Cathodic Protection Course

18-21 June, 2012
1
2
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Metals
All interactions between a metal ( or alloy )

with its environment.
Corrosion is derived from

the Latin word "corrosus"
meaning eaten away
3
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Metals
Wet Dry
Occurs in wet Occurs in dry

environments environments
high or elevated temp. low cryogenic temp.
4
BASICS OF CORROSION
Wet / Aqueous Corrosion of Metals
Occurs in water containing environments

Occurs at ambient temperatures
Environment
Water ( fresh or sea water )

Soil ( wetted )
Atmospheric air ( humid )
5
BASICS OF CORROSION
Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion
Corrosion of metals (e.g. iron) in water is basically an

electrochemical reaction in nature,
i.e.
A chemical reaction accompanied by the passage of an

electric current ( due to movement of electrons ).
6
BASICS OF CORROSION
Why Metals Corrode?

Metals tend to corrode in order to retain their natural
form (ore).
Metals are usually extracted and purified from their
ores via high-energy input processes.
For example :
Thermal energy (high furnace for Fe)
Electric energy (electrolytic paths for Al & Cu)
7
BASICS OF CORROSION
Ore + In
Blast Furnace Limestone +
of reducing iron Coke
ore to iron Waste gases
Out
Hot air
In
Slag
Molten Iron
Out
Out
8
The extracted free metal has a high energy content. i.e. active state
BASICS OF CORROSION
Electrolytic reduction of Al oxide to Al Electrolytic production of Cu
The extracted free metal has a high energy content. i.e. active state9
BASICS OF CORROSION
Active free metals tend to react easily to produce

compounds, such as salts and oxides.
Metals in the compounded forms have less energy

content, i.e. stable state.
Corrosion is governed by the Law of

Conservation of Energy :
Energy Gained = Energy Lost
10
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion
Thermodynamic Cycle
Oxides, Ore thermodynamically stable
Corrosion
Mining & Extraction
Pipe Mill
Equipment fabrication,
thermodynamically unstable
11
BASICS OF CORROSION
When man makes metals there is a varying degree of

electrical, mechanical and chemical energy used to
refine the metal from the ore stable state to deliver the
metal into a pure useable state.
A large portion of the energy used in refining remains

as stored or residual energy in metals .
12
BASICS OF CORROSION
Exceptions
There are some exceptions, such as gold, which can occur natively in their
metallic state.
These metals, sometimes known as Nobel Metals ,have low driving forces
for oxidation and can survive in their metallic state for thousands of years
without reacting with oxygen or other elements to form oxides or other
compounds .
13
BASICS OF CORROSION
Iron oxides
+
Practically Corrosion Can be Defined as: Mining &

Extraction
Tendency of a Metal to Revert

to its Native State Steel
+
Corrosion
Iron oxides
14
BASICS OF CORROSION
Thermodynamics of Corrosion
In a chemical reaction :
Reactants Products
G = Gprod Greact
In all corrosion reactions

Gprod < Greact. Therefore,
G is ve
Hence, the corrosion reaction is:
spontaneous
irreversible
15
BASICS OF CORROSION
Occurrence of Corrosion
An old adage in materials science says:
"materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting".
The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically

impossible.
Defects in crystalline materials such as:

Non-metallic inclusions,
grain boundaries,
interstitial atoms,
vacancies or
substitutional atoms. 16
BASICS OF CORROSION
Occurrence of Corrosion
Corrosion is initiated at the metal surface defects since they are
the highest energy sites, i.e. the most active sites.
B
A
C
(1) (2) (3)

Schematic model of a free metal surface
Atom Degree of Freedom
C , Terrace (Plane) 1
B , Step (Ledge) 2
A , Kink 3
Activity Order : A > B >C
Dislocation 17
BASICS OF CORROSION
Slip bands, with:

extrusion (e) and
intrusion (i) on the surface
Anodes and cathodes co-exist on the same metal
When a piece of iron is placed in electrolyte, V is established between anodes and cathodes
18
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
Due to the electrochemical nature of corrosion, there shall
be electron transfer
Electron transfer requires presence of anode sites and

cathode sites on the metal surface
Due to potential difference ( V ) between anodes and

cathodes electrons migrate from anodes to cathodes
Electrons liberated at anodes

should be consumed at cathodes I
e- 19
Ea
_
Fe Fe Fe Fe O
O H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe++ H H
Anode
Fe Fe Fe Fe O
H H
Fe++
O
Fe Fe Fe
H H
V Fe Fe Fe Fe
O H
O
H
H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe
Cathode
O
Fe Fe Fe Fe O H H
H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe
+ Ec
20
When a piece of iron is placed in electrolyte, V is established between anodes and cathodes
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
@ Anode Sites :
Surface defects
More -ve potentials
Metal atoms have high energy, i.e. unstable & active
Thus, metal atoms ionize by losing their electrons, i.e.
oxidation reaction : M0 Mn+ + n e-
As a result, metal loss occurs, i.e. metal dissolution
OILRIG
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
Reduction Is Gain of electrons
21
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
@ Cathode Sites :
Intact ( un-defected ) surface areas
More +ve potentials
Metal atoms have low energy, i.e. stable & un-active
Receive electrons to be consumed, i.e. reduction reaction
As a result, no metal loss occurs, i.e. no corrosion
OILRIG
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
Reduction Is Gain of electrons
22
THEORY OF CORROSION
Oxidation can't occur without Reduction.
In other words, a substance will not loss

electrons unless another substance gains
electrons.
The two processes are Tied Together.
23
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
The corrosion process involves two reactions:
Anodic Reaction (metal dissolution / oxidation )
Cathodic Reaction ( reduction )
The corrosion process occurs in 3 sequential

- but impartial - steps
24
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
Fe atoms at Defect Site
a. Anodic Reaction
(metal dissolution) Fe Fe Fe Fe
Fe Fe Fe Fe
Metal dissolution starts at the defect

Fe Fe Fe Fe
sites on the metal surface, where the
energy is Highest; i.e. the metal atoms
are most active Fe Fe Fe Fe
Fe Fe Fe Fe
25
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
O O
H
a. Anodic Reaction H H H
(metal dissolution)
Fe Fe Fe Fe++
Anode
Fe Fe Fe Fe++
Fe (surface defect) Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)
Fe Fe Fe Fe
O
H H
If place in electrolyte - e.g. water - Fe Fe Fe Fe Fe
atoms at the defect sites on the metal
surface ionize (dissolve in the Fe Fe Fe Fe
electrolyte) leaving their valance
electrons behind onto the metal O
26
H H
surface
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
O O
b. Charge Transfer H H H H
Due to V, the electrons liberated Fe Fe Fe Fe++

from the anodic reaction migrate Anode
>
to the cathodic areas where the Fe Fe Fe Fe++
cathodic reaction occurs in order A
to consume the electrons Fe Fe Fe Fe
Icorr
>
The flow of electrons represents Fe Fe Fe Fe
the Corrosion Current (Icorr) Cathode
Fe Fe Fe Fe
Remember! The direction of electric current
is always in the opposite direction of the flow O
27
of electrons H H
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
c. Cathodic Reaction
Once the liberated electrons arrive to the cathode site:
if the electrons accumulate without being consumed, this would cause

cathodic polarization and the corrosion process completely stops.
if the medium contains electron consumer (i.e. Depolarizer), the cathode

will be depolarized and the corrosion process continues.
the most common depolarizers are:

1) Dissolved oxygen
2) Hydrogen ions, H+
28
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
There are 2 main reactions depending on :
Oxygen availability & pH
1. Oxygen reduction reaction
2. Hydrogen evolution reaction
29
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
1. Oxygen reduction reaction
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4 OH-
Predominates in aerated Near-Neutral solutions pH > 5
Then, the OH- ions combine with Fe2+ ions leading to the deposition of
iron hydroxide (rust) as a Corrosion Product
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 30

The Corrosion Cell : in Aerated Natural Water
O
O2 O
H H H H
OH_
O2
Fe Fe Fe Fe++ OH_
Anode O
OH _
H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe++ + Fe(OH)2
OH_
Fe Fe Fe Fe
O2
O2
Fe Fe Fe Fe O2
O O
Cathode H H
O2 O2 H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe O O
O H H O2 H H
H H
The surface becomes covered with brown-orange corrosion product (Iron Hydroxide)31
known as RUST. Rust is specific to steel corrosion in water due to oxygen.
THEORY OF CORROSION
2. Hydrogen evolution reaction
2H+ + 2e- 2H (adsorbed) H2 (gas)

Predominates in acid solutions pH < 5
P.S.
The corrosion product is H2 gas

i.e. NO solid products
As corrosion proceeds the

concentration of free Fe2+ ions
increases in the solution.32
The Corrosion Cell : in Acidic Water Solutions
O
O O O H H
H H H H H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe O
H+ H H
Anode
Fe Fe Fe H+
Fe Fe Fe++ H+
H+
H+
Fe Fe Fe Fe H+ H+
O H+ O
H H H H
Fe Fe Fe Fe H0
Fe Fe Fe Fe
H+ O
H H
O
Cathode H+ H+ H H
H0 H+
33
THEORY OF CORROSION
In Conclusion
The corrosion process involves two reactions:
A. Anodic Reaction : occurs @ anode sites
Metal Dissolution : M 0surface M n+solution + ne-
Oxidation Reaction : involves loss of electrons
B. Cathodic Reaction : occurs @ cathode sites

Reduction Reaction : involve gain of electrons
Oxygen reduction : gain of electrons by dissolved O2
Hydrogen evolution: gain of electrons by H+ ions
34
THEORY OF CORROSION
Possible Cathodic Reactions Cathodic Depolarization
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4 OH- (natural water)
2H+ + 2e- H2 (gas) (acid water)
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+ (acid water)

Charge Transfer
Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl- (chlorinated water)

(SRB)
SO42- + 8H+ + 8e- S2- + 4H2O (bacterial)
p.s.
more than one cathodic reaction can occur at the same time
Anodic Reaction
Fe (surface defect) Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)
35
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion of metals requires the following conditions:
An anode, a cathode, an electrical path, and an electrolyte

must all be present .
The anode and cathode must be in contact with the same
electrolyte .
The metal must electrically connect the anode and
cathode for electrons to flow .
The anodic (oxidation) and cathodic (reduction) reactions
must be equivalent and simultaneous .
36
THEORY OF CORROSION
In conclusion:
Electrolyte
A piece of metal immersed

in an electrolyte acts as its
Anode Cathode
own:
Anode
2H++2e 2H H2
Cathode
Electrical connection
37
THEORY OF CORROSION
The Corrosion Cell

In a corrosion cell:
Electrons leave the anode

and migrate to cathode
within the metal;
i.e. electronic movement
Corrosion Cell
The circuit is close by
migration of +ve & -ve
ions between anode and
cathode in the electrolyte;
i.e. ionic movement
38
THEORY OF CORROSION
The Corrosion Cell

Simple DC Circuit Representing a Corrosion Cell
Ea Where:
Rm = resistance of metallic path between anode and
cathode
Rm Icorr Re (Metals have reasonably Low Rm)
Re = resistance of electrolytic path between anode

Ec and cathode
(Affected by presence of Salts)
Role of salts:
- salts lower the resistance of the electrolytic path (Re)
- thus speeding up the corrosion cycle without being involved in the chemical reactions;
- i.e. salts act as a catalyst 39
THEORY OF CORROSION
Factors of Corrosion
1- Water
2- Oxygen
3- Acidity
Accordingly, there are TWO types of Aqueous Corrosion:

Oxygen Corrosion due to presence of dissolved oxygen
Acid Corrosion due to presence of acidity (H+ ions)
Both types can occur simultaneously in aerated acidic aqueous media

40
THEORY OF CORROSION
Aerated neutral
saline aqueous
solution
Deaerated
neutral saline
aqueous solution
Deaerated acidified saline

aqueous solution
THEORY OF CORROSION
Testimony
An environment
is considered
corrosive if it
contains Water
with dissolved
Oxygen and / or
Acidity ( H+ ions )
Fe 42
THEORY OF CORROSION
Pourbaix Diagram:
Theoretical
Based on thermodynamic data
Correlates metal potential in
water at different pHs
Metal can exist in 1 of 3 states:
Corrosion- Passivation- Immunity
Gives no information about rate of
corrosion
43
THEORY OF CORROSION
Pourbaix Diagram for Iron
2.0
1.6
1.2
Fe3+
0.8
Potential
0.4 Fe oxides
0.0 stable
-0.4 Fe2+ stable
-0.8
-1.2 Fe metal stable
-1.6
0 7 14
44
THEORY OF CORROSION
2.0 Will iron corrode

1.6 in acid?
1.2
Fe3+
0.8
Potential
0.4 Fe oxides
0.0 stable
-0.4 Fe2+ stable Yes - there is a
-0.8 reasonably wide
Fe metal stable range of potentials
-1.2
where hydrogen
-1.6
0 7 can
14 be evolved
and iron dissolved
45
THEORY OF CORROSION
2.0
Will iron corrode 1.6
in neutral 1.2
Fe3+
0.8
waters?
Potential
0.4 Fe oxides
Yes - although iron can
0.0 stable
form an oxide in neutral 2+
Fe stable
solution, it tends-0.4
not to
form directly on the-0.8
metal,
as the potential is-1.2
too low, Fe metal stable
therefore it is-1.6
not
protective. 0 7 14
46
THEORY OF CORROSION
Will iron corrode

2.0 in
1.6
alkaline solution?
1.2
Fe3+
0.8
Potential
0.4 Fe oxides
0.0 stable
-0.4 Fe2+ stable
-0.8forms a solid
No - iron
oxide at-1.2 Feand
all potentials, metal stable
will passivate
-1.6
0 7 14
47
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Rate (Kinetics of Corrosion)
The rate at which metal loss occurs due to corrosion is

expressed in terms of:
mpy milli- inch per year

Or
mmpy milli- meter per year
P.S. : 1 milli-inch = 1/1000 inch 48

THEORY OF CORROSION
NACE International Ranking for Corrosion Rates

of Steel
Corrosion Rate Level of Corrosion

(mpy)
<1 Low
1-5 Moderate
5-10 Severe
>10 Intense
NACE= National Association for Corrosion Engineers
49
COST OF CORROSION
STATISTIC RELEVANCE OF CORROSION FAILURES
50
COST OF CORROSION
Consequences of Corrosion
Corrosion related problems are the MOST costly

and hazardous, since
Corrosion is the primary source of failure in process industry
Corrosion related failures could be Catastrophic leading to

loss of human lives and injuries
Leakages resulting from corrosion failures have negative

impact on the environment and living species
51
COST OF CORROSION
Leakage leading to
Corroded rotor leading environmental pollution
to equipment failure
BP Crude P/L Alaska 2006
52
COST OF CORROSION
Catastrophic failures
Condensate Tank on Fire
53
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion of a municipal water 54

underground steel pipe
COST OF CORROSION
Soil collapse due corrosion of a municipal

water underground steel pipe
55
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Under-ground Tank Leading to

Product Leakage and Loss 56
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion An Expensive Issue for Industry
Corrosion Co$t :
NACE study in 2005 showed that:
Costs associated with corrosion

losses were estimated as $364
billion dollars, draining about 3.1%
of the GDP from the US economy.
Corrosion yearly losses are

presently comparable to those
associated with Hurricane Katrina !
57
COST OF CORROSION
Annual Est. Corrosion Costs (US$)
$2.8B $7.4B
Oil & Gas Production Refining
$3.4B $14B
58
Chemical Processes Utilities

COST OF CORROSION
The Co$t of Corrosion
Direct Cost:
Replacement of corroded components

Use of corrosion resistant alloys
Use of coatings
Use of inhibitors
Cathodic Protection
59
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion cost :
Indirect cost
corrosion-related inspection
corrosion- related maintenance
repairs due to corrosion
replacement of corroded parts
rehabilitation
loss of productive time
60
COST OF CORROSION
Global Direct Cost of Corrosion:

In 2004, NACE has surveyed the direct cost in only 17 countries.
In this year the Worlds gross output (GWP) was $51.48 Trillion, and
the global cost of corrosion was $990 Billion approx.
I.e. 2% of the GWP
Global Indirect Cost of Corrosion:

Even though it is very difficult to assess the indirect cost of
corrosion, a rational figure of $940 Billion was adopted.
Hence, the overall global cost was $1930 Billion.

61
I.e. 3.8% of the GWP
COST OF CORROSION
Cost of corrosion is expressed in terms of Asset Loss Risk:
Risk = probability of failure X consequence
62
COST OF CORROSION
Asset loss risk depends on type of equipment
High
Risk
. Piping
. Reactors Priority of
Maintenance
. Tanks
. Process
Lower towers
Risk
63
COST OF CORROSION
Severity People Assets Environ- Repu-

ment tation Probability
Likelihood (Probability)
Consequence
1A 2B 3C D
4 5E
Multiple fatalities Extensive Inter- Improbable Remote Occasional Probable Frequent
Massive
E.
5. Catastrophic or permanent damage national 1 in 100,000 1 in 10,000 1 in 1000 1 in 100 1 in 10
effect
total disabilities impact years years years years years
Single fatality
Major Major National
D.
4. Severe or permanent
damage effect impact
total disability
Major injury Consider-

3. Critical
C. or health Local Localised
able
effects damage effect
impact
Minor injury
B.
2. Marginal Minor Minor Minor
or health
damage effect impact
effects
Slight injury Slight Slight Slight

A.
1. Negligible or health damage effect impact
effects 64
MANAGING CORROSION
To reduce risk of equipment failures, corrosion

control is to be dealt with by implementing a
Predictive / Proactive Corrosion Management
Program in both :
Design phase
Running/ operative phase
65
Overall Predictive Management Program
DESIGN PHASE RUNNING PHASE

Process flow
Stream analyses
Operation Dept.
Service conditions
Codes, standards,
specifications, textbooks, Materials & Corrosion
handbooks, vendors Inspection Dept.
Control Dept.
recommendations
Corrosion
Past experience, case
Monitoring
studies
Predictive Predictive mode Predictive

Design Maintenance
- Effective corrosion
control
- Extended service life
Reduced Cost
High Profitability 66
MANAGING CORROSION
Types of Maintenance
Cost
1.00 Corrective (Reactive):
Unplanned.
0.75
Most costly.
0.50
0.25
Preventive:
Planned on a fixed time scale.
Corrective Preventive Predictive
Relative Cost Of Maintenance
Predictive (Proactive):
On a sliding time scale.
Least costly.
67
MANAGING CORROSION
A Proper Maintenance program lowers Asset Loss Risk
68
MANAGING CORROSION
Causes of Corrosion Failures
US based leading chemical company investigation outcome

Causes % Freq
A Poor design/ wrong 36 C
material/ bad operation A
F
B Wrong specification 16
G
C Bad inspection 10
D Human error 12 D
E Poor planning 14 E B
F Others 4
G Unforeseen 8
69
MANAGING CORROSION
92% of corrosion failures are Preventable if the Predictive

Corrosion Management Program is strictly implemented
during Design and Running phases
Only 8% of unforeseen causes to be dealt with
Results: significant reduction in maintenance

activities and lower cost
70
MANAGING CORROSION
Consequences of Management on Operation & Production

Proper Management Mismanagement
1 Pro-active Reactive
2 Farsighted - long term planning No vision- out of sight, out of
mind attitude
3 Early warning of corrosion Sudden, unexpected costly
problems failure , i.e. unplanned shutdown
4 Increased production capacity Decreased production capacity
5 High quality products Low quality products due to
contamination
6 Responsible environmental and Environmental and safety
safety records hazards
7 Pay a little now Pay a lot later 71
FORMS OF CORROSION
Types of Corrosion:
1. Uniform (General) Corrosion
1. Localized Corrosion
Pitting and Crevice Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Hydrogen Damage ( Embrittlement / Blistering )
Galvanic Corrosion
72
FORMS OF CORROSION
According to the National Physical Laboratory UK :
30% of equipment failures are due to uniform corrosion
70% of equipment failures are due to localized corrosion
73
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
In general corrosion there is no distinction between the

anode and the cathode sites
i.e. the whole metal surface is acting as anode and cathode
Therefore, the metal loss is equally and uniformly distributed

all over the surface, i.e. corrosion proceeds horizontally
along the metal surface
74
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Rust Layer Environment (Electrolyte)

Fe++ O2 Fe++ O2 Fe++ O2
H2O H2O H2O
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
e e Iron e
1- Corrosion is initiated at anode sites ( surface defects ).

75
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Environment (Electrolyte)
O2 O2 O2
H2O Fe++ H2O Fe++ H2O Fe++
Cathode Anode Cathode Anode Cathode Anode

O2
e e Iron e
2- Corrosion spreads and the rust layer covers the whole

surface. Metal surface is acting as anode and cathode.
76
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Uniform corrosion of an
internal carbon steel pipe
77
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
A Steel fitting suffering from

General Corrosion
General Corrosion on the shell

side of a heat-exchanger 78
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Atmospheric General Corrosion
Atmospheric General Corrosion

endangers Safety 79
FORMS OF CORROSION
Localized Corrosion
In localized corrosion there is clear distinction between the
anode and the cathode sites
The anode sites are being very small compared with the
large cathode
Therefore, the metal loss is concentrated in local areas, i.e.

corrosion proceeds downwards perpendicular to the metal
surface ( Penetration )
Penetration 80
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting corrosion
Occurs with metals having oxide ( Passive )

film
I.e. the metal is in the zone of Passivity, e.g.
stainless steels, due to film local breakdown
Chloride ions (Cl-) have damaging effect on
oxide film of stainless steels
81
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
Oxide Layer Environment (Electrolyte) Rust inside pits

Cl- O2 Cl- O2 Cl- O2
H2O H2O H2O
Fe++ Fe++
Anode Cathode Anode Cathode Anode Cathode
Cathode
ee Iron
e Iron e
Pitting Corrosion is initiated at anode sites ( surface defects

82
)
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
What is the role of chloride ions in localized corrosion;

pitting ?
Help in breaking down the passive oxide film, specially
at weak point
Allow a very low pH to be achieved inside the pit, due
to the formation of HCl
Metal chlorides are very soluble
83
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl - Cl- Cl-
Cl- O2
O2 Cl - Cl - Cl -
Cl - Cl - Cl-
Cl- Cl -
Cl -
Cl- Cl
-
Cl-
OH- OH-
M+
O2 + 2H2O + M+
4e - -> 4(OH )
-
M+
M+
M+
Pitting
M+ Corrosion
84
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Cl- O2
O2 Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl-
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
OH- OH-
MCl + H2O = MOHH++ HCl

e-
e- M+
M+ M+
Cl- Cl-
e-
e- Cl- Cl-
M+ M+
M+ M+ e-
e- M+ M+ Pitting
M+
M+ Corrosion
85
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
86
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting may lead to pipe perforation
87
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice Corrosion
88
FORMS OF CORROSION
Examples of avoiding
crevice corrosion by design
89
FORMS OF CORROSION
Examples of avoiding Continuous Weld

crevice corrosion by Good
design
Bad
Skip Weld
90
FORMS OF CORROSION
Examples of avoiding
crevice corrosion by Improper Weldments
design
Proper Weldment
91
Crevice Mechanism
O2 O2 OH- Metal (M)

Cl- -
Cl M+ e-
Cl- Na+ e-
Cl- Cl- -
Cl - Cl -
Cl -
Cl Cl - M +
Na + Cl - Cl - M +
Cl- - MCl Na+ + H2O = MOH + HClH+

Na +
ClO H+ O2 OH - H+
Na+ 2 O2 O2
Na H
+ + - OH - O2
O + 2H O + 4e -> 4(OH )
O2
2 2
Cl- -
OH- Cl O2
-Cl H+
HOH
+
-
H + - OH -
M+ M+ M+ -
e- e
e- e-
Metal (M)
92
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice corrosion under gasket
93
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting corrosion on
free surface
Crevice corrosion
under washers
94
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice corrosion - Stainless steel (AISI 316) Severe crevice attack as well as general
95
FORMS OF CORROSION
96
FORMS OF CORROSION
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Caused by the simultaneous effects of tensile stress and a

specific corrosive environment.
Tensile Stress
Susceptible Corrosive
Alloy Environment
97
FORMS OF CORROSION

Stresses may be due to:
applied loads ( static / dynamic )
residual stresses from the

manufacturing process, or
Residual stresses due to
rolling & welding
combination of both
Residual stresses due to 98

rolling , welding & bending
FORMS OF CORROSION
Atoms of metal at stressed areas

have high energy , i.e. very active
High localized corrosion rates at

such areas
Localized metal loss leading to

cracking, i.e. Pit-to-Crack Transition
99
FORMS OF CORROSION
Weld
Cracked weld
Cracked Pipe
100
FORMS OF CORROSION
Stress corrosion cracking of brass
101
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Damage
H (atomic) can diffuse into the metal causing:
cracking
blistering
embrittlement
Hydrogen evolution reaction
2H+ + 2e- 2H (adsorbed) H2 (gas)
Diffusion is easier at Grain Boundaries,

surface defects and non-metallic inclusions 102
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering
Grain Boundaries
103
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering :
Surface bulges, resulting from subsurface voids produced
in a metal by hydrogen absorption in (usually) low-strength
alloys.
H+ H+
H H2 H H H H H
e-
e- H2
H2
104
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering
Cross-sections of carbon steel

plate & pipe
showing a large hydrogen blister Hydrogen blistering of
a carbon steel plate
105
FORMS OF CORROSION
Example of hydrogen
blistering damage in steel
pressure vessel
106
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen Embrittlement
caused violent rupture
107
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Occurs when two dissimilar metals are in

direct electric contact
Dissimilar metals have different reactivities

since they have different positions in the
Electrochemical Series
108
FORMS OF CORROSION
Active (-) ANODIC
more reactive
Magnesium
GALVANIC SERIES
Zinc
OF METALS Aluminium
Steel
Lead
Tin
Brass
Bronze
Copper
Nickel-Copper
Alloys
Stainless Steel
Silver
Gold
Platinum
CATHODIC
Nobel (+) less reactive
109
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Anode from Latin word Anodos = way-up
Cathode from Latin word Kathodos = way-down
110
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Due to the potential difference

between dissimilar metals :
The less noble metal is more Active

and acts as Anode ; i.e. it dissolves
The more noble metal acts as

Cathode ; i.e. it remains intact.
111
FORMS OF CORROSION
Conventional
Electrons current
FeFe
2+ 2+
Fe Cu
O2
O2
Galvanic Corrosion 112

FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Conditions of galvanic corrosion:

1- Presence of two different metals.
2- The two metals are exposed to the
same electrolyte completely or partially.
3- The two metals are in direct contact,
either by:
touching/welding, or
via a metallic conductor
Absence any one of the above conditions

eliminates galvanic corrosion 113
FORMS OF CORROSION
Brass fitting Steel pipe
114
FORMS OF CORROSION
Carbon steel
tube sheet
Galvanic corrosion
Stainless steel tubes
Galvanic corrosion is very common in tube and shell heat exchangers. The main
areas of concern are where the tubes enter the tube sheets and where they go
through the baffles.
115
FORMS OF CORROSION
Surface area effect in galvanic corrosion
Small cathode Large anode combination is Acceptable
9
Carbon Steel
Stainless
Steel Valve
SS CS
116
FORMS OF CORROSION
Small anode Large cathode combination is NOT Acceptable
X Carbon Steel
Valve
Stainless Steel
CS SS
117
FORMS OF CORROSION
Which is better ???
9 X
Brass rivets on a steel structure Steel rivets on a brass structure

Small brass cathode will Small steel anode will
cause small increase in suffer large increase in
corrosion of steel corrosion due to
structure. Rivets will be coupling with brass
protected from corrosion structure.
by coupling to steel 118
FORMS OF CORROSION
Brass rivets on a steel bar

submerged in 3% sodium
chloride solution at the start
of the experiment
after six months
after ten months

FORMS OF CORROSION
Steel rivets on a brass bar

submerged in 3% sodium
chloride solution at the start
of the experiment
after six months
after ten months

FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Corrosion Rate of Zirconium in a galvanic cell with Graphite .
Zr (anode) // C (cathode)
121
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
An Example of Small anode - Large cathode combination, which is
NOT Acceptable
122
Carbon Steel Bolts on Duplex Stainless Steel

FORMS OF CORROSION
To prevent galvanic corrosion

Avoid contact between dissimilar metals
by using Flange Isolating Kits @ material break points
Non-metallic Gasket
Non-metallic
Sleeve
Non-metallic Washers
Components of
Flange Isolating Kit 123
FORMS OF CORROSION
To prevent galvanic corrosion

Avoid contact between dissimilar metals
Nobel
Active
Flange Isolating Kit
Flange Isolating Kit @ material break point 124

FORMS OF CORROSION
Modes of Corrosion
The forms of corrosion can be divided into 2 main categories:
Intrinsic modes of corrosion (occur independently of design configuration)

general corrosion
pitting corrosion
stress corrosion cracking
hydrogen damage
Extrinsic modes of corrosion (affected by design)

crevice corrosion
galvanic corrosion
flow assisted corrosion
P.S.: The corrosion process for all modes is basically the same; i.e. it
involves anodic reaction and cathodic reaction. 125
CORROSION CONTROL
Corrosion Control
Corrosion - A Natural But Controllable Process
Corrosion can be best controlled by manipulating Either:
The driving force of the metal to corrode, or

The reaction rate
126
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Driving Force
We cannot control a metal's desire to return to its natural state .
In the presence of oxygen and water, a metal will want to return

to the way it naturally occurs.
But, what we can do is try to select a different metal

with a lower driving force for oxidation, or a special
alloy, Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA).
127
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Reaction Rate
1. Anodic : by blocking the anodic reaction
2. Cathodic : by blocking the cathodic reaction
3. Mixed : by blocking both anodic & cathodic reactions
128
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Reaction Rate
An army of corrosion control techniques is

deployed to fulfill this goal
Corrosion Control Use it or Lose it

129
CORROSION CONTROL
Significance of Corrosion Control
Economics
Safety
Environmental Concerns
130
CORROSION CONTROL
ECONOMICS
The true cost of protecting steelwork from corrosion has to take

into consideration two important elements:
The initial cost of protection

The lifetime cost, which includes the cost of maintenance.
This is the cost of ensuring that steelwork is protected from

corrosion throughout its service life.
Its time for decision making
131
Corrosion Control Techniques
1. Materials Selection
1. Improved design
1. Conditioning the Corrosive

Environment
4. Protective Coatings
5. Cathodic Protection
132
Cathodic Protection
133
Cathodic Protection
Idea of Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection controls corrosion by making the whole

metal surface a cathode of an electrochemical cell
134
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Principle

Sea Water
a) Without Cathodic Protection
Fe2+
Steel pipe wall corrodes freely O2 + 2H2O 4OH-
Both anodic & cathodic e- e- Pipe Wall

reactions occur
Pipe Inside
b) With Cathodic Protection

Sea Water
Anodic reaction stops
Cathodic reaction continues O2 + 2H2O 4OH-
External Supply of e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- Pipe Wall

Electrons
Pipe Inside
135
Cathodic Protection
Principles of Cathodic Protection
The CP electric circuit Electronic movement in

conductor wire
involves Two halves:
e-
Electronic movement I
Ionic migration External supply
of electrons
The portion of structure
surface that is included
Icp protective current
in the CP electric circuit,
( Umbrella )
i.e. which sees the
umbrella, is ONLY under Ionic migration in
cathodic protection electrolyte
136
Cathodic Protection
Polarization of a Structure
Native
Potentials -.5 -.6 -.65 -.6 -.7 -.58
-.58 -.6 -.65 -.6 -.7 -.58
-.6 -.6 -.65 -.6 -.7 -.6
-.65 -.65 -.65 -.65 -.7 -.65
Corrosion
-.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7 -.7
Mitigated
137
Cathodic Protection
Application of CP Systems
On-Shore
138
Cathodic Protection
Application of CP Systems Off-Shore
Jackets
Piles
Vessels
Subsea Pipelines
139
Cathodic Protection
Types of CP Systems
According to the source of external supply of electrons,

there are two types of CP systems:
1- Sacrificial (Galvanic) anode system
2 - Impressed current system
140
Cathodic Protection
Types of CP Systems
A galvanic cell: is an electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous

reaction occurs to produce electricity.
An electrolytic cell: is an electrochemical cell in which electricity is

used to bring about a chemical reaction that does not occur
spontaneously .
141
Cathodic Protection
Magnesium ACTIVE
1- Sacrificial anode system Zinc
Aluminum
Iron
e-
Lead
Simplified Galvanic
Tin
Nickel (Active)
Brass
Series
Copper
Nickel (Passive)
410 Stainless
Zn Titanium
304 Stainless
Silver
Fe Gold
Platinum NOBLE
142
Cathodic Protection
1- Sacrificial anode system
143
Cathodic Protection
Galvanic Couples in Saline Water
Fe/Al Fe Fe/Cu Fe/Ag Cu/Ag
Without electrolyte With electrolyte

144
Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of a Sacrificial CP System
Drain Point
Anode e- Fe
145
Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of a Sacrificial CP System
146
Cathodic Protection
Common Sacrificial Anodes
147
Cathodic Protection
Anode Recommended Electrolyte

Magnesium (Mg) Soils & hot water
Zinc (Zn) Soils & fresh / sea water
Aluminum (Al) Sea waters
At temp. > 600 C : Al & Zn oxidize leading to Reverse Polarity
148
Cathodic Protection
Indium is added to aluminum to avoid

its oxidation up to 900C
149
Cathodic Protection
Cast and extruded zinc anodes should not be used

in environments that consist of extremely alkaline
(above 9.2 pH), acidic (below 5 pH), or high
temperature (above 1400F / 600C) electrolytes.
Noranode is a zinc sacrificial anode alloy designed to meet

the demand for a sacrificial zinc anode for use at higher
temperatures up to 800C.
150
Cathodic Protection

Magnesium anodes
Available in a variety of shapes and sizes, bare or prepackaged
Acceptable where soil resistivities are between 1,000 ohm-cm and 5,000 ohm-cm.
Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
should be employed in higher resistivity areas.
Zinc anodes
Available in many shapes and sizes.
Appropriate in soils with very low resistivities (750 ohm-cm to 1500 ohm-cm).
Favorable environments are sea water and salt marshes.
Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Aluminum anodes
Not commonly used in earth burial applications.
Some proprietary aluminum alloy anodes work well in a sea water environment. 151
Cathodic Protection
Generalization :
Aqueous media with low resistivity, Al anode are
preferred, e.g. seawater
Mg anodes are used in higher resistivity aqueous
media, e.g. wetted soils.
Water electric resistivity can be calculated using
this formula :
0.7
Rw = X 1,000,000 ohm.cm
TDS (ppm)
152
TDS = Total Dissolved Solids
Cathodic Protection
Prepackaged Sacrificial Anode
For soil applications: prepackaged Mg & Zn anodes
Backfill: Mg
GYPSUM 75%
BENTONITE 20%
SODIUM SULPHATE 5%
Zn
The backfill mixture completely surrounds the anode within a cotton bag.153
Cathodic Protection

Backfill Materials
Chemical backfills: The chemical backfill used with galvanic anodes provides an
environment which is conducive for anode dissolution. A typical mixture is 75%
powdered gypsum (calcium sulfate), 20% granular bentonite and 5% sodium sulfate.
This mixture has a resistivity of 50 cm and is suitable for use in high resistivity soils.
The function of the bentonite is to absorb water and expand, thus ensuring good
contact between anode and soil by lowering groundbed resistance.
A 75% bentonite 25 % gypsum mixture (250 cm) is recommended for low moisture
soils.
154
Cathodic Protection
Role of Backfill:
provides a reduced contact resistance to earth,
provides a uniform environment surrounding the

anode,
retains moisture around the anode so keeping

the anode in wet environment, and
prevents passivation of the anode.

155
Cathodic Protection
Standard Mg anodes
Typical Chemical Analysis
Restricted above a Aluminum 5.3 - 6.7%

resistivity of 3000 .cm Zinc 2.5 - 3.5%
Manganese 0.15 - 0.7%
Silicon 0.10% max
Copper 0.20% max
Nickel 0.002% max
Iron 0.003% max
Others 0.30% max
Magnesium Remainder
156
Cathodic Protection
High potential Mg anodes

ASTM B843 Industry
Standard
Element
for M1C High
Used for higher resistivity Potential Anodes
applications
Aluminum 0.01% max
Manganese 0.50 - 1.3%
Silicon 0.05% max
Copper 0.02% max
Nickel 0.001% max
Iron 0.03% max
Others, each 0.05
157
Cathodic Protection
Main types and shapes of Al & Zn anodes:
1. Slender ( stand-off )
2. Flush
3. Bracelet
4. Spherical
5. Ribbon
158
Cathodic Protection
159
Cathodic Protection
ANODE INSERT SELECTION
Anode material is cast

onto a variety of steel
insert types, depending
on the method of
attachment required.
160
Cathodic Protection
Cow horn
cores pipe
bending
161
Cathodic Protection
Straight flat bar
Double crank flat bar 162

Cathodic Protection
Goal post
Straight pipe
163
Cathodic Protection
2. Flush mounted
164
Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
165
Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet Sacrificial Anode 166

Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
Pig Tail
167
Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
168
Cathodic Protection
4. Spherical
Recommended for internal protection of tanks and

vessels whose stream is rich in sludge, sand,
asphatenes, etc.
169
Cathodic Protection
5. Ribbon Anodes ( Zinc / Magnesium )
Zn
Mg
170
Cathodic Protection
5. Ribbon Anodes ( Zinc / Magnesium )
Extruded Zinc Anodes

171
Cathodic Protection
General Guidelines for Sacrificial Anode Materials
Magnesium anodes
available in a variety of shapes and sizes, bare or prepackaged.
acceptable where soil resistivities are between 1,000 ohm-cm and 5,000 ohm-cm.
short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Zinc anodes
available in many shapes and sizes.
appropriate in soils with very low resistivities (750 ohm-cm to 1500 ohm-cm).
favorable environments are sea water and salt marshes.
short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Aluminum anodes
are not commonly used in earth burial applications.
some proprietary aluminum alloy anodes work well in a sea water environment.
172
Cathodic Protection
Applications of sacrificial cathodic protection system:
Buried / sub sea pipelines
Buried piping
Platforms & rigs
Marine piles
Tank internals
173
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for
underground piping
174
Cathodic Protection
underground piping
Direct connection type Test

Station
Header cable type
175
Cathodic Protection
Typical CP of a buried
pipeline with prepackaged
sacrificial anodes
1.5m min
176
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Aluminum Alloy Anode for Pipe Frame of Drilling Platform Offshore
177
Cathodic Protection

platform jackets
178
Cathodic Protection

platform jackets
179
Cathodic Protection

offshore pipeline
180
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for

Subsea Pipelines
Typical concrete Field Joint where

Sacrificial Bracelet Anodes are installed
181
FLUSH with the concrete
Cathodic Protection
Bracelet anode FLUSH with

cement coating 182
Subsea pipeline laying
Cathodic Protection

offshore pipeline
Pigtail
Half-Shell Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet 183
Cathodic Protection
Bracelet Anode can be Installed onto

Bracelet Anode Top-of-Line Installation of concrete coating of a Submarine Pipeline
Submarine Pipeline without concrete
184
coating
Cathodic Protection
Tank
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic
Protection for External Side
of Tank Bottom
Sacrificial Anode
+ Backfill
CP
Current
185
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic

Protection for Pipeline Internal
186
Cathodic Protection
Corroded Piles due to absence of CP

System
187
Cathodic Protection
188
Cathodic Protection
189
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for vessel internals
Mist Eliminator
Sacrificial Anode
190
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for tank internals
Coal Tar onto Anode surface

191
facing Tanks shell
Cathodic Protection
Anodes Distribution on
Tank Shell Internals
N
N
HH Level
SEC A-A EL +7500
SEC B-B EL +5500
SEC A-A
SEC A-A EL +3500
SEC B-B EL +1500
LL Level
SEC A-A EL +500
192
SEC B-B
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes
Layout on Tank
Bottom
193
Cathodic Protection
Anode Fixation of Sacrificial anodes for tank internals
1. Weld-On Type:
Direct Welding
Welding via Brackets
2. Bolt-On Type
194
Cathodic Protection

Anode Fixation
Anode Insert Bracket
(Weld-On Type) Tack weld
Anode Alloy
Full felet
weld
Direct Welding Welding via Brackets

weldment Suitable for Shell and Bottom.
Anode Insert
Dose NOT damage the lining
Anode Alloy during anode replacement.
Assured electric continuity.
Suitable for Bottom.

Assured electric continuity. 195
Cathodic Protection

Anode Fixation
(Bolt-On Type)
Up-Stand
(Bracket)
U-Bolt
Steel Bar
U-Bolt Anode Insert
Nuts Anode Alloy Tank Floor Bracket
Anode Insert Suitable for Shell and Bottom.

Dose NOT damage the lining during
anode replacement.
Require Grinding to Bright
Easier anode replacement.
Metal Finish
196
Cathodic Protection
(Bolt-On Type)
Different arrangements for Bolt-On
type anode fixation
197
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls
198
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls
Without Cathodic Protection
Underwater welding of
a sacrificial hull anode
199
With Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection
Flush Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls internals
200
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Pipelines
CP-Mat
201
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting

for Sub-Sea Pipelines
Anode Sleds
202
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Pipelines
Anode Sleds
203
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Sled Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
204
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Hanging Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
205
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
Under-Water Divers
206
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization hot-dip galvanizing
Galvanizing - the act of coating steel with zinc.
The article is immersed in a bath of

molten zinc at between 435-455 0C.
During galvanizing, the zinc

metallurgically bonds to the steel,
creating a series of highly
abrasion-resistant zinc-iron alloy
layers, commonly topped by a
layer of impact-resistant pure zinc .
207
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization hot-dip galvanizing
During galvanizing, the zinc metallurgically bonds to the steel,

creating a series of highly abrasion-resistant zinc-iron alloy
layers, commonly topped by a layer of impact-resistant pure
zinc.
208
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
The layer zinc provides protection for the steel structure

against corrosion by means of:
barrier effect, and
sacrificial cathodic protection
Zinc has a self-healing

mechanism in it.
The zinc coating

sacrifices itself slowly
by galvanic action to
protect the base steel .
209
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
210
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
211
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
Protecting steel from corrosion involves either

the use of hot-dip galvanizing or some type of
paint system.
Corrosion specialists are now using both

methods of corrosion protection in what is
referred to as a Duplex System .
The metallurgically bonded galvanized coating

serves as an ideal primer providing an
impervious barrier for the base steel.
212
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
Duplex Coating System
Duplex coatings are commonly used when the

environment of use is too corrosive for the galvanized
coating alone throughout its design life.
This protective system is ideally suitable against

atmospheric corrosion for marine environments and
off-shore installations.
Inter coat
213
Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
The Synergistic Effect of Duplex System

(galvanizing-plus-paint systems)
The corrosion protection is superior to either protection
system used alone and can last from 1.5 to 2.5 times
the combined lifetimes of both systems.
214
Cathodic Protection
2- Impressed current system
DC source
Ground bed
I
Drain Point
215
Cathodic Protection
Basics of Impressed current system
Steel nails fixed to The steel nails Results:

dry battery terminals immersed in saline 1- The nail at +ve
water terminal Corrodes
2- The nail at ve
terminal remains
Uncorroded 216
Cathodic Protection
Impressed current system
Nothing happens since

the nails are in different
electrolytes
217
Cathodic Protection
e-
I
Drain Point
Drain Point:
Location of negative cable connection to the structure to be protected.
It is the ENTRY POINT of electrons, or the Current drain. 218
Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers (T/R)

AC input
Voltage, Single/ three phase, Frequency
DC maximum output Amp, Volt
Air Cooled: with Sun-shade

Oil Cooled: with Thermometer &
Level indicator
Location: according to area classification

Explosion proof (hazardous area)
Non-explosion proof (non-hazardous area)
Maximum ambient temperature 219

Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers
Explosion-proof
T/R with sun-shade
220
Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers
indoors
outdoors
T/R on a Concrete Slab Pole-mounted

Wall-mounted 221
Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifier
Internals of an Air cooled T/R Internals of an Oil cooled T/R

222
Cathodic Protection
223
Heat (Dry) Run Test for T/Rs
Cathodic Protection
Rectifier
224
Transformer
Cathodic Protection
Common Impressed Current Anodes:
Consumable Anodes Non Consumable Anodes
Si Fe Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO)
Si Cr Fe Platinized
Magnetite
225
Graphite
Cathodic Protection
Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:
The anode is deliberately forced, i.e. impressed,

to dissolved to provide the electrons required to
cathodically protect the structure .
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
226
Cathodic Protection
Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:

Si Fe
Si Cr Fe
Rods
Tubular
227
Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Are the most common impressed current anodes
Are used in soil, water or sea water
Come in two grades; FeSi and FeSiCr for sea water

applications
228
Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Cable connection to anode shall be

handled with great care.
Major Failure of Cathodic Protection systems are due to the break down
of the electrical connection between the cable joints and anodes. These
failures take place, since the anodes connections are jointed by resin
based seals.
229
Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
ITEM DESCRIPTION
1 Anode
2 Double insulation electrical cable
3 Steel core
4 Tin-lead solder alloy
5 Epoxy resin
6 Heat shrink cap
CABLE-ANODE JUNCTION DETAIL 230

Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Cable connection to anode shall be handled with great

care.
Anode Caps seal and protect the critical connection between the lead wire
and anode. The tight fitting, heat-shrinkable anode cap provides moisture
proofs and electrically insulates the end of the anode at the lead wire exit
point .
Heat-shrinkable
anode cap
231
Cathodic Protection
New Si Fe Anode, 44 lb
As recovered anode after

20 years of service showing
80% utilization appox.
232
Cathodic Protection
Relative Impact Strength

The test anode is centered in a steel
frame, and the end is raised as
illustrated.
The anode is then dropped to impact
against a fixed steel anvil .
Test Span
Scale
Anode
Drop
Height
Anvil
233
Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:

This type of anodes supports other anodic reactions
on their surfaces.
In environments where water and chloride ions are

present, chlorine evolution or oxidation of water are
possible.
Anodic reaction in sea water (Chlorine evolution)
2Cl- Cl2 (gas) + 2e-

Anodic reaction in fresh water (Water oxidation)
2 H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e-

234
Cathodic Protection
Example
Due to the high currents involved in many
seawater systems it is not uncommon to use
impressed current systems.
Impressed current systems use anodes of a
type that are not easily dissolved into metallic
ions, but rather sustain an alternative anodic
reaction, oxidization of the dissolved chloride -
ions. Non Consumable
2Cl- Cl2 (gas) + 2e-
While the cathodic reaction is the reduction of -

dissolved oxygen
235
Cathodic Protection
Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) Anodes
MMO is an electrically conductive coating

that is applied onto a Titanium substrate in
order to make it act as an Anode
The coating has an extremely low
consumption rate. As a result, the metal
dimensions remain nearly constant during
the design life of the anode.
Titanium MMO coated anodes have proven

superior to other mixed metal oxide coatings
currently being used . 236
Cathodic Protection
MMO [Mixed Metal Oxide] Coating consists of IrO2 / Ta2O5, suitable for use in soils,
carbonaceous backfill, fresh and brackish water, seawater and concrete.
Coating of IrO2 / RuO is preferred for use in sea water.
Mixed metal oxide coating is generally satisfactory for both chlorine and oxygen evolving
electrolytes .
Strict quality control procedures are followed throughout the coating process to insure
proper coating adhesion and loading.
Ir = Iridium , Ta = Tantalum, Ru = Ruthenium 237

Cathodic Protection
Titanium
Copper Core
MMO Coating Rods
MMO coated anodes have excellent chemical stability,

consequently do not contaminate the electrolyte. 238
Cathodic Protection
Plug
Ribbon
Tubular 239
Cannistered
Cathodic Protection
Lida Anodes String type
The anode is composed of an

inert metal oxide , ruthenium
oxide coated titanium .
240
Cathodic Protection
Titanium Anodes
241
Cathodic Protection
Anodeflex (-)
T/R
(+)
242
Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed current anodes:
Platinized Anodes
243
Cathodic Protection
MAGNETITE ANODE
Due to its brittleness, the anode is cast as a hollow

cylinder and closed at one end. The inner surface is
then copper/lead plated and the cylinder is filled with
polystyrene
244
Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed current anodes:
Graphite Anodes
Disadvantages:
Low operating current densities, and

Inferior mechanical strength, highly brittle
245
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial CP Systems
Impressed Current CP Systems
246
Cathodic Protection
Definition of Groundbed:
One or more anodes installed below the earth's surface for the purpose of
supplying cathodic protection.
Types of ground beds:
Deep-well GB
Horizontal shallow GB
Distributed Anodes
247
Cathodic Protection
Groundbed Location should be determined early in the design process

because its location may affect the choice of groundbed type.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a groundbed

location:
Soil Resistivity
Soil Moisture
Interference with other Structures
Availability of Power Supply
Accessibility
Vandalism or other Damage
Availability of Right of Way
248
Cathodic Protection
Deep Well Groundbeds:

Deep anode groundbeds are remote to the structure.
These are frequently called remote groundbeds because the structure is
outside the anodic gradient of the groundbed caused by the discharge of
current from the anodes to the surrounding soil.
A deep anode groundbed is an appealing choice:

when space is not available for a shallow horizontal groundbed, or
when surface soil has high resistivity
Remote Earth:
Part of electrolyte where no voltage difference due to
current flow is recorded between two points. 249
Cathodic Protection
Shallow Horizontal Groundbeds:

Normally used to distribute protective current over a broad area of the
structure to be protected. They are remote groundbeds.
Shallow Vertical Groundbeds are commonly used where space is limited .
Distributed Anode Groundbeds:

They are used:
To reduce the potential for interference effects on neighboring structures.
To protect sections of bare or poorly coated structure.
In congested areas where electrical shielding might occur with other
types of groundbeds.
250
Cathodic Protection
Deep-well ground beds Junction
Box
Sand topping
Non-metallic
Carbonaceous backfill perforated
for anodes section vent tube
251
Cathodic Protection
Deep-well ground beds
Non-metallic Perforated Casing
252
Cathodic Protection
Temporary Well Casing: Drilling of the holes

may require the installation of temporary well
casings.
Remove all temporary casings by the end of

the job.
253
Cathodic Protection

Vent Tube
Vent tube has openings placed in a strategic
pattern to allow 360 venting ability without a Vent Tube
loss of pipe strength.
Vertical slits placed with precision cutting

wire. With proper installation, the tube will
vent throughout the life of the deep
groundbed.
In addition to venting, the vent tube can also

be utilized as a conduit for adding water
should the system require it.
254
Cathodic Protection
Shallow Bed
Depth 3-5m
255
Cathodic Protection
Shallow Bed
Depth 3-5m
256
Cathodic Protection
257
Cathodic Protection
Distributed Impressed Current Anodes Arrangement
258
Cathodic Protection
T/R Connections :
Do 1:
Ensure that the AC input wiring (Power Feed Cable) is connected
to the correct AC input terminal of the T/R.
Do 2:
Connect the cable(s) from the anode bed to the rectifier DC positive
terminal(s), and
The cable(s) from the structure to the T/R DC negative terminal(s)

259
Cathodic Protection
Mounting
T/R Connections : Post
Do 3: T/R
Supply the rectifier with a proper ground
connection .
Copper
Rod
Conductive
Backfill
260
Cathodic Protection
T/R Connections :
Do 3:
Supply the rectifier with a proper ground
connection .
conductive
cementitious
product
261
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Anodes cables are connected to anode / positive junction box
Each anode can be connected via a variable resistance to
control the current output
A header cable connects the PJB to e +ve terminal of T/R
262
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Connection via Direct connection

variable resistance to +ve buss bar
263
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Anode Cables from GB

Positive Junction Box
Main Cable to +ve

Terminal of T/R
Direct connection to +ve buss bar

264
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
265
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Anode Cables from GB
Main Cable to +ve

Terminal of T/R
Connection via
variable resistance
Positive Junction Box
266
Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
267
Cathodic Protection
Impressed current anodes are some times

cannistered with the Carbonaceous backfill.
268
Cathodic Protection
Deep-well ground bed installation

Using cannistered anodes
269
Cathodic Protection
conductive backfill should be used
to lower the total resistance of the groundbed,
to improve current flow & distribution,
to prolong anode life, and
to provide a permeable medium

for migration of gases...
270
Cathodic Protection
Carbonaceous Backfill
The carbonaceous backfill

improves anode performance
because it provides an
electronic path for current flow.
Therefore,
Resistivity, Particle Size, and Specific Gravity

are important backfill properties.
271
Cathodic Protection
Low resistivity favors electronic

current flow to the backfill/ground
interface.
Small particle size and high density

favor electronic current flow between
the anode material and backfill by
improving contact between the anode
material and the backfill.
i.e. Earth Contact Backfill

272
Cathodic Protection
273
Cathodic Protection
Types of Carbonaceous Backfill
274
Cathodic Protection
Backfill Selection should be based on a consideration of the following

coke characteristics :
Resistivity determines how well the objective of the carbon backfill is

achieved .
Specific Gravity affects compact settling. A high specific gravity helps to
insure compact settling .
Carbon Content of the backfill material determines the anode system life .
Particle Sizing determines the amount of contact between anode and
backfill. For optimum contact, particle size should be small relative to the
anode diameter. Very small (less than 7.5 microns) particles should be
avoided because they are high in ash content .
Particle Shape affects how well the backfill settles and the tendency for
the backfill to trap gases. A spherical shape is preferred over flat,
irregularly shaped particles .
275
Cathodic Protection
Notes:
1) Reference to the previous table

Metallurgical Coke has a relatively high resistivity because it is:
low in carbon content,
porous and therefore low in specific gravity, and
high in ash content.
Therefore,
Metallurgical coke is not suitable for deep anode groundbed installations .
2) Petroleum Coke must be calcined (heat treated). Prior to calcination, petroleum

coke is non conductive and is therefore not suitable for backfilling.
276
Cathodic Protection
In high resistivity soils, Sodium

Chloride (commercial grade salt)
is mixed with the carbonaceous
backfill in order to lower the GB
resistance
277
Cathodic Protection
Typical Impressed Current System Arrangement
Ground Bed
278
Cathodic Protection
Positive current flux through soil to buried pipeline and

resulting distribution of current density on pipe wall
279
Cathodic Protection
V vs CSE
GB1 GB2 GB3 Distance
Pipeline attenuation and multiple ground beds
280
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Criteria

2.0
1.6
1.2 Fe3+
0.8 Passivity
Potential
Pourbaix diagram showing 0.4
the theoretical conditions for Fe2+ Anodic Protection
0.0
corrosion, passivation, and pH
immunity of iron in water and -0.4 Corrosion Adjustment
dilute aqueous solutions -0.8
Cathodic Protection
-1.2 Immunity
-1.6
0 7 14
pH
281
Cathodic Protection
Fe-to-Soil Potential in Potential vs Cu/CuSO4 Description

Low Resistivity Soils
mV
showing the degree of -500
corrosion Intense Corrosion
-600
Free Corrosion
-700
Some Protection
-800
Zone of Cathodic Protection
-900
The value 850 mV Some Over-Protection
-1000
is the CP criterion for Increased Over-Protection
protecting steel in -1100
aggressive soils, i.e. Sever Over-Protection
the steel structure -1200 Problems
acts as a CATHODE 282
Cathodic Protection
Excessive negative potentials

can cause :
Cathodic Disbonding : i.e.

loss of adhesion between
the coating and the metal
surface
Hydrogen Damage : due
hydrogen evolution at ve
potentials
283
Cathodic Protection

V vs. CSE
Time
284
Cathodic Protection
285
Cathodic Protection
Potential criteria for cathodic protection of some

metals and alloys at 25 C (1)
Metal/ Alloy Potential criterion (mV)
vs Cu/ Cu SO4
Iron, steel, stainless
steel: -850
Aerobic conditions -950
Anaerobic conditions
Lead -600
Copper -500
Aluminum -950 (2)
(1) According to British code of practice No. CP 1021, August 1973.

(2) But not more negative than about -1.2 Volts. 286
Cathodic Protection
Protective potential measured against various standard electrodes
Reference electrode Criteria Environment
Copper/copper sulphate - 0.85 (V) Soil

Silver/silver chloride - 0.80 (V) Sea water
Zinc - 0.25 (V) Sea Water
At potentials more negative than given values, steel structure is

protected from corrosion.
287
Cathodic Protection
According to ISO 15589-1 Part 1, 2003 concerning the

CP protection criteria of On-Land Pipelines :
The CP system shall be capable of :

polarizing all parts of the buried pipeline to potentials
more negative than 850 mV referred to CSE,
&
to maintain such potentials throughout the design life of
the pipeline.
288
Cathodic Protection
According to ISO 15589-1 Part 1, 2003 concerning the

CP protection criteria of On-Land Pipelines :
For pipelines operating in soils with very high resistivity,

a protection potential more positive than 850 mV referred
to CSE may be considered, e.g. as follows:
- 750 mV for 10,000 < < 100,000 ohm.cm

- 650 mV for > 100,000 ohm.cm = Soil Resistivity
i.e., the value of 850 mV is only for soils with < 10,000 ohm.cm
289
Cathodic Protection
CP Permanent Monitoring ( Test ) Point

consists of :-
Permanent Reference Electrode ( or Portable type )
Test Post :
for pipelines : @ every 1- 2 Km intervals
for tanks : near the tank
290
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection monitoring
Potential Measurement
Structure/Electrolyte Potential is measure by means of a

reference electrode :
Copper / Copper Sulfate . Soil
Silver / Silver Chloride . Sea Water
291
Cathodic Protection
Understanding the idea behind the reference electrode
Although we can't
measure their absolute
heights, what we can
do is to measure their
heights relative to a
convenient post .
Although we don't know any of their absolute heights, we

can usefully rank them in order. person height relative to post (cm)
It is enough to compare their heights with a standard
C +20
height.
A +15
Similarly, it is enough to compare the potential of a B -15
structure with a standardized system called a
reference electrode. 292
Cathodic Protection
Understanding the idea behind the reference electrode
Reference Electrodes
must have a CONSTANT electrode potential which can be taken as a

Reference Point for comparison.
metal / metal ion combination E (volts)
H2/H+ 0
Zn / Zn2+ -0.76
Cu / Cu2+ +0.34
Ag / Ag+ +0.80
293
Cathodic Protection
Copper / Copper Sulfate

reference electrode
Portable Type
294
Cathodic Protection
Copper / Copper Sulfate

reference electrode
In order to measure the structure to soil potential,

the CSE must become part of the soil
This is fulfilled by inter-mixing of the CSE content with

the soil content due to diffusion down a concentration
gradient
295
Cathodic Protection
Typical Arrangement for Pipe

to Soil Measurement
CuSO4 Saturated Copper Rod
Solution
HIGH SO42- IONS AVO meter
Cu
CONTENT
Cu2+
SO42-
Water Porous Disc
SO42- H2O (Soil) HIGH WATER CONTENT Pipe

Sulfate ions migrate Water molecules
from CSE to soil migrate into CSE
296
Cathodic Protection
Important Instructions
The copper-sulfate solution inside the reference electrode should be
clear and free of contamination . Otherwise, errors will be
introduced in the readings.
The porous ceramic tip must be maintained moist at all times.

Otherwise, it will lose its porosity.
The copper rod inside the reference electrode should periodically be

cleaned with nonmetallic sandpaper.
The reference electrode that is used in the field must be periodically

calibrated.
297
Cathodic Protection
Calibration of the Reference Electrode
As a general rule, calibration should be checked once every

week if the reference electrode is used daily.
Calibration of the reference electrode is accomplished by

comparing it with another reference electrode that has never
been used.
The potential difference should NOT exceed 10 mV.
298
Cathodic Protection
A 10 mV or less potential difference

299
Cathodic Protection
Maintenance of the
Reference Electrode
Copper Sulphate
Crystals & Solution
300
Cathodic Protection
Maintenance of the
Reference Electrode
For cold weather add

ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTION
to prevent freezing of electrodes
down to -10F (-23C) 301
Cathodic Protection
302
Cathodic Protection
Structure Potential is the Pipe

Variable
303
Cathodic Protection
Pipe to Soil Potential
Pipe
304
Cathodic Protection
The reference electrode could be connected either to the Negative or the Positive
of the voltmeter Either way, always take the potential reading as ve.
305
Cathodic Protection
Typical Arrangement for Pipe to Soil Measurement
306
Cathodic Protection
Pre-packaged Copper / Copper Sulfate

reference electrode
Prepackaged CSE
Backfill :
Gypsum +
Bentonite clay +
Sodium sulfate
For soils with low water

content
307
Cathodic Protection
Permanent Copper / Copper Sulfate

reference electrode
308
Cathodic Protection
Titanium Anode Ribbon and

Pre-packaged Permanent Reference
Cells
309
Cathodic Protection
Voltmeter On-Potential
Eon Reading
Eon = Ep + IR error
CSE @ soil
surface
CP current IR error
Coating Ep
310
Cathodic Protection
Voltmeter
Voltmeter Off-Potential
Eoff Reading , instantaneous

Eoff = Ep
CSE @ soil
surface
Coating Ep
311
Cathodic Protection
Potential decay curve
Off Potential
312
Cathodic Protection
Test Posts for CP Monitoring
313
Cathodic Protection
Test Posts for CP Monitoring
314
Cathodic Protection
Flush to Ground 315

Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter
& Permanent Reference Electrode
Test Post
Pipeline
Permanent
Reference electrode 316
Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter
& Portable Reference Electrode
317
Cathodic Protection
Above-ground pipe, NO CP
Electrical insulation
Vm
Riser pipe + CP
Reference Electrode Placed Close to a Bare Riser Pipe 318

Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter.
Flush Type Test

Station
319
Cathodic Protection
320
Cathodic Protection
Permanently Installed Reference Electrode & Test Post
321
Cathodic Protection
Permanent Monitoring for

Under Tank Cathodic
Protection
Tank Diameter (m) No. of Electrodes

Required
5-10 1
10-23 2
23-36 3
45 and above 4
322
Cathodic Protection
Reference Electrodes Locations for
Under - Tank CP Systems
1/8D 1/6D 1/4D

3/8D
2/8D
2/6D
D=45m and above D=23-36m D=10.5-22.5m D=5-10m
Key : Reference Electrode

323
Cathodic Protection
For monitoring tanks internal CP system use:
Hanging RE ( from roof )
Hanging Reference Electrodes
Plug RE ( fixed on shell )
Plug RE
RE
RE
324
Cathodic Protection
Tank
PVC pipe installed through the
concrete ring @ different locations
for CSE placement. PVC Pipe
PVC Pipe See Details

Under Tank Soil
Concrete Ring
Concrete Ring
Under Tank Soil
Top View 325

Cathodic Protection
Perforated PVC Pipe Installed for Reference

Electrode Placement
AVO
Tank
Perforated PVC Pipe

CSE Filled with Water
326
Cathodic Protection
Concrete or asphalt paved areas:

Contact resistance may be reduced by drilling through the paving to
permit electrode contact with the soil.
AVO
CSE in Wet Soil
Concrete / Asphalt
Buried Pipe
Correct method for measuring structure potentials 327
when surface is covered with concrete or asphalt.
Cathodic Protection
Measuring underground structure potentials 328
when structure is covered with concrete.

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Remote Monitoring Radio
329
Cathodic Protection
Potential Measurement of jackets / platform legs

Hanging portable Ag/AgCl reference
electrode
330
Cathodic Protection
Cable to surface
meter
Diver with portable reference electrode 331

Cathodic Protection
Transponder CP
monitoring
332
Cathodic Protection
Potential plot after data

analysis
333
Cathodic Protection
Potential Measurement of subsea pipelines
Trailing-wire potential survey
334
Cathodic Protection
335
Cathodic Protection
Current
Potential
336
Cathodic Protection
Schematic of Automated Cathodic Protection system 337

Cathodic Protection
338
Cathodic Protection
339
Cathodic Protection
Shallow Anode Groundbed
340
Cathodic Protection
341
Cathodic Protection
Tanks Bottom External Side

Corrosion
Above-Ground Tank on
Concrete Ring
342
Cathodic Protection
Typical Under-Tank Cathodic Protection

System for New Tanks
343
Cathodic Protection
The Grid Impressed Current System

Protection For Aboveground Storage Tank Bottoms
The system is composed of:
Parallel thin multiple Ti strips acting as distributor
(conductor) bars. Anode ribbon
Ti conductor bar
Ribbon anodes spaced apart in a parallel Reference anode
configuration.
Through resistance (Spot) welding, the anodes

are attached to Ti bars to create a grid shaped
pattern.
The drain cable is welded to the Ti-bars at

multiple drain points.
Drain point
welded to
This design ensures uniform current distribution Ti bar
to all areas of the tank bottom. Junction box 344
Cathodic Protection
Under tank cathodic protection MMO anode grid
345
Ti strips acting as distributor (conductor) bars.
Cathodic Protection
MMO ribbon 346

Cathodic Protection
Spot-welding machine
MMO Ribbon Anode Installation

Spot-welding of MMO Ribbon 347
to Ti conductor bar
Cathodic Protection
Electric-supply Point in Outer Bottom of Tank

348
Cathodic Protection
Permanent Reference Electrode Installation in Outer Bottom of Tank
349
Cathodic Protection
350
Cathodic Protection
351
Cathodic Protection
ICCP Ribbon Anode configured in concentric rings to protect the external side of a
crude oil storage tank bottom
RE
352
Cathodic Protection
ICCP Ribbon Anode configured in concentric rings to protect the external
side of a crude oil storage tank bottom
ring wall
+
T/R - to tank shell
353
Cathodic Protection
For Under tank

CP Systems:
PE Liner or
Bituminous
Layer should
be avoided not
to obstacle the
protective CP
current umbrella
X
354
Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of Under-Tank ICCP System

355
Cathodic Protection
Advantages of the 'Grid' system:
9 provides excellent current distribution due to the system's

mixed metal oxide anode network layout.
9 the system has compact geometry since it is installed in

an extremely limited area underneath the tank bottom.
356
Cathodic Protection
Main Problem with Under-Tank CP Systems
The protective +ve CP current

Oxygen Evolution
causes decomposition of water 2H2O O2+ 4H+ + 4e-
Oxygen is Stable
Since water content of the soil
underneath the tank is very Water Thermodynamically
Stable
limited
Hydrogen Evolution
As a result, the GB dries up ;

i.e. no electrolyte 2H+ +2e- H2
Hydrogen is Stable
Therefore,
the CP system is aborted
357
Cathodic Protection
Solution Installation of Under-Tank Watering System

Concrete Ring
Compacted
Soil
Laser Slotted PVC Tubes

358
Slotted PVC Pipes
Cathodic Protection
Installation of Under-Tank Watering System
PVC special slotted tube: Laser Slotted PVC Tube
The slotted tubing has a special permeability

designed to retain moisture around the tube.
359
End Caps
Cathodic Protection
Installation of Under-Tank Watering System
PVC Watering Pipe
Tank
(-)
T/R
(+)
ICCP Anode Grit

Compacted Soil
360
Always make sure that the watering slotted tubes are above the ICCP anode grid
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection of Steel Rebars of

Concrete Ring of Above-Ground
Storage Tanks. 361
Cathodic Protection
Installation of
Peripheral ICCP for
Existing Above-
ground Tanks
Existing Tank
Protecting outermost bottom
MMO strip
Horizontal GB
anode
362
Cathodic Protection
Installation of Peripheral ICCP for Existing

Above-ground Tanks
363
Cathodic Protection
Installation of ICCP for Existing Above-ground

Tank Farm
364
Cathodic Protection
365
Cathodic Protection
366
Cathodic Protection
Distributed Anode
Cathodic Protection
System
367
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection installation for a well casing
368
Cathodic Protection
369
Cathodic Protection

Impact of Anode Proximity
370
Cathodic Protection

Impact of Anode Groundbed Depth
Shielding effect
No shielding effect
The Anode Groundbed must be Deep enough below the high 371
resistance strata to avoid the shielding effect.
Cathodic Protection
Impressed Current Cathodic

Protection for Tank Internals
Hanging
ICCP
anode
372
Cathodic Protection

Vertically Suspended High Silicon Cast Iron

Anode String
373
Cathodic Protection

PVC Support ICCP anode
Anode Cable extended to

outside along vent tube
374
Cathodic Protection
RE Side View
T/R
Suspended Horizontal Impressed Current Anode

System 375
Cathodic Protection
T/R
Suspended Vertical Impressed

Current Anode System 376
Cathodic Protection
T/R
Internal IC cathodic protection using Plug Type anodes
377
Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
1- Hanging Anodes
378
Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
1- Hanging Anodes
379
Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
2- Sub-sea Sleds
380
Cathodic Protection
381
Cathodic Protection
Sea Floor ICCP Anode for Piles
382
Cathodic Protection
ICCP for Ships Hulls
ICCP system consists of :

ICCP non-consumable anodes,
e.g. Ti / MMO
+ Reference Electrodes
+ Power supply
Anodes come in different shapes
Anodes are Flush mounted
383
Cathodic Protection
ICCP Anodes for Ships Hulls
Disc (Circular) anodes Elliptical (Oval) Anodes
Linear Loop Anodes Linear Anodes 384

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for Ships Hulls . To Power Supply Unit
System Arrangement
SHIP
Anodes
Icp Current
Power
Supply
(+)
Controller
(-)
Reference Cell
385
Cathodic Protection
Put on your
thinking cap !!!386
Cathodic Protection
There are many important codes and references that shall

be referred to when dealing with cathodic protection design;
among these are:
NACE RP 0169
NACE RP 0176
NACE RP 177
NACE RP 575
ISO 15589-1, PART I 2003, On-land Pipelines
ISO 15589-2, PART II 2004, Offshore Pipelines
DnV RP B 401
API 651
J. Morgan, Cathodic Protection
A.W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion
387
Cathodic Protection
Steps Of Cathodic Protection Management
388
Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Basic information for design considerations
1. Type of electrolyte (environment)
Soil
Fresh/ saline water.
2. Temperature
3. Type of coating
4. Structure size
5. System Lifetime (years)
6. Availability of power supply
7. For pipelines:
Pipeline route
Crossings (foreign pipeline, roads, rivers, etc.)
Presence of high transmission power lines
389
Presence of foreign metallic structures.
Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Significance of Design Criteria:-
Type of electrolyte Current Demand Current Demand

Temperature Type of electrolyte Type of electrolyte
Type of coating Structure size System Lifetime
Structure size
Number of Anodes
Current Demand Type of CP system Type & number of GBs
390
Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Significance of Design Criteria:-
Availability of power
Pipeline route
supply (ICCP)
Use of:
Rectifiers, or
Special Design Precautions
Solar units
391
Cathodic Protection
Soil resistivity
Soil represents the electrolyte
Soils with low resistivity have high conductivity; i.e.

corrosive
NACE ranking
Soil resistivity (ohm. m) Corrosivity

up to 10 Severely corrosive
10-50 Corrosive
50-100 Moderately corrosive
100-200 Slightly corrosive
392
200 and above Non-corrosive
Cathodic Protection
Soil resistivity
Soil electrical resistivity indicates the relative capability of the soil to conduct electrical
current and it is a main indicator in determining corrosiveness of the soil. This is
generally recognized as the most significant soil characteristic with regard to
corrosivity of the soil. Soil resistivity can change dramatically with moisture content.
Soil, which has a high resistivity when it is dry, can have substantially lower resistivity
when it is wet or saturated depending on factors such as pH and chemical content.
393
Distance
Cathodic Protection
Four-Terminals (Wenner)
Measurement of Soil Resistivity.
Cables
Power Unit
Kit
Stainless Steel Pins
394
Cathodic Protection
Four-Terminals (Wenner)
Measurement of Soil Resistivity.
Survey procedure
1- Four pins are placed in the ground in a straight line, the distance
between each pin being equal and equivalent to the depth of soil to
be measured.
Resistance Test
Instrument
C C
P P2
1
1 2
a a a
P2 C2
C1 P1 395
Depth = a
Cathodic Protection
4-Terminals Arrangement
Survey procedure
2- Current is applied to the outer pins by the instrument and a voltage is

measured between the two inner pins.
3- The instrument
displays average
resistance of the
soil.
396
Cathodic Protection
4-Terminals (Wenner)
Ohms Low :
R = V/I
R : Resistance (ohm)
V : Applied Voltage
I : Recorded Amperage
397
Soil box procedure
Cathodic Protection
Soil Resistivity vs Recommended CP System
Mean Soil Resistivity

Rating of Soil Possible Method of Protection
(Ohm.cm)
25,000 - 100,000 not corrosive CP not necessary with uniform soils
CP may become necessary: impressed
10,000 - 25,000 hardly corrosive
current
5,000 - 10,000 slightly corrosive impressed current
moderately
2,000 - 5,000 Mg-anodes / impressed current
corrosive
1,000 - 2,000 highly corrosive Mg-anodes / impressed current
very highly
under 1,000 impressed current / Mg & Zn anodes
corrosive 398
Cathodic Protection
Current demand for CP:

Current density : it is the current required to cathodically protect
1 meter2 of bare steel in a given electrolyte.
Temperature : current demand shall be increased by 25% per

every 10 C incremental rise above 30 C. This requirement is
described by the following equation:
i = i0 + [i0 x 0.25 (t-t0)] / 10

Where,
i = current density at operating temperature, Amp/m2
i0 = base current density at standard temperature, Amp/m2
t = operating temperature C
t0 = standard temperature (30C)
399
Cathodic Protection
Current density determined in mA/m2 is dependant on the

media aggressivity.
Therefore if soil resistivity is low then current density shall be
high
Current density increases with increasing temperature
Media Current Density
mA/m2
Aggressive Soil 10
Normal soil 5
Sea water 90
Fresh water 30
400
Cathodic Protection
Current Requirement:
Current Drain Test
Whenever possible, a trial and error process using a temporary groundbed and a
portable power supply should be used to determine the current required to protect
the structure .
1) Set up a temporary groundbed with ground rods and a temporary power supply .
2) Energize the system
3) Perform an on-off survey over the structure to be protected .
4) Increase the current and repeat the survey .
5) Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until the structure is protected according to established
criteria .
401
Cathodic Protection
Current Requirement:
DC power supply :
T/R, Battery, or
Welding machine
Variable resistor
Pipe Temporary
groundbed
402
Current drain test for determining CP current requirement
Cathodic Protection
3.5
3.0
2.5
Impressed Current
2.0
1.5
1.0
Galvanic
0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Soil Resistivity ( in ohm-m)
Relative Economic Range for Galvanic and Impressed Current 403
Systems as a Function of Current Required and Soil Resistivity
Cathodic Protection
Power Supply :
The T/R is fed with AC current from the nearest power

supply.
If there is no power supply available, Solar Units to be

used instead of T/R.
404
Cathodic Protection
240 Watt Solar Array

0-24 Volt
405
Cathodic Protection
Batteries
Basic Requirements:
Long life reliability (25 years or more)

Simple maintenance
Corrosion resistance in harsh atmospheres
Alcad nickel-cadmium battery :
The heart of the cell is a series of steel pockets which are

made from finely perforated steel strip filled with active
materials - nickel in the positive plate and cadmium in the
negative. The plates are immersed in an electrolyte. 406
Cathodic Protection
Regulator Sun
Junction Box
Converter
(+) (-) Structure

Solar Modules
Batteries
Typical Arrangement for ICCP Using Solar Energy
GB Pipe to be protected
407
Cathodic Protection
Metal protection
Passive protection
A passive protection is offered by paints. Paints form an
insulation layer or barrier on top of the metal. That is why
it is also called a barrier protection.
Active protection
An active protection is also called cathodic protection.
408
Cathodic Protection
Underground coated pipe without cathodic protection

409
Cathodic Protection
Underground Coated Structures
New structures are generally provided with a good, high resistivity coating
that is applied with techniques that leave almost negligible amounts of the
surface exposed to the soil.
However, it is recognized that a coating, no matter how good or

how well applied, is never perfect.
It is important to understand that coated structures develop leaks within a shorter

period of time than do uncoated structures.
This is true even though the total metal loss on a coated structure is appreciably
less than on a bare structure.
All of the corrosion activity is concentrated at the holidays or breaks in the coating
rather than evenly dispersed over the entire surface, thus accelerating the corrosion
rate at the holiday locations. 410
Cathodic Protection
The corrosion protection afforded by the coating must be

supplemented with cathodic protection in order to achieve
complete mitigation of corrosion.
Fortunately, coating and cathodic protection work very well together.
Coating being the 1st line of defense, whereas CP the 2nd line.
In USA, The Department of Transportation has passed Federal

legislation requiring that all oil, gas and gas products pipelines
be cathodically protected
411
Cathodic Protection
The economics favoring cathodic protection of coated

cross-country pipelines are so overwhelming.
The problems presented in attempting to provide cathodic protection for

bare structures are cost-ineffective and much more difficult than those
on coated structures.
The major difficulty arises because of the much greater magnitude of

current required.
412
Cathodic Protection
Comparison of Breaks Before and After

Cathodic Protection
413
Cathodic Protection
Coating Quality
Coating Resistance
Coating Breakdown Factor
414
Cathodic Protection
Coating Quality:
Coating quality is a function of its leakage resistance (RLC )

The coating leakage resistance is a function of its:
Electrical resistivity
Thickness
Surface area exposed to electrolyte
RL,C = RC * t/A
Where, RC : coating electrical resistivity (ohm. cm)

t : coating thickness (cm)
A : surface area (cm2)
415
Cathodic Protection
(RL,S) = (RL,C) + (RL,E)
The structures leakage resistance (RL,S) is the sum of the coatings leakage
resistance (RL,C) and the leakage resistance to remote earth (RL,E).
416
Cathodic Protection
Typical Coating Leakage Resistances for various coating qualities
Range of coating
Coating quality leakage resistance
(RL,C), ohm.m2
Poor 1,000 - 2,500
Fair 5,000 - 10,000
good 25,000 - 50,000
Excellent 100,000 - 500,000

417
Cathodic Protection
Typical Coating Breakdown Values
Coating type % breakdown
Initial Mean Final
Thick coating 1 5 10
Epoxy coal tar 2 5-10 10-20
Fusion bonded 1-2 5-10 5-20
epoxy
A Coating Breakdown
Polypropylene (25 0.5 2 5 exposing bare steel to
yrs) electrolyte
Polyethylene (25 yrs) 0.5 1 3

Electrolyte CP Current
(Soil)
Protective Coating
Protective Coating 418
Pipe Wall
Cathodic Protection
groundbed
power
source
pipe shown in
cross-section
coating material
419
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection
Coating Breakdown values can be reduced by:
Proper handling of the coated pipes
Holiday detection and coating repair before burial
Using fine backfilling
Coating Break-down Factor:

Is the ratio between the current density required to polarize a
coated metal surface and current density required to polarize
the same area of surface but bare. 420
Cathodic Protection
Handling of the Coated Pipes during:
Lifting
Lowering in the Pipe inside the trench
421
Cathodic Protection
Handling of the Coated Pipes
Lifting Pipes With Electromagnets

422
Cathodic Protection
Lowering in the Pipe inside

the trench
Using Non-metallic
Padded Slings
Rolli Cradles
Padded Slings
Non-metallic 423
Rolli Cradles
Cathodic Protection

Lowering in the Pipe inside the
trench Using Non-metallic
Padded Slings
424
Cathodic Protection
Lowering in the Pipe inside

the trench Using Non-metallic
Rolli Cradles
425
Cathodic Protection
Holiday Detection and Repairing the damages before burring

the pipe
426
Cathodic Protection
Backfilling
Once the pipe has been placed in the trench,
the trench can be backfilled.
The backfilling crew takes care to protect the
pipe and coating as the soil is returned to the
trench.
The soil is returned to the trench in reverse

order, with the fine subsoil put back first,
followed by the coarse topsoil .
This ensures the topsoil is returned to its original position.
In areas where the ground is rocky and coarse, crews screen the backfill
material to remove rocks, or bring in clean fill to cover the pipe to protect it
from sharp rocks.
Once the pipe is sufficiently covered, the coarser soil and rock can be used to427
complete the backfill .
Cathodic Protection
Topsoil Backfill:
Coarse
Subsoil Backfill
covering the pipe:
Pipe Compacted, Fine,
Rock-free
428
Cathodic Protection
Steps of Pipeline Laying & Backfilling

Subsoil
1 2 Trench
Topsoil
Prepared
Pipe Pipe
Preparation Trenching
Subsoil
3 Topsoil 4
Subsoil
Topsoil 429
Lowering In Backfilling
Cathodic Protection
Trench
Prepared
Pipe
Subsoil
430
Cathodic Protection
Recommended potential limits for different coatings

to avoid coating disbondment
Coating type Volt (vs Cu/ CuSO4)
Asphalt Enamel -2
Epoxy coal tar -1.5
Fusion bonded epoxy -1.5
Tape wrap -1.5
Polyethylene -1.0
431
Cathodic Protection
432
Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
Cross-country P/Ls pass through different types of soils,

i.e. different electrolytes
Presence of high voltage power transmission lines
433
Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
434
Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
Pipeline in Sandy Soil Pipeline Submerged
Pipeline in Rocky Soil
435
Cathodic Protection
Stray Current Interference (Corrosion)
Definitions:
Stray current refers to current flowing through paths

other than the intended circuit(s).
Stray current corrosion refers to corrosion damage

resulting from current flow other than in the intended
circuit(s). For larger structures this term usually alludes
to corrosion damage caused by extraneous current(s)
flowing through soil and / or water.
436
Cathodic Protection
Types of stray current corrosion :

Stray current corrosion has been classified into the following types :
1- Direct stray current corrosion ,originating from direct current sources

such as dc rail transit systems, dc welding equipment and cathodic
protection systems.
In general, direct stray current corrosion is considered the most severe form
of these problems.
The flow of direct stray current is not necessarily steady with time, in terms
of magnitude and current path(s). This has led to a further distinction
between :
dynamic stray currents (unsteady state), and
static stray currents (steady state).
437
Cathodic Protection
Types of stray current corrosion :
2- Alternating stray current corrosion ,originating from alternating current

sources such as overhead ac power lines.
3- Telluric effects ,a "natural" form of dynamic stray currents induced by

transient geomagnetic activity (disturbances in the earth's magnetic field) .
438
Cathodic Protection
Pipeline AC interference
from electromagnetic field
439
Cathodic Protection
When underground pipelines share a common right-of-way with parallel high voltage
AC (HVAC) transmission power lines , an electromagnetic field is created and AC
voltages are induced on pipelines by interference.
Types of interference:
Inductive an indirect electrical coupling of a power line to the pipeline that

results in voltages being induced onto the pipeline
Conductive a direct resistive coupling between a power system facility and the
pipeline, typically the result of line-to-ground fault current
Such interfering electromagnetic fields may result in :-
1. Danger to the safety of personnel under normal operation (15 Volt limit)
2. Danger to the safety of personnel under fault conditions
3. Danger to the pipeline integrity under fault conditions
4. Risk of AC-enhanced corrosion under normal operation
440
5. Risk of damage to the coating from electrical stress under fault conditions
Cathodic Protection
Electromagnetic field Expands and Examples of field lines produced by AC

Collapses at a rate which is a function of transmission lines
441
the AC frequency
Cathodic Protection
442
Cathodic Protection
AC Mitigation Devices
Act as blocking devices to DC voltages but allow the discharge of AC
current through the earths connected to them.
Thereby reducing AC interference effects without compromising the
pipeline's cathodic protection system.
443
Cathodic Protection
For protection against stray current

from high tension lines, zinc ribbon
and polarization cells are used
Polarization cell
Zn ribbon
Pipeline
Zn ribbon
Solid State Type
444
Cathodic Protection
445
Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
The polarization cell is considered as a
DC DECOUPLING DEVICE: i.e.
A device used in electrical circuits that allows the flow of alternating current
(AC) in both directions and stops or substantially reduces the flow of direct
current (DC).
446
Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
Electrochemical devices which are able to resist the flow of DC

current to a few milli amperes whilst allowing AC currents and high
DC surges to pass .
They can be :
Fitted across isolating joints,
or
Used in their own right to provide isolation, i.e. to separate an

area of an earthing system which would cause excessive current
drain, whilst maintaining a fault current path .
447
Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
Consist of stainless steel or nickel plates in a

potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
Fill Hole
Cell Terminals
Potassium
Hydroxide
Solution
Stainless
Steel
Plates
448
Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells How it works??
Passage of DC current causes polarization due to

the build up of hydrogen gas on the cathode plates
and oxygen on the electrode plates.
449
Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
These films are dissipated when an AC or high DC
voltage is seen across the cell.
When the fault current subsides, the cell returns to

steady state characteristics .
POLARIZATION CELL WITH

OUTDOOR CABIN
450
Cathodic Protection
DC Stray current interference

DC interference between cathodically protected buried structures, e.g.
pipelines, is due to the presence of potential difference whether the
pipes are crossing or closely parallel.
451
Cathodic Protection
DC Stray-Current Corrosion
This is a simple experiment that demonstrates and explains the DC stray
current corrosion
452
Cathodic Protection
This is a simple experiment that demonstrates and explains the DC stray
current corrosion
CP umbrella
453
Cathodic Protection
In Rn
I4
R4
I3
A B
I2 R3
I1
R2
R1
The current takes all paths the path with the lowest
resistance passes more current 454
Cathodic Protection
Current pickup Current discharge
455
Cathodic Protection
The mechanics of cathodic interference are relatively simple :
Cathodic current emanates in all directions from the rectifier
and associated anode bed on a given structure.
Eventually, the current so discharged will return to the
rectifier unit.
If a foreign structure lies within the region of current
discharge from the rectifier system anodes, it may provide a
low resistant path for current return: current collects on the
foreign structure (pick-up area), follows the foreign structure
to a point where it returns to the given structure (discharge
area), flows along the given structure to the negative
connection and back to the rectifier, thus completing the
circuit.
The pick-up area is cathodic and hence, no detrimental
effects will occur here.
The "discharge" area is intensely anodic and severe
corrosion damage will take place at this point. 456
Cathodic Protection
457
Cathodic Protection

In case of pipe-crossing of cathodically protected
pipelines, BONDING is required by means of :
Solid (Direct, Continuity) boning,

or
Resistance bonding
458
Cathodic Protection
In case of parallel pipelines, the

pipelines are solid-bonded by means
of:
Equi-potential jumpers
AUTOBOND
Bonding Box 459
Cathodic Protection
Bonding Box
Bonding Box
Electrical Continuity Bonding

(jumpers)
Foreign Pipe
Protected Pipe
Foreign Protected
Pipe Pipe 460
Cathodic Protection
Buss Bar
(Copper)
Bonding Box
Foreign
Pipe
Protected
Solid Bonding 461

Cathodic Protection

Resistance Bonding
Bonding Box
with Variable
Resistor
Foreign
Pipe
Protected
462
Cathodic Protection
463
Cathodic Protection
Solid Bonding
Correction of interference Direct (Solid) Bonding 464

Cathodic Protection
Variable Resistance
Bonding
Correction of interference Resistance Bonding 465

Cathodic Protection
Before Bonding After Bonding
Effect of Resistance-Bonding on Interference Test Potentials
466
Cathodic Protection
Control of Interference using Sacrificial Anodes

467
Cathodic Protection
Stray Current Electrolyte Stray Current

Pick-Up (Soil) Discharge
Pipeline
Pipeline potential shifts in cathodic Pipeline potential shifts in anodic

direction ( more negative values ) direction ( more positive values )
Possibility of coating disbondment Possibility of high anodic current
and hydrogen damage densities , i.e. high corrosion rates
468
Cathodic Protection
Large rounded holes are typical of stray current corrosion

469
Cathodic Protection
DC Stray-current corrosion
470
Cathodic Protection
471
Cathodic Protection
REN CE
CUR ERAN
T
ERF
INT
472
Cathodic Protection
Cables Connections
Cable to - cable connection

Cable to - pipe connection
Cable to - structure connection
473
Cathodic Protection
Cables for laying in Soils

1
2
3
1. Conductor: Soft stranded Copper Wire
2.Insulation: KYNAR
3.Sheath: HMWPE
HMWPE = High Molecular Weight Poly-Ethylene

474
Cathodic Protection
5 1 2 3
4
Cables for laying in Soils, and Water
1.Conductor: Soft stranded

4.Armour: Steel Wire Copper Wire
Armoured 2.Insulation: KYNAR
5.Sheath: HMWPE
3.Bedding: PVC
475
Cathodic Protection
Cables Core (Conductor)
Single Stranded Cable
Multi Stranded Cable

Better Flexibility
476
Cathodic Protection
Cables Core (Conductor)
XLPE Insulated Single Core XLPE Armoured Cable for 477
Non Armoured Cable Cathodic Protection

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Splice Kit : for cable-to-cable connection

2
1
Araldite is poured
& let to dry 478
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
For cable-to-pipe connection :
1- Thermite ( Cad / Exothermic ) Welding
2- Pin Brazing
3- Mechanical connection ( for gas pipelines )
479
Cathodic Protection
Spark Gun
Crucible
Cable Connections (Mold)
For cable-to-pipe connection

1- Thermite Welding :
Disks
Cartridge
Spark Flint
480
Cathodic Protection
Insert the steel disk into the mold.

Ensure that the steel disk is properly
seated.
Quickly pour the loose

welding material powder
into the mold.
481
Cathodic Protection
The bottom of the cartridge Squeeze the bottom of the cartridge to

contains compressed loosen the starting material and pour it over
material (starting material). the welding material in the mold crucible.
482
Cathodic Protection
Avoid direct eye contact with the flash of

light from ignition of starting material.
Close the lid and aim the flint igniter Wear dark safety glasses
to ignite the starting material
Avoid inhalation of smoke/fumes.
483
Cathodic Protection
Thermite Weldment
Allow approximately 30 seconds for completion of the

reaction and solidification of the molten material.
484
Cathodic Protection
Prior to welding :
The coating must be removed at
welding point ( 5x5 cm square )
Metal surface to be polished and
cleaned
485
Cathodic Protection
Protecting the Thermite Weldment
1 2 3
Primer
Self-adhesive
Handy Cap
486
Cathodic Protection
The CADWELD PLUS system:
Consists of a tamper proof, disposable,

moisture-resistant weld metal cup.
The weld metal, disk and ignition source

are incorporated into the self-contained
package
igniter
cable 487
Cathodic Protection
1 2 3
1-Insert CADWELD PLUS 2-Attach control unit 3-Press and hold control unit switch
package into Mold termination clip to and wait for the ignition
ignition strip
4
4-Open the mold and remove 488
the expended steel cup

Cathodic Protection
Thermite welding ?
Disadvantages
Thermite usage is hazardous due to the extremely high

temperatures produced once the reaction is initiated.
The thermite reaction releases dangerous ultra-violet (UV)

light requiring that the reaction not be viewed directly, or that
special eye protection (for example, a welder's mask) be
worn.
489
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections

2- Pin Brazing : emits less heat output
Pins & Ferrules

Pin Brazing Unit
Lug
Pistol / Gun Grinder

490
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections

2- Pin Brazing
Silver ferrule
The silver is melted around the wire in 491

the cable itself and the working material .
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
2- Pin Brazing
1 Clean the surface

2 Load gun with 3 Pin braze
pin & ferrule
4 Test connection 492

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
3- Mechanical Connection : recommended for drain point
connection of gas pipelines
493
Cathodic Protection
Why Pin brazing instead of thermite welding?
Works in any weather condition

Rain and snow is no more a problem. You know for sure that the job will be done.
Fast & Easy - Automated process
The pin brazing process takes only a second and the whole preparation takes less
than a minute.
Does not affect internal coatings
It's a brazing method which means much less temperature than thermite welding. Pin
brazing uses a 3rd material(silver) with less melting temperature (1100-1200F) than
the other involved metals.
No need for special moulds
Economical
Safe for the operator, battery driven 36V DC system
Unlike thermite welding ,Pin Brazing is safe no explosive material & UV
All weather system.
Can be used in rain and snow.
Safe for the material
It is a Silver Brazing Method. Does not melt the work material down as the
exothermic methods (thermite) does. Just a thin layer of silver is applied between the
pipe and the cable wires. 494
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Terminal Lugs :
for cable-to-structure ( tank )
connection
495
Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Clamps
Brass Ground Clamp with Brass Screws

to connect copper conductors to pipe
and rods
496
Cathodic Protection
Electrical Isolation
Structures to be protected shall be electrically isolated
from portions which do not require protection.
No CP CP
Electrical isolation is made by :

Isolating flange kit ( IFK )
IFK is installed @ Aboveground / Underground interface

497
Cathodic Protection
Point of Electrical Cathodically

Isolation Protected Tank
CP umbrella
498
Cathodic Protection

Try to avoid burying the IFK
Not Acceptable May Be Accepted

499
Cathodic Protection
It is preferred to install the IFK above-ground.
Otherwise, IFK to be located inside underground pit or

valve pit
500
Cathodic Protection
501
Cathodic Protection
E type Full Face F type
IFK is installed in Underground Pit 502

Cathodic Protection
Insulation Checker
Dielectric Strength "
503
Cathodic Protection
Sealing Gaskets
504
Cathodic Protection
Sealing Gasket
Flange Isolation Kits
Before
After
Tightening
Tightening
Cathodic Protection
Insulating Unions (Couplings)
Greater separation
between pipe
ends minimizes 506
"bridging"
Cathodic Protection
Insulation Checker
No CP CP
507
Cathodic Protection
Isolating flange kits

In hazardous areas , IFKs are
protected by means of Spark Gaps or
Surge Arresters or polarization cells
Surge Arrester
508
Cathodic Protection
Lightening Spark Gaps
509
Cathodic Protection
Polarization
cells
510
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
511
Cathodic Protection
The monolithic blocks are protected against

electrostatic charges and lightening by
512
polarization cell or cathodic isolator
Cathodic Protection
Unprotected Protected
Unprotected Protected
Polarization Cell
Polarization Cell
Copper Earthing Rod
513
Cathodic Protection
Cathodically
Protected Tanks
shall be electrically
earthed separately
or connected to the Cathodically
Protected Tank
earthing network via
Polarization Cell
Copper CP umbrella
Earthing Polarization Cell
514
Rod
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Polarization cell provides continuous AC grounding for pipelines with induced
voltage, while leaving the cathodic protection voltage unaffected. The device
presents low impedance to alternating current and high impedance to direct
current, and connects between the pipeline and a grounding system.
515
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Kirk Cell for Hazardous

516
Area
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Cathodic Isolators
Cathodic Isolators are

used to mitigate Cathodic Isolator
induced AC on
pipelines
517
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Zinc Grounding Cell
518
Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Monolithic Block is being

hydrostatically tested as
a pressure vessel
519
Cathodic Protection
Casings for Road Crossings
520
Cathodic Protection
Pull-on End Seals Wrap Around End Seals
521
Cathodic Protection
There should NOT be any contact

between the pipe & casing
Test posts usually installed @

crossings to monitor the potential
of pipe and casing separately 522
Cathodic Protection
V

+c-
Vent Pipe Reference
V
Electrode
p +
Carrier Pipe
Casing
Shorted Isolated
Casing 0.900 VCSE 0.750 VCSE

Pipe 0.900 VCSE 0.910 VCSE 523
Cathodic Protection
Clamp Meter
Clamp Meters are used to check:
electric cables integrity
current output of each anode
Using a Clamp-on Ammeter

to Measure Current
524
Cathodic Protection
Pipeline & Cable Warning Markers
Flexible Flat Markers

Dome Marker CP Test Station Flat Markers 525
& Marker
Cathodic Protection
526
Cathodic Protection
Headers include:
Danger - If not avoided will result in death or serious injury

Warning - If not avoided could result in death or serious injury
Caution - If not avoided may result in minor or moderate injury
Notice - Usually used to indicate a statement of company policy
527
Cathodic Protection
Detectable and Non-Detectable

Underground Buried Pipe and Cable Tape
To alert unsuspecting construction workers to non-detectable tape

the presence of these system.
The non-detectable tape is made from a low-

density polyethylene plastic formulated for
extended underground use. It is acid and
alkali resistant and exhibits superior tensile
strength.
detectable tape
The detectable tape is manufactured with a
solid aluminum core which is sealed between Legend:
durable Mylar. Buried Cathodic Protection Line Below
or
The underground warning tape is an alert to Cathodic Protection Cable Buried Below
excavators, and is typically the last item to be
528
installed in the trench.
Cathodic Protection
Basic cathodic protection

calculations
529
Cathodic Protection
Basic Cathodic Protection Calculations
CP Current Requirement
CD= S x A x CBDC
CD : Current Demand (A)

S : Design Current Density (A/m2)
A : Surface Area (m2)
CBDF : Coating Break-down Factor
530
Cathodic Protection
Anodes Weight Requirement
W= (CD x C x t) / u
W : Total Anodes Weight (kg)

C : Anodes Consumption Rate (kg/A. year)
t : Lifetime (year)
u : Anode Utilization Factor
531
Cathodic Protection
Number of anode = total weight required

individual anode net weight
Number of anode = total current required

individual anode current output
Always choose the GREATER anode number
P.S. the anode net weight & current output are available
in suppliers catalogues
532
Cathodic Protection
CP Circuit Resistance : required only for ICCP systems
Rt= Rc + RGB + Rs must be <(2) ohm.
Rt : Total Circuit Resistance

Rc : Circuit Cables Resistance ( e.g. 0.1~ 0.2 ohm)
RGB : Anodes (Groundbed)-to- Soil Resistance (ohm)
Rs : Pipeline-to-Soil resistance (approx. negligible)
RGB is the only variable and hence can be manipulated and altered 533
Cathodic Protection
Ground bed-to-Soil Resistance (Dwight Eqs.)

For Multiple-anodes Horizontal Shallow GB
The GB is considered as a horizontal pipe
where:
p = average soil resistivity (ohm-m)
L = length of groundbed (meters)
d = diameter of groundbed (m)
h = depth to center of groundbed (m)
534
Cathodic Protection
Ground bed-to-Soil Resistance

For Multiple-anodes Vertical Shallow GB
If the groundbed consists of a group of short vertical anodes in a row,
the Sunde equation provides a good approximation of the resistance
to remote earth.
where:
RN = groundbed resistance (ohm)
p = average soil resistivity (ohm-m)
N = number of anodes in parallel
L = length of an anode (m)
d = anode diameter (m)
s = spacing of anodes in groundbed (m) 535
Cathodic Protection

For Single Vertical Shallow GB
If the groundbed consists of one vertical anode or pipe,
the Sunde equation becomes
Notes:
1) This equation assumes that L >> d
2) L, represents the length of active anode
536
Cathodic Protection
For Deep-Well GB
Use Dwight's formula for

a single vertical rod
(pipe)
in earth L, active part
of groundbedd
L & d, represent dimensions

of the active part of the d
groundbed 537
Cathodic Protection
CP Cables Resistance :
Cable Resistance
R CABLE = Resistance per km

L CABLE = Length in meters (sum of positive and negative cables)
R C = Cable resistance
RC = ( Rcable X Lcable ) / 1000
538
Cathodic Protection
CP Driving Voltage : (ICCP systems)
Driving Voltage = I required (amp) X Rt (ohm)
539
Cathodic Protection
Transformer/Rectifier (T/R) Rating:
Max. current (A) 13.0
If,
Driving Voltage (v) 13.3
T/R Output Rating:
Select near standard T/R rating:
(e.g. 12V, 24V, 36V, 48V, 5A, 10A, 15A, 20Aetc)
T/R output: 15A/24V DC

T/R Input Characteristics:
Check available electrical power characteristics:
Either 3PH, 400V AC, 50Hz Or 1PH, 230V AC, 50Hz
T/R Input: 3PH, 400V AC, 50Hz

540
Cathodic Protection
CP Current Attenuation
541
Cathodic Protection
CP Current Attenuation Check
En (v) Pipeline Natural Potential -0.55

Ea/Em = Cosh(L) Ea (v) Pipeline Protective Potential at Drain Point -1.3
Ea (v) Pipeline Potential Shift at Drain Point -0.75
Ea = Ea - En Em (v) Pipeline Protective Potential at Distance (L) -0.95
Em = Em - En Em (v) Pipeline Potential Shift at Distance (L) -0.4
(m-1) Attenuation Constant 3.1623E-05
= (Rs/Rlf) Rlf (ohm.m) Linear Coating Insulation Resistivity (final) 15664.8566
Rf (ohm.m2) Coating Insualtion Resistivity (final) 20000
Rlf = Rf/( * D) Rs (ohm/m) Linear Pipeline Steel Conductivity 1.5665E-05
Rs = s/ ( * D * t) s (ohm.m) Pipeline Steel Specific Resistivity 0.00000019
D (m) Pipeline Diameter 0.4064
t (m) Pipeline Wall Thickness 0.0095
L (Km) Attenuation Distance 39.26
542
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial VS Impressed Current CP
543
Cathodic Protection
COMPARISON OF CP SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Sacrificial CP Impressed Current CP
NO External Power required External Power Required
Fixed driving voltage Adjustable Voltage
Fixed Current Adjustable Current

Limited Current (10 to 50 Milli-amperes Unlimited Current (10 to 100 Amperes
Typical) Typical)
Usually used in lower resistivity Can be Used in almost Any Resistivity
electrolytes Environment
Usually used with small or very well Can be Used on Any Size Structure
coated structures
Low $/Unit Cost High $/Unit Cost
High $/Sq. Ft. of Metal Protected Low $/Sq. Ft. of Metal Protected
Low Maintenance Higher Maintenance
Does NOT cause Stray Current Corrosion Stray DC Currents Can be Generated 544
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Cathodic Protection Course

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18-21 June, 2012

All interactions between a metal ( or alloy )

Corrosion is derived from

Occurs in wet Occurs in dry

high or elevated temp. low cryogenic temp.

Wet / Aqueous Corrosion of Metals

Occurs in water containing environments

Water ( fresh or sea water )

Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion

Corrosion of metals (e.g. iron) in water is basically an

A chemical reaction accompanied by the passage of an

Why Metals Corrode?

Thermal energy (high furnace for Fe)

Electric energy (electrolytic paths for Al & Cu)

Electrolytic reduction of Al oxide to Al Electrolytic production of Cu

Active free metals tend to react easily to produce

Metals in the compounded forms have less energy

Corrosion is governed by the Law of

Energy Gained = Energy Lost

Oxides, Ore thermodynamically stable

Mining & Extraction

When man makes metals there is a varying degree of

A large portion of the energy used in refining remains

Practically Corrosion Can be Defined as: Mining &

Tendency of a Metal to Revert

In all corrosion reactions

An old adage in materials science says:

The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically

Defects in crystalline materials such as:

(1) (2) (3)

Slip bands, with:

Anodes and cathodes co-exist on the same metal

Electron transfer requires presence of anode sites and

Due to potential difference ( V ) between anodes and

Electrons liberated at anodes

Oxidation can't occur without Reduction.

In other words, a substance will not loss

The two processes are Tied Together.

The corrosion process involves two reactions:

Anodic Reaction (metal dissolution / oxidation )

Cathodic Reaction ( reduction )

The corrosion process occurs in 3 sequential

Metal dissolution starts at the defect

Due to V, the electrons liberated Fe Fe Fe Fe++

Once the liberated electrons arrive to the cathode site:

if the electrons accumulate without being consumed, this would cause

if the medium contains electron consumer (i.e. Depolarizer), the cathode

the most common depolarizers are:

There are 2 main reactions depending on :

Oxygen availability & pH

1. Oxygen reduction reaction

2. Hydrogen evolution reaction

1. Oxygen reduction reaction

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4 OH-

Predominates in aerated Near-Neutral solutions pH > 5

Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 30

2H+ + 2e- 2H (adsorbed) H2 (gas)

As corrosion proceeds the

B. Cathodic Reaction : occurs @ cathode sites

Possible Cathodic Reactions Cathodic Depolarization

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4 OH- (natural water)

2H+ + 2e- H2 (gas) (acid water)

Fe3+ + e- Fe2+ (acid water)

Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl- (chlorinated water)