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Pisal Siddharth PDF
_______________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
_______________
In Partial Fulfillment
Master of Science
in
Electrical Engineering
_______________
by
Spring 2012
iii
Copyright 2012
by
Siddharth Shrikant Pisal
All Rights Reserved
iv
DEDICATION
The world of technology has given mankind a powerful way for interaction using
telecommunication. When invented by Alexander Graham Bell, it was a wired transmission
of electrical signals representing information. Since then, telecommunication technology has
achieved tremendous improvement from text, voice transmission to a modern age high speed
real time multimedia content. The challenges for todays technology is to develop standards
that can help operators to keep the cost per bit as low as possible and keep on reducing,
maintain backward compatibility so as to gain maximum benefit from the investments. The
newer modulation schemes and improved advanced antenna technologies are helping to
achieve the newer heights of success. The technology so far has developed through 1st, 2nd
and 3rd generation phases and currently 4G (4th Generation) is the best experience till date
for users.
In March 2008, the International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications
sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the IMT-Advanced
(International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) specification, setting peak speed
requirements at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high mobility communication (such as
from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication. To
meet IMT-Advanced requirements, IEEE 802.16m (Mobile WiMAX) an IEEE standard and
Long Term Evolution (LTE) from 3GPP groups are considered and both satisfy the IMT-
Advanced requirements.
4G goals are challenging compared to 3G standards. To achieve the 4G requirements,
two standards were candidates. IEEE developed Mobile WiMAX, a successor of IEEE
802.16 (2009) standard for Local and metropolitan area networks. Mobile WiMAX
supersedes the IMT-Advanced requirements using OFDMA modulation and advanced
MIMO antenna technology. Long Term Evolution (LTE), a 3GPP technology developed to
meet the IMT-Advanced requirements uses OFDMA modulation scheme for Downlink and
SC-FDMA for Uplink to improve PAPR and save battery power on mobile user devices.
LTE also uses advanced MIMO antenna technology to increase the data rates and supersedes
the IMT-Advanced requirements.
This thesis investigates physical layers of LTE and WiMAX designed for improved
data rates, system capacity, and robustness. Both technologies use variable bandwidth and
flexible adaptive modulation techniques with efficient physical resource allocation to utilize
the available channel and achieve the best possible throughput. Best utilization of Time and
frequency resources is the key for best performance results. Physical layer parameters for
WiMAX and LTE use physical resources in different ways and achieve optimized
performance under real time scenarios. Various aspects of physical layer results and
vi
parameters are analyzed for understanding the similarities and differences amongst the
technologies.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xii
CHAPTER
1 MODULATION TECHNIQUES AND SYNCHRONIZATION SIGNALS
FOR LTE AND WIMAX ..............................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................1
1.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM)......................................2
1.2.1 Working Principle of OFDM ....................................................................3
1.2.1.1 OFDM Transmitter ..........................................................................3
1.2.1.2 OFDM Receiver...............................................................................5
1.2.2 OFDMA in LTE and WiMAX..................................................................5
1.3 OFDM Technique Drawbacks ...........................................................................7
1.3.1 PAPR Issue with OFDM Techniques .......................................................7
1.3.2 PAPR Reduction Techniques....................................................................8
1.4 Single Carrier Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access ......................8
1.4.1 SC-FDMA Transmitter Structure .............................................................9
1.4.1.1 Localized Transmission ...................................................................9
1.4.1.2 Distributed Transmission .................................................................9
1.4.2 SC-FDMA Receiver Structure................................................................10
1.5 Parameters for OFDMA and SC-OFDMA in LTE and WiMAX....................12
1.6 Synchronization Signal used in LTE and WiMAX .........................................13
1.7 Zadoff-Chu Sequences.....................................................................................13
1.8 ZC Sequences in LTE and WiMAX ................................................................14
1.8.1 ZC Sequence in LTE...............................................................................15
1.8.2 ZC Sequences in WiMAX ......................................................................16
2 STUDY OF LONG TERM EVOLUTION (LTE).......................................................17
viii
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................17
2.2 LTE Physical Layer General Description ........................................................18
2.3 Physical Layer Frame Structure.......................................................................19
2.4 Concept of Resource Block .............................................................................19
2.4.1 LTE Resource Block...............................................................................19
2.4.2 LTE and WiMAX Subcarrier Spacing....................................................19
2.5 Duplexing Modes in LTE ................................................................................20
2.6 TDD Frame Structure in LTE ..........................................................................21
2.7 Special Subframes in TDD ..............................................................................21
2.8 Various TDD Configuration in LTE................................................................22
2.9 General Signal Transmission Procedures ........................................................23
2.10 Cell Synchronization Process ........................................................................24
2.10.1 Primary and Secondary Synchronization Sequences............................25
2.10.2 PSS and SSS Location in Frequency Domain ......................................25
2.11 Communication between UE and eNodeB ....................................................25
2.12 LTE Downlink Physical Data and Control Channels ....................................27
2.12.1 Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH)....................................................27
2.12.2 Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) .....................................28
2.12.3 Downlink Control Channels .................................................................29
2.12.4 Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) ...................................30
2.12.5 Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH)........................31
2.13 Physical Uplink Data and Control Channels .................................................31
2.13.1 Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH)..........................................31
2.13.2 Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) ........................................32
2.13.3 Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH).......................................32
2.14 LTE Cell Search Procedure ...........................................................................33
2.14.1 Downlink Synchronization ...................................................................34
2.14.2 Uplink Synchronization ........................................................................34
2.15 New Cell Identification or Initial Synchronization........................................34
2.15.1 Contention Based Network Registration Process .................................35
2.15.1.1 Step1: Preamble Transmission.....................................................35
2.15.1.2 Step 2: Random Access Response ...............................................36
ix
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In telecommunication, need for reducing cost per bit has driven efficient utilization of
available frequency spectrum. Efficient modulation techniques play important role in
achieving this goal of cost reduction. For any system to achieve next generation standards
data rate, has to transfer the information at faster speeds. For sending more data in a given
time, data carrying symbol period needs to be as small as possible; this poses challenges for
developers to face channel effects and hardware complexities. If all bandwidth is used as a
single big resource, symbol duration should be kept low to pack more data in a unit time.
However if the same large bandwidth resource is divided into number of small resources,
then the large amount of incoming data stream can be sent onto many small streams
simultaneously for a longer time. This is similar as passing one big stream of water through a
shower faucet, into number of small streams at the output. The modulation scheme that
achieves this is known as Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM) technique. In
OFDM technique, the data is sent over small streams of Orthogonal (not interfering)
frequencies termed as subcarriers. This division of frequency domain into many orthogonal
subcarriers also has benefits of combating the channel in a simpler way as compared to the
conventional systems. OFDM modulation technique, divides high speed data stream in
number of low speed data streams, to increasing symbol time. Dividing the available
frequency resource into Orthogonal Frequencies also improves spectral efficiency.
Both LTE and WiMAX use OFDM as a modulation technique in their physical layer
procedure. This chapter discusses OFDM modulation technique with the basic block diagram
explaining transmitter and receiver and related details. This chapter also discusses the signals
used for time and frequency synchronization between user equipment and base station.
Synchronization is needed for a multiuser OFDM system to work efficiently. In a mobile
2
telecommunication system, the available time and frequency resources are divided into
smaller parts and shared amongst many active users simultaneously. For this multiuser
configuration to work, a tight time and frequency synchronization is needed between users
connected to the base station. This information of time is frequently transmitted by base
station as a reference which is used to help user devices to synchronize with base stations
time and frequency references. Synchronization is achieved by transmission and reception of
special sequences known as Zadoff-Chu (ZC) sequences. The best timing synchronization
properties of ZC sequence makes them a sequence of choice for the synchronization purpose
in both LTE and WiMAX. This chapter also discusses Zadoff-Chu sequences and their
properties. This chapter starts with OFDM first and discusses OFDMA, SC-FDMA and in
the last section ZC sequences are discussed.
Each frequency then can be modulated independently with an incoming symbol for
transmission. The working principle along with the block diagram is explained in next
section.
samples xk = [xk [0]..xk [N1]]T. (However, in a practical OFDM system, the number of
processed subcarriers is greater than the number of modulated sub-carriers (i.e. N M), with
the unmodulated sub-carriers being padded with zeros.)
The guard period is obtained by adding a Cyclic Prefix (CP) at the beginning of the
symbol xk. Incretion of CP helps converting linear convolution into a cyclic one and reduces
equalizer complexity [2]. The CP is generated by duplicating the last G samples of the IFFT
output and appending them at the beginning of xk. To avoid ISI completely, the CP length G
must be chosen to be longer than the channel delay spread. The transmitter block diagram is
shown in Figure 1.3 [2].
5
Figure 1.3. OFDM transmitter block diagram. Source: Sesia, Stefania, Issam
Toufik, and Matthew Baker. LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution from
Theory to Practice. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
At the receiver the reverse process is carried out to decide the data symbol received.
OFDMA has many advantages over other techniques and are listed below:
Best spectral efficiency
Channel equalization is done at lower complexity in the frequency domain
Inter symbol interference can be minimized adjusting Cyclic Prefix
Flat fading due to smaller Orthogonal Subcarrier Frequency spacing
These advantages make OFDM the choice of modulation for 4G technologies. However,
OFDM also has some disadvantages that need to take care for making it efficient. One of the
7
major drawbacks in OFDM is Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR). When all subcarriers
are modulated and added together, the amplitude may shoot very high as compared to the
average amplitude value of the time domain signal. This may affect the Power amplifier
design and cost used in the later section in the transmitter. Issues with OFDM techniques are
discussed in the next section.
of the signal. PAPR can be mathematically defined as, the square of the peak amplitude
divided by the mean power i.e.
Where x[n] is the time domain signal at the output of IFFT stage in OFDM systems.
To avoid such distortion due to amplification process, many solutions came forward to
minimize the issue; some of them are listed in the next section.
scheme is useful when the channel coherence bandwidth is less than M. The subcarrier
mapping allocates equally spaced sub-carriers, say every jth subcarrier. Then (j-1) zeros are
inserted in between each pair of DFT output. This mapping and overall block diagram of the
SC-FDMA is shown in Figure 1.5 [2].
de-spread the signal using IDFT to convert to the data in to the symbols and then they are
converted into original bit stream using detection logic [7]. The block diagram of the
transmitter and receiver is shown below. Also the signals if frequency and time domain of
SC-FDMA receiver are shown for subcarrier spacing of 15KHz and M = 4, in Figure 1.7 [9].
Figure 1.7. SC-FDMA signals in frequency and time domain for LTE, with M =
4 and subcarrier spacing f = 15KHz. Source: InfoTech Review. Wireless
Everywhere? Not Quite Yet.... Last modified September 10, 2008.
http://www.infotechreview.co.cc/2008/09/wireless-everywhere-not-quite-
yet.html.
12
This information about the power adjustment parameters is obtained by the received signal
strength of the ranging signal transmitted by the user equipment. This is also done by ZC
sequences or PN sequences in LTE and WiMAX. Use of ZC sequence in both the
technologies is briefed in the next section.
the ZC sequences are of larger length so as to detect them at the Base station. User
Equipments can transmit with limited battery power and also from the distances from the BS.
As a result the Signal to Noise Ratio for the ranging signal transmitted by user is very low, so
the length of the sequence is increased to collect more energy in the correlation process.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The communication is a very powerful way to interact. This is usually done with the
help of voice and signs. Human voice can travel for only short distances, so for long distance
communication many methods have been developed. With the development in technology, in
1867, Maxwell predicts the existence of electromagnetic waves [20]. Around 29 years later
in 1896, Marconi sends first wireless telegraph to English telegraphs office. Whereas, first
wire line telephone network was established in 1878 in Connecticut [5]. To help
telecommunication grow and standardize globally, an organization known as International
Telegraph Union (ITU) (now International Telecommunication union), was established in
Switzerland in the year 1865 [21]. Since then, ITU has been involved in developing global
standards from telegraphs to modern age 4G systems. To develop air interface that satisfy
ITUs 3rd generation mobile system standards, an organization 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) was formed. 3GPP is collaboration between groups of telecom associations
working on Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) [22].
3GPP recent release (Release 8), introduced all IP based system with OFDMA and
MIMO. This release was termed as Long Term Evolution (LTE) and was further developed
through release 10 (2011) to satisfy ITUs IMT-Advanced requirements for 4G cellular
systems. LTE is capable of supporting up to 1Giga Bits per second (1Gbps) for fixed user
and up to 100 Mega Bits per second (100 mbps) for high speed user [22]. Advancements in
the physical layer make these achievements possible, in this chapter we will discuss about
physical layer structures and procedures. This chapter focuses on physical layer structure and
procedures. Discussion on LTE physical layer starts with the general physical layer
description and continues to the uplink and Downlink procedures and also random access
procedures.
Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) also targeting its IEEE
802.16m (Mobile WiMAX) technology to qualify ITU 4G specifications. In this chapter the
18
differences in physical layers of LTE and WiMAX are also discussed in respective sections
so as to understand the best of these technologies.
if subcarrier spacing is more for mobile users [2], for this reason LTE requires less Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR) for the same bit error rate as compared to WiMAX [24, 25].
bands (pair of bands), one for the uplink and other for the downlink [22]. Frame structure for
FDD system is just radio frames arranged one after the other in each frequency band. In TDD
the radio frame is divided in two sections, one for uplink and other for downlink data
transmission [22]. In TDD, the groups of subframes of 1ms are used for uplink and downlink
data transmission. The numbers of subframes in a group are varied according to system
configuration. This arrangement of TDD frame structure is discussed in the section below.
Figure 2.2. Special subframe insertion in TDD LTE between downlink and uplink
transmission. Source: Sesia, Stefania, Issam Toufik, and Matthew Baker. LTE
The UMTS Long Term Evolution from Theory to Practice. Hoboken: John Wiley &
Sons, 2009.
The special frame takes care of propagation delay in both directions (Uplink and
Downlink). The maximum propagation delay depending of the UEs position and transmit
receive circuit switching times are also shown in Figure 2.3 [5].
Figure 2.3. Uplink downlink configurations of 5ms and 10ms periodicity in TDD
LTE. Source: InetDaemon. History of the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN). Last modified 2005. http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/telecom/
pstn/history.shtml.
with various coding rates of 1/3 to 1/16 for different physical channels [11]. As there are
many users using the system simultaneously, Security of the data and control channels for
their data and control channel is maintained with the help of scrambling process [22]. Also
various data and control channels specific to the eNodeB are scrambled using eNodeB
specific codes [11]. The signal generation procedure in LTE is shown in Figure 2.4 [22].
Figure 2.4. LTE physical layer signal generation procedure block diagram. Source:
3rd Generation Partnership Project. Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_ series/36.211.
Last modified 2011. http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/ 36_series/36.211/.
Figure 2.5. PSS and SSS structure in TDD and FDD with physical mapping in
resource elements. Source: Sesia, Stefania, Issam Toufik, and Matthew Baker.
LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution from Theory to Practice. Hoboken: John
Wiley & Sons, 2009.
27
For this communication and data transfer, LTE uses physical channels known as data
channels and control channels. Depending upon the direction of the data flow these are
further divided in to two types, Downlink data and control channels used for transferring data
and control signal from eNodeB to UE respectively. And second is, uplink data and control
channels, used to transmit data and control information from UE to eNodeB. These
Downlink and Uplink channels along with their physical mapping to the time and frequency
resources are explained in the next section.
Figure 2.6. Physical mapping of PBCH. Source: Sesia, Stefania, Issam Toufik, and
Matthew Baker. LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution from Theory to Practice.
Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
[22]. This is shown in Figure 2.7 [22]. If the data is assigned to both the slots in a subframe
then it is called localized mapping and if it is assigned to different slots of different subframe
then it is called as distributed mapping of data.
Distributed mapping of data achieves gain from the frequency diversity. This type of
distributed mapping is not present at the slot level in WiMAX. Hence LTE data may be
detected in the distributed mapping scheme with low SNR at the UE. The data is modulated
using QPSK, 16QAM or 64 QAM adaptively to achieve best system throughput. To guard
against propagation channel errors, convolutional turbo coder is used for forward error
Correction with basic rate of 1/3 [11].
also indicated by control channels. The structure and mapping of the Downlink Control
Channels is given in the next section.
sequence is transmitted from UE with limited battery power, the length of the sequence is
increased to increase SINR at the eNodeB. This also helps increasing the coverage of the cell
[2]. This change in length forces to change the frequency spacing between subcarriers, which
is the most important change in the physical layer parameters. To fit the preamble in one
subframe length and keep other parameters and data transmissions from connected users safe,
the preamble duration of 800 s with cyclic prefix of 103s and guard time of 97 s is
chosen. This can cover cell radius of 14km. The PRACH transmission slot consists of 72
sub-carriers in the frequency domain (six Resource Block, 1.08 MHz) as shown in Figure
2.11 [2].
synchronization stages through which the UE determines time and frequency synchronization
parameters that are necessary to demodulate the downlink data and to transmit in uplink slot
with the correct timing so as the signal maintains orthogonality with other users. The cell
search procedure is divided in steps of, Downlink synchronization, Uplink synchronization
and New cell Identification or Initial Synchronization network entry.
Figure 2.12. Initial cell synchronization steps in LTE. Source: Sesia, Stefania,
Issam Toufik, and Matthew Baker. LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution
from Theory to Practice. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Figure 2.13. Cell search steps in LTE. Source: 3rd Generation Partnership Project.
Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.201. Last modified 2010.
http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.201/.
eNodeB to UE using different predefined signals and messages. The users are now fully
synchronized at this stage and can benefit from the services provided.
In the similar way, next chapter discusses, IEEE 802.16m air interface physical layer
structures and procedures. The physical layer for IEEE 802.16m (Mobile WiMAX, but for
shortness it is referred as WiMAX) has many similarities as LTE physical layer. The working
however is slightly difficult giving some different system performance results. The working
and performances are discussed in the following chapter.
39
CHAPTER 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Development of silicon industry and invention of computers throttled the further
technological advancements. The benefits to connect computers for sharing information have
motivated researchers to invent networks. Robert Metcalfe studied a concept ALOHAnet as
his PhD thesis in 1972 and developed Ethernet at Xerox corporation in 1973 [27]. The wired
network technologies were developed since the invention of Ethernet and Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) standardized the first wireless LAN (IEEE
802.11) in 1997. First IEEE 802.11 standard produced data rates of 1Mbits/s and 2Mbits/s
[28]. Improvement in technology and constant efforts from IEEE have given newer standards
such as IEEE 802.11n which can transfer data with 135 Mbits/s. These wireless networks
however have limited coverage range.
To improve coverage and achieve same or improved data transfer rate as IEEE 802.11
standards, a new standard group was formed by IEEE in 1999. This new study group was
named as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) and published its
first standard IEEE 802.16 in December 2001 which delivered point to multipoint Broadband
Wireless transmission in the 1066 GHz band, with only a line-of-sight (LOS) capability
[27]. Improvements continued and newer standards (IEEE 802.16a) for N-LOS and
frequency range of 2 GHz to 10 GHz were introduced. IEEE 802.16a introduced Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) as a new modulating scheme for improved
data rate and overall performance. These all standard worked well for fixed application. A
need of standard with coverage of existing cellular technologies and data rates of wireless
LAN motivated development of new IEEE 802.16m (mobile WiMAX) standard with
mobility support, published in march 2011.
Mobile WiMAX supports peak data rates of 161 Mbps in the Downlink and 92 Mbps
in the Uplink in 20 MHz bandwidth. Mobile WiMAX also supports mobility up till 350
Km/Hr [10]. This chapter discusses physical layer structures and procedures of Mobile
40
WiMAX including modulation schemes, frame structures and physical channels. Chapter
starts the discussion with IEEE 802.16m physical layer general description.
scheme divides the whole bandwidth into numbers of orthogonal subcarriers with subcarrier
spacing of f = 10.94MHz and symbol duration of 91.429 s [4]. These Subcarriers are used
for different purposes. Some of them are used as guard band to protect other neighboring
bands from the interference [10]. Others are used as data subcarriers and pilot subcarriers and
DC subcarrier is kept unused. This subcarrier organization can be shown in Figure 3.2 [4].
Figure 3.2. Subcarrier usages in the mobile WiMAX. Source: IEEE Xplore.
IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks Part 16: Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 3: Advanced
Air Interface. Last modified May 6, 2011. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl
/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
Figure 3.3. Uplink and downlink logical resource unit in WiMAX. Source: IEEE
Xplore. IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks Part 16: Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 3: Advanced Air
Interface. Last modified May 6, 2011. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecent
Issue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
In LTE technology from 3GPP, the resource block of size 12 subcarriers of spacing
15KHz and symbol duration of 66.63 s is used. Both size and index are required to be
specified in LTE to transmit the resource allocation information to the user. In WiMAX due
to the fixed structure (discussed in the next section), only index is sufficient to transmit the
resource allocation message. Hence controlling overhead in WiMAX is lower than in LTE.
This helps increasing WiMAX stem throughput by small amount [4, 19].
43
Figure 3.4. Mobile WiMAX TDD and FDD radio frame for 10MHz
bandwidth and DL/UL ratio of 5:3.
The switching gaps are further divided in two types of gaps known as Transmit
Transition Gap (TTG) which is before transmission of data is performed. Second type is
Receive Transition Gap (RTG) which is inserted before receiving of data is performed. The
gap durations are varied according to the Cyclic Prefix (CP) length [4]. The typical RTG and
TTG approximate time duration values for 1/8th and 1/16th of CP duration used in the mobile
WiMAX are 157 s , 60 s and 82 s, 60 s.
44
These duration for gap in LTE are flexible and can be adjusted to 1, 2 or 3 symbol
according to the channel conditions [19]. But these transition values are fixed for a fixed CP
duration in WiMAX. Hence, LTE gets a small amount of performance gain as compared to
IEEE 802.16m.
Signaling overhead is important parameter in determining the efficiency of the
communication system. Control and management signals are required for maintaining
communication and transferring data from one end to the other. Time and frequency
resources are used to transmit these control and management messages. However, if the
signaling and controlling overheads occupy more time and frequency resources, then the
overall system throughput is reduced [4]. To overcome this issue, Mobile WiMAX groups
together 4 radio frames of 5ms to form a superframe, which is discussed in the next section.
contains system configuration messages. S-SFH is divided in to 3 parts Sub Packet 1 (SP1),
Sub Packet 2 (SP2) and Sub Packet 3 (SP3). SP1 includes information required for network-
reentry and it is transmitted every 40ms. SP2 contains information about initial network entry
and transmitted every 80ms. SP3 contains information required for maintaining
communication and transmitted every 160ms [4]. The physical mapping and time intervals
are indicated in Figure 3.6 [10].
When a signal is passed through the channel it is affected by the channel frequency
response. This includes but not limited to the combination of attenuation of certain
frequencies, propagation losses, phase shifts and shift in the frequency [29]. To obtain
maximum gain from available channel, the channel can be probed and signal transmission
can be assigned to the subcarriers which are least affected by channel [10]. In Mobile
WiMAX, this is achieved by grouping time and frequency resources in two types known as
localized and distributed way and assigning a physical resource from that group to users.
This is known as Subchannelization and Permutation in Mobile WiMAX, which is explained
in the next section.
46
Uplink the LRUs are further subdivided in tiles as described in previous section and then
localized or distributed tiles can be assigned to users in the uplink.
The partition and permutation information is passed to users in the P-SFH broadcast
channel. Due to this partitioning, the two dimension time and frequency resource is
converted in to one dimension resource which can be specified by the index as shown in
Figure 3.7. Hence controlling and messaging overheads are less in Mobile WiMAX as
compared to LTE where both starting index and size are transmitted to the user. This helps
Mobile WiMAX to improve on saving the resources for more data transmission and gain
more system throughput.
Figure 3.7. Physical to logical resources generation in mobile WiMAX. Source: Ahmadi,
Sassan. Mobile WiMAX A Systems Approach to Understanding IEEE 802.16m Radio
Access Technology. Burlington: Elsevier Press, 2011.
48
Physical layer structure provides foundation for the communication process where
various tasks make use of these structures to achieve different goals. Highly complex
communication process is break in to number of smaller parts and if all parts work
successfully, the whole process achieves the desired goals. One such small but important part
in the process is control channels, which are responsible for effective communication and are
discussed in the next section. The whole process is shown in Figure 3.7 [10].
bits are scrambled by the eight least significant bits of the Station Identifier (STID) of the
Mobile Station (MS) assigned during network entry [4]. Station Identifier is the unique
identification number assigned to the users during the initial network entry procedure [4].
This is used to scramble the HARQ message so that it should be only decodable to the
intended user. HARQ A MAP information in coded using TBCC with coding rate of 1/5.
Figure 3.8. Downlink, uplink control channels and SFH physical mapping in mobile
WiMAX. Source: IEEE Xplore. IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area
Networks Part 16: Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
Amendment 3: Advanced Air Interface. Last modified May 6, 2011.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
different ranging processes. The 256 ranging signals are divided in to four groups, initial
ranging, periodic ranging, handover ranging and bandwidth request.
Where NCS is unit cycle shift according to the cell size, p denotes the index of sequence
calculated by cyclic shift p of the root sequence p
Figure 3.9. Ranging symbols and formats for synchronized and non synchronized
ranging in WiMAX. Source: IEEE Xplore. IEEE Standard for Local and
Metropolitan Area Networks Part 16: Air Interface for Broadband Wireless
Access Systems Amendment 3: Advanced Air Interface. Last modified May 6,
2011. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecent Issue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
synchronization properties that help to achieve the synchronization. Use of these sequences is
discussed in the following sections.
The received signal y[n] is delayed and correlated with itself to get the coarse time
synchronization. Simultaneously the received signal y[n] is crosscorrelated with the reference
copy the PA Sequence p[n] to achieve fine synchronization [31]. This process is shown in the
Figure 3.12.
resources. There are two modes in the idle state; one is paging available and second is paging
unavailable. The MS may switch to and fro from paging available and unavailable also vice
versa. By doing this MS conserves power. In paging available mode MS may be paged by
BS. If the MS is paged by BS then it switches to the Access state for network entry. In the
paging unavailable mode the MS cannot be paged and MS does not monitor the downlink
channel in order to reduce the power consumption.
Using above states MS can stay connected with the BS, conserve battery power
whenever possible and also reduce the signaling overhead of the system. The state diagrams
are shown in Figure 3.15 [4].
Figure 3.15. User state interconnection and working diagrams in mobile WiMAX.
Source: IEEE Xplore. IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks
Part 16: Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 3:
Advanced Air Interface. Last modified May 6, 2011. http://ieeexplore.ieee.
org/xpl/mostRecent Issue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
61
Figure 3.16. Network entry flow diagram in mobile WiMAX. Source: IEEE Xplore.
IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks Part 16: Air Interface
for Broadband Wireless Access Systems Amendment 3: Advanced Air Interface.
Last modified May 6, 2011. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecent
Issue.jsp?punumber=5765734.
62
CHAPTER 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It always has been a race between the technologies trying to meet the standard
specifications and acquire the market chunk. In next generation 4G Wireless Communication
technologies Specified by ITU-Advanced [32], LTE and Mobile WiMAX are in the race.
Physical layer Design is the main key factor deciding the best performance achievable by the
system. It is a give and take approach; one parameter is selected over the others to achieve
the desired performance. These parameters are carefully selected to achieve the best overall
performance satisfying all standard 4G requirements. To decide the best performance
technology, all technologies are generally weighed in various aspects and then decision is
made based on the results.
In this chapter, two technologies LTE and WiMAX are compared based on their
physical layers to achieve the IMT-Advanced standard specifications for 4G wireless
networks [32]. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an international organization
decides the ITU-Advanced standards and also provides the test guidelines and procedures as
a common ground to test the candidate technologies [33]. The comparison between LTE and
WiMAX in this chapter is based on the test results submitted by the respective technology
development groups according to the ITU test guidelines ITU-R M.2133, ITU-R M.2134 and
ITU-R M.2135 [31, 34, 35]. Various aspects of technologies are compared such as,
Modulation techniques, multiplexing techniques, cell spectral efficiency, Voice over IP and
link budget parameters and conclusion is drawn on the basis of the comparison results at the
end. The chapter begins with the physical layer parameters of two technologies LTE and
WiMAX.
These parameters include frequency band of operation, modulation scheme used and
spectrum usage etc. LTE and WiMAX both use OFDMA as a modulation technique for
Downlink and Uplink. This divides the available frequency spectrum into number of
subcarriers as discussed in sections 2.3 in chapter II and 3.2 in chapterIII. In addition,
spectrum usage also influences system throughput. Due to out of band spurious emission
constraints, WiMAX can use 94% of the available spectrum and LTE can use 90% of the
available spectrum [4, 36]. This increased bandwidth efficiency help WiMAX increasing
overall system throughput as compared to LTE. To compare these physical layer parameters
a summary is given in Table 4.1 [25, 36].
In above table WiMAX is at higher side on number of subcarriers and available time
and frequency Resource elements (RE) than LTE. Resource Elements occupying one
subcarrier over one OFDM symbol are the basic data carrying entity in both LTE and
WiMAX.
Based on the above table available resources for data transfer in case of LTE and
WiMAX in 10MHz bandwidth can be calculated as number of Resource Elements (RE) =
total usable subcarriers x number of OFDM symbols in 10ms (Frequency x time). REs are
large in numbers in WiMAX than LTE which helps increasing overall system throughput.
Figure 4.1 and 4.2 are the graphs that compare number of subcarriers and Resource elements
used in 10MHz bandwidth for LTE and WiMAX.
Table 4.1. Physical Layer Parameters for LTE and WiMAX for Different Bandwidth
Scenarios
Nominal Channel 5 MHz 10MHz 15MHz
Bandwidth
Technology LTE WiMAX LTE WiMAX LTE WiMAX
FFT Size 512 512 1024 1024 2048 2048
Sampling Rate (MHz) 7.68 5.6 15.36 11.2 30.72 22.4
Useful Symbol Time for 66.66 114.286 66.66 114.286 66.66 114.286
Extended CP Tu (s).
Useful Symbol Time for 69.046 97.143 69.046 97.143 69.046 97.143
Normal CP Tu (s).
Number of symbols per 140 100 140 100 140 100
10ms for TDD with normal
CP
Number of symbols per 120 84 120 84 120 84
10ms for TDD with
extended CP
Occupied Sub-Carriers 300 433 600 865 1200 1729
Sub-Carrier Spacing f 15 10.94 15 10.94 15 10.94
(kHz)
Number of Resource Blocks 25 24 50 48 100 96
Resource Elements Normal 42000 43300 84000 86500 168000 172900
CP (1 / 16 Tu )
Resource Elements Normal 36000 37372 72000 72660 144000 145236
CP (1 / 4 Tu )
Normal CP Size (s) 4.69 5.71 4.69 5.71 4.69 5.71
(1 / 16 Tu )
CP Size (s) (1 / 4 Tu ) 16.67 22.857 16.67 22.857 16.67 22.857
Source: International Telecommunications Union. Acknowledgement of Candidate Submission from IEEE
Under Step 3 of the IMT-Advanced Process. Last modified October 23, 2009. http://www.itu.int/md/R07-
IMT.ADV-C-0004/en; 3rd Generation Partnership Project. Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912 Last
modified March 2010. http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912/.
65
1500 1200
865
1000
Subcarriers
433 600 LTE
500 300 WiMAX
0
5 MHz,512 10MHz, 1024 15MHz,2048
point FFT point FFT point FFT
Bandwidth
Figure 4.1. Comparison of subcarriers in LTE and WiMAX.
150000 LTE
86500 WiMAX
100000 84000
43300
42000
50000
0
5 MHz 10MHz 15MHz
Bandwidth
Figure 4.2. Comparison of resource elements in LTE and
WiMAX.
Figure 4.3. General static and dynamic overheads in the LTE and WiMAX.
As discussed in section 4.1 WiMAX has less guard band overhead as compared to
LTE, hence WiMAX has lower static overheads. Dynamic overheads are calculated by
system level simulation varying the number of users, channel conditions, user data rates and
mobility conditions.
IEEE and 3GPP groups measure their system performance based on the ITU system
model and measurement procedures specified in ITU-R WP 5D, Report ITU-R M.2134 , 35
[34, 35]. Table 4.2 [25, 37] and Figure 4.4 summarize the Static and Dynamic overheads in
LTE and WiMAX based on ITU test procedures guidelines [24, 37].
67
Table 4.2. Total Static and Dynamic Overhead in LTE and WiMAX
Cell Type TDD Overhead in percentage FDD Overhead in percentage of
of total resources total resources
LTE Mobile WiMAX LTE Mobile WiMAX
UMa 14.3% 11.17% 14.3% 13.77%
Source: International Telecommunications Union. Acknowledgement of Candidate Submission from IEEE
Under Step 3 of the IMT-Advanced Process. Last modified October 23, 2009. http://www.itu.int/md/R07-
IMT.ADV-C-0004/en; 3rd Generation Partnership Project. Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912
Last modified March 2010. http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912/.
11.17%
10.00%
LTE
Mobile WiMAX
5.00%
0.00%
TDD overhead FDD Uma overhead
Cell Type Urban Macro Cell
Figure 4.4. Total control overhead comparisons in LTE and WiMAX.
RMa 89
92
UMa 74
67
WiMAX
UMi 82
74 LTE
InH 140
137
0 50 100 150
Number of Users
Figure 4.5. TDD VoIP capacity of LTE and WiMAX.
Cell Spectrum Efficiency is defined as, number of correctly received bits delivered to
the upper layers over a certain period of time, divided by the channel bandwidth divided by
the number of cells. This is measured in terms of bits/Seconds/Hertz/Cell. When multiple
users share the system at different distances from the base station, normalized cell spectral
efficiency for entire system is calculated by averaging over all user spectral efficiencies [32].
As user travels to the end of the cell coverage, the base station power decreases and
cell spectral efficiency also decreases to the large extent. Spectral efficiency at the edge of
the cell is known as Cell Edge Spectral efficiency, and it is calculated as 5% point of the
cumulative distribution function of the normalized user throughput.
System capacity is better if the cell spectral efficiency is large as system can support
more users and transfer more information bits. As WiMAX has more Resource elements
available, it can transfer more bits per unit time and achieve more spectral efficiency as
compared to LTE. Simulations results for cell spectral efficiency for various cell types and
downlink and uplink directions are summarized in the Table 4.4 [25, 37], Table 4.5 [25, 37]
and Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7. Moreover, TDD and FDD results for uplink and downlink
show similar nature in results hence graphical representation for only one scenario is shown
as other scenarios exhibit the similar nature of the graph.
From the graphs it is clear that both technologies perform similarly and produces
similar results with WiMAX being at slightly higher side due to its more bandwidth
utilization factor (94%) as compared to LTE (90%). These cell efficiencies are actual
practical simulation results of the channel conditions, number of simultaneous users and
mobility conditions. We will now discuss the theoretical peak spectral efficiency which can
be possible in the idle conditions.
Table 4.4. TDD and FDD Cell Spectral Efficiencies of LTE and WiMAX
Cell type ITU-R cell TDD Cell Spectral FDD Cell Spectral
spectral Efficiency (bits/Hz/cell) Efficiency (bits/Hz/cell)
Requirement LTE Mobile LTE Mobile
(bits/ Hz/cell) WiMAX WiMAX
Downlink
InH 3.0 6.1 6.9 6.1 6.8
UMi 2.6 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
UMa 2.2 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.4
RMa 1.1 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.1
Uplink
Inh 2.25 5.5 5.9 5.8 6.2
UMi 1.8 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.7
UMa 1.4 2.0 2.5 2.1 2.6
RMa 0.7 2.1 2.6 2.3 2.7
Source: International Telecommunications Union. Acknowledgement of Candidate Submission from IEEE
Under Step 3 of the IMT-Advanced Process. Last modified October 23, 2009. http://www.itu.int/md/R07-
IMT.ADV-C-0004/en; 3rd Generation Partnership Project. Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912
Last modified March 2010. http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912/.
Table 4.6 [25, 37] and Figure 4.8 are summary of results for peak spectral efficiency
calculated in 20MHz bandwidth with normal cyclic prefix OFDM symbols as seen in chapter
II and chapter III and Uplink to Downlink ratio of 1:1 in TDD scheme.
Table 4.5. Cell Edge Spectral Efficiencies for LTE and WiMAX
Cell type ITU-R cell spectral TDD Cell Edge Spectral FDD Cell Edge Spectral
Requirement (bits/ Efficiency (bits/Hz/cell) Efficiency (bits/Hz/cell)
Hz/cell) LTE Mobile LTE Mobile
WiMAX WiMAX
Downlink
InH 3.0 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.253
UMi 2.6 0.096 0.092 0.22 0.097
UMa 2.2 0.082 0.069 0.073 0.069
RMa 1.1 0.089 0.093 0.099 0.091
Uplink
InH 2.25 0.39 0.426 0.42 0.444
UMi 1.8 0.071 0.111 0.086 0.119
UMa 1.4 0.097 0.109 0.099 0.114
RMa 0.7 0.093 0.119 0.13 0.124
Source: International Telecommunications Union. Acknowledgement of Candidate Submission from IEEE
Under Step 3 of the IMT-Advanced Process. Last modified October 23, 2009. http://www.itu.int/md/R07-
IMT.ADV-C-0004/en; 3rd Generation Partnership Project. Index of /ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912 Last
modified March 2010. http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/36_series/36.912/.
5
4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
3 2.6 2.4 LTE
2 WiMAX
1
0
InH UMi UMa RMa
Cell Type
Figure 4.6. Cell spectral efficiencies comparison of LTE and WiMAX.
72
bits/s/Hz
14 WiMAX
12
9.21
10
8.1
8
6
4
2
0
Downlink Uplink
Direction
Figure 4.8. Peal spectral efficiency comparison for LTE and WiMAX.
Where Gl is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation patterns in LOS
direction [28]. For non directional antennas, the received power decreases with decrease in ,
that is increase in frequency. WiMAX operates in the frequency bands of 2.3, 2.5 and 3.4
GHz, whereas LTE operates mainly in 900 MHz to1800 MHz frequency bands. Also
74
penetration loss of frequency band 2.3, 2.5 and 3.4 GHz band is more as compared to
1800MHz, 1900MHz frequency band [28]. Considering all these losses, receiver sensitivity
of the WiMAX receiver is increased to achieve the desired bit rate [13]. Penetration losses
directly affect data rate as lower received signal strength may force to adapt lower order
modulation schemes at the transmitter or increased BER.
4.97
4.34
5 LTE
4 WiMAX
2.5
Km2/site
3 2.09
2
0
Control Channel Data Channel coverage
coverage area area
Figure 4.9. Cell coverage area comparison for LTE and WiMAX.
Hence LTE needs lower cost of deployment as compared to WiMAX as it can cover
the same area in less number (Almost one half) of Base Stations. This is a major factor that
affects the selection of the 4G technology for deployment. In the next section the similarities
and differences of the two technologies are discussed to summarize the comparison.
deployment conditions. Following are some of the major differences in the LTE and WiMAX
technologies summarized.
LTE uses SC-FDMA in uplink whereas WiMAX uses OFDMA in the uplink.
Reduced battery consumption and cost for user terminals in LTE less as compared to
WiMAX due to low PAPR SC-FDMA modulation scheme used in the uplink.
Primary and secondary synchronization signaling periodicity is 5ms in LTE whereas
in WiMAX, primary preamble is transmitted every 20ms and secondary preamble is
transmitted every 10ms. This increases the latency for WiMAX.
Control channel effective coding rates for LTE are greater (for ex. 1/48 in case of
broadcast channel) than in WiMAX ( for ex. 1/24 in case of broadcast channel). This
increases the reception reliability of the control channel at the cell edge in LTE as
compared to WiMAX, but increases overhead in LTE.
Subcarrier Spacing in WiMAX is f = 10.94 KHz, whereas subcarrier spacing in
LTE is f = 15 KHz. This reduces ICI in LTE as compared to WiMAX in normal
operation and in high speed mobility.
Number of Resource Elements in WiMAX is greater than in LTE. This increases the
cell spectral efficiency for WiMAX with small margin over LTE.
WiMAX operates in frequency bands of 2.3GHz, 2.5GHz and 3.4GHz. on the other
hand, LTE operates in 1800MHz and 1900MHz bands.
Propagation loss for LTE is less as compared to WiMAX due to lower frequency of
operation.
WiMAX requires larger SNRs as compared to LTE to achieve the same BER due to
increased ICI and propagation losses.
LTE achieves greater coverage area (almost double) under similar power transmission
and channel conditions as compared to WiMAX due to reduced losses, increased
subcarrier spacing and robust control channel designs.
4.11 CONCLUSION
LTE and WiMAX both have evolved tremendously in a short time with efforts from
all levels. These technologies have enabled telecommunication industry to really reach the
next generation data rate cap of 100Mbps and 1Gbps and mobility up to 350Km/Hr, which
itself is a great achievement. Both technologies are equally capable and have their own
advantages and disadvantages. The question now is not who the best is, but what is next? For
completeness the comparison is given below.
For a 4G technology, backward compatibility with existing network infrastructures,
inter operation of the existing technologies, deployment cost, improved spectral efficiency,
77
reduced user device cost, improved battery power efficiency and reduced latency are the
major important factors affecting the technology selection decision.
LTE and WiMAX both exceed the requirement specification of IMT-Advanced to
qualify for the 4G air interfaces. Both show similar cell spectral efficiencies, number of
active users supported, similar latency of operation and similar mobility support. So both
LTE and WiMAX are equally qualified for the 4G air interfaces and can be adopted for the
deployment.
On the other side of coin, LTE supports backward compatibility with existing
networks as it is developed by the same group which developed previous wireless
communication technologies, also LTE supports less battery consumption and reduced cost
for user devices using SC-FDMA in the uplink. Cell coverage area is also a plus side in LTE
air interface due to its frequency of operation, lower required SNR requirements, less
propagation losses with reduced receiver sensitivity.
All factors mentioned above and as per the present market technology infrastructure,
LTE becomes the choice of 4G air interface and take the wireless industry to the next
generation.
4.12 FUTURE
Evolution on WiMAX continues to improve the coverage and increase overall system
performance. There are many limitations involved in the area of signal reception at the user
end. Whereas LTE is an emerging technology with many new services added to the
technology. One such improvement in the area of carrier aggregation is the future facility and
area of research. Carrier aggregation enables aggregating the distributed spectrum band to
make a large frequency resource to increase the system throughput. Coordinated transmission
and MIMO are also future areas of research which enable coordinated transmission from
many base stations to the User devices to improve performance at the cell edge and use of
spatial multiplexing to boost the data rates. These new techniques can be future research
areas in the wireless communications domain to further improve data rates and overall
performance.
78
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