
temperature is raised above the saturation temperature at same pressure.

Small boilers of low capacity are not commonly provided with super heater.

In large boilers, super heater may be an independent unit having its own furnace inde-
pendently fired.

According to the mode of heat transfer, super heaters are of 3 types.

1. Convective super heater.
2. Radiant super heater.
3. Combination super heater.

In convective super heaters, the heat of flue gases is transferred to the surface of super heater
tubes by convection. They are generally located in the path of flue gases.
The radian super heaters are placed in the walls of the furnace where tubes of super heater
receive heat by direct radiation from fire. These super heaters are employed where high
degree of super heat is required.
In combination type, the steam first enters radiant super heater and then convective
super heater.
The fig.2.26 shows the diagram of convective and radiant super heater.

Figure 2.26: Convective and Radiant Super Heaters

According to the directions of steam and flue gases, super heaters are classified as parallel flow
super heaters. (Both steam and flue gases flow in same direction), counter flow super heaters
(steam and flue gases flow in opposite directions) and mixed flow super heaters. In counter
flow heat exchanger, the heat transferred is most.

Super heaters for water tube boilers are also classified according to the arrangement of super
heater tubes in relation to water tubes as :

1. Overdeck super heater.

2. Interdeck super heater.
3. Inter bank super-heater.

If the super heater is placed in the space over the water tubes as in case of Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, then it is termed as overdeck super heater.

If the super heater is placed between the water tubes located near the furnace, then it is called
Interdeck, super heater.

If the super heater is located between the banks or rows of water tubes, then it is called -Inter
bank super heater.

All tne super heaters should be designed and constructed so as to give rapid heat transfer from
flue gases to steam, be easily cleaned, be free from danger of burning out of tubes,
1. Sudgen's Super Heater :
The fig. 2.27 shows Sudgen's hair pin type super heater employed in a Lanchasire boiler.

Figure2.27: Suddens Super Heater

This type of super heater is used in most of the low pressure boilers.

It consists of two mild steel boxes called - Headers to which groups of solid drawn steel tubes
bent to U-form are attached. The steam from boiler enters and leaves the headers as shown.

When super heater is in operation, the valve V3 is closed. Wet steam from boiler goes to intake
header through valve V1 passes through the U-tubes where steam receives heat from hot flue
gases and gets super heated, passes through the uptake header and valve V2 and finally enters
the main steam pipe.

When super heated steam is not needed or when the super heater is to be closed for repairs, it is
isolated by closing the valve V1 and opening the valve V3. The wet or dry steam from boiler
is fed directly to the main steam line.

The temperature of superheated steam is controlled by controlling the position of the damper,
which in turn controls the path of flue gases. In full open condition, maximum amount of flue
gases passes over the tubes raising the temperature of steam to maximum limit.

2. Advantages of Installing Super Heaters : Advantages of Using Super Heated Steam :

(a) Erosion and corrosion problems of steam turbine blades are eliminated.
(b) Losses due to condensation in the cylinders and steam pipes are minimised.
(c) Consumption of steam reduces for given output.
(d) Efficiency of the plant increases.
AIR PREHEATER
The air preheater is another accessory of boilers and its function is similar to that of an
economiser. It recovers some portion of heat of flue gases and transfers it to air before the air
passes into furnace for combustion purposes. It is generally located after economiser but before
chimney.

The fig. 2.28 shows relative positions of air preheater economiser and super heater.

Figure2.28: Positions of Air Preheater, Economiser and Super Heater

An air preheater consists of plates or tubes with hot flue gases flowing on one side and air
flowing on the other side. The air preheater as the name indicates, preheats the air to be
supplied to the furnace as an economiser preheats the feed water to be supplied to the boiler.
The degree of air preheating depends upon the type of fuel, type of fuel burning equipment
and the rating at which boiler and furnace are to be operated.

Mainly, air preheaters are of two types :

1. Recuperative type air preheaters.
2. Regenerative type air preheaters.

In regenerative type air preheaters, the passages of air and flue gases are different. Both are
separated by a metal wall. Tubular type air preheater, plate type air preheater belong to this
category.

In regenerative type air preheater both air and flue gases flow over a same surface matrix
alternately. When the hot flue gases flow through the matrix, the surface absorbs and stores
the heat and gives it up when air passes through the same matrix.

1. Tubular Type Air Preheater :

The fig. 3.18 shows a tubular type air preheater.

In consists of a large number of tubes enclosed in an insulated casing. After leaving the boiler
or economise the hot flue gases enter the air preheater and travel through the inside of the
tubes. The air enters at bottom and travels in opposite direction to that of flue gases and
heated air leaves from the top. Baffles are provided to make air to go through several passes.
The flue gases flow out from bottom portion where a soot hopper is fitted to collect soot.
2. Regenerative Type Air Preheater :
In consists of concentric rings of alternate flat and corrugated plate arranged to form vertical
passages for the flow of flue gases through one half of the drum and for the flow of air
through the other half.
The fig. 2.29 shows a regenerative type air preheater.

Figure 2.29: Tubular Type Air Preheater

Figure2.30: Regenerative Air Preheater

The drum is rotated by a vertical shaft at about 3 rpm. The surfaces are alternately heated by
hot flue gases and cooled by air which in turn gets heated up. The heated air finally goes to
furnace through suitable ducting and the flue gases are directed to chimney.

This type of air preheater occupies less space for same heat recovery than other types and
widely employed in larger plants.

3. Advantages of Air Preheater :

The following advantages can be achieved by employing an air preheater.
(a) If cold, atmospheric air is directly used for combustion, the air absorbs part of the heat of
combustion which should actually go to heat the tubes. If air is preheated, for unit quantity
of fuel fired, heat given up to tubes is more. This results in fuel economy.
(b) Preheated air gives higher furnace temperature which results in more heat transfer to
water and thus increases evaporative capacity per kg of fuel.
(c) Hot air tends to accelerate the chemical reaction between oxygen and constituents of fuel
and so, better combustion conditions can be achieved.
(d) Preheated air enables low grade fuel to be burnt with less excess air.
(e) With air preheater, the efficiency of boiler increases. (About 2-5%).

STEAM DRIER OR SEPARATOR

In most of the cases, there will be some loss of heat from steam while it passes from boiler
to
steam engine or turbine through the pipe and tends to become wet. Feeding wet steam to
steam engine /turbine results in uneconomical operation and corrosion and erosion of
material. So, usual practice is to separate water particles that remain if any in the steam before
the steam is fed to the engine / turbine. This is accomplished by a steam - separator. So, the
function of steam separator is to separate water particles carried along with steam on its way
from boiler to engine or turbine. It is installed in the main steam pipe very near to the engine /
turbine.
The fig.2.31 shows a simple form of steam separator known as - Baffle plate steam
separator.

Figure 2.31: Baffle Plate Steam Separator

The steam passes through the separator in the direction of arrows. During its passage,
steam strikes the baffles and is defected upward. During the change of direction of steam,
water particles due to greater inertia fall to the bottom. Dry steam comes out of the steam
separator. The separated water is collected at the bottom and drained out periodically. A water
gauge is provided to observe water level in the separator.

STEAM TRAP
The steam trap is a device used to collect and automatically discharge water resulting from
condensation of steam from steam pipes, steam separators etc., Without allowing any steam
to escape. The steam trap is so located that water from condensation of steam flow to it by
gravity. The rising level of water in the trap eventually causes a valve to open and water is
discharged through the opening. As soon as the water is discharged, the valve closed
automatically so that the steam, which follows the water, can't escape with it.

Mainly steam traps are of two types :

1. Expansion steam traps.
2. Bucket or float traps.

The expansion traps work on the principle of expansion of metals under heat. Bucket
traps collect the condensed steam and discharge is controlled by a float or bucket.
The fig2.32 shows a bucket steam trap.

Figure 2.32: Bucket Steam Trap

The inlet passage A of the trap is connected to steam pipe at a point from where water is to be
drained off. The condensed water enters through this inlet passage and gets collected in the
water casing. A floating bucket is provided in the casing. A spindle is attached to the floating
bucket and carries a conical shape valve. The bottom portion of spindle carries spiral vanes,
which can rotate or move up and down freely along with bucket in a vertical tube. This
vertical pipe is connected to the exit pipe.

When the condensed water lever in the casing is above the edge of the bucket, the water
overflows into bucket due to which the bucket dips down. Then the valve opens and the water
is forced out through the tube. The valve closes when whole water is discharged out. When
the bucket gets emptied, it again floats and the valve is closed automatically.

The water flowing through the tube impinges on the spiral vanes and makes the spindle and
bucket to rotate. Also, the condensed water enters the casing tangentially and this accelerates
the rotation of bucket and spindle. This rotation of spindle keeps the valve surface clear from
deposits. The depression of bucket can be tested by pressing the knob provided on the top of
steam trap.

PRESSURE REDUCING
VALVE
The function of a pressure reducing valve is to maintain constant reduced pressure on its
delivery side.

When steam is required at a lower pressure than supplied by the boiler then the steam is
passed through the pressure reducing valve. Low pressure steam is generally used for process
work or for heating purposes.

It is more difficult to keep the pressure of steam constant in water tube boilers which hold
comparatively small quantity of water. So, practice is to generate steam at a higher pressure
than required in engine or turbine and then the high pressure steam is passed through the
reducing valve on its way to engine / turbine. The valve maintains a constant reduced
pressure on engine side of the valve while the pressure on boiler side may vary.

In all pressure reducing valves, the pressure of steam gets reduced by throttling of steam
while it passes through the valve.

SOOT BLOWERS
The tubes and other surfaces exposed to the flue gases will have a layer of fine material
called soot deposited on them. Such deposits reduce rate of heat transfer. So, the deposits
should be removed from the surfaces so that heat transfer will be more. Soot blowers are the
devices, which remove the soot from the surfaces of the tubes. In some cases, steam issuing
from nozzles is used as a cleaning agent to remove the soot.

IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Boiler mountings are different fittings and devices necessary for proper operation and
safety of boilers. Boiler accessories are auxiliary devices for proper control of the boiler
and to increase the efficiency of the boiler plant.
2. A safety valve is located above the steam space of boiler shell.
3. Water level indicator is boiler mounting used to indicate the level of water in the boiler
constantly.
4. A dead weight safety valve is simple and is mainly used for low pressures, low capacity,
stationary boilers,
5. A spring loaded safety valve is most suitable for locomotives and marine boilers.
6. A fusible plug is used to protect the boiler against damage due to overheating for low
water level.
7. An injector injects feed water to the boiler using live steam from the same boiler.
8. An air preheater is generally placed after economiser.
9. The function of super heater is to increase the temperature of steam above its saturation
point.
10. In some large modern boilers, hydraulic and electrical operated water level indicators are
used.
11. Feed check valve is used to regulate and control the flow of feed water in the boiler.
12. Blow off cock in attached at the lowest point of the drum.
13. An economiser increases the steam raising capacity of a boiler.
14. An air preheater - increases evaporative capacity of boiler, efficiency of boiler, and
enables low grade fuel to be burnt.

PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS

INTRODUCTION

The performance of a boiler is judged by many parameters.

As we know, the function of a boiler is to generate steam of required quantity at a pre-

determined pressure and temperature. Evaporation rate is an important factor in the
performance of boiler. Evaporative capacity or output of boiler is the amount of steam
generated and may be expressed in terms of:

(a) Kgs. of steam generated /hr.

2
(b) Kgs. of steam / hour / m of heating surface.
(c) Kgs. of steam / n? of furnace volume.
(d) Kgs. of steam / kg of fuel fired.

The evaporative capacity is not an exact measure of the performance of a boiler. In actual
practice, feed water temperature, fuel, working pressure vary considerably from boiler to
boiler. Also, the generated steam contains varying amounts of heat, varying qualities -dryness
fraction.

Boilers cannot be compared unless they have same conditions. So, to compare different
boilers, standard conditions should be adopted.

Usually, feed water temperature is adopted as 100C and working pressure as normal
atmospheric pressure - 1.013 bar.

For comparison purposes, the factor - Equivalent evaporation is widely used.

EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION
To provide a common basis for comparing evaporative capacities of different boilers working
under different conditions (Different pressures, different feed water temperatures,
different temperatures of steam and different dryness fractions), water is supposed to be
evaporated under
some standard conditions. The standard conditions adopted are : Feed water is supplied to the
boiler at 100"C and converted into dry saturated steam at 100C. Under these conditions,
evaporation of 1 kg of water at 100C requires about 2257 kJ to be converted into dry
saturated
0
steam at 100 C which is the enthalpy of evaporation of steam at 100C (1.013
bar).

Equivalent evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from feed water at
100Cand formed in dry saturated steam at 100C at normal atmospheric pressure. It is usually
written as - 'from and at 100C.

Equivalent evaporation from and at 100C =

Where ma = Actual evaporation - Actual amount of water turned into steam

- Kgs/kg of fuel or kgs/hour.

hs - Enthalpy of steam generated -kJ/kg

hw = Enthalpy of 1 kg of feed water - kj/kg
(hs - hw) = Total heat required to produce 1 kg of dry steam
hs =- hw + L - for wet steam
= hw + L - for dry steam
= hw + L + cp {t sup - ts - for superheated steam

FACTOR OF EVAPORATION
It is the ratio of heat absorbed by \kg of feed water under working conditions to that absorbed
by I kg of feed water evaporated from and at 100C (standard conditions).
Factor of evaporation

This terms is always greater than unity.

BOILER EFFICIENCY OR THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A BOILER

It is another tool to know the performance of a boiler. It is defined as the ratio of heat actually
utilised in generating steam to heat liberated by the complete combustion of fuel (Based on
H.C.V) in the same period.

Boiler efficiency depends upon 2 factors :

(a) Fixed factors
(b) Variable factors.
Fixed factors include boiler design (Arrangement and effectiveness of heating surfaces, shape
and volume of furnace, arrangement of flues, steam and water circulation), heat
recovery
equipment (employing economiser, superheater, air preheater etc.), properties of fuel, con-
struction material, heat losses etc.

Variable factors include actual firing rate of fuel, condition of fuel, (presence of
moisture)
excess air fluctuations, incomplete combustion, change in draught etc.

If a boiler is provided with accessories, then each will have its own efficiency. If a boiler is
considered as a single unit along with accessories, then the efficiency is known as overall
efficiency of the boiler plant.

PERFORMANCE
A single parameter is not sufficient to describe the complete performance of a boiler.
According to conditions imposed, any one or combination of the following are used to
describe the performance of a boiler.
(a) Equivalent evaporation
(b) Boiler efficiency
(c) Overall efficiency
(d) Combustion space - furnace volume
2 3
(e) Heat liberated -/m of heating surface or m of furnace volume.

BOILER POWER
This factor is used to measure the capacity of a boiler. According to American society of
mechanical engineers,

BOILER TRAIL
In order to study the efficiency, heat losses and performance of a boiler, a trail is taken on a
boiler. During trail, the boiler is run on 'test conditions' for few hours to obtain steady state
conditions and necessary data is recorded.
The objects of a boiler trail are :
(a) To estimate the evaporative capacity of boiler.
(b) To determine the thermal efficiency of boiler.
(c) To prepare a heat balance sheet for the boiler.

HEAT LOSSES IN A BOILER

We know that boiler efficiency is the ratio of heat utilised in producing steam to heat
liberated by the combustion of fuel. Some amount of heat will be generated by the
combustion of fuel. Part of this heat is utilised by the tubes in generating steam. All the
heat liberated cannot be utilised for generating steam and so heat utilised is always less than
heat liberated.

The difference between heat liberated in the furnace to heat utilised by the tubes in generating
steam is known as - Heat lost in the boiler. This heat is lost in different ways :
(a) Heat lost in dry flue gases.
(b) Heat lost due to moisture present in the fuel.
(c) Heat lost due to formation of steam by combustion of hydrogen.
(d) Heat lost due to incomplete combustion.
(e) Heat lost due to unburnt fuel.
(f) Heat lost due to radiation.

(a) Heat Lost in Dry Flue Gases :

This is the largest loss.

Heat lost in dry flue gases/kg of fuel = mg Cpg (tg - tb)

Where mg = Mass of dry flue gases - Kgs

Cpg = Specific heat of dry flue gases - kJ/kg K
tg = Temperature of flue gases leaving the chimney
tb = Temperature of boiler room.

(b) Heat Lost Due to Moisture Present in the Fuel :

It is assumed that moisture is converted into superheated steam at atmospheric pressure.

Heat lost/kg of fuel = mm [hg + Cp (tg - ts) hb]

= mm[2676 + Cp(tg-100)-hb]

[From steam tables, corresponding to 1.013 bar,

hg = Enthalpy of dry saturated steam
= 2676 kJ/kg
t = Saturation temperature].
mm = Mass of moisture/kg of fuel.
hb = Enthalpy of water at boiler room temperature.
Cp = Mean specific heat of superheated steam.

(c) Heat Lost Due to Formation of Steam by Combustion of Hydrogen :

We have 2 H2 + 02 -> 2 H2 O.
(1x2)+ ( 1 6 x 2 ) = 2 ( 1 x 2 + 16)
4 + 32 = 36
1 + 8 =9.
One 1 kg of hydrogen unites with 8 kgs of oxygen to produce 9 kgs of steam.

Let H2 = Mass of hydrogen present in the fuel/kg of fuel.

Mass of steam formed = 9 H2

Heat lost to steam/kg of fuel = 9 H2 [2676 + Cp (tg - 100) - hb]

(d) Heat Lost Due to Incomplete Combustion :

This loss occurs due to insufficient air supply. When \kg of carbon burns to Co-carbon
monoxide, it releases about 11,000 kJ and when burns to C02-carbon dioxide, releases about
32,500 kJ So, if carbon is burnt to carbon monoxide only then the difference 21,500 kJ of
heat is going to be wasted. So, presence of carbon monoxide in flue gases is a loss due
to incomplete combustion.

Heat lost/kg of fuel = m1 x C.V.

 Where m1 = Mass of co-carbon monoxide in flue gases/kg of fuel
C.V = Calorific value of CO.

(e) Heat Lost Due to Unburnt Fuel:

When solid fuels are used, some of the fuel falls through the grate bars and is lost with
ash.

Heat lost/kg of fuel = m2 x C.V

Where m2 = Mass of fuel escaped/kg of fuel

C.V = Calorific value of fuel

(f) Heat Lost Due to Radiation :

There is no direct method for finding out the heat lost due to radiation. This is obtained by
difference from heat supplied by fuel to total of above heat losses.

HEAT BALANCE SHEET

It shows the complete account of heat supplied by \kg of fuel and heat consumption in
different ways. It helps in studying the distribution of heat losses, heat utilised in raising
steam. By studying this sheet, we can take necessary steps in appropriate areas to keep the
heat losses to a minimum.
A typical heat balance sheet is shown below.

Heat Balance Sheet for a Boiler Trail :

Heat
kJ Heat Consumption kJ %
Supplied
Heat supplied
X 1. Heat utilised in rising steam X1
by 1kg of fuel
2. Heat lost in dry flue gases X2
3. Heat lost in moisture in fuel X3
4. Heat lost to steam by combustion X4
of hydrogen
5. Heat lost due to incomplete X5
6. Heat lost due to unburnt fuel X6
7. Heat lost to radiation X-{X1+X2
+X3+X4 +
X5+X6)
Total X Total X 100%

FORMULAE
1. Equivalent evaporation

Where ma = Actual amount of water evaporated into steam - kgs/hour or kgs/kg of fuel
hs = Enthalpy of generated steam - kJ/kg
= hw + x L - for wet steam
= hw + L - for dry steam
= hw + L + Cp (r - Ts) - for superheated steam
hw = Enthalpy of 1 kg of feed water - kJ/kg
x = Dryness fraction
 L = Latent heat - kJ/kg
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam - kJ/kg K
Tsup = Temperature of superheated steam
Ts = Saturation temperature
(Tsup - Ts) = Degree of superheat

2. Factor of evaporation

3. Heat Losses in a Boiler :

(a) Heat lost in dry flue gases = mg .Cpg . (Tg - Tb)
Where mg = Mass of dry flue gases - kgs
Cpg = Specific heat of dry flue gases - kJ/kg K
Tg = Temperature of flue gases
Tb = Temperature of boiler room
(b)Heat lost due to moisture present in the fuel;
= mm[hg + Cp(Tg-Ts)-hb]

= mm [2676 + Cp(Tg- 100)-hb]

Where mm = Mass of moisture /kg of fuel

Cp = Mean specific heat of superheated steam kJ/kg K
hb = Enthalpy of water at boiler room temperature

(c) Heat lost due to formation of steam by combustion of Hydrogen :

= 9 H2 [2676 + Cp {Tg - 100) hb]
H2 - Mass of hydrogen present in fuel /kg of fuel

(d) Heat lost due to incomplete combustion :

= m1 x C. V
Where m1 = Mass of carbon monoxide in flue gases/kg of fuel
C.V = Calorific value of carbon monoxide

(e) Heat lost due to unburntfuel:

= m2 x C.V
Where m2 = Mass of fuel escaped /kg of fuel
C.V = Calorific value of fuel

(f) Heat lost due to radiation :

= Total heat liberated by complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel - (Sum of above losses).

 BOILER DRAUGHT

INTRODUCTION
The rate of steam generation is a boiler depends upon the rate of burning of fuel. The rate of
burning of fuel depends upon the availability of fresh air. The fresh air will enter the furnace
if the gases of combustion are exhausted from the combustion chamber of the boiler. This is
possible only when a difference of pressure is maintained above and below the grate. This
difference of pressures is known as - Draught. It is the difference between the outside
pressure and inside pressure of the boiler.

Draught may be defined as the small pressure difference which causes flow of air and gases
(in and out) through the boiler.

In a boiler, the function of draught is to force the air to combustion and to carry away the
products of combustion - flue gases out of boiler. Proper combustion will take place in the
furnace only when sufficient quantity of fresh air is supplied to the fuel. This is done by
producing necessary draught.

Ordinarily, draught is measured by a manometer. Its intensity is expressed in mm of water

instead of bar. One leg of the manometer is connected to the chimney and the other leg is
open to atmosphere. The difference in levels indicates the draught.

MAIN OBJECTS OF PRODUCING DRAUGHT

1. To provide adequate supply of air for combustion of fuel.
2. To clear the gases of combustion from the furnace.
3. To discharge the gases to atmosphere through chimney to avoid pollution.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE AMOUNT OF DRAUGHT

The amount of draught produced depends upon the following factors :
1. Rate of burning of fuel.
2. Depth of fuel bed.
3. Method of burning the fuel.
4. Type and condition (size, moisture content etc.) of fuel.
5. Design of combustion chamber or furnace.
6. Resistance offered in flue gas circuit (Resistance to flue gases while flowing through -
Economiser, superheater, air preheater etc.).

TYPES OF DRAUGHT
The draught may be produced in different ways. In general, draught may be classified broadly
as :
1. Natural draught or chimney draught
2. Artificial draught.
Artificial draught may be further classified as :
(a) Steam jet draught
(b) Mechanical draught

The steam jet draught may be inturn induced or forced. Mechanical draught may be further
classified as - Induced, Forced and Balanced.

NATURAL DRAUGHT
It is produced by the use of a chimney or stack and so also known as - chimney draught.
Natural draught is defined as the difference between the pressure of a column of hot gases in
the chimney and an equal column of outside cold air.

A chimney is a vertical tubular structure built either of mansory, concrete or steel. A chimney
produces draught by virtue of a simple principle of thermodynamics. A gas when heated
expands in volume and decreases in density and in this condition, it is displaced by a more
dense gas.

Apart from providing draught, a chimney carries away the products of combustion to such a
height before discharging them that it will not be objectionable to surroundings.
Fig. 2.33 shows the arrangement of chimney.

Figure 2.33: Chimney & Its Height

When the boiler is not working, say P1 is the pressure at the grate level and P2 is the pressure
at the chimney outlet. Because of the altitude difference, pressure P2 will be lower than
pressure P1. When the boiler is working, the chimney is filled with hot gases. The hot gases
have lower density than outside air. This condition changes the pressure at the base of the
chimney which is P2 + H (Hot gases). The pressure at the grate is P1=P2 + H (Cold air)
which is higher than the pressure at the base of the chimney. In other words, pressure at the
grate due to cold air column is greater than pressure at the base of the chimney due to hot
column.

This pressure difference is called - Static draught and is responsible for the flow of gases in
the boiler.

Static draught = ( a - g) g. H.

Where = Mass density of outside air.

a
g = Mass density of flue gases.
H = Height of column of cool air.

The static pressure difference decreases along the height of the chimney and is zero at the top
of the chimney.

Simply we can say that - the cold air outside the chimney is heavier than the hot gases inside
the chimney. The density of cold air is more than the flue gas density. So, the pressure in the
chimney is less than the pressure of outside air. As a result of this difference, cold air flows
through the furnace forcing the flue gases to pass through the chimney. The outside air
entering into the furnace will be utilised for combustion.

The amount of draught produced depends upon the following factors :

1. Climatic Conditions : Draught decreases with increase of outside air temperature.
2. Temperature of Flue Gases : Draught increases with increase of flue gas temperature.
3. Height of Chimney : Draught increases with increase of height of chimney.

CHIMNEY DRAUGHT LOSSES

When the ash pit door is closed, there is no flow of flue gases. In this condition, a draught
gauge (manometer) located at the base of the chimney and at grate level will read the same
static draught which the chimney develops. When the ash pit door is opened and the flue
gases flow; the chimney base draught gauge (manometer) will read approximately the same
draught but at grate level, it will be very much less. The difference in 2 readings is called
Draught loss.
It is due to the following reasons :
1. Frictional resistance offered by the fuel bed for the flow of air.
2. Loss near the bends in the gas flow circuit.
3. Frictional resistance due to chimney wall.
4. Frictional resistance offered in the accessories for the flow of flue gases.
5. Loss due to imparting velocity to the flue gases.

HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY
The amount of natural draught depends upon the height of the chimney and so its height
should be such that it can produce a sufficient draught.

Refer to Fig. 5.1.

Let H = Height of chimney above grate - Metres.

h = Draught required - mm of water.
m = Mass of air used to burn 1 kg of fuel - Kgs.
Ta= Absolute temperature of outside air - K.
 Tf = Average absolute temperature of flue gases - K.
3
V1 = Volume of outside air m /kg of fuel
3
V2 - Volume of flue gases m /kg of fuel.
3
1 = Density of outside air - kg/m
3
2 = Density of flue gases - kg/m
Mass of flue gases = (m + 1) kg/kg of fuel.

First, let us find volume of outside air per kg of fuel at ATP (0C and 1.013 bar pressure).
Let
V0 = Volume of air at 0C
T0 = 0 + 273
= 273 K
5 2
Atmospheric pressure Po = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 10 N/m

we know that P0V0 = m RT0

= 0.773 m.mVkg. of fuel.

We know that

V1 = Volume of outside air at Ta

Density of outside air at

Pressure due to column of outside air =

 Volume of flue gases at

Density of flue gases at

Pressure due to column of hot gases at the base of the chimney = P2 = ( 2 .g) . H =

We know that draught pressure is due to the pressure difference between the hot column of
gas in chimney and cold air column outside the chimney. So, draught pressure is :
P =P1- P2

2
1 N/m = 0.101937 mm of water. In actual practice, the draught pressure is expressed in mm
of water as indicated by a draught gauge (manometer).
Draught pressure

The theoretical draught obtained by the above equation is known as - Static draught. The
actual or available draught is less than the static draught due to losses mentioned above.

For a given height, the draught produced will be. the same regardless of the number of
boilers. If a chimney serves more than one boiler, then cross sectional area of the chimney
has to be increased accordingly to accommodate increased mass of flue gases.

The draught can also be expressed in terms of column of hot gases.

l
Where H = Height of hot gas column

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH THE CHIMNEY

The chimney draught is more effective when the chimney discharges a maximum amount of
flue gases in a given time. This condition is obtained when temperature of flue gases bear a
certain ratio with the temperature of the outside cold air.
We know that draught pressure P = P1 - P2

1
This equation may be modified to express the draught in terms of column of hot gases H
Pressure exerted by column of hot gases =
 1
P=( 2 . g). H

Equating equations (1) and (2) and simplifying,

The mass of hot gases discharged in a given time is proportional to the product of density and
velocity of discharge through the chimney.

Velocity of flue gases through the chimney

Mass of hot gases discharged = Volume of hot gases x density of hot gases

M = Area of chimney x velocity of flue gases x density of hot gases

=AxVxp
Density of hot gases is inversely proportional to its temperature.

Where K = Constant of proportionality

For maximum discharge of flue gases :

By differentiating and simplifying; we get

So, for maximum discharge, temperature of flue gases should be slightly more than the
outside air.

We know that draught pressure = h =

For maximum discharge, draught pressure

For maximum discharge, height of hot gas column producing the draught is equal to height of
chimney.
1
H = H - For maximum discharge

EFFICIENCY OF CHIMNEY
In natural draught, the temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney is higher than that of
the flue gases leaving the chimney of an artificial draught. This is because in artificial
draught, certain minimum temperature of flue gases is required to produce a given draught
for a given chimney height. So, there is some loss of heat carried away by the flue gases in
natural draught. In natural draught, the heat carried away by the flue gases is more due to
higher flue gas temperature. This indicates that the draught is created at the cost of thermal
efficiency of boiler which otherwise, the heat could have been utilised for preheating feed
water or air.

Efficiency of a chimney is defined as the ratio of energy required to produce artificial draught
to mechanical equivalent of extra heat carried away per kg of flue gases due to natural
draught.

Let Ha = Artificial draught produced - Metres

Tfa = Absolute temperature of flue gases with artificial draught
Tfn = Absolute temperature of flue gases with natural draught
Cp = Specific heat of flue gases - kJ/kg K

Energy required to produce artificial draught per kg of flue gases

= Ha . g J/kg of flue gases
2
g = 9.81 m/sec
Extra heat carried away per kg of flue gases due to natural drought
 Mechanical equivalent of extra heat carried away

The efficiency of a chimney is proportional to the height but even for a very tall chimney, the
efficiency is less than 1% and so chimney is very inefficient as a tool for creating draught.
But, certain height is necessary to discharge the flue gases high in atmosphere.

ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
The static draught required in boiler installations varies from 25 to 350 mm of water column.
It may not be possible to build a chimney of enough height to produce a draught of large
magnitude. As we know, natural draught depends upon climatic conditions also. Some times,
a chimney of less height is required. For all these problems, artificial draught system is used.

When certain equipment is used to produce draught, it is known as - Artificial draught.

Artificial draught maybe produced by a fan, blower or steam jet. If a fan or blower is used to
produce draught, it is called - Fan draught or mechanical draught. If a steam jet is used to
produce draught, it is called - Steam jet draught.

Artificial draught reduces necessary height of the chimney, and provides climate inde-
pendent, easily controllable draught.

MECHANICAL DRAUGHT
When a fan or blower is used to produce necessary draught, then it is called -Mechanical or
Fan Drought. This system is employed in central power stations and many other boiler
installations.

Mechanical draught is of 3 types :

1. Forced draught.
2. Induced draught.
3. Balanced draught.

The main purpose of chimney in artificial draught is to discharge gases high up in atmosphere
to avoid pollution.

In forced draught system, a blower or fan is installed at the base of the boiler and air under
pressure; through the fuel bed and other passages like flues, economiser, air preheater, etc.
In induced draught, the fan is placed at the base of the chimney. The fan draws air through
the furnace and by creating partial vaccum in the furnace and flues, the pressure inside the
furnace is reduced below that of atmosphere and products of combustion are drawn from the
furnace. This system is usually used when economisers and air preheaters are incorporated in
the system.

Balanced draught is the combination of forced and induced draught systems. Now-a-days,
this is the standard draught system. Forced draught supplies air for burning of fuel while
induced draught overcomes draught losses through boiler, economisers etc and removes gases
from the furnace. Balanced draught is produced by running both induced and forced draught
fans. A balanced draught system minimises the losses due to inward and outward leakages
and is the best compromise between induced and forced droughts.

In forced draught, fan size and power required are 1/3 to 1/2 of that of induced fan; because
forced draught fan handles cold (atmospheric) air.

Induced draught fan must be specially designed to handle hot gases; and due to higher
temperature of gases may require water cooled bearings.

If the loss of draught at fuel feeder (stoker) is more compared to rest of the boiler, then forced
draught fan is preferred. If major part of the loss were through the boiler, then induced
draught fan is better.

Power Required to Drive Fan :

Let
h = Draught pressure - mm of water
m = Mass of air actually used - kg/kg of fuel
M = Mass of fuel used - kg/mm
Ta = Absolute temperature of outside air
Tf = Absolute temperature of hot gases
f = Efficiency of fan.

Then, power required to drive forced draught fan =

Power required to drive induced draught fan =

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT OVER

NATURAL DRAUGHT

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of artificial draught over natural draught:

Advantages:
1. Low grade fuel can be used.
2. Increase in evaporative capacity - with artificial draught, more fuel can be burned per unit
area of grate than that of natural draught.
3. Easy control of combustion and evaporation.
4. Flow of air is uniform.
5. Reduction of height of chimney.
6. It is more economical.
7. It reduces amount of smoke.
 8. It increases efficiency of the plant.
9. It is not affected by atmospheric temperature.
10. Fuel consumption is less - as fuel can be burned to a large extent there by minimising heat
loss due to incomplete combustion.
11. Air flow can be regulated according to the changing requirements. So, rate of combustion
can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages:
High initial cost, high running and maintenance costs are the disadvantages.

COMPARISON OF FORCED DRAUGHT AND INDUCED DRAUGHT

S.No. Forced Draught Induced Draught
1. The fan is placed before the grate. Fan is placed after the grate.
2. Pressure inside furnace is above Pressure inside furnace is below
atmospheric. atmospheric.
3. Gives better control. The air is Sucks air from fuel bed and forces
penetrated into the fuel bed better. gases into the chimney.
So, rate of burning of fuel is more.
4. As it handles only cold air, volume It handles hot air plus flue gases.
to be handled is less and so More volume is to be handled and
requires less fan power. so requires more fan power.
5. All leakages are outward and so All leakages are inward and heavy
there's serious danger of blow out air infiltration may occur reducing
if fire doors are opened while the the available draught.
fan is operating.
6. As cold air is handled, it doesn't As it handles hot flue gases whose
require water cooled bearings. temperature is high, it requires
water cooled bearings.

STEAM JET DRAUGHT

When a jet of steam is used to produce draught, it is called - Steam jet draught. As in case of
mechanical draught, steam jet draught is also of 2 types : Forced steam jet draught and
induced steam jet draught.

In forced steam jet draught, the steam jet is directed into the chimney or the jet is placed in
the ash pit which is situated under the fire grate of the furnace. Air will be forced into the
furnace by the steam jet. With forced draught, low grade fuels can be burned as steam avoids
the formation of clinkers (formation of lumps of fuel). But, the steam passing into the furnace
will carry away heat as in case of moisture in the fuel.

In induced steam jet draught, the steam jet is placed in the chimney. This will drag with it the
surrounding gas and produces partial vaccum in its neighbourhood. Thus, the air is drawn
through the furnace by the difference in pressure created by steam jet. Induced steam jet
draught is used in locomotive boilers.

Steam jet draught is simple, cheap to install, economical, occupies less space and requires
little attention. But, it canot be started until steam pressure is available.
FORMULAE

1. Draught pressuremm of water. Where

H = Height of chimney - metres

m = Mass of air used to burn1kg of fuel - Kgs
Ta = Absolute temperature of outside air.
Tf- = Average absolute temperature of flue gases.

2. Draught in terms of height of hot gas column :

metres Where

l
H = height of hot gas column.

3. Condition for maximum discharge of flue gases through the chimney :

4. For maximum discharge of flue gases, draught

5.

Ha = Artificial draught produced - Metres

2
g =9.81 m/sec
Cp = Mean specific heat of flue gases - kJ/kg K
Tfn = Absolute temperature of flue gases with natural draught.
Tfa= Absolute temperature of flue gases with artificial draught.

6. Power required to drive forced draught fan =