MBDCI

Estimating Stresses
2-C Estimating Stresses

Maurice Dusseault
 MBDCI

Common Symbols in Earth Stresses

v,hmin,HMAX : Vertical, minor and major
horizontal stresses (usually v to surface)

Sv,Sh,SH: Same as above, different symbols

1,2,3: Major, intermediate, minor stress

1,2,3: Effective or matrix (solid) stress

, , : Porosity, Youngs mod., Poissons ratio
2-C Estimating Stresses

, , po: Density, unit weight, pore pressure

k: Permeability (kv, kh)

These are the most common symbols used in
discussing stresses in the earth
 MBDCI

Stresses in the Earth: Intro I

In situ stresses: a vital initial condition for all
geomechanics issues
 To carry out any quantitative analysis, it is necessary
to start from the initial stress state
 For example, deep reservoir depletion can lead to a
p of perhaps -75 MPa, so that v = +75 MPa.
 The stress change is: = initial - final
2-C Estimating Stresses

 This value is used to compute subsidence, rock

behavior (shearing, collapse), and so on

In hard rocks (mining), []ij can be calculated
from direct strain measurements []ij

This is not available in Petroleum Geomechanics
 MBDCI

Seeing the Effects of Stress!

No clear dominant direction

not to axis of core

Orientation of minor
Disc peaks ppl to core axis
2-C Estimating Stresses

0.5-0.7 m
dog-ear

Breakouts
in a mine Drilling direction
 MBDCI

Stresses in the Earth: Intro II

In sedimentary rocks (oil and gas applications)

The locations are deep, hard to get to
 And, the strains are small, hard to measure
 The rocks are porous, poor strain response

So hydraulic fracture-based methods are
widely used - Minifrac, LOT, XLOT, SRT
2-C Estimating Stresses

+Core-based methods (DSCA, vP(), )

+Geophysical logging based methods

+Geological inference (burial and tectonic
histories of the basin give excellent clues)
 MBDCI

Stress Definitions

3 Principal a = 1 slip
1 > 2 > 3 Stresses max planes planes
2
1
1 r = 3 r

2 Triaxial
3 Test
y a Stresses
We usually
assume v is a
2-C Estimating Stresses

principal stress
x
v r
HMAX > hmin

HMAX r
ri
hmin In Situ z Borehole
Stresses Stresses
 MBDCI

Local, Reservoir and Regional Scale

Regional Scale Stresses
~200 km
 Basin scale: 50 km to 1000 km
 Often called far-field stresses
~4 km

Reservoir Scale Stresses
A reservoir, or part of a reservoir
 Scale from 500 m to several km

 Salt dome region: 5-20 km affected zone ~400 m

2-C Estimating Stresses

Local Scale Stresses

 Boreholeregion: 0.5-5 m
 Drawdown zone (well scale) 100-2000 m

Small Scale Stresses (less than 10-20 cm)

 MBDCI

Common Stress Regimes

The most common stress regimes are:
 Relaxed, or non-tectonic (no faulting, flat-lying):
vertical stress, v, is = 1 (major stress)
 Normal fault regime: v is 1

 Thrust fault regime: v is 3 (least stress)

 Strike-slip regime: v is 2 (intermediate stress)

 Listric (growth, down-to-sea or GoM) fault regime:

v changes from 1 to 3 at depth, then back to 1
2-C Estimating Stresses

Most sedimentary basins have relatively simple

regional stress regimes

But, there may be local complications, such as
multiple faults, salt domes, uplift, etc.
 MBDCI

Faults and Plate Tectonics

The Big Picture!
2-C Estimating Stresses

Compression region

Regions of crustal extension

 MBDCI

Where Are Tectonics Important?

Near active plates (eg: California, Sumatra,
Colombia), tectonics governs stresses

Near mountains, tectonic forces dominate

Away from plate margins and mountains (eg:
Williston Basin, Kalimantan, GoM), other
factors are important

In continental margin basins salt tectonics
2-C Estimating Stresses

(domes and tongues) can be very important

Non-tectonic intracontinental basins (Michigan,
Williston, Permian), shape, burial/erosion
history are more important than tectonics
 MBDCI

Basins: Major Examples in USA

Rockies Foreland Basins, compressive

stresses controlled by mountain thrust

Thrust basins
WILLISTON

N
BASIN

SI
BA
Powder MICHIGAN

AN
River B. BASIN

HI
San Joachim,

AC
a rift valley

AL
MIDCONTINENT

P
AP
Paradox B. BASINS
2-C Estimating Stresses

CO SIN N
BA MIA

Atlantic coastal
MP S
X
LE
R

plain and
PE

offshore basin
Southern CA st , complexes,
a
o oM
basin complex, C passive margins
f G r
strike-slip and ul n e o sin
G si i v a
normal faulting s b
Ba pas ed
lax
re
 MBDCI

Non-Tectonic Regimes

On stable continental plates, far from active
plate boundaries. Some examples
 Mid-continent basins: Williston, Michigan, Permian
Basin, East Texas (GoM), Songliao Basin (richest
Chinese basin), interior Russia

On passive continental plate oceanic margins
such as GoM, Kalimantan, Nova Scotia, NW
2-C Estimating Stresses

Norway coast, Angola, etc.

Basin geometry, sedimentation history, burial,
erosion, diagenesis, salt tectonics, dissolution
affect stress states locally & substantially
 MBDCI

Stresses and Basin Shape

USA New Orleans Cross-section

shoreline

Florid
Houston

a
Regional
hmin directions listric
faults
Gulf of Mexico
Edge of continental shelf
ta n
2-C Estimating Stresses

Mexico
cu
Yu

GoM example: regional stress directions

are dominated by the continental slope,
except locally near salt domes and a few
structures such as the Mississippi canyon
 MBDCI

Normal Fault Regime

The normal fault regime is also
v = 1 called the extensional regime. It
is characteristic of shallow rocks
in all non-tectonic sedimentary
basins without large erosion.
hmin
HMAX = 3 Horst-graben structure
= 2 graben
horst

extension
2-C Estimating Stresses

The San Joachim Valley in

California, the Rhine Valley
between France and Germany,
the Gulf of Thailand, the Basin-
and-Range, , are all normal
fault horst-graben features
 MBDCI

Some Classic Normal Fault Areas

Red Sea Around UK, Ireland

2-C Estimating Stresses
 MBDCI

Normal Faulting Regimes

High angle faults at surface (60-70 dip)

This indicates that v = 1 when faulting
occurred. (But, is the fault old or active?)

Also, HMAX = 2 and hmin = 3

Characteristic of extensional strain

Also, typical of non-tectonic basins
Hydraulic fractures are vertical, to hmin
2-C Estimating Stresses

However, high angle surface faults may

flatten at greater depth (as in the GoM)

Many continental margins, passive basins,
regions of crustal pull-apart
 MBDCI

Strike-Slip or Wrench Fault

Block diagram v = 2
hmin = 3
HMAX
acute = 1
angle

~vertical
2-C Estimating Stresses

fault plane
hmin

HMAX
Associated Surface
normal faults view
 MBDCI

Strike-Slip Stress Regime

Very high angle faults (>80 usually)

Indicates v = 2 (HMAX = 1, hmin = 3)
when the fault formed

Characteristic of plate margins

Common at depth in eroded basins

Common some distance from compression
2-C Estimating Stresses

Usually, normal faults are found nearby at

the surface, away from the main fault trace,
to accommodate strata movements

Hydraulic fractures vertical, to hmin
 MBDCI

Thrust and Reverse Faults

Less than 45 angle on fault plane

If less than 20-25, it is almost always called a
thrust fault rather than a reverse fault
2-C Estimating Stresses

This angle is always

less than 45,
usually less than 30
 MBDCI

Thrust Fault Regime and Structures

The shale bed in zone A has gone through

one hinge point, through two in zone B, and
through three hinge bends in zone C. v = 3
HMAX = 1
hinge points

overthrust sheet highly fractured zone

strong s t s h eet
hru
2-C Estimating Stresses

lateral overt shale B

i l li t e C
thrust q ua rt z - A
brittl e

P largely unfractured shale

high-p RAM static basal sheet
shale
compression
2-C Estimating Stresses Compressive Coastal Margin

Saffer D, Tobn H, Moore GF 2003 ODP Research Program

MBDCI
 MBDCI

Thrust Faults and Mountains

NWT Canadian Shield Nunavut

Athabasca Basin
(Precambrian)
Alberta
Syncline
BC
Basin
edge
Canadian Shield

Tectonic Breakouts
2-C Estimating Stresses

stress Edmonton
to HMAX
Roc
kies

ALTA SASK Williston Basin MAN

USA

The Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin

Alberta is a classic compressional regime
 MBDCI

Compressional Basin Section

not to
scale

Thrust faults
SW Massive heavy oil NE
Rockies deposits Salt solution and
Alberta Syncline Edmonton
collapse features

+
+ +
Cretaceous + +
sands, shales +
+
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+
alite
) ++
2-C Estimating Stresses

fs h +
n re e te s (
n ia por i + +
Devo e Eva Precambrian rocks
ir i +
Pra +
+ +
Jurassic and + ++ +
older carbonates, + + +
sandstones, shales +
+ ++
+ +
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + Schematic cross-section
through Edmonton, Alberta
 MBDCI

Thrust Faults

Low angle faults (dip of 0 to 30 usually)

Indicates v = 3 (HMAX = 1) when the
fault formed (or if it is still active)

Characteristic of compression regions,
associated with thrust mountain ranges

Same stress condition can often be found at
shallow depths in eroded basins
2-C Estimating Stresses

Usually, thrust fault sheets are bounded by

systems of normal and strike-slip faults

Hydraulic fractures will be horizontal (in
fact, usually they propagate gently upward)
 MBDCI

Cross Section: Stress & Structure

forebasin
Mountains Distant plains
Golden Colorado Eastern Colorado
Banff Alberta Calgary Alberta

HMAX HMAX
2-C Estimating Stresses

Near mountains: Distant from mountains:

Very high HMAX Moderate to high HMAX
For great depth, v = 3 For some depth, v = 3
Thrusts, folds Flat-lying, no faults
Fractured strata Strata are relatively intact
Low to modest po Low pressures
Sing07.024
Generally very high pore pressures are not found in thrust regimes and
their forebasins, as rocks are somewhat fractured, pressures dissipate
 MBDCI

Listric Faulting and Stresses

Listric faults on continental margins

lead to unusual stress regimes where
grabens the major stress changes from vertical
to near-horizontal at depth
down-to-the-sea faults
steep
at top sea
stress

v
2-C Estimating Stresses

slip planes
h

zone where faults coalesce Stresses

(detachment or dcollement zone) change
depth with z!
 MBDCI

Listric Faults

Characteristic of passive continental margin
basins that are open-to-the-sea (GoM)

Look like normal faults at the surface

At depth, the faults flatten to become thrust
faults

Stress regimes change with depth!
2-C Estimating Stresses

Often associated with overpressured zones

These faults are like massive landslides
 MBDCI

2-C Estimating Stresses India and Tibet Examples

 MBDCI

Active basins
2-C Estimating Stresses

Passive basins
 MBDCI

Bay of Bengal Region and North

A continental margin basin exists offshore
south of Dacca and Calcutta, we will expect
a relaxed stress condition, GoM features

A strong thrust basin to the north, along the
Himalaya front, fractures, no oil

Strike-slip to the east (Sagaing zone)
2-C Estimating Stresses

Shan-Thai Plateau is partly a zone of

extension, some N-S faults are normal

Sichuan Basin, relatively undeformed, but
under strong compression
 MBDCI

2-C Estimating Stresses North America (World Stress Map)

(available online at www.world-stress-map.org)

 MBDCI

Stress Map of Europe

Many solutions for
earthquake focal
mechanisms in southern
Europe give the dense
stress coverage

In the hard-rock areas
strain relief methods
2-C Estimating Stresses

In quiescent basins, data

from breakouts,
hydraulic fracturing,
LOT
 MBDCI

Geological History!!

This basin opened, filled, was compressed
(thrusts and folds), uplifted and eroded

Later, it subsided with new sediment fill

The different lithologies compacted
differently, leading to normal faults
2-C Estimating Stresses

clays and silts

gravels Normal faults
Relaxed stresses
3-10 km
Folds and
Thrust condition
closed
structures

20 100 km
 MBDCI

Burial and Diagenetic History

What controls stresses during burial?

How do stresses change with diagenesis?

What happens during uplift and erosion?

Do all rocks behave the same?

What happens if pore pressures change?

When there is tectonic loading or unloading,
2-C Estimating Stresses

how are stress changes partitioned in strata?

Hydrocarbon generation effect?

Etc, etc (it gets complicated)
 MBDCI

Stresses at Depth

v from density logs, hmin, HMAX from various
methods (geological estimation, HF)

We often use the K coefficient.
h min p o h min
K = =
v po v
Ratio of least horizontal effective stress to the
2-C Estimating Stresses

vertical effective stress (in situ)

<1 vertical fracturing

>1 horizontal fracturing
 MBDCI

Burial Stresses, Frictional Control

E = stiffness These values are the limits,

not actual values in situ

UC sand 0.5E Ka = 0.33

shale 0.75E Ka = 0.70 v

Ka = 1.0
salt is
salt viscoplastic
2-C Estimating Stresses

sandstone E Ka = 0.33

Note: = - po hmin
(Terzaghis law) po

Salt is viscoplastic, so all stresses are equal

 MBDCI

Frictional Control of Stresses

In fact, the strata we encounter are rarely
purely frictional materials

They also have cohesion, some creep

The frictional stress control model is only
intended to give the theoretical lower bound
of hmin for high porosity strata

If rocks are strongly cemented, it is possible
2-C Estimating Stresses

to have stresses lower than this

In exceptional cases, open fractures!
 Shallow,above flanks of salt domes
 In mountainous areas, shallow as well
 MBDCI

Stresses In and Around Salt

Salt is a very special material:
 Highly soluble
 Low density (2.16 g/cm3 or 18 ppg equivalent)

 Viscoplastic, so all stresses are the same

Drilling long sections of salt is a challenge

Drilling near salt structures such as diapirs and
2-C Estimating Stresses

sand tongues is challenging

If you are going to drill and produce near salt
features, it is imperative that you understand
salt mechanics and the stress conditions
 MBDCI

Deep Salt Diapir Example

Gas Pull Down

Low
hmin +
gas!
Mid-Miocene regional pressure boundary

Top Balder
Top Chalk
2-C Estimating Stresses

Intra Hod/Salt

Salt
 MBDCI

Stress & Diagenesis, no Tectonics

If no tectonic activity, h is less than v

In sands, the ratio Ko (defined as the ratio of
horizontal to vertical stress, h/v), can be as
low as 0.3, usually 0.4 0.6

Shales have a lower angle of friction, usually Ko
is 0.6 0.8, even as high as 0.95 in muds
2-C Estimating Stresses

Thus, the fracture gradient is higher in mud or

shale in non-tectonic areas (GoM)

Deep burial and diagenesis tend to reduce the
stress differences
 MBDCI

Stress and Diagenesis - Sand

diagenesis
v

1
30

=
o
K
=

h,
or

Sand burial in a non-tectonic
d,

=
Vertical stress

environment results in h < v

v

yiel

of
because of friction. Diagenesis
e
lin seems to reduce this stress
difference slowly over long
burial periods of time.
2-C Estimating Stresses

is the friction angle for sand

h
Horizontal stress
 MBDCI

Erosion and Effective Stress Path

v
v

3)
diagenesis

=
h

1

30

:
e.
(i.
l
ria

e
=

lin
bu

0
1.
Vertical stress

d,

=
yiel

o
K
Elastic behavior governs

n
unloading: the rock is stiff and
sio strong from burial, diagenesis
ero
2-C Estimating Stresses

'h = 'v
1

h
Horizontal stress
 MBDCI

Effect of Erosion

Once a sediment is buried and diagene-
tically indurated, it behaves elastically

Direct erosion without tectonic loading
leads to the so-called Poisson effect:

'h = 'v
1
2-C Estimating Stresses

Thus, erosion naturally leads toward the

shallow condition K > 1.0 (except for salt,
which behaves as a viscous fluid)
 MBDCI

Stresses in an Eroded Basin

, po
Erosion creates a skin near
thrust the surface where HMAX = 1,
and v = 3
stress
v state

h v = 3
Deeper, a strike-slip regime

condition HMAX = 3, v = 2
is found
v = 2
So the fracture gradient, PF,
2-C Estimating Stresses

strike-slip changes with depth, and

stress
state
rocks are stronger, stiffer

High pressures (po > 1.3 wz)
are rare in eroded basins
Z Assuming hmin = HMAX
 MBDCI

Eroded Basin

The Poisson effect during unloading
generates a region at shallow depth where
horizontal stresses are larger than vertical

Also, the rocks are strong

Drilling underbalanced is becoming common
in such regions because of rock strength
2-C Estimating Stresses

Pore pressures in such regions are almost never

overpressured; rather, they tend to be
hydrostatic ~10-12 MPa km
 MBDCI

Recommendations

Offshore or inshore, it pays to have some
stress information for drilling, hydraulic
fracturing, reservoir modeling

First, use geological history to build a regional
stress model for your case

The pore pressure conditions should be
2-C Estimating Stresses

inferred as well, (using offset well data etc.)

Then, examine reservoir & local scale factors
 Faults,salt features, reefs and drapes,
hydrothermalism, and other features
 These may perturb regional stresses
 MBDCI

Breakouts and Natural Stresses

Vertical
HMAX Breakouts are evidence of
principal stress anisotropy and are
borehole stresses, caused by shear rupture of
1 > 3
the borehole wall
However, care must be
hmin taken in assessing
breakouts, as other factors
can interfere
Use only vertical wells
(10) to get good stress
2-C Estimating Stresses

orientations
breakouts high
damage,
ravelling
 MBDCI

Borehole Features: Wall Scan

0 90 180 270 360

axial
fractures

HMAX Stress
en-echelon hmin directions
axial fractures
if hole is
slightly inclined breakouts
2-C Estimating Stresses

large
washout Geometry of
joint plane
intersection
higher angle
of intersection
Sinusoidal (joint plane)
fracture
traces
low intersection
angle (bedding?)
 MBDCI

Use of Breakouts, Axial Fractures

For orientations, use only wells that are
vertical +/- 10 (rarely more inclined)

Establish quality control on your data
(length, symmetry across hole, quality)

Grade your data (A B, C quality)

Breakouts: HMAX is at 90 to breakout axis
Borehole wall axial fractures: HMAX is
2-C Estimating Stresses

parallel to the fractures axis

Combine with geology, v calculations from
density log data, LOT data, HF data

Build a stress map for your region & use it
 MBDCI

Reconstructed breakout data from

Schlumberger borehole scanner logs

breakouts
axial fractures

no breakouts
2-C Estimating Stresses

Axial fractures and breakouts are stress

direction indicators. If the stress difference
is large, breakouts are also larger (deeper
and wider).
 MBDCI

Directions: Breakouts, Fractures

This is a LWD log trace taken during a trip, so resolution is poor
2-C Estimating Stresses

Natural
fracture Borehole wall Natural Modest breakouts,
plane tensile fractures fracture no tensile fractures
Small breakouts (90 plane
to tensile fractures)
hmin is at 40Az in this example
 MBDCI

More about Breakouts, Fractures

Dont confuse breakouts with hole
enlargement (breakouts are symmetrical, and
the minor axis ~ hole gauge size)

Dont confuse breakouts with sloughing in a
fissile shale when the hole dip is close to the
dip of the shale fissility

Joints and planar features trace sinusoidal
2-C Estimating Stresses

patterns on the borehole wall; induced axial

fractures do not

4-arm dipmeter data must show ~symmetry,
consistency, reasonable length, etc. (QC)

Full wall scans are easier to interpret
 MBDCI

Diagenesis, Burial, Erosion

v - MPa diagenesis
25 -2000 m-

~3 o
20

0
Burial to 2000 m,

h?
This stress path

t
erosion to 500 m

pa
ion,
explains the 15

al
tu
erosion, ~ 0.2

ntat
presence of

ac
ime
high horizontal 10

1)
stresses near sed

=
o

the surface -500 m-

(K
2-C Estimating Stresses

h
5 h =17 MPa
=
Stress path
v = 7 MPa
v

0 h - MPa
0 5 10 15 20 25

A simple calculation of the probable effect of erosion of 1500 m of rocks on the stresses.
We assumed initial stress state (red star), took a reasonable Poissons ratio for erosion
(0.2), and made the calculation. (Assume that po is always 8.33 ppg)
 MBDCI

Typical Stress Conditions

stress (or pressure) stress (or pressure)

vertical stress. v
vertical stress, v
horizontal stress. h
horizontal stress, h
pore pressure, po
pore pressure, po

strongly
overpressured
2-C Estimating Stresses

region at depth

mild
4 km 4 km
overpressure
depth depth
a. Gulf Coast of USA b. Western Alberta, 100 km from Rockies
Relaxed continental margin Tectonically stressed rocks
 MBDCI

Stress Reversion at Depth

stress (or pressure)

vertical stress, v
Ductile, low permeability shales
horizontal stress, h
dominate at the top of the OP zone
pore pressure, po

Note that hmin can become > v

4 km
depth Region of strong
2-C Estimating Stresses

overpressure

Higher k rocks Stresses revert to

(fractured shales) more ordinary state
Z
 MBDCI

Stress and Risk

Encountering high stresses and pressures
unexpectedly increases risk

To manage risk, stress estimates are made

The model is refined with measurements

Analysis is carried out to give a feel for the
consequences of high stresses
2-C Estimating Stresses

Appropriate measures are put into place

CASE HISTORIES ARE VITAL!