Steamgeneratorpart3 151224090858

STEAM GENERATOR
BOILER
Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui
Sr. Shift Supervisor
Saba Power Plant
STEAM GENERATOR
BOILER
Part 3
Prepared by:
Saba Power Plant
Steam Generator (Boiler)
Hello,
I am trying to explain about Steam
Generator (Boiler) in this session, due to
length of said presentation, I am
deciding to divide it in three parts.
Part 1 cover the Introduction & Types of
Steam Generator
Part 2 cover about the Parts of Steam
Generator and Its Accessories &
This
Auxiliaries and
Part 3 cover the Design, Prepared by:
Efficiency, Performance & Saba Power Plant
Protection
Design, Efficiency,
Performance & Protection
Classification Of Boiler,
Fundamental Of Boiler
Design, Efficiency, Safety
& Environment Control
Prepared by:
Stean Generator (Boiler)
Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Fundamental Of Boiler Design
Boilers are classified on the basis of

1.Modeofcirculationofworkingfluid.
2.Typeoffuel.
3.Modeoffiring.
4.Natureofheatsource.
5.Natureofworkingfluid.
6.Positionofthefurnace.
7.Typeoffurnace.
8.Boilersize.
9.Materialsofconstruction.
10.Shapes of tubes and their spatial position.
11. Content of the tubes.
12. Steam pressure.
13. Specific purpose of utilization.
14. General shape.
15. Manufacturers trade name.
16. Special features. Prepared by:
Modeofclassification Type
Circulation 1.NaturalCirculationBoiler,
2.ForcedCirculation
Tube shape and position 1.Straighttubeboiler.
(Depending on the form 2.Benttubeboiler.
oftubular heating
surface)
Tube shape andposition 1.HorizontalBoilers,
(Dependingon 2.VerticalBoilers, 3.InclinedBoilers
theinclination oftubular
heating surface)
Furnaceposition 1.Externallyfiredfurnace
2.Internallyfiredfurnace
TubeContents 1.Firetubeboilers,
2.Watertubeboilers
Steampressure 1.LowepressureBoilers,
2.PowerBoilers, 3.MiniatureBoilers
Modeoffiring 1.Firedboilers, 2.Non-
firedboilers
Heatsource 1.Fuelfiredboiler,
2.Wasteheatboiler
3.Electricalpoweredboiler,
4.Nuclearpoweredboilers
Fundamental of Boiler Design
In A Steam Generating Unit Two Distinct

Fundamental Processes Take Place:-
1. Conversion of the potential energy of the
fuel into thermal energy.
2. Transfer of this liberated thermal energy
to the working fluid to generate steam
foruseful purpose
Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Following factors must be taken into account in
thedesign consideration of a boiler:
1.Servicerequirements.
2.Loadcharacteristics.
3.Fuelcharacteristics.
4.Modeoffuelsburning.
5.Hydrodynamicsofgasflow.
6.Feedwaterquality
7.Furnacesize,shapeandmaterialofconstructio
n.
8.Typeoffurnacebottom.
9.Boilerproper.
10. Boiler operation.
11. Capital investment. Prepared by:
Load Characteristic:
The boiler designer should essentially
consider thefollowing load
characteristics:
1.Maximumload, normalload
andminimumload.
2.Loadfactor.
3.Natureofloadconstantorfluctuating
.
4.Durationtimeofeachloadrate.
Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Fuel Characteristics:
From these very characteristics, a boiler
designer getsthe knowledge of the heat value
available from the fuel as well as its specific
properties such as:-
a). Ash content and the percent of volatile matter.
b). Nature of ash and its fusion point.
c). The presenceof corrosive agents as sulfur and
vanadium that will dictate the flue gas exit
temp as well as the material ofconstruction of
the heating surfacesof the boiler to avoid the
problem of corrosion and slugging.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Mode of Fuel Burning

It is the capacity of the fuel
burning device that controls the
rate of fuel input which in turn
determines the furnace volume
and its design specification
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Gas Flow Characteristic

The gas flow through the boiler is
affected by the differential pressure
between the combustion products in the
furnace core and the flue gases at the
boiler exit. This pressure difference,
called draught (draft) may be affected by
naturalmeans or by mechanical means
to supply the necessary primary and
secondary air to sustain andcontrol fuel
combustion
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Feed Water Quality

The presence ofdissolved solids and
gases, suspended matter and organic
contaminants in feed water
causecorrosion, scaling, priming and
foaming that effectively impair the
performance of a boiler.
Feed water quality, together with other
factors, influences the design of drum
internals, steam separator and steam
washer etc.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Furnace
The furnace volume must be

sufficient to maintain the
necessary heat release rate and
further temperature while the
combustion space should be
sufficient tocontain the flame
so that it doesnot directly hit
the water walls.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Boiler Proper
The factors control thedesign of boiler proper
are:-
The operating pressure and temperature.
The quality of steam whether thesteam
required should be wet, dry or superheated.

If wet steam is required, the designer may do
away with the separatorsand super-heaters.
Layout of heating surface The prime aim of
boiler designer is to obtain the best disposal

of heating absorbing surface within the
limitations of space asdictated by the
furnace and othercomponents. Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Boiler Proper
Heating surface requirements These

depend upon the duty of the element
heat exchangers such as primary
evaporators, secondary evaporators,
super-heaters radiant and connective re-
heater, economizer and air pre-heater.
Circulation of steam and water Natural
or forced.
Provision of continuous blow drum.
The capacity of Boiler drum.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Operation and Maintenance

Accessibility for operation, maintenance and
repairing must be easy and quickto ensure
higher operating efficiency and offset the long
outage time.
Adequate provision must be made for:
Soot blowing
Tube cleaning chemically / mechanically
Washing economizer and air pre-heater

surfaces.
Automation should be injected wherever it leads
tohigher reliability and greater ease inboiler
operation.
Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Capital Investment
The following factors are involved in determiningthe overall
capital investment in designing a boiler:
Cost of equipment.
Cost of fuel.
Cost of labour and materials foroperation, maintenance and

repairing.
Cost of the auxiliaries,e.g., cost of running pumps, fans, ash

disposal systems, etc.
Expected life of theequipment

Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
BOILER EFFICIENCY AND ITS CALCULATION
Combustion:
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel
accompanied by the production of heat, or heat
& light. Complete combustion of afuel is
possibleonly inthe presenceof adequate
supplyof oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common
elements on earth making up 20.9% of air. Rapid
fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat.
Solidor liquid fuels must be changed to agas
before they burn. Usually heat is required to
change solid or liquid fuels into gases. Fuel gases
burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing

dilutant that must be present to obtainthe oxygen
required for combustion.
Most of 79% of air is nitrogen, with traces of other
elements.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing
heatfrom the combustion of fuels and diluting the fuel
gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer
through the heat exchanger surfaces. It also increases
the volume of combustion by products, which then have
to travel through the heat exchanger and up the
stackfaster to allow the introduction of additional fuel air
mixture. This nitrogen also can combine with
oxygen(particularly at high flame temperatures) to
produce oxides of nitrogen (Nox) , which are toxic
pollutants. Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Carbon, Hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel

combine with oxygen in the air to form
CO2 ,water vapour , and SO2 releasing
8084Kcals , 28922 Kcals and 2224K.cals
of heat respectively. Under certain
conditions, carbon may also combine
with oxygen to form CO, which results in
the release of a smaller quantity of heat
2430 K.cals / kg of carbon. Carbon burnt
to CO2 will produce more heat per kg of
fuel than when CO or smoke is produced.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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C + O2 CO2 + 8084 Kcals/kg of carbon

2C + O2 2CO + 2430 Kcals/kg of
carbon
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 28922 Kcals / kg of
Hydrogen
S + O2 SO2 + 2234 Kcals/kg of
sulpher
Each kg of CO formed means loss of (8084-

2460 ) Kcals of heat Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
3 Ts of Combustion:
The objective ofgood combustion is to
release all of theheat in the fuel.This is
accomplished by controlling the three
Ts of combustion, which are:
Temperature high enough to ignite and
maintain ignition of fuel
Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel
and oxygen and Sufficient
Time forcomplete combustion.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION
The efficiency of a boiler depends on efficiency
of the combustion system. The amount of air
required for completecombustion of the fuel
depends or the elemental constituents of fuel
i.e. , Carbon, Hydrogen and sulphur etc.This
amountis called stoichiometric air.
In general a certain amount of air more than

that of Stoichiometric air is required for
completecombustion and ensure that release
of the entire heat contained in fuel oil.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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FUEL ANALYSIS:
There are two methods: the ultimate
analysis splits up the fuel into all its
component elements, solid or gaseous,
and the proximate analysis determines
only the fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture, and ash percentages. The
ultimate analysis must be carriedout in a
properly equipped laboratory by askilled
chemist, but proximate analysis can be
made with fairly simple apparatus
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Mohammad Shoeb
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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by
weight of fixed carbon, volatiles, ash and
moisture content in coal. The amounts of
fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter
directly contribute to the heating value
ofcoal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat
generator during burning. High volatile
matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel.
The ashcontent is important in the design of
thefurnace grate, combustion volume,
pollution control equipment and ash handling
systems of a furnace.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS:
The ultimate analysis indicates that
various elemental chemical
constituentssuch as
carbon,hydrogen, oxygen sulphur
etc. It is useful in determining
thequantity of air required for
combustionand the volume and
composition of the combustion
gases. This information is required
for the calculation of flame
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
CALORIFIC VALUE:
The calorific value is the measurement of heat
or energy produced, and is measured either
as gross calorific value (GCV) or net calorific
value (NCV). The difference being the latent
heat of condensation of the water vapour
produced during the combustion process.
GCV assumes all water vapour produced during
combustion process is fully condensed.
NCVassumes water leaves with the combustion
products without fully being condensed.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
BOILER EFFICIENCY AND ITS
CALCULATION
BOILER EFFICIENCY
Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the
percentage of heat input i.e. effectively
utilized to generate steam. There are two
methods of assessing boilerefficiency:
Direct Method:
Where the energy gain of the working fluid
(water and steam) is compared with the
energy content of the boiler fuel.
Indirect Method:
Where efficiency is the difference between
the losses and energy input. Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
CALCULATION
Direct Method:
This is also known as input- output
method due to the fact that it need only
the useful output (steam) and the heat
input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the
efficiency.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
CALCULATION
Boilerefficiency Steam
Output
Boilerefficiency=Heat
output / Heat input Radiation
Loss
Parameters to be monitored
for the calculation of boiler
efficiency by directmethod
are: Second
Quantity ofsteam generated Pass
per hour(Q) kg/hr. Heat

Input ESP
Quantity of fuel used per hour Furnace
(q) in kg/hr.
The working inpressure[in
kg/cm(g)] andsuperheat
temperature (C), if any.
The temperature offeed
water(C) Prepared by:
Type of fuel and gross calorific

Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Boiler efficiency ()= (Q x (hg-hf) /q x GCV)

x100%
where
hg-Enthalpyof saturatedsteamin Kcal/ kgof
steam
hf-Enthalpyoffeed water inKcal/kgof water
q-quantityoffuel.
Disadvantages of direct method

Does not give clues to the operatoras why the
efficiency of thesystem is lower. Does not
calculate various losses accountablefor
various efficiency levels. Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Indirect method:
Indirect method is also called as heatloss method.
Subtracting the heat loss fractions from 1000 can arrive at
the efficiency. The standarddo not include blow down loss
in the efficiency determination process.
The principle losses that occur in a Boiler are:

Loss of heat due to dry flue gas.
Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion.
Air loss of heat dueto combustion of hydrogen.
Loss of heat due to radiation
Loss of heat due to un burnt carbon.
In the above, loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and the loss
due to combustion of hydrogen are dependent on the fuel,
and cannot be controlled by design Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Indirect method:
The data required for calculation of boiler
efficiency using indirect method are:
Ultimate analysis of fuel (H 2, O2, S, C,
moisture content, ash content).

Percentage of oxygen or CO in flue gas
2
Flue gas outlet temperature in C (Tf)
Ambient temperature in C(Ta) and
humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air.

GCV of fuel in Kcal/kg.
Percentage combustible in ash
GCV of ash in Kcal/kg

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Mohammad Shoeb
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Indirect method:
1. Percentage of heat loss due to dry flue gas =
(m x Cp x (Tf-Ta) / GCV of fuel ) x 100
Where is:
m =mass of dryflue gas in kg/kgof fuel.
Total mass of flue gas (m) = massof actual air
supplied + massoffuel supplied
Cp = specific heat of super heatedsteam (0.45 K
cal / kg).
Tf = Flue gas outlet temperature in C
Ta = Ambient temperature in C
Loss due to dry flue gas = 4.928%

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1. Loss due to dry flue gas = 4.928%
Radiation
Loss
Second
Pass
Heat ESP
Furnac
Input e
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Indirect method:
2.Percentage heatloss due

toevaporationofwater formed due toH 2 in
fuel =
9 x H2[ 584 +Cp (Tp-Ta)] / GCV of fuel X 100
Where is:
H2 = Percentage of H2 in kg of fuel
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial
pressureof water vapour ( 584 K cal/ kg).
Loss due to Hydrogen in Fuel = 5.537%

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Mohammad Shoeb
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Indirect method:
3.Percentage ofheat lossdue tomoisturepresent
infuel
= M{ 584+CP(Tf Ta) }X 100 / GCV of fuel
Where , M = %of moisture in 1 kg of fuel
Loss due to Moisture in Fuel = 1.263%
4. Percentage of heat loss due to moisture present
in air
= AAS x humidity factor x CP X (Tf-Ta) X 100 / GCV
of fuel
Where, AAS = actual air supplied ( 0.45 K cals / kg)
Loss due to Moisture in Air = 0.074%
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Indirect method:
5.Percentage of heat Radiation
lossdue to un-burnt Loss
in flyash
= [(Total ashcollected /kgif
fuelburntX GCVof flyash) /
GCV of fuel ] X 100
6. Percentage of heat
loss due to un-
burntin bottom ash
= [{Total ashcollected /kgof
fuelburnt X GCVof
Due to Sen. Heat of Fly Ash = 0.102%
bottomash} / GCV of
fuel ] X 100 Loss due to Unburnt Carbon = 0.331%
Due to Sen. Heat of Bottom Ash =
0.071%
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4) Due to Sen. Heat of Fly Ash =
Mohammad Shoeb
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0.102%
Indirect method:
7. Percentage of heat lossdue to radiationand other
unaccountedloss.
Unaccounted Losses = 1.327%
Total Losses = 13.83%
Thus, Boiler efficiency

()=100(1+2+3+4+5+6+7)
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Data required for Boiler Efficiency Calculations
Unit load MW
FW Flow at Econ inlet T/hr
Wet bulb Temp 0C
Dry bulb Temp 0C
Barometric Pressure mmHg
Total Coal Flow T/hr
Unburnt C in BA %
(Bottom Ash)
Unburnt C in FA %
(Fly Ash)
Radiation & Unaccounted Losses %

% Fly ash to Total Ash %
% Bottom ash to Total ash %
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Data required for Boiler Efficiency Calculations
Proximate Analysis of Coal Air Dry As fired
Moisture % %
Ash % %
Volatile Matter % %
Fixed Carbon % %
Gross Cal. Value Kcal/kg Kcal/kg
Ave FG O2 APH in Ave FG O2 APH Out
Ave FG CO2 APH in Ave FG CO2 APH Out
Ave FG CO APH in Ave FG CO APH Out
Ave. FG Temp APH in Ave. FG Temp APH Out
Air to APH in Air APH out
Total Primary Flow
Total Air Flow L
Total Air Flow R
Design Ambient / Ref air Temp
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Controllable losses
Following losses can be controlled
1. Loss due to dry flue gas
The designer gives this loss at the flue gas
APH outlet temp of 1400C
Any increase in the FGT more than 140 0C will
be resulting in more losses. This temp has
to be controlled by proper cleaning of the
furnace
2. Losses due to the unburnt coal in bottom
and fly ash.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Controllable losses
2. Losses due to the unburnt coal in bottom
and fly ash.
3. Loss due to unburnt in bottom ash
The designer gives this %age as max 4.8 %
any increase in this percentage beyond
this will result in more losses.
If unburnt in bottom ash is more, the culprit
is the coal mill, check the fineness of
pulverised coal. Check the % retention
on 50 mesh. It shall not exceed 1%.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Controllable losses
Check the Unburnt in fly ash sample taken
from the first hopper of ESP/BF. As per the
designer it shall not exceed 0.8%.
If Unburnt in fly ash exceeds 0.8% it
indicates incomplete combustion due to
less amount of air.
Check for O2 % at the APH Flue Gas inlet for
2.8%, increase if necessary to 3.2%.
Again check for Unburnts in fly ash.
Simultaneously check for air
leakages/ingress in the second pass.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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Controllable losses
Assumptions:-
Fly Ash is 80% of Total Ash.
Bottom Ash is 20% of Total Ash
Sulphur is 0.4% in Coal
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Mohammad Shoeb
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The followingare thefactors influencingaboilerefficiency
1. Stack Temperature -
The stack temperature should be low aspossible.
However, it should not be so low that water
vapour in the exhaust condenses on the stack
walls. This is important for fuels containing
significantsulphur , a low temperature can lead
to sulphur dew pointcorrosion. Stack
temperature greater than 140Cindicates
potential for recovery of waste heat. It also
indicate the scaling of heat
transfer /recoveryequipment andhence the
urgencyof taking on early S/Dfor water / flue
side cleaning
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Mohammad Shoeb
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2. Incomplete Combustion
In complete combustion can arise froma shortage
of air or sulphurof fuel or poor distribution of fuel.
It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke and
must be corrected at the earliest. With coal firing,
unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs
a gift carry overor carbon in ash and may amount
to more than 2% of the heat supplied to the boiler.
Non-uniform fuel size could be one of the reasons
for incomplete combustion. Increase in the fines in
pulverized coal also increases carbon loss as
because finer coal particle may fall through
gratebars or carried away with furnace draught.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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3. Excess Air Control:
Excess airis requiredin all practical casesto
ensurecompletecombustion,to allow for the normal
variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory
stack condition for some fuels. The optimum excess
air level for maximum boiler efficiency occurs when
the sum of the losses due to incomplete combustion
and loss due to heat in flue gases is minimum. This
level varies with furnace design, type ofburner ,fuel
andprocess variables. Itcan bedetermined
byconductingtests with differentairfuel ratio.
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always
results in reduction in flue gas losses; for every
1%reduction in losses 0.6% rise in efficiency.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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The followingare thefactors
influencingaboilerefficiency
4. Reduction of Scaling and Soot
loses :
In oil and coalfiredboilers , sootbuild up on
tubes acts asan insulator
againstheattransfer. Any such deposits
should be removed or regular basis. Elevated
stack temperatures may indicateexcessive
soot build up. Also sameresult will occur due
to scalingonwaterside for
notmaintainingproper water Chemistry.

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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
4. Reduction of Scaling and Soot loses :
Higher exit gas temperatures at normal excess
air indicate poor heat transfer performance. This
condition can result from a gradual build up of
gas side or waterside deposits. Waterside
deposits require a review of water treatment
procedures and tube cleaning to remove
deposits. An estimated 1% loss with every 22C
increase in stack temperature stack temperature
should be cheeked and recorded regularly as an
indicator of shoot deposits. When flue gas
temperature rises about 20Cabove the
temperature, it is time to remove shoot deposits.
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Mohammad Shoeb
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4. Reduction of Scaling and Soot loses :
It has beenestimatedthat about 3mm of shoot
can cause anincrease in fuel consumption
by2.5%. Thus soot /slag deposition on the
surface of the water wall tube, super heater, Re-
heater, Economizer tubes reduces the boiler
efficiency considerably and increases the flue
gas outlet temperature. Choking due to ash
deposition on the heating element of air pre-
heater also reduces the combustion air
temperature and there reduces efficiency and
increases flue gas temperature.
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
5. Blow Down Control:
Boiler blow down is necessary for controlling the
dissolved solids contained in the boiler water,
and this is achieved by a certain amount of
water is blown off and replaced by feed water.
Thus maintaining optimum level of total
dissolved solids (TDS) in boiler water.
Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very
wasteful. By monitoring boiler water
conductivity and PH Blow down can be
controlled and these reducing the efficiency
losses
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Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
6. Quality of Fuel:
Quality of fuels influences the efficiency of Boiler to a
large extent. It depends upon fixed carbon percentage,
which gives a rough estimate ofheating value of coal.
Volatile matter content in the coal is an index of gaseous
fuels present in coal. It proportionately increases flame
length, and helps in easierignition of coal. It also
influences secondary air requirement. Ash content is coal
affects the combustion efficiency and thus boiler
efficiency also causes clinkering and slugging.Moisture
content infuel increases heat lossdue to evaporation and
superheatingofvapour, helps to a limit, in binding fines,
aidsradiation heat transfer.
Sulphur affects clinkering and slagging tendencies. Limits
exit fuel gas temperature
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Mohammad Shoeb
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TYPICAL INSTRUMENTS
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BOILER SAFETY
EQUIPMENTS
Boiler
Boiler Protections
safety equipments includes
BMS (Burner Management System)
Control System
Inter lock System.
Safety valve.
Gauge Glass
Pressure & Temperature
Measurements
(Gauges, Transmitters, Switches &
Recorders)
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BOILER SAFETY EQUIPMENTS
A burner management system is responsible

for the safe start-up, operation and
shutdown of a boiler. It monitors and
controls igniters and main burners; utilizes
flame scanners to detect and discriminate
between the igniter and main flames;
employs safety shut-off valves, pressure,
temperature, flow and valve position limit
switches and uses blowers to cool the
scanners and/or provide combustion air for
the igniters. Its proper operation is crucial to
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the safety of a boiler.

Background:
In the past, most boilers have operated on

temperature control from the outlet
temperature to a control valve in the main
fuel line, with a single shut-off valve
upstream on the Control valve. This shut-off
valve was either automatic with the plant
DCS or operated manually with an Operator
action, with each company having various
additions to this basic concept.
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Operating philosophy:
The main function of the BMS is to allow and
ensure the safe start-up, operation, and
shutdown of the Fired Boiler. Once the logic
is configured and the system properly
commissioned the BMS will provide a safe
and consistent operating sequence. The
human interface will guide the operator so
that the heater may be safely operated, and
if needed, be quickly and safely restarted.
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Boiler Protections
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Boiler Protections
The following sequence of operation is typical for
most Fired Boilers.
1) Initially, the PLC will check that all the
permissives and interlock are in place to allow start
up.
2) Start Purge. The PLC will check that the
permissives are at their correct status. The system
will typically wait for the operator to request the
boiler to start, although all permissives are met and
the boiler is ready to purge. Once the boiler
start/purge is requested a pre-set timer will
commence. Assuming the timing is not interrupted
by an Interlock activation, it will continue until
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complete. Once finished, it will notify the operator

Boiler Protections
3) Ignite Pilots. Once the purge is completed, the
operator will be notified that the system is ready to
start the pilots. The pilot header double block and
bleed valves will energize. Instantaneously, the
individual local pilot firing valves will open and the
ignition transformers will be energized. The pilot
valves and the ignition transformers will only be
energized for a maximum of 10 seconds. If the pilot
flame is not detected within this time the individual
pilot isolation valve will close.
4) Prove Pilots. Each pilot has its own dedicated
flame detector, which in most cases is via a flame
rod. Once proven, the individual pilot valve will hold
in and continue to burn, in the event a pilot is not
Boiler Protections

5) Light Main Burners.
Before the main burners are lit, the PLC will continue
to check the permissives to ensure it is safe to light
the main burners. The two main permissives are that
there is sufficient flow in the process coils and the
pilot burners are proven. The system then proceeds
to energize the main header vent and shut-off
valves. The first burner will light at the minimum fire
rate. A five second trial for ignition is provided from
the time the individual isolation valve is opened until
the detection of the flame. If the flame is not
detected, the individual main burner isolation valve
is de-energized. Prepared by:
Boiler Protections
6) Confirm Main Burner Status.
Once this is achieved the system is ready to be

ramped up to operating conditions. This is usually
performed manually until the process variable is
close to the operating set point, then the
temperature and gas flow/pressure controllers can
then be switched to auto mode.
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The following is a list of new requirements that are

common to various boiler and BMS codes.
1) Mandatory Purging.
2) Permissive Interlocks
3) Double Block and Bleed systems
4) Pilots and Ignition Systems
5) Dedicated Flame Monitoring Systems
6) High / Low Pressure, Temperatures and Flow.
7) Combustion Air and Draft Pressure Alarms and
Controls
8) Dedicated Logic Solver
Each of these requirements have been developed due to

incidents that have occurred because of the lack of them.
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1) Mandatory Purging:
The most important function of the boiler
control system is to prevent the possibility of an
accumulation of combustible fuel followed by
accidental or improper ignition sequence
resulting in an explosion. Correct pre-ignition
purging of the heater is crucial to the safe
operation of the heater.
A time to achieve the four volume changes may be

calculated from the required flow rate. In the event the
purge does not continue for the prescribed time or
required purge, permissives are no longer met and a re-
purge is required. Only when a successful purge is
completed can any ignition source be introduced.Prepared by:
1) Mandatory Purging: (Safety Rule)

) CSA B194.3-05 Section 9.2 Pre-purge 9.2.1:
When either an intermittent or interrupted pilot or a
direct transformer spark igniter is used to light the main
burner and the combustion air supply is by mechanical
means, the appliance control system shall provide a
proven purge period prior to the ignition cycle. This
purge period shall provide at least four air changes of the
combustion zone and flue passages at an airflow not less
than 60% of that required at maximum input.
) NFPA 86 Section 5-4.1 Pre-ignition (Pre-purge,

Purging Cycle) 5-4.1.2:
A timed pre-ignition purge shall be provided. At least 4
standard cubic feet (scf) of fresh air or inert gas per
cubic foot (4m3/m3) of heating chamber volume shall be
introduced during the purge cycle. Prepared by:

Permissives & Interlocks:
These can be numerous and may include all of
the items on the BMS. The interlocks are
usually designated on the P&ID with the
symbol I. These are used in the configuration
of the operating procedure and logic so as to
ensure the safe sequential operation of the
boiler particularly in start-up and during
operation. The permissives are an integral part
of the start-up and light-off procedure. The
main importance of the interlocks is to detect
the need for partial or total shut down of the
Prepared by:
boiler. Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui


Permissives & Interlocks:
Typical interlocks would include high/low fuel
and pilot gas pressure, high/low stack
temperature, loss of flame, high/low firebox
pressure and loss of combustion air. In addition
to these general trips each boiler must be
examined individually to determine if
additional trips may be required due to the
boiler design or configuration. These non-
standard trips are designed to protect the
boiler and personnel from tube and structural
damage that may occur from improper Prepared by:
operation for a long duration.


Shut-off Valves.
The safety shut-off valves are the key component in
the BMS to prevent the accumulation of an explosive
mixture in the boiler. Standard practice is to provide
automated safety shutoff valves installed in a double
block and bleed configuration on the main and pilot
headers. An additional safety shut-off valve should be
located on each individual burner for multiple burner
systems. These shut-off valves must also be certified
for use safety shut-off valves. In accordance with CSA
requirements these valves need to be certified to CSA
6.5 certified and per NFPA requirements these valves
need to be FM-7400 listed
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Shut-off Valves.
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Pilots and Ignition Systems:
Unfortunately the majority of boilers still in use
within the industry rely on a manual ignition system.
This means the heater is manually lit by the operator
inserting an oily rag or
an ignition torch to the base of the burner. With
todays technology and easy accessibility to the
electronic ignition system it is no longer necessary to
manually light the heaters and potentially place the
operator in harms way.
The electric ignition system consists of an ignition
rod provided with the burner and a high voltage
ignition transformer. When all interlocks are cleared
and permissives are in place the ignitor lights the
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pilot burner which then in turn lights the main


Pilots and Ignition Systems:
An electronic ignition system,
controlled by the BMS,
eliminates the need for the
operator to provide an
ignition source for the
burners; which is considered
to be the most dangerous
part of the startup
procedure. As the BMS
controls the ignition of the
burners the heater purge
cannot be so easily
bypassed. Prepared by:
Typically each burner is Sr. Shift Supervisor


Dedicated Flame Monitoring Systems:
Each burner is equipped with its own flame
monitoring devices, independent detectors are
required to supervise the pilot and the main
flame. Exceptions may be made depending on the
type of pilot and burner. In most installations two
different detection techniques are used, a flame
(ionisation) rod to monitor the pilot flame and an
UV (Ultraviolet) or IR (Infrared) Scanner to see
the main flame. Flame rods are typically used on
the pilot flame as they are more cost effective,
however the same detectors should not be used
on the main flames as these typically run at a
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higher temperature and the flame rod would burn

Dedicated Flame Monitoring Systems:
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Alarms and Shutdowns:
Alarms and shutdowns provided by the boilers
instrumentation provide added safety and permissives to
allow the system to transition from different stages of
boiler operation in a proper and safe manner. There is
some instrumentation typical to all systems and others
that are dependent on the size, purpose, and configuration
of the boiler. The instrumentation is located on the fuel
gas trains and the heater itself. In the past, switches have
been widely used for these applications for various
reasons, however it is strongly recommended that
transmitters be used in lieu of switches. Switches may fail
in an unsafe position without providing any indication until
the unit is required to operate. Transmitters report back
dynamic information and have built-in diagnostics, so they
are able to provide indication of failures. Considering the
losses involved if an incident was to occur, it is far more
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Boiler Protections
Combustion Draft / Pressure Alarms and Controls
Boiler draft is the motive force that will ensure proper air
and flue gas flow through the boiler. The most critical draft
point is at the arch as it is the controlling variable in the
design of the burner and boiler itself. This measurement is
a critical indicator in the operation of a fired boiler and
alerts the operator to any tendency to go positive.
Although this is normally not a shut-down device, it is
closely linked to opening the stack damper blade. The
pressure control loop consists of a pressure transmitter
located at the boiler arch and an actuator on the stack
damper. A low draft pressure (high firebox pressure) alarm
should be added to this transmitter. The control loop is to
be configured such that the stack damper opens when
there is a low boiler draft. In the event that the boiler draft
is still too low but the stack damper is 100% open the
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Boiler Protections
Dedicated Logic Solver:
Traditionally most BMSs have been implemented
using a discrete series of relays and switches as the
logic solver. When designed correctly these hardwired
panels may prove to be very reliable. Unfortunately
the permissives and interlocks on such systems are
easily bypassed. With the advent of the
microprocessor, unitized flame safeguard controllers
have been introduced. These units provide the
required logic to safely start and stop the heater. The
draw back of these units is that they are only designed
to control single burner systems.
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Boiler Protections
Dedicated Logic Solver:
The area of biggest change in BMS systems as of late
is the ability to use a Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) as the primary safeguard and logic solver.
Certain conditions must be adhered to in order to
validate their use, which vary between different codes.
Common requirements are that a power or hardware
failure will not prevent the system from reverting to a
safe condition and an external Watch Dog Timer must
be used to monitor a dedicated output channel. Any
failures will cause the system to revert to a safe
condition. As technology advances and the
introduction of true safety rated systems progresses,
these requirements and guidelines will inevitably
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change. Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui

PLC Panel with Lights and Push Buttons

EMERGENCIES ON STEAM
GENERATION SYSTEM
LL Level Of Steam Drum
LL Flow Of Water
HH Pressure Of Furnace
LL Fuel Pressure
HH Fuel Pressure
Instrument Air Loss
Power Loss
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EMERGENCIES OF STEAM GENERATION

SYSTEM
Water Loss
Fuel Loss
Electrical Failure
Instrument Air Failure
Vacuum Loss Of Surface Condenser
High Pressure Of Steam Drum
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Boiler Protections
Boiler Logs Are Important

The majority of boiler accidents can be
prevented. One of the most effective tools is
the proper use of operating and
maintenance logs. Boiler logs are the best
method to assure a boiler is receiving the
required attention and provide a continuous
record of the boiler's operation, maintenance
and testing. Because a boiler's operating
conditions change slowly over time, a log is
the best way to detect significant changes
that may otherwise go unnoticed.
Boiler Protections
INSTRUMENTATION FOR
MONITORING & TESTING
Level Measurement
Temperature Measurement
Flue Gas Analysis
Furnace Pressure
Fuel Control
Air Flow Control
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Boiler Protections
LOCAL MEASUREMENT
Level Measurement By Using

Level Glass
Pressure Measurement By Using
Pressure Gauge
Temperature Measurement By
Using Temperature Measuring
Element
Composition Analyzer
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Boiler Protections
Water Level Control and Low Water Fuel Cutoffs

These devices perform two separate functions, but
are often combined into a single unit. This method is
economical, providing both a water level control
function and the safety feature of a low water fuel
cutoff device. We recommend, however, that both
steam and hot water boilers always have two
separate devices a primary and a secondary low
water fuel cutoff. Many jurisdictions require two such
devices on steam boilers.
Steam Drum Low Low Level

Low Low Flow Of Fuel
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Boiler Protections
Water Level
The importance of proper cleaning and
maintenance of the water gage glass,
or sight glass, cannot be stressed
enough. The gage glass on a steam
boiler enables the operator to visually
observe and verify the actual water
level in the boiler. But water stains and
clogged connections can result in false
readings. The glass also may break or
leak. Take the time to replace the glass,
even if the boiler must be shut down.
That inconvenience is nothing
compared to the damage that may
result from operating a boiler without a
gage glass.
The Normal Operating Water Level (NOWL)

should be approximately in the middle of the Prepared by:
gauge glass. Sr. Shift Supervisor

Boiler Protections
ELECTRONIC MEASURING DEVICES
Level Transmitter
Pressure Transmitter
Temperature Transmitter
Level Switch
Pressure Switch
Flow Transmitter
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Boiler Protections
STEAM BOILER VARIABLES

Major Variable
Steam Pressure
Steam Temperature
Water Level
Feed Water Pressure
Furnace Draft
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Boiler Protections
STEAM BOILER VARIABLES
Steam Flow
Feed Water Flow
Combustion Air Flow
System Drafts Or Pressure
Feed Water Temperature
Flue Gas Temperature
Fuel Flow
Fuel Pressure
Fuel Temperature
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Boiler Protections
COMBUSTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

Fixed Positioning
Positioning With Operator Trim
Pressure Ratio
Fuel And Air Metering
Cross Limited Metering
Oxygen Trim Control
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Boiler Protections
Safety Valve
Often considered the primary safety
feature on a boiler, the safety valve
should really be thought of as
thelast line of defense. If
something goes wrong, the safety
valve is designed to relieve all the
pressure that can be generated within
the boiler. Keep in mind that the same
conditions that make other safety
devices malfunction can also affect
the safety valve. Don't let testing and
maintenance schedules slide.
The spring-loaded pop-off safety valve

pops open when steam pressure exceeds
the MAWP.
Safety valves are routinely tested to ensure
proper operation and must be serviced by
an authorized manufacturer representative. Prepared by:
Boiler Protections
Water Treatment
Water must be treated for
safety. Minerals can cause a
build up of deposits and cause
overheating of boiler parts.
Carryover occurs when a high

boiler water level causes water
particles to be carried into
steam lines.
Bottom blowdown, the boiler

should be under light load and
the water level should be at the Prepared by:
NOWL.
Boiler Protections
The purpose of the drum level controller is to bring the drum up
to level at boiler start-up and maintain the level at constant steam
load. A dramatic decrease in this level may uncover boiler tubes,
allowing them to become overheated and damaged. An increase in
this level may interfere with the process of separating moisture
from steam within the drum, thus reducing boiler efficiency and
carrying moisture into the process or turbine. The functions of this
control module can be broken down into the following:
Operator adjustment of the setpoint for drum level
Compensation for the shrink & swell effects
Automatic control of drum level
Manual control of the feedwater valve
Bumpless transfer between auto and manual modes
Indication of drum level and steam flow
Indication of feedwater valve position and feedwater flow
Absolute/deviation alarms for drum level The three main options
available for drum level control are: Prepared by:
Mohammad Shoeb
Siddiqui
Boiler Protections
Single-element drum level control
The simplest but least effective form of drum level
control.
This consists of a proportional signal or process variable
(PV) coming from the drum level transmitter. This signal is
compared to a setpoint and the difference is a deviation
value. This signal is acted upon by the controller which
generates corrective action in the form of a proportional
output. The output is then passed to the boiler feedwater
valve, which then adjusts the level of feedwater flow
Notes:
Only one analogue input and one analogue output required
Can only be applied to single boiler / single feedpump configurations
with relatively stable loads since there is no relationship between drum
level and steam- or feedwater flow
Possible inadequate control option because of the swell effect into the
boiler drum. Prepared by:
Boiler Protections
Single-element drum level control
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Boiler Protections
Two-element drum level control
The two-element drum level controller can best be applied to a single
drum boiler where the feedwater is at a constant pressure.
The two elements are made up of the following: Level Element: a
proportional signal or process variable (PV) coming from the drum level
transmitter. This signal is compared to a setpoint and the resultant is a
deviation value. This signal is acted upon by the controller which
generates corrective action in the form of a proportional value. Steam
Flow Element: a mass flow rate signal (corrected for density) is used to
control the feedwater flow, giving immediate corrections to feedwater
demand in response to load changes. Any imbalance between steam
mass flow out and feedwater mass flow into the drum is corrected by
the level controller. This imbalance can arise from:
Blowdown variations due to changes in dissolved solids
Variations in feedwater supply pressure
Leaks in the steam circuits constant pressure.
Notes: Tighter control of drum level than with only one element
Steam flow acts as feed forward signal to allow faster level adjustments
Can best be applied to single boiler / single feedpump configurations with a
Prepared by:
constant feedwater pressure Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui
Boiler Protections
Two-element drum level control
.
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Boiler Protections
Three-element drum level control
The three-element drum level control is ideally suited
where a boiler plant consists of multiple boilers and multiple
feedwater pumps or where the feedwater has variations in
pressure or flow.
The three-elements are made up of the following: Level
Element and Steam Flow Element: corrects for unmeasured
disturbances within the system such as: Boiler blowdown
Boiler and superheater tube leaks Feedwater Flow Element:
responds rapidly to variations in feedwater demand, either
from the Steam flow rate feedforward signal Feedwater
pressure or flow fluctuations In order to achieve optimum
control, both steam and feedwater flow values should be
corrected for density.
Notes:
The three-element system provides tighter control for drum level with fluctuating steam load. Ideal where a
system suffers from fluctuating feedwater pressure or flow
More sophisticated level of control required
Additional input for feedwater flow required Prepared by:
Boiler Protections
Three-element drum level control
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Boiler Protections
Enhanced Three-element drum level control
The enhanced three-element drum level control module
incorporates the standard three element level components with
the following improvements: The three-element mode is used
during high steam demand. The two-element mode is used if the
steam flow measurement fails and the module falls back to single
element level control if the feedwater flow measurement should
fail or if there is a low steam demand.
The drum level can be derived from up to three independent
transmitters and is density compensated for pressure within the
boiler drum.
Notes:
Tighter control through a choice of control schemes. Drum level
maintained on failure of steam or feedwater flow measurements
This module introduces an additional level control loop Boiler
drum level control
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Boiler Protections
The Stack Temperature Gage

A stack temperature gage is normally
installed on a boiler to indicate the
temperature of the flue gas leaving the
boiler. A high stack temperature indicates
that the tubes may be getting a buildup
of soot or scale. Also, the baffling inside
the boiler may have deteriorated or
burned through, allowing gases to bypass
heat transfer surfaces in the boiler.
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Environmental Protection
Environmental protection and the control of solid,
liquid and gaseous effluents or emissions are key
elements in the design of all steam generating
systems.
The emissions from combustion systems are tightly
regulated by local and federal governments, and
specific rules and requirements are constantly
changing. At present, the most significant of these
emissions are sulfur dioxide (SO2), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx), and fine airborne particulate. All of
these require specialized equipment for control.
A key element in a successful emissions control
program is measurement and monitoring.
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Control approaches
One or more of the following measures have typically
been adopted to control emissions:
1. Emission standards These limit the mass of SO2, NOx,
or other pollutant emitted by volume, by heat input, by
electric energy output, or by unit of time (hourly, daily,
annually).
2. Percent removal requirements These specify the
portion of the uncontrolled emissions that must be
removed from the flue gas.
3. Fuel requirements Primarily aimed at SO2 control, these
either limit the type of fuel that can be burned or the
fuel sulfur content.
4. Technology requirements These typically indicate the
type of control technology specifically required or
indicate the use of the best available control Prepared by:
technology or reasonably available control technology
Kinds of Pollutants, Sources and Impacts

The focus of these slides are stationary
emission sources, particularly fired utility and
industrial boiler systems. Key pollutants from
these sources are SO2, SO3, NOx, CO and
particulate matter. Another class of emissions
is called air toxics. These are potentially
hazardous pollutants that generally occur in
only trace quantities in the effluents from fired
processes.
However, they are undergoing more intense
examination because of their potential health
effects. Prepared by:
Kinds of Pollutants, Sources and Impacts
Air pollutants are contaminants in the atmosphere
which, because of their quantity or characteristics,
have deleterious effects on human health and/or the
environment. The sources of these pollutants are
classified as stationary, mobile or fugitive. Stationary
sources generally include large individual point sources
of emissions such as electric utility power plants and
industrial furnaces where emissions are discharged
through a stack. Mobile sources are those associated
with transportation activities. Fugitive emissions
generally include discharges to the atmosphere from
conveyors, pumps, valves, seals and other process
points not vented through a stack. They also include
emissions from area sources such as coal piles,
landfills, ponds and lagoons. They most often consist of
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Sulfur oxides
Sulfur oxides have been related to irritation of the
human respiratory system, reduced visibility,
materials corrosion and varying effects on vegetation.
The reaction of sulfur oxides with moisture in the
atmosphere has been identified as contributing to
acid rain.
Wood and bark typically contain 0.0 to 0.1%
elemental sulfur on a dry basis. During the
combustion process some of this sulfur can be
converted to flue gas SO2, but the conversion ratio is
typically low (10 to 30%).
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Most of the sulfur in fuel converts to SO2 with
small quantities of sulfur trioxide (SO3). The main
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Sulfur trioxide (SO3 )
Some of the sulfur dioxide that forms converts to
sulfur trioxide (SO3). The typical conversion rate is 1% or
less in the boiler. However, the catalytic process that is
frequently used to control NOx levels has the undesirable
side effect of converting additional SO 2 to SO3, which can
range from 0.5 to 2% additional conversion. The SO3
readily combines with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO 4)
at flue gas temperatures less than 500 oF (260 oC). This
acid can create extremely corrosive conditions. The
sulfuric acid condenses to form a fine mist when the flue
gas passes through a wet flue gas desulfurization system
that is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO 2). This sulfuric
acid mist contributes to the total stack particulate
loading. Such mist is extremely fine, less than 0.5 micron,
and very small amounts of this mist (5 ppm or less) can
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Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
This category includes numerous species
comprised of nitrogen and oxygen, although nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are the most
significant in terms of quantity released to the
atmosphere. NO is the primary nitrogen compound
formed in high temperature combustion processes
where nitrogen present in the fuel and/or
combustion air combines with oxygen. The
quantity of NOx formed during combustion
depends on the quantity of nitrogen and oxygen
available, the temperature, the intensity of mixing
and the time for reaction. Control of these
parameters has formed the basis for a number of
control strategies involving combustion process
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Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Based on the most recent EPA emissions
inventory, utilities account for 22% of NOx
emitted, with the transportation sector emitting
56%. Of the total utility NOx emissions,
approximately 90% comes from coal-fired boilers.
The most deleterious effects come from NO 2
which forms from the reaction of NO and oxygen.
NO2 also absorbs the full visible spectrum and can
reduce visibility. NOx has been associated with
respiratory disorders, corrosion and degradation
of materials, and damage to vegetation. NOx has
also been identified as a precursor to ozone and
smog formation. Prepared by:
Carbon monoxide
This colorless, odorless gas is formed from
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels. CO
emissions from properly designed and operated utility
boilers are a relatively small percentage of total
combustion source CO emissions, most of which come
from the internal combustion engine in the
transportation sector. The primary environmental
significance of CO is its effect on human and animal
health. It is absorbed by the lungs and reduces the
oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Depending on
the concentration and exposure time, it can cause
impaired motor skills and physiological stress.
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Particulate matter
Solid and liquid matter of organic or inorganic
composition which is suspended in flue gas or the
atmosphere is generally referred to as particulate.
Particle sizes from combustion sources are in the 1
to 100 m range, although particles smaller than 1
m can occur through condensation processes.
Among the effects of particulate emissions are

impaired visibility, soiling of surrounding areas,
aggravation of adverse effects of SO2, and human
respiratory problems.
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PM10 and PM2.5
Subsets of particulate matter, PM10 is particulate
matter 10 m and finer and PM2.5 is particulate
matter 2.5 m and finer. Fine particles are emitted
from industrial and residential oil combustion and
from vehicle exhaust. Fine particles are also formed in
the atmosphere when gases such as SO2, NOx and
VOCs, emitted by combustion processes, are
transformed into fine particulate by chemical
reactions in the air (i.e., sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and
photochemical smog). PM2.5 is considered to have
more deleterious health affects than coarser
particulate.
Others types of pollutions are:
VOC, (Volatile organic compounds) represent a widePrepared by:
range of organic substances. Toxic air pollutants,Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui

Others Types of Pollutions are:
VOC, (Volatile organic compounds) represent a wide
range of organic substances. Toxic air pollutants,
Mercury, & Carbon dioxide
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are also gaseous
products of incomplete combustion. Its represent a
wide range of organic substances. These compounds
consist of molecules containing carbon and hydrogen,
and include aromatics, olefins and paraffins
As such, the emission of VOCs during wood firing is
influenced by the same factors affecting CO. Typically,
VOC emissions while stoker-firing wood and bark fuels
do not exceed 0.05 lb/106 Btu (0.02 g/ MJ) heat input,
expressed as methane. Prepared by:
Toxic Air Pollutants
This is a large category of air pollutants that
could have hazardous effects. The EPA had only
promulgated standards for arsenic, asbestos,
benzene, beryllium, mercury, radio nuclides and
vinyl chlorides for certain defined industries. Toxic
pollutants for which emissions are to be regulated.
The list includes a wide range of simple and
complex industrial organic chemicals and a small
number of inorganic+, particularly heavy metals.
The EPA has identified hundreds of categories of
air toxics sources, among which are municipal
solid waste combustors, industrial boilers, and
electric utility boilers. For these combustion
sources, mercury has been the primary focus.
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Mercury
Mercury Present in only trace amounts in
coal, mercury is released during the
combustion process as elemental mercury, and
is predominantly in the vapor phase at the exit
of the furnace. Emissions from utility plants are
extremely low.
Mercury in some chemical forms is very toxic.
From whatever source, mercury can find its
way into water sources where it can be
converted into water soluble species such as
methyl-mercury by microorganisms and
accumulate in the fatty tissues of fish. Prepared by:
Consumption of contaminated fish is the main

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
CO2 is one of several so-called greenhouse
gases which may impact the climate and
contribute to global warming. CO2 is emitted
from a variety of naturally occurring and
manmade sources including the combustion of
all fossil and hydrocarbon based fuels.
Improving the power cycle efficiency (more
power from less fuel) and the use of fuels with
less carbon content are potential methods to
address CO2 emissions from any combustion
source. Another option is separation and
capture followed by sequestration.
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Air pollution control technologies

The strategies for control of all emissions from a
utility or industrial boiler are formulated by
considering design fuels, kind and extent of emission
reduction mandated, and economic factors such as
boiler design, location, new or existing equipment,
age and remaining life.
SO2 control strategies and technologies
SO2 emissions from coal-fired boilers can be reduced
using pre-combustion techniques, combustion
modifications and post-combustion methods.
Pre-combustion These techniques include the use of
natural gas or low sulfur oil in new units or the use of
cleaned (beneficiated) coal or fuel switching inPrepared by:
existing units. Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui

Combustion modifications
These techniques are primarily used to reduce NOx
emissions but can also be used to control SO2 emissions in
fluidized-bed combustion where limestone is used as the
bed material. The limestone can absorb up to 90% of the
sulfur released during the combustion process.
Sorbent injection technologies
Sorbent injection, while not involving modification of the
combustion process, is applied in temperature regions
ranging from those just outside the combustion zone in the
upper furnace to those at the economizer and flue work
following the air heater. Sorbent injection involves adding
an alkali compound to the coal combustion gases for
reaction with the SO2. Typical calcium sorbents include
limestone [calcium carbonate (CaCO3)], lime (CaO),
hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2] and modifications of these
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compounds with special additives. Sodium or magnesium
Wet and dry scrubbing technology
Worldwide, wet and dry scrubbing or flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
systems are the most commonly used technologies in the coal-
fired electric utility industry.
In the wet scrubbing process, a sorbent slurry consisting of water
mixed with limestone, lime, magnesium promoted lime or sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) is contacted with flue gas in a reactor vessel.
Wet scrubbing is a highly efficient (> 97% removal at calcium/
sulfur molar ratios close to 1.0), well established technology which
can produce usable byproducts.
Dry scrubbing involves spraying an aqueous sorbent slurry into a
reactor vessel so that the slurry droplets dry as they contact the
hot flue gas [~300 oF (~149 oC)]. The SO2 reaction occurs during
the drying process and results in a dry particulate containing
reaction products and un-reacted sorbent entrained in the flue gas
along with fly-ash. These materials are captured downstream in
the particulate control equipment.
Dry scrubbing is a well established technology with considerable
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NOx control technologies

NOx emissions from fossil fuel-fired industrial and
utility boilers arise from the nitrogen compounds in the
fuel and molecular nitrogen in the air supplied for
combustion. Conversion of molecular and fuel nitrogen
into NOx is promoted by high temperatures and high
volumetric heat release rates found in boilers. The
main strategies for reducing NOx emissions take two
forms:
1)modification of the combustion process to control fuel
and air mixing, and reduce flame temperatures, and
2)post-combustion treatment of the flue gas to remove
NOx.
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Combustion modification
This approach to NOx reduction can include the use of
low NOx burners, combustion staging, gas recirculation
or reburn technology.
Post-combustion
The two main post-combustion techniques for NOx
control are selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) and
selective catalytic reduction (SCR). In SNCR, ammonia
or other compounds such as urea (which thermally
decomposes to produce ammonia) are injected
downstream of the combustion zone in a temperature
region of 1400 to 2000F (760 to 1093C). SCR systems
remove NOx from flue gases by reaction with ammonia
in the presence of a catalyst (see Chapter 34). SCR is
being used worldwide where high NOx removal
efficiencies are required in gas-, oil- or coal-fired
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Particulate control technologies
Particulate emissions from boilers arise from the
noncombustible, ash forming mineral matter in the fuel
that is released during the combustion process and is
carried by the flue gas. Another source of particulate is
the incomplete combustion of the fuel which results in
unburned carbon particles.
Coal cleaning Historically, physical coal cleaning has
been applied to reduce mineral matter, increase energy
content and provide a more uniform boiler feed.
Although reduction in flue gas particulate loading is one
of the potential benefits, coal cleaning has been driven
by the many other boiler performance benefits related
to improved boiler maintenance and availability and,
more recently, the reduction in SO2 emissions.
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Mechanical collectors
These are generally cyclone collectors and have been widely used
on small boilers when less stringent particulate emission limits
apply. Cyclones are low-cost, simple, compact and rugged devices.
However, conventional cyclones are limited to collection
efficiencies of about 90% and are poor at collecting the smallest
particles. Improvements in small particle collection are
accompanied by high pressure drops.
Dust collector
Mechanical dust collectors are used after the last heat trap on
the boiler to collect the larger size flyash particulate, sometimes
as protection for the ID fan. They typically consist of multi-cyclone
tubes enclosed in a casing structure. The tubes consist of outer
inlet tubes with spin vanes and inner tubes used without recovery
vanes. The dust collector efficiency is in the range of 65 to 75% at
an optimum draft loss of 2.5 to 3.0 in. wg (0.62 to 0.75 kPa). Due
to the abrasive nature of the flyash, the outer collection tubes and
cones are made of high hardness (450 Brinell) abrasion resistant
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material. Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui

Precipitator Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
Precipitator Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) are
typically used after the mechanical collector to
reduce the particulate concentration in the flue gas
and to meet environmental requirements. Due to the
high carbon content in the fly-ash, it is important to
reduce the fire potential in the precipitator. It is
necessary to ensure no tramp air enters the
precipitator and that the fly-ash is continuously
removed from the hoppers. Hopper level detectors and
temperature detectors alert the operator. Installations
can be equipped with fire fighting apparatus such as
steam inerting. Other suppliers recommend de-
energizing the precipitator if a predetermined oxygen
content in the flue gas is exceeded.
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ESPs are available in a broad range of sizes for utility

Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
be 99.8% or greater of the inlet dust loading. ESPs
are considered to be less sensitive to plant upsets
than fabric filters because their materials are not as
sensitive to maximum temperatures. They also have
a very low pressure drop. ESP performance is
sensitive to fly-ash loading, ash resistivity and coal
sulfur content. Lower sulfur concentrations in the
flue gas can lead to lower ESP collection efficiency.
ESPs tend to collect coarser particulate more easily,
whereas a fabric filter tends to have a more uniform
collection efficiency across the particle size range.
Therefore, a fabric filter has higher collection
efficiency of fine particulate than an ESP. The desire
to further control sulfuric acid mist emissions and
very fine fly-ash has led to the utilization of wet ESPs
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Fabric filters
These filters, also commonly referred to as bag-houses, are
available in a number of designs (reverse air, pulse jet, and
shake/deflate), each having advantages and disadvantages in
various applications. Applications include industrial and utility
power plants firing coal or solid wastes, plants using sorbent
injection and spray dryer FGD, and fluidized bed combustors.
Collection efficiency can be expected to be at least 99.9% or
greater. Fabric filters have the potential for enhancing SO2 capture
in installations downstream of sorbent injection and dry scrubbing
systems
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References:
1. Steam its Generation &

Use (Edition 41) by The
Babcock & Wilcox
Company.
2. Wikipedia
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THANK YOU TO
WATCHING
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Saba Power Plant
shoeb.siddiqui@sabapower.com
shoeb_siddiqui@hotmail.com
www.youtube.com/shoebsiddiqui

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STEAM GENERATOR

Efficiency, Performance & Saba Power Plant

Boilers are classified on the basis of

In A Steam Generating Unit Two Distinct

Mode of Fuel Burning

Gas Flow Characteristic

Feed Water Quality

The furnace volume must be

The quality of steam whether thesteam

required should be wet, dry or superheated.

boiler designer is to obtain the best disposal

Heating surface requirements These

Operation and Maintenance

Tube cleaning chemically / mechanically

Washing economizer and air pre-heater

Cost of labour and materials foroperation, maintenance and

Cost of the auxiliaries,e.g., cost of running pumps, fans, ash

Expected life of theequipment

Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing

Carbon, Hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel

C + O2 CO2 + 8084 Kcals/kg of carbon

Each kg of CO formed means loss of (8084-

In general a certain amount of air more than

per hour(Q) kg/hr. Heat

Type of fuel and gross calorific

Boiler efficiency ()= (Q x (hg-hf) /q x GCV)

Disadvantages of direct method

The principle losses that occur in a Boiler are:

moisture content, ash content).

Ambient temperature in C(Ta) and

humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air.

Percentage combustible in ash

GCV of ash in Kcal/kg

Loss due to dry flue gas = 4.928%

1. Loss due to dry flue gas = 4.928%

2.Percentage heatloss due

Loss due to Hydrogen in Fuel = 5.537%

Thus, Boiler efficiency

Radiation & Unaccounted Losses %

BMS (Burner Management System)

A burner management system is responsible

the safety of a boiler.

BMS (Burner Management System)

In the past, most boilers have operated on

BMS (Burner Management System)

complete. Once finished, it will notify the operator

BMS (Burner Management System)

Once this is achieved the system is ready to be

BMS (Burner Management System)

BMS (Burner Management System)

The following is a list of new requirements that are

Each of these requirements have been developed due to

A time to achieve the four volume changes may be

1) Mandatory Purging: (Safety Rule)

) NFPA 86 Section 5-4.1 Pre-ignition (Pre-purge,

BMS (Burner Management System)

boiler. Mohammad Shoeb Siddiqui

BMS (Burner Management System)

operation for a long duration.

BMS (Burner Management System)

BMS (Burner Management System)

pilot burner which then in turn lights the main