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INTERMEDIATE THERMODYNAMICS
Joseph M. Powers
updated
03 August 2012, 12:45pm
2
Preface 7
1 Review 9
2 Cycle analysis 17
2.1 Carnot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Exergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Rankine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Classical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Reheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4 Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.5 Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Air standard cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Brayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.1 Classical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5.2 Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.3 Ericsson Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.4 Jet propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.6 Reciprocating engine power cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7 Otto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.8 Diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.9 Stirling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.10 Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.10.1 Vapor-compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.10.2 Air standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3 Gas mixtures 71
3.1 Some general issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2 Ideal and non-ideal mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3 Ideal mixtures of ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3.1 Dalton model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.1.1 Binary mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3
4 CONTENTS
Bibliography 281
These are lecture notes for AME 50531 Intermediate Thermodynamics, the second of two
undergraduate courses in thermodynamics taught in the Department of Aerospace and Me-
chanical Engineering at the University of Notre Dame. Most of the students in this course
are juniors or seniors majoring in aerospace or mechanical engineering. The objective of the
course is to survey both practical and theoretical problems in classical thermodynamics.
The notes draw heavily on the text specified for the course, Borgnakke and Sonntags
(BS) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, Seventh Edition, John Wiley, New York, 2009, es-
pecially Chapters 10-16. In general the nomenclature of BS is used, and much of the notes
follow a similar structure as that text. In addition, Abbott and van Nesss Thermodynamics,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972, has been used to guide some of the mathematical develop-
ments. Many example problems have been directly taken from BS and other texts; specific
citations are given where they arise. Many of the unique aspects of these notes, which focus
on thermodynamics of reactive gases with detailed finite rate kinetics, have arisen due to
the authors involvement in research supported by the National Science Foundation under
Grant No. CBET-0650843. The author is grateful for the support. Any opinions, findings,
and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
These notes emphasize both problem-solving as well as some rigorous undergraduate-
level development of the underlying classical theory; the student should call on textbooks
and other reference materials to fill some of the gaps. It should also be remembered that
practice is essential to the learning process; the student would do well to apply the techniques
presented here by working as many problems as possible.
The notes, along with information on the course, can be found on the world wide web at
http://www.nd.edu/powers/ame.50531. At this stage, anyone is free to make copies for
their own use. I would be happy to hear from you about suggestions for improvement.
Joseph M. Powers
powers@nd.edu
http://www.nd.edu/powers
Notre Dame, Indiana; USA
CC
BY:
$
= 03 August 2012
\
The content of this book is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative
Works 3.0.
7
8 CONTENTS
Review
Here is a brief review of some standard concepts from a first course in thermodynamics.
property: characterizes the thermodynamics state of the system
density: = 1/v, mass per unit volume, SI-based units are kg/m3 .
9
10 CHAPTER 1. REVIEW
P = RT /v: thermal equation of state for ideal gas, SI-based units are kP a.
c = kP v: sound speed for CPIG, SI-based units are m/s; k = cP /cv , the ratio
of specific heats.
process: moving from one state to another, in general with accompanying heat trans-
fer and work.
Example 1.1
Consider an ideal gas in the T s plane. Compare the slope of an isochore to that of an isobar at
a given point.
T ds = du + P dv. (1.1)
This holds for all ideal gases, be they calorically perfect or imperfect. Thus, the Gibbs equation can be
rewritten as
T ds = cv dT +P dv. (1.3)
| {z }
=du
P T
v1
1 v2
P1
1
T1 = T2 2
2
P2 T1 = T2
v1 v2 s1 s2 s
v
2 2
w12= 1 P dv u 2- u1= q12- w12 q12= 1 T ds
P v
v1
P2
P1 1 v2
2
v2
P1
P2 2 v1
1
T1 = T 2 T1 = T 2 T
T
h = u + P v. (1.6)
dh = du + P dv + vdP. (1.7)
Substitute Eq. (1.7) into the Gibbs equation, (1.1), to eliminate du in favor of dh to get
P T
s
v
q cycle = wcycle
T ds = cP dT vdP. (1.10)
| {z }
=dh
Since cP > cv , (recall for an ideal gas that cP (T ) cv (T ) = R > 0), we can say that the slope of the
isochore is steeper than the isobar in the T s plane.
Example 1.2
Consider the following isobaric process for air, modeled as a CPIG, from state 1 to state 2. P1 =
100 kP a, T1 = 300 K, T2 = 400 K. Show the second law is satisfied.
Since the process is isobaric, P = 100 kP a describes a straight line in the P v and P T planes
and P2 = P1 = 100 kP a. Since we have an ideal gas, we have for the v T plane:
R
v= T, straight lines! (1.13)
P
kJ
RT1 0.287 kg K (300 K) m3
v1 = = = 0.861 , (1.14)
P1 100 kP a kg
RT2 0.287 kgkJK (400 K) m3
v2 = = = 1.148 . (1.15)
P2 100 kP a kg
Now
du = q w, (1.38)
q = du + w, (1.39)
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
q = du + w, (1.40)
1 1 1
1 q2 = (u2 u1 ) + 1 w2 , (1.41)
kJ kJ
1 q2 = 71.750 + 28.700 , (1.42)
kg kg
kJ
1 q2 = 100.450 . (1.43)
kg
Now in this process the gas is heated from 300 K to 400 K. One would expect at a minimum that the
surroundings were at 400 K. Check for second law satisfaction.
1 q2
s2 s1 ? (1.44)
Tsurr
kJ 100.450 kJ/kg
0.2890 ? (1.45)
kg K 400 K
kJ kJ
0.2890 0.2511 , yes. (1.46)
kg K kg K
P T
T1 = 300 K v1
T2 = 400 K
1 2 v2
P1= P2 = 100 kPa
T2 2
1
T1
v1 v2 s1 s2 s
v
2 2
w12= 1 P dv u 2- u1= q12- w12 q12= 1 T ds
P v
v1
v1 1
T1 T2 T1 T2 T
T
Cycle analysis
2.1 Carnot
The Carnot cycle is the most well-known thermodynamic cycle. It is a useful idealization,
but is very difficult to realize in practice. Its real value lies in serving as a standard to which
other cycles can be compared. These are usually fully covered in introductory courses. The
cycle can be considered as follows
1 2: isentropic compression,
2 3: isothermal expansion,
3 4: isentropic expansion, and
4 1: isothermal compression.
This forms a rectangle in the T s plane The P v plane is more complicated. Both
are shown in Figure 2.1. For this discussion, consider a calorically perfect ideal gas. The
isotherms are then straightforward and are hyperbolas described by
1
P = RT . (2.1)
v
The slope of the isotherms in the P v plane is found by differentiation:
P 1
= RT 2 , (2.2)
v T v
P
= . (2.3)
v
The slope of the isentrope is found in the following way. Consider first the Gibbs equation,
Eq. (1.1):
T ds = du + P dv. (2.4)
17
18 CHAPTER 2. CYCLE ANALYSIS
P T
2
isot
isotherm 3
2
ermh
isentrope
isentrope
isent
rop
3
e
is o
the
is e
1 rm 1 isotherm 4
nt
op
r
v s
wcycle = P dv = qcycle = T ds
du = cv dT, (2.5)
T ds = cv dT + P dv. (2.6)
P v = RT, (2.7)
P dv + vdP = RdT, (2.8)
P dv + vdP
= dT. (2.9)
R
So then
P dv + vdP
T ds = cv +P dv, (2.10)
R
| {z }
=dT
c cv
v
T ds = + 1 P dv + vdP, Take ds = 0, (2.11)
R R
c cv P
v
0 = +1 P + v , (2.12)
R R v s
cv
P R
+1 P
= cv , (2.13)
v s R
v
cv
cP cv
+1 P
= cv , (2.14)
cP cv
v
cv + cP cv P
= , (2.15)
cv v
cP P
= , (2.16)
cv v
P
= k . (2.17)
v
Since k > 1, the magnitude of the slope of the isentrope is greater than the magnitude of
the slope of the isotherm:
P P
v > v . (2.18)
s T
Example 2.1
(Adapted from BS, 7.94, p. 274) Consider an ideal gas Carnot cycle with air in a piston cylinder
with a high temperature of 1200 K and a heat rejection at 400 K. During the heat addition, the volume
triples. The gas is at 1.00 m3 /kg before the isentropic compression. Analyze.
m3
T1 = 400 K, v1 = 1.00 . (2.19)
kg
Now isentropically compress to state 2. By the standard relations for a CPIG, one finds
k1 k1
T2 v1 P2 k
= = . (2.21)
T1 v2 P1
So
k1
1 1
T1 m3 400 K 1.41 m3
v2 = v1 = 1.00 = 0.06415 . (2.22)
T2 kg 1200 K kg
Note that v2 < v1 as is typical in a compression. The isentropic relation between pressure and volume
can be rearranged to give the standard
k m3
!1.4
v1 1.00kg
P2 = P1 = (1.148 102 kP a) 3 = 5.36866 103 kP a. (2.24)
v2 0.06415 mkg
Note the pressure has increased in the isentropic compression. Check to see if the ideal gas law is
satisfied at state 2:
RT2 0.287 kgkJK (1200 K)
P2 = = 3 = 5.36866 103 kP a. (2.25)
v2 0.06415 mkg
This matches. Now the expansion from state 2 to 3 is isothermal. This is the heat addition step in
which the volume triples. So one gets
m3 m3
v3 = 3v2 = 3 0.06415 = 0.19245 . (2.26)
kg kg
T3 = T2 = 1200 K. (2.27)
The ideal gas law then gives
kJ
RT3 0.287 kg K (1200 K)
P3 = = m3
= 1.78955 103 kP a. (2.28)
v3 0.19245 kg
Process 3 to 4 is an isentropic expansion back to 400 K. Using the isentropic relations for the CPIG,
one gets
k1 1 1
T3 m3 1200 K 1.41 m3
v4 = v3 = 0.19245 = 3.000 . (2.29)
T4 kg 400 K kg
k m3
!1.4
v3 3
0.19245 kg
P4 = P3 = (1.78955 10 kP a) m3
= 3.82667 101 kP a. (2.30)
v4 3.000 kg
Check:
RT4 0.287 kgkJK (400 K)
P4 = = 3 = 3.82667 101 kP a. (2.31)
v4 3.000 mkg
3
T (K) P (kP a) v ( m
kg
)
2
1 400 1.148 10 1.000
2 1200 5.36886 103 0.06415
3 1200 1.78955 103 0.19245
4 400 3.82667 102 3.000
one gets
R + cv
k = , (2.33)
cv
kcv = R + cv , (2.34)
cv (k 1) = R, (2.35)
kJ
R 0.287 kg K kJ
cv = = = 0.7175 . (2.36)
k1 1.4 1 kg K
u2 u1 = 1 q2 1 w2 . (2.37)
u2 u1 = cv (T2 T1 ). (2.38)
u2 u1 = 1 q2 1 w2 , (2.39)
|{z}
=0
cv (T2 T1 ) = 1 w2 , (2.40)
kJ
0.7175 (1200 K 400 K) = 1 w2 , (2.41)
kg K
kJ
1 w2 = 5.7400 102 . (2.42)
kg
The work is negative as work is being done on the system in the compression process.
Process 2 3 is isothermal, so there is no internal energy change. The first law gives
u3 u2 = 2 q3 2 w3 , (2.43)
cv (T3 T2 ) = 2 q3 2 w3 , (2.44)
| {z }
=0
0 = 2 q3 2 w3 , (2.45)
Z v3
2 q3 = 2 w3 = P dv, (2.46)
v2
Z v3
RT
= dv, (2.47)
v2 v
Z v3
dv
= RT2 , (2.48)
v2 v
v3
= RT2 ln , (2.49)
v2
m3
kJ 0.19245 kg
= 0.287 (1200 K) ln m3
, (2.50)
kg K 0.06415 kg
kJ
= 3.78362 102 . (2.51)
kg
u4 u3 = 3 q4 3 w4 , (2.52)
|{z}
=0
cv (T4 T3 ) = 3 w4 , (2.53)
kJ
0.7175 (400 K 1200 K) = 3 w4 , (2.54)
kg K
kJ
3 w4 = 5.74000 102 . (2.55)
kg
u1 u4 = 4 q1 4 w1 , (2.56)
cv (T1 T4 ) = 4 q1 4 w1 , (2.57)
| {z }
=0
0 = 4 q1 4 w1 , (2.58)
Z v1
4 q1 = 4 w1 = P dv, (2.59)
v4
Z v1
RT
= dv, (2.60)
v4 v
v1
= RT4 ln , (2.61)
v4
m3
kJ 1.0000 kg
= 0.287 (400 K) ln m3
, (2.62)
kg K 3.0000 kg
kJ
= 1.26121 102 . (2.63)
kg
kJ kJ kJ
Process u kg
q kg
w kg
12 5.74000 102 0 5.74000 102
23 0 3.78362 102 3.78362 102
3 4 5.74000 102 0 5.74000 102
41 0 1.26121 102 1.26121 102
Total 0 2.52241 102 2.52241 102
Table 2.2 summarizes the first law considerations. The cycle work is found by adding the work of each
individual process:
wcycle = 1 w2 + 2 w3 + 3 w4 + 4 w1 , (2.64)
kJ
= (5.74 + 3.78362 + 5.74 1.26121) 102 = 2.52241 102 . (2.65)
kg
qcycle = 1 q2 + 2 q3 + 3 q4 + 4 q1 , (2.66)
kJ
= (0 + 3.78362 + 0 1.26121) 102 = 2.52241 102 . (2.67)
kg
Note that
wcycle = qcycle . (2.68)
Check now for the cycle efficiency. Recall that the thermal efficiency is
Tlow
=1 . (2.71)
Thigh
400 K 2
=1 = 0.6667. (2.72)
1200 K 3
Recall further that for a Carnot cycle, one has
qlow Tlow
= . (2.73)
qhigh Thigh
2.2 Exergy
Here we will introduce the concept of exergy. This concept is widely used in some industrial
design applications; its use in the fundamental physics literature is not extensive, likely
because it is not a thermodynamic property of a material, but also includes mechanical
properties. This system quantity is one measure of how much useful work can be extracted
from a system which is brought into equilibrium with a so-called reference rest state.
First let us imagine that the surroundings are at a reference temperature of To and a
reference pressure of Po . This yields a reference enthalpy of ho and a reference entropy of so .
We also take the surroundings to be at rest with a velocity of v = 0, and a reference height
of zo .
Consider the sketch of Fig. 2.2. Let us consider a steady flow into and out of a control
volume. The conservation of mass equation yields
dmcv
=m in m
out . (2.77)
dt
For steady flow conditions, we have d/dt = 0, so we recover
m
in = m
out = m.
(2.78)
The first law of thermodynamics for the control volume yields
dEcv 1
= Q cv W cv + m
in hin + vin vin + gzin
dt 2
1
m out hout + vout vout + gzout . (2.79)
2
We will soon relate Q cv /m to qH,Carnot as sketched in Fig. 2.2; this will introduce a sign
convention problem. For now, we will maintain the formal sign convention associated with
Q cv connoting heat transfer into the control volume. For steady flow conditions, we get
1
0 = Qcv Wcv + m hin hout + (vin vin vout vout ) + g(zin zout ) . (2.80)
2
control
h + (1/2) v . v+ g z volume ho + gz o
qH,Carnot
Carnot
engine w
Carnot
q L,Carnot
To
Now take the in state to be simply a generic state with no subscript, and the out
state to be the reference state, so
1
0 = Q cv W
cv + m
h ho + (v v) + g(z zo ) . (2.81)
2
Let us next scale by m
so as to get
1
0 = qcv wcv + h ho + v v + g(z zo ). (2.82)
2
Here we have taken qcv Q cv /m
and wcv = W cv /m.
Now, let us insist that wcv = 0, and solve for qcv to get
1
qcv = h ho + v v + g(z zo ) . (2.83)
2
Now, we imagine the working fluid to be at an elevated enthalpy, velocity, and height
relative to its rest state. Thus in the process of bringing it to its rest state, we will induce
qcv < 0. By our standard sign convention, this means that thermal energy is leaving the
system. This energy which leaves the system can be harnessed, in the best of all possible
worlds, by a Carnot engine in contact with a thermal reservoir at temperature To to generate
useful work. It is this work which represents the available energy, also known as the exergy.
For the Carnot engine, we have
wCarnot = qH,Carnot qL,Carnot . (2.84)
Note the standard sign convention for work and heat transfer is abandoned for the Carnot
analysis! It is wCarnot which gives the availability or exergy, which we define as :
= qH,Carnot qL,Carnot . (2.85)
Now let us require that the heat input to the Carnot engine be the heat associated with the
heat transfer from the control volume. Because of the inconsistency in sign conventions, this
requires that
qcv = qH,Carnot . (2.86)
qH,Carnot = T (s so ), (2.87)
qL,Carnot = To (s so ). (2.88)
So, by substituting Eqs. (2.86) and (2.88) into Eq. (2.85), the availability is
= qcv To (s so ). (2.89)
Now use Eq. (2.83) to eliminate qcv from Eq. (2.89) to get
1
= h ho + v v + g(z zo ) To (s so ), (2.90)
2
1
= h To s + v v + gz (ho To so + gzo) . (2.91)
2
Example 2.2
Find the exergy for a CPIG.
h ho = cP (T To ), (2.92)
T P
s so = cP ln R ln . (2.93)
To Po
So we get
T P 1
= cP (T To ) To cP ln R ln + v v + g(z zo ). (2.94)
To Po 2
For T To P Po , we can use Taylor series to simplify this somewhat. First, we recall the general
Taylor series for a log function near unity. Consider
y(x) = ln x, (2.95)
dy 1 d2 y 1
= , = 2, (2.97)
dx x dx2 x
and thus
dy d2 y
y(1) = ln(1) = 0, = 1, = 1 (2.98)
dx x=1 dx2 x=1
So
1
y(x) = ln x 0 + (x 1) (x 1)2 + . . . (2.99)
2
Note that in the neighborhood of the ambient state, relative pressure differences are more effective than
relative temperature differences at inducing high exergy.
2.3 Rankine
2.3.1 Classical
The Rankine cycle forms the foundation for the bulk of power generating devices which
utilize steam as a working fluid. The ideal cycle is described by
A schematic for the Rankine cycle and the associated path in the T s plane is shown
in Figure 2.3.
3
T
turbine
3
boiler
4
2
2
1 4
pump condenser
1
s
Figure 2.3: Schematic for Rankine cycle and the associated T s plane.
Example 2.3
(adopted from Moran and Shapiro, p. 312) Consider steam in an ideal Rankine cycle. Saturated
vapor enters the turbine at 8.0 M P a. Saturated liquid exits the condenser at P = 0.008 M P a. The
net power output of the cycle is 100 M W . Find
thermal efficiency
= 0.371. (2.114)
By definition the back work ratio bwr is the ratio of pump work to turbine work:
W
p
bwr = , (2.115)
W t
h1 h2
= , (2.116)
h3 h4
173.88 kJ 181.94 kJ
kg kg
= , (2.117)
2758 kJ kJ
kg 1794.8 kg
= 0.00837. (2.118)
The desired mass flow can be determined since we know the desired net power. Thus
W cycle
m
= , (2.119)
(h3 h4 ) + (h1 h2 )
100 103 kW
= , (2.120)
kJ
2758 kg 1794.8 kJ
kg + 173.88
kJ
kg 181.94 kJ
kg
kg
= 104.697 , (2.121)
s
kg s kg
= 104.697 3600 = 3.769 105 . (2.122)
s hr hr
Q in 3 h2 ),
= m(h (2.123)
kg kJ kJ
= 104.697 2758 181.94 , (2.124)
s kg kg
= 269706 kW , (2.125)
= 269.7 M W. (2.126)
Q out 1 h4 ),
= m(h (2.127)
kg kJ kJ
= 104.697 173.88 1794.8 , (2.128)
s kg kg
= 169705 kW, (2.129)
= 169.7 M W. (2.130)
For the condenser mass flow rate now perform a mass balance:
dEcv
= Q cv W cv +m
c (hin hout ) + m(h
4 h1 ), (2.132)
|{z} |{z}
| dt
{z } =0 =0
=0
0 = c (hin hout ) + m(h
m 4 h1 ), (2.133)
4 h1 )
m(h
m
c = , (2.134)
hin hout
104.697 kg
s 1794.8 kJ
kg 173.88
kJ
kg
= , (2.135)
62.99 kJ kJ
kg 146.68 kg
kg
= 2027.79 , (2.136)
s
kg 3600 s
= 2027.79 , (2.137)
s hr
kg
= 7.3 106 . (2.138)
hr
The enthalpy for the cooling water was found by assuming values at the saturated state at the respective
temperatures of 15 C and 35 C.
Example 2.4
Compute the exergy at various points in the flow of a Rankine cycle as considered in the previous
example problem. For that example, we had at state 1, the pump inlet that
kJ kJ
h1 = 173.88 , s1 = 0.5926 . (2.139)
kg kg K
kJ kJ
h2 = 181.94 , s2 = 0.5926 . (2.140)
kg kg K
kJ kJ
h3 = 2758 , s3 = 5.7432 . (2.141)
kg kg K
kJ kJ
h4 = 1794.8 , s4 = 5.7432 . (2.142)
kg kg K
Now for this example, kinetic and potential energy contributions to the exergy are negligible, so we
can say in general that
= (h To s) (ho To so ). (2.143)
Now for this problem, we have To = 298.15 K, ho = 104.89 kJ/kg, so = 0.3674 kJ/kg/K. We have
estimated ho and so as the enthalpy and entropy of a saturated liquid at 25 C = 298.15 K.
So the exergies are as follows. At the pump entrance, we get
1 = (h1 To s1 ) (ho To so ) , (2.144)
kJ kJ
= 173.88 (298.15 K) 0.5926
kg kg K
kJ kJ
104.89 (298.15 K) 0.3674 , (2.145)
kg kg K
kJ
= 1.84662 . (2.146)
kg
After the pump, just before the boiler, we have
2 = (h2 To s2 ) (ho To so ) , (2.147)
kJ kJ
= 181.94 (298.15 K) 0.5926
kg kg K
kJ kJ
104.89 (298.15 K) 0.3674 , (2.148)
kg kg K
kJ
= 9.90662 . (2.149)
kg
So the exergy has gone up. Note here that 2 1 = h2 h1 because the process is isentropic. Here
2 1 = h2 = h1 = 181.94 173.88 = 8.06 kJ/kg.
After the boiler, just before the turbine, we have
3 = (h3 To s3 ) (ho To so ) , (2.150)
kJ kJ
= 2758 (298.15 K) 5.7432
kg kg K
kJ kJ
104.89 (298.15 K) 0.3674 , (2.151)
kg kg K
kJ
= 1050.32 . (2.152)
kg
Relative to the pump, the boiler has added much more exergy to the fluid. After the turbine, just
before the condenser, we have
4 = (h4 To s4 ) (ho To so ) , (2.153)
kJ kJ
= 1794.8 (298.15 K) 5.7432
kg kg K
kJ kJ
104.89 (298.15 K) 0.3674 , (2.154)
kg kg K
kJ
= 87.1152 . (2.155)
kg
Note that 4 3 = h4 h3 because the process is isentropic. The actual exergy (or available work)
at the exit of the turbine is relative low, even though the enthapy state at the turbine exit remains at
an elevated value.
2.3.2 Reheat
In a Rankine cycle with reheat, the steam is extracted from an intermediate stage of the
turbine and reheated in the boiler. It is then expanded through the turbine again to the
condenser pressure. One also avoids liquid in the turbine with this strategy. This generally
results in a gain in cycle efficiency. Geometrically, the behavior on a T s diagram looks
more like a Carnot cycle. This is often covered in an introductory thermodynamics class, so
no formal example will be given here. A schematic for the Rankine cycle with reheat and
the associated T s diagram is shown in Figure 2.4.
T
3
Turbine 5
3
Boiler
4
5
2 4
2 6
1
6
Pump Condenser
1
s
Figure 2.4: Schematic for Rankine cycle with reheat along with the relevant T s diagram.
2.3.3 Regeneration
In a Rankine cycle with regeneration, some steam is extracted from the turbine and used
to pre-heat the liquid which is exiting the pump. This can lead to an increased thermal
efficiency, all else being equal. The analysis is complicated by the need to take care of more
complex mass and energy balances in some components. A schematic for the Rankine cycle
with regeneration and open feedwater heating is shown in Figure 2.5.
Example 2.5
(BS, Ex. 11.4, pp. 438-440) Steam leaves boiler and enters turbine at 4 M P a, 400 C. After
expansion to 400 kP a, some stream is extracted for heating feedwater in an open feedwater heater.
Pressure in feedwater heater is 400 kP a, and water leaves it at a saturated state at 400 kP a. The rest
of the steam expands through the turbine to 10 kP a. Find the cycle efficiency.
1 2: compression through Pump P 1,
2 & 6 3: mixing in open feedwater heater to saturated liquid state,
3 4: compression through Pump P 2,
4 5: heating in boiler,
Turbine
Boiler
7
6
4
Feedwater
Heater Condenser
2
Pump
P2
3
Pump
1
P1
Figure 2.5: Schematic for Rankine cycle with regeneration and open feedwater heating.
7 1: cooling in condenser.
kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ
h5 = 3213.6 , h6 = 2685.6 , h7 = 2144.1 , h1 = 191.8 , h3 = 604.73 ,
kg kg kg kg kg
m3 m3
v1 = 0.00101 , v3 = 0.001084 . (2.156)
kg kg
h2 = h1 + v1 (P2 P1 ), (2.157)
kJ m3
= 191.8 + 0.00101 ((400 kP a) (10 kP a)) , (2.158)
kg kg
kJ
= 192.194 (2.159)
kg
This does represent an increase of efficiency over a comparable Rankine cycle without regeneration,
which happens to be 0.369.
2.3.4 Losses
Turbine: These are typically the largest losses in the system. The turbine efficiency is
defined by
wt h3 h4
= = . (2.198)
wts h3 h4s
Here h4s and wts are the enthalpy and work the working fluid would have achieved had
the process been isentropic. Note this is for a control volume.
Pump: Pump losses are usually much smaller in magnitude than those for turbines.
The pump efficiency for a control volume is defined by
wps h2s h1
= = . (2.199)
wp h2 h1
Piping: pressure drops via viscous and turbulent flow effects induce entropy gains
in fluid flowing through pipes. There can also be heat transfer from pipes to the
surroundings and vice versa.
Losses will always degrade the overall thermal efficiency of the cycle.
2.3.5 Cogeneration
Often steam is extracted after the boiler for alternative uses. A good example is the Notre
Dame power plant, where steam at high pressure and temperature is siphoned from the
turbines to heat the campus in winter. The analysis for such a system is similar to that for
a system with regeneration.
A schematic for cogeneration cycle is shown in Figure 2.6.
CPIG,
6
7
Thermal
process
4 steam load
(e.g. heating the Condenser
ND campus) .
QL
3 2
Pump Pump
Mixer
P2 P1
. .
W P2 W P1
In some cycles, it is common to model the working fluid as a fixed mass. In others, it is
common to model the system as a control volume.
2.5 Brayton
2.5.1 Classical
The Brayton cycle is the air standard model for gas turbine engines. It is most commonly
modeled on a control volume basis. It has the following components:
1 2: isentropic compression,
A schematic for the Brayton cycle is shown in Figure 2.7. Diagrams for P v and T s for
Fuel
Combustion
Chamber 3
2
Compressor Turbine w
1 Air Products 4
P T
2 3 3
isentrope
isobar
isentrope 2
4
4 1 isobar
1
v s
So
Q cv = out hin ),
m(h (2.203)
Q cv
= hout hin , (2.204)
m
q = hout hin , (2.205)
q = cP (Tout Tin ). (2.206)
P3 P2
= . (2.208)
P4 P1
T3 T4
1= 1. (2.212)
T2 T1
Note that if a Carnot cycle were operating between the same temperature bounds that
Carnot = 1 T1 /T3 would be greater than that for the Brayton cycle.
Relative to the Rankine cycle, the Brayton cycle has a large fraction of compressor work.
So the backwork ratio bwr is larger.
One must also account for deviations from ideality. These effects are summarized in
component efficiencies. The relevant efficiencies here, assuming a control volume approach,
are
h2s h1
c = , (2.214)
h2 h1
h3 h4
t = . (2.215)
h3 h4s
For a CPIG, one gets then
T2s T1
c = , (2.216)
T2 T1
T3 T4
t = . (2.217)
T3 T4s
Example 2.6
(adopted from Moran and Shapiro, Example 9.6) Air enters the compressor of an air-standard
Brayton cycle at 100 kP a, 300 K with a volumetric flow rate is 5 m3 /s. The pressure ratio in the
compressor is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Find the thermal efficiency, the back work
ratio and the net power. Both the compressor and turbine have efficiencies of 0.8.
First calculate the state after the compressor if the compressor were isentropic.
k/(k1)
P2 T2s
= = 10, (2.218)
P1 T1
T2s = T1 (10)(k1)/k , (2.219)
= (300 K)(10)(1.41)/1.4 , (2.220)
= 579.209 K. (2.221)
Now
T2s T1
c = , (2.222)
T2 T1
T2s T1
T2 = T1 + , (2.223)
c
(579.209 K) (300 K)
= (300 K) + , (2.224)
0.8
= 649.012 K. (2.225)
Now state three has T3 = 1400 K. Recall that 2 3 involves heat addition in a combustion chamber.
Now calculate T4s for the ideal turbine. Recall that the expansion is to the same pressure as the
compressor inlet so that P3 /P4 = 10. The isentropic relations give
k/(k1)
T4s P4
= , (2.226)
T3 P3
(k1)/k
P4
T4s = T3 , (2.227)
P3
(1.41)/1.4
1
= (1400 K) , (2.228)
10
= 725.126 K. (2.229)
Now account for the actual behavior in the turbine:
T3 T4
t = , (2.230)
T3 T4s
T4 = T3 t (T3 T4s ), (2.231)
= (1400 K) (0.8)((1400 K) (725.126 K)), (2.232)
= 860.101 K. (2.233)
Now calculate the thermal efficiency of the actual cycle.
wnet qH qL qL cP (T4 T1 ) T4 T1
= = =1 =1 =1 , (2.234)
qH qH qH cP (T3 T2 ) T3 T2
860.101 K 300 K
= 1 , (2.235)
1400 K 649.012 K
= 0.254181. (2.236)
If the cycle were ideal, one would have
wnet qH qL qL cP (T4s T1 ) T4s T1
ideal = = =1 =1 =1 , (2.237)
qH qH qH cP (T3 T2s ) T3 T2s
(725.126 K) (300 K)
= 1 , (2.238)
(1400 K) (579.209 K)
= 0.482053. (2.239)
Note also that for the ideal cycle one also has
T1 300 K
ideal = 1 =1 = 0.482053. (2.240)
T2s 579.209 K
The back work ratio is
wcomp
bwr = , (2.241)
wturb
cP (T2 T1 )
= , (2.242)
cP (T3 T4 )
T2 T1
= , (2.243)
T3 T4
(649.012 K) (300 K)
= , (2.244)
(1400 K) (860.101 K)
= 0.646439. (2.245)
If the process were ideal, the back work ratio would have been
wcomp
bwrideal = , (2.246)
wturb
cP (T2s T1 )
= , (2.247)
cP (T3 T4s )
T2s T1
= , (2.248)
T3 T4s
(579.209 K) (300 K)
= , (2.249)
(1400 K) (725.126 K)
= 0.413721. (2.250)
Now get the net work. First get the mass flow rate from the volume flow rate. This requires the specific
volume.
RT1 0.287 kgkJK (300 K) m3
v1 = = = 0.861 . (2.251)
P1 100 kP a kg
Now 3
V 5 ms kg
= 1 V =
m = 3 = 5.8072 . (2.252)
v1 0.861 mkg
s
Note that the inefficiencies had a significant effect on both the back work ratio and the net work of the
engine.
2.5.2 Regeneration
One can improve cycle efficiency by regeneration. The hot gas in the turbine is used to
preheat the gas exiting the compressor before it enters the combustion chamber. In this
cycle, one takes
1 2: compression,
x 3: combustion chamber,
y Regenerator
x 4
Combustion
2 chamber 3
Compressor Turbine w
For this to work, the gas at the turbine exit must have a higher temperature than the gas
at the compressor exit. If the compression ratio is high, the compressor exit temperature is
high, and there is little benefit to regeneration.
Now consider the regenerator, which is really a heat exchanger. The first law holds that
dEcv
= Q cv W cv +mh
2 mh 4 mh
x + mh y, (2.259)
dt |{z} |{z}
| {z } =0 =0
=0
0 = h2 hx + h4 hy , (2.260)
= cP (T2 Tx ) + cP (T4 Ty ), (2.261)
= T2 Tx + T4 Ty . (2.262)
Now consider the inlet temperatures to be known. Then the first law constrains the outlet
temperatures such that
T2 + T4 = Tx + Ty . (2.263)
If the heat exchanger were an ideal co-flow heat exchanger, one might expect the outlet
temperatures to be the same, that is, Tx = Ty , and one would have Tx = Ty = (1/2)(T2 + T4 ).
But in fact one can do better. If a counter-flow heat exchanger is used, one could ideally
expect to find
Tx = T4 , Ty = T2 . (2.264)
Note this is the Carnot efficiency moderated by the pressure ratio. As the pressure ratio
rises, the thermal efficiency declines.
The regenerator itself will not be perfect. To achieve the performance postulated here
would require infinite time or an infinite area heat exchanger. As both increase, viscous
losses increase, and so there is a trade-off. One can summarize the behavior of an actual
regenerator by an efficiency defined as
hx h2 actual
reg = = . (2.276)
hx h2
ideal
Example 2.7
(extension for Moran and Shapiro, Example 9.6) How would the addition of a regenerator affect
the thermal efficiency of the isentropic version of the previous example problem?
One may take the rash step of trusting the analysis to give a prediction from Eq. (2.275) of
(k1)/k
T1 P2
= 1 , (2.278)
T3 P1
300 K
= 1 (10)(1.41)/1.4 = 0.586279. (2.279)
1400 K
Without regeneration, the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle had a value of 0.482053. Had
the engine used a Carnot cycle between the same temperature limits, the efficiency would have been
0.785714.
P T
2 3 3 4
isotherm
isobar
isobar
isotherm
1 4 2 1
v s
1 2: isothermal compression,
Note that P2 /P1 > 1, so wc < 0; work is done on the fluid in the compressor.
For the turbine, again for the control volume, the key is the enthalpy difference and
dh = T ds + vdP = qt wt , with qt = T ds and wt = vdP . The turbine work would be
Z 4 Z 4
dP P4
wt = v dP = RT3 = RT3 ln . (2.281)
3 3 P P3
P1 P2
wt = RT3 ln = RT3 ln . (2.282)
P2 P1
h3 h2 = qC (2.283)
cP (T3 T2 ) = qC . (2.284)
P2
qt = wt = RT3 ln . (2.285)
P1
P2
qH = qC + qt = cP (T3 T1 ) + RT3 ln . (2.286)
P1
T1 1
= 1 T , (2.291)
T3 1 T1
1+ 3
(k1)/k
P
ln P2
1
T1
T1 1 T3
1 1 (k1)/k + .... (2.292)
T3
| {z } ln PP12
Carnot | {z }
correction
This is expressed as a Carnot efficiency modified by a correction which degrades the efficiency.
Note the efficiency is less than that of a Carnot cycle. For high temperature ratios and high
pressure ratios, the efficiency approaches that of a Carnot engine.
Now if one used multiple staged intercooling on the compressors and multiple staged
expansions with reheat on the turbines, one can come closer to the isothermal limit, and
better approximate the Carnot cycle.
Burner
3
2
1 a 4
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle
isentrope 5
a
a
1 isobar
1 5
v s
Solving for the thrust force, neglecting the small differences in pressure, one gets,
(v5 v1 ) .
F=m (2.294)
The work done by the thrust force is the product of this force and the air speed, v1 . This
gives
|W p | = |F v1 | = |m(v
5 v1 ) v1 | . (2.295)
Now the efficiency of the cycle is a bit different. The net work of the turbine and compressor
is zero. Instead, the propulsive efficiency is defined as
Propulsive Power |W p|
p = = , (2.296)
Energy Input Rate |Q H |
|mv
1 (v5 v1 )|
= . (2.297)
m|(h
3 h2 )|
Note the following unusual behavior for flight in an ideal inviscid atmosphere in which
the flow always remains attached. In such a flow DAlemberts paradox holds: there is
no aerodynamic drag. Consequently there is no need for thrust generation in steady state
operation. Thrust would only be needed to accelerate to a particular velocity. For such
an engine then the exit velocity would equal the entrance velocity: v5 = v1 and F = 0.
Moreover, the propulsive efficiency is p = 0.
Example 2.8
(adopted from C engal and Boles, p. 485). A turbojet flies with a velocity of 850 fst at an altitude
where the air is at 5 psia and 40 F . The compressor has a pressure ratio of 10, and the temperature
at the turbine inlet is 2000 F . Air enters the compressor at a rate of m = 100 lbms . Assuming an air
standard with CPIG air, find the
temperature and pressure at the turbine exit,
velocity of gas at nozzle exit, and
propulsive efficiency.
For the English units of this problem, one recalls that
lbm f t Btu f t2
1 Btu = 777.5 f t lbf, gc = 32.2 , 1 = 25037 2 . (2.298)
lbf s2 lbm s
For air, one has
It is usually sufficient to neglect the kinetic energy of the fluid inside the engine. While it still has
a non-zero velocity, it has been slowed enough so that enthalpy dominates kinetic energy inside the
engine. So one takes
v1 v1
ha = h1 + , (2.301)
2
v1 v1
0 = h1 ha + , (2.302)
2
v1 v1
0 = cP (T1 Ta ) + , (2.303)
2
v1 v1
Ta = T1 + . (2.304)
2cP
Now get the pressure at the compressor inlet via the isentropic relations:
k/(k1) 1.4/(1.41)
Ta 480 R
Pa = P1 = (5 psia) = 8.0 psia. (2.307)
T1 420 R
The temperature at the entrance of the turbine is known to be 2000 F = 2460 R. Now the turbine
work is equal to the compressor work, so
wc = wt , (2.310)
h2 ha = h3 h4 , (2.311)
cP (T2 Ta ) = cP (T3 T4 ), (2.312)
T2 Ta = T3 T4 , (2.313)
T4 = T3 T2 + Ta , (2.314)
= 2460 R 927 R + 480 R, (2.315)
= 2013 R. (2.316)
Expansion through the nozzle completes the cycle. Assume an isentropic nozzle, therefore
(k1)/k
P5
T5 = T4 , (2.318)
P4
(k1)/k
P1
= T4 , (2.319)
P4
(1.41)/1.4
5 psia
= = (2013 R) , (2.320)
39.7 psia
= 1114 R. (2.321)
v5 v5 v4 v4
h5 + = h4 + , (2.322)
2 2 }
| {z
small
v52
0 = h5 h4 + , (2.323)
2
v5 v5
= cP (T5 T4 ) + , (2.324)
p 2
v5 = 2cP (T4 T5 ), (2.325)
v !
u f t2
u 25037 s2
= t2 0.240 Btu (2013 R 1114 R) , (2.326)
lbm R 1 Btu
lbm
ft
= 3288 . (2.327)
s
lbm ft ft f t lbm
|F| = 5 v1 ) =
m(v 100 3288 850 = 243800 , (2.328)
s s s s2
f t lbm
243800 s2
= lbm f t
, (2.329)
32.2 lbf s2
= 7571.4 lbf. (2.330)
The power is the product of the thrust force and the air speed, so
P| = ft Btu
|W |F v1 | = (7571.4 lbf ) 850 , (2.331)
s 777.5 f t lbf
Btu
= 8277 , (2.332)
s !
Btu 1.415 hp
= 8277 Btu
, (2.333)
s s
= 11711 hp. (2.334)
Q H 3 h2 ),
= m(h (2.335)
P (T3 T2 ),
= mc (2.336)
lbm Btu
= 100 0.240 (2460 R 927 R), (2.337)
s lbm R
Btu
= 36792 . (2.338)
s
So the propulsion efficiency is
WP 8277 Btu
s
p = = = 0.225. (2.339)
Q H 36792 Btu
s
The remainder of the energy is excess kinetic energy and excess thermal energy, both of which ultimately
dissipate so as to heat the atmosphere.
Other variants of the turbojet engine include the very important turbofan engine in which
a large cowling is added to the engine and a an additional fan in front of the compressor
forces a large fraction of the air to bypass the engine. The turbofan engine is used in most
large passenger jets. Analysis reveals a significant increase in propulsive efficiency as well as
a reduction in jet noise. Other important variants include the turboprop, propfan, ramjet,
scramjet, jet with afterburners, and rocket.
S = 2Rcrank . (2.340)
See Figure 2.13 for an illustration of this geometry for a piston-cylinder arrangement in two
configurations. The total displacement for all the cylinders is
Note that
B2
Acyl =
. (2.342)
4
The compression ratio is not the ratio of pressures; it is the ratio of volumes:
Vmax
rv = CR = . (2.343)
Vmin
2Rcrank
For these engines the volumes are closed in expansion and compression, so the net work is
I
wnet = P dv = Pmef f (vmax vmin ). (2.344)
Here one has defined a mean effective pressure: Pmef f . The net work per cylinder per cycle
is
Wnet = mwnet = Pmef f m(vmax vmin ) = Pmef f (Vmax Vmin ). (2.345)
Now consider the total power developed for all the cylinders. Assume the piston operates at
a frequency of cycles/s:
RP M
= Pmef f Vdispl s . (2.348)
60 min
This applies for a two-stroke engine. If the engine is a four stroke engine, the net power is
reduced by a factor of 1/2.
2.7 Otto
The air-standard Otto cycle approximates the gasoline engine. It employs a fixed mass
approach.
Diagrams for P v and T s for the Otto cycle are shown in Figure 2.14.
P T
3
3
isentrope isochore
2
4
2 isentrope 4
1 isochore
1
v s
Note for isochoric heating, such as 2 3, in a fixed mass environment, the first law gives
u3 u2 = 2 w3 ,
2 q3 (2.349)
Z v3
u3 u2 = 2 q3 P dv, but v2 = v3 , (2.350)
v2
Z v2
u3 u2 = 2 q3 P dv , (2.351)
v2
| {z }
=0
2 q3 = u3 u2 , (2.352)
2 q3 = cv (T3 T2 ), if CPIG. (2.353)
1
= 1 rv1k = 1 . (2.365)
rvk1
Note if the compression ratio increases, the thermal efficiency increases. High compression
ratios introduce detonation in the fuel air mixture. This induces strong pressure waves in
the cylinder and subsequent engine knock. It can cause degradation of piston walls.
Some deviations of actual performance from that of the air-standard Otto cycle are as
follows:
Example 2.9
(adopted from Moran and Shapiro, p. 363). The temperature at the beginning of the compression
process of an air-standard Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8 is 540 R, the pressure is 1 atm,
and the cylinder volume is 0.02 f t3 . The maximum temperature is 3600 R. Find
temperature and pressure at each stage of the process,
Pmef f in atm.
For the isentropic compression,
k1
V1
T2 = T1 , (2.366)
V2
= (540 R)(8)1.41 , (2.367)
= 1240.69 R. (2.368)
One can use the ideal gas law to get the pressure at state 2:
P2 V2 P1 V1
= , (2.369)
T2 T1
V1 T2
P2 = P1 , (2.370)
V2 T1
1240.69 R
= (1 atm)(8) , (2.371)
540 R
= 18.3792 atm. (2.372)
Now V3 = V2 since the combustion is isochoric. And the maximum temperature is T3 = 3600 R. This
allows use of the ideal gas law to get P3 :
P3 V3 P2 V2
= , (2.373)
T3 T2
V2 T3
P3 = P2 , (2.374)
V3 T2
|{z}
=1
3600 R
= (18.3792 atm)(1) , (2.375)
1240.59 R
= 53.3333 atm. (2.376)
k1
T3 V4
= , (2.377)
T4 V3
k1
T4 V3
= , (2.378)
T3 V4
k1
V2
T4 = T3 , (2.379)
V1
1k
V1
T4 = T3 , (2.380)
V2
= (3600 R)(8)11.4 , (2.381)
= 1566.99 R. (2.382)
P4 V4 P3 V3
= , (2.383)
T4 T3
V3 T4
P4 = P3 , (2.384)
V4 T3
V2 T4
= P3 , (2.385)
V1 T3
1 1566.99 R
= (53.3333 atm) , (2.386)
8 3600 R
= 2.90184 atm. (2.387)
1
= 1 , (2.388)
rvk1
1
= 1 1.41 , (2.389)
8
= 0.564725. (2.390)
P1 cv T3 T4 + T1 T2
= , (2.396)
T1 R 1 VV2 1
P1 1 T3 T4 + T1 T2
= , (2.397)
T1 k 1 1 VV2 1
2.8 Diesel
The air standard Diesel cycle approximates the behavior of a Diesel engine. It is modeled
as a fixed mass system. Here the compression is done before injection, so there is no danger
of premature ignition due to detonation. No spark plugs are used. Diagrams for P v and
T s for the Diesel cycle are shown in Figure 2.15. One can outline the Diesel cycle as
follows:
P T
2 3
3
isobar
isentrope 2
4
isentrope
4 1 isochore
v s
All else being equal, the Otto cycle will have higher efficiency than the Diesel cycle.
However, the Diesel can operate at higher compression ratios because detonation is not as
serious a problem in the compression ignition engine as it is in the spark ignition.
Example 2.10
(adopted from BS, Ex. 12.8 pp. 501-502). An air standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of
20, and the heat transferred to the working fluid has 1800 kJ/kg. Take air to be an ideal gas with
variable specific heat. At the beginning of the compression process, P1 = 0.1 M P a, and T1 = 15 C.
Find
Pressure and temperature at each point in the process,
Thermal efficiency,
Pmef f , the mean effective pressure.
The enthalpies and entropies at the reference pressure for variable specific heat air are tabulated
as functions of temperature in Table A7.1. Recall that
Z T
h(T ) = href + cP (T) dT. (2.406)
Tref
P
s(T, P ) = soT (T ) R ln . (2.411)
Pref
Here the reference pressure is Pref = 0.1 M P a. Note that this happens to be the inlet state, which
is a coincidence; so at the inlet there is no correction to the entropy for pressure deviation from its
reference value. At the inlet, one has T1 = 15 + 273.15 = 288.15 K. One then gets from interpolating
Table A7.1 that
kJ kJ kJ
h1 = 288.422 , soT1 = s1 = 6.82816 , u1 = 205.756 . (2.412)
kg kg K kg
For the isentropic compression, one has
kJ 1
s2 = s1 = 6.82816 , V2 = V1 . (2.413)
kg K 20
Now from the ideal gas law, one has
P2 V2 P1 V1
= , (2.414)
T2 T1
P2 T2 V1
= , (2.415)
P1 T1 V2
P2 T2
= 20 . (2.416)
Pref 288 K
Now
P2
s2 (T2 , P2 ) = soT2 R ln , (2.417)
Pref
kJ kJ T2
6.82816 = soT2 0.287 ln 20 , (2.418)
kg K kg K 288 K
kJ T2 kJ
0 = soT2 0.287 ln 20 6.82816 F (T2 ). (2.419)
kg K 288 K kg K
kJ kJ
T2 (K) soT2 kg K
F (T2 ) kg K
4
900 8.01581 8.57198 10
1000 8.13493 8.97387 102
800 7.88514 9.60091 102
850 7.95207 4.64783 102
899.347 8.01237 2.37449 103
This then becomes a trial and error search in Table A7.1 for the T2 which satisfies the previous equa-
tion. If one guesses T2 900 K, one gets soT2 = 8.01581 kJ/kg/K, and the right side evaluates to
0.000857198 kJ/kg/K. Performing a trial and error procedure, one finds the results summarized in
Table 2.3. Take T2 = 900 K as close enough!
Then
T2 V1
P2 = P1 , (2.420)
T1 V2
900 K
= (0.1 M P a) (20), (2.421)
288 K
= 6.25 M P a. (2.422)
qH = h3 h2 , (2.424)
h3 = h2 + qH , (2.425)
kJ kJ
= 933.15 + 1800 , (2.426)
kg kg
kJ
= 2733.15 . (2.427)
kg
One can then interpolate Table A7.1 to find T3 and soT3
2733.15 kJ
kg 2692.31 kJ
kg
T3 = (2350 K) + ((2400 K) (2350 K)), (2.428)
kJ kJ
2755 kg 2692.31 kg
= 2382.17 K, (2.429)
kJ
soT3 = 9.16913
kg K
2733.15 kJ kJ
kg 2692.31 kg kJ kJ
+ 9.19586 9.16913 , (2.430)
2755 kJ kJ kg K kg K
kg 2692.31 kg
kJ
= 9.18633 . (2.431)
kg K
kJ kJ
T4 (K) soT4 kg K
F (T4 ) kg K
1
400 7.15926 9.34561 10
800 7.88514 4.07614 101
1400 8.52891 7.55464 102
1200 8.34596 6.31624 102
1300 8.44046 8.36535 103
1250 8.39402 2.68183 102
1288 8.42931 1.23117 104
One also has P3 = P2 = 6.25 M P a. Now get the actual entropy at state 3:
P3
s3 (T3 , P3 ) = soT3 R ln , (2.432)
Pref
kJ kJ 6.25 M P a
= 9.18633 0.287 ln , (2.433)
kg K kg K 0.1 M P a
kJ
= 7.99954 . (2.434)
kg K
Now 3 4 is an isentropic expansion to state 4, which has the same volume as state 1; V1 = V4 . So
the ideal gas law gives
P4 V4 P1 V1
= , (2.435)
T4 T1
P4 T4 V1
= , (2.436)
P1 T1 V4
P4 T4 V1
= . (2.437)
Pref T1 V4
Now consider the entropy at state 4, which must be the same as that at state 3:
P4
s4 (T4 , P4 ) = soT4 R ln , (2.438)
Pref
T4 V1
= soT4 R ln
s3
T1 V4 , (2.439)
|{z}
=1
kJ o kJ T4
7.99954 = sT4 0.287 ln , (2.440)
kg K kg K 288 K
o kJ T4 kJ
0 = sT4 0.287 ln 7.99954 = F (T4 ). (2.441)
kg K 288 K kg K
Using Table A7.1, this equation can be iterated until T4 is found. So T4 = 1288 K. At this temperature,
one has
kJ kJ
h4 = 1381.68 , u4 = 1011.98 . (2.442)
kg kg
= 1 , (2.444)
2733.15 kJ
kg 933.15 kJ
kg
= 0.552098. (2.445)
Now one has
kJ kJ kJ
qL = u1 u4 = 205.756 1011.98 = 806.224 . (2.446)
kg kg kg
So,
kJ kJ kJ
wnet = qH + qL = 1800 806.224 = 993.776 . (2.447)
kg kg kg
So
Wnet
Pmef f = , (2.448)
Vmax Vmin
wnet
= , (2.449)
vmax vmin
wnet
= , (2.450)
v1 v2
wnet
= RT1 RT2
, (2.451)
P1 P2
kJ
993.776 kg
= , (2.452)
kJ 288 K 900 K
0.287 kg K 100 kP a 6250 kP a
= 1265.58 kP a. (2.453)
2.9 Stirling
Another often-studied air-standard engine is given by the Stirling cycle. This is similar to
the Otto cycle except the adiabatic processes are replaced by isothermal ones. The efficiency
can be shown to be equal to that of a Carnot engine. Stirling engines are difficult to build.
Diagrams for P v and T s for the Stirling cycle are shown in Figure 2.16.
One can outline the Stirling cycle as follows:
1 2: isothermal compression in the compression stroke,
2 3: isochoric heat transfer in the combustion stroke,
3 4: expansion in power stroke, and
4 1: isochoric rejection of heat to the surroundings.
P T
3
3 4
isotherm isochore
isochore
2 isotherm 4
2 1
1
v s
2.10 Refrigeration
A simple way to think of a refrigerator is a cyclic heat engine operating in reverse. Rather
than extracting work from heat transfer from a high temperature source and rejecting heat
to a low temperature source, the refrigerator takes a work input to move heat from a low
temperature source to a high temperature source.
2.10.1 Vapor-compression
A common refrigerator is based on a vapor-compression cycle. This is a Rankine cycle in
reverse. While one could employ a turbine to extract some work, it is often impractical.
Instead the high pressure gas is simply irreversibly throttled down to low low pressure.
One can outline the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle as follows:
1 2: isentropic compression
Condenser 2
3
Compressor
Expansion w
Compressor
valve
4 Evaporator
of performance, , is defined as
Note that a heat pump is effectively the same as a refrigerator, except one desires qH
rather than qL . So for a heat pump, the coefficient of performance, , is defined as
qH
= . (2.456)
wc
Example 2.11
(from Moran and Shapiro, p. 442) R 12 is the working fluid in an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle that communicates thermally with a cold region at 20 C and a warm region at
40 C. Saturated vapor enters the compressor at 20 C and saturated liquid leaves the condenser at
40 C. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.008 kg/s. Find
compressor power in kW ,
refrigeration capacity in ton,
coefficient of performance, and
coefficient of performance of an equivalent Carnot cycle.
T
2
4 1
s
Figure 2.18: T s diagram for the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
At compressor inlet for the ideal cycle, one has a saturated vapor.
T1 = 20 C, x1 = 1. (2.457)
kJ kJ
h1 = 195.78 , s1 = 0.6884 , P1 = 5.6729 bar. (2.458)
kg kg K
Now at the end of the condenser (state 3), one has T3 = 40 C. The condenser is on an isobar, so the
pressure is the saturation pressure at the temperature, which is
So, two properties at the end of the compression are known: pressure and entropy. The allows deter-
mination of the enthalpy at the end of compression via the tables:
kJ
h2 = 205.1 . (2.460)
kg
State 3 is at the end of the condenser, so x3 = 0, and one finds the enthalpy from the tables to be
kJ
h3 = 74.59 . (2.461)
kg
kJ
h4 = h3 = 74.59 . (2.462)
kg
However, the fluid has been throttled to a lower pressure: that of the evaporator, which is the same as
state 1, the compressor inlet, so
P4 = P1 = 5.6729 bar. (2.463)
1
= TH
, (2.478)
TL 1
TL
= , (2.479)
TH TL
20 + 273.15
= , (2.480)
40 + 273.15 (20 + 273.15)
= 14.6575. (2.481)
1 2: isentropic compression,
A schematic for the air standard refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 2.19. A T s diagram
QH
3
2
-w
Expander Compressor
QL
T
2
isobar
4 isobar
Gas mixtures
N
X
n = n1 + n2 + n3 + + nN = ni , moles, units= kmole. (3.2)
i=1
Recall 1 mole = 6.02214179 1023 molecule. The mass fraction of component i is defined
as ci :
mi
ci , mass fraction, dimensionless. (3.3)
m
71
72 CHAPTER 3. GAS MIXTURES
ni
yi , mole fraction, dimensionless. (3.4)
n
Now the molecular mass of species i is the mass of a mole of species i. It units are typically
g/mole. This is an identical unit to kg/kmole. Molecular mass is sometimes called molec-
ular weight, but this is formally incorrect, as it is a mass measure, not a force measure.
Mathematically the definition of Mi corresponds to
mi kg g
Mi , = . (3.5)
ni kmole mole
Similarly, one finds mole fraction in terms of mass fraction by the following:
ni
yi = , (3.13)
n
mi
Mi
= PN mj , (3.14)
j=1 Mj
mi
Mi m
= PN mj , (3.15)
j=1 Mj m
ci
Mi
= P N cj . (3.16)
j=1 Mj
Example 3.1
Air is often modeled as a mixture in the following molar ratios:
O2 + 3.76N2. (3.21)
Find the mole fractions, the mass fractions, and the mean molecular mass of the mixture.
n1 = 1 kmole, (3.22)
and N2 to be
n2 = 3.76 kmole. (3.23)
The molecular mass of O2 is M1 = 32 kg/kmole. The molecular mass of N2 is M2 = 28 kg/kmole.
The total number of moles is
That is to say y1 + y2 = 0.2101 + 0.7899 = 1. Now for the masses, one has
kg
m1 = n1 M1 = (1 kmole) 32 = 32 kg, (3.28)
kmole
kg
m2 = n2 M2 = (3.76 kmole) 28 = 105.28 kg. (3.29)
kmole
So one has
m = m1 + m2 = 32 kg + 105.28 kg = 137.28 kg. (3.30)
Note that
N
X
ci = 1. (3.33)
i=1
That is c1 + c2 = 0.2331 + 0.7669 = 1. Now for the mixture molecular mass, one has
m 137.28 kg kg
M= = = 28.84 . (3.34)
n 4.76 kmole kmole
N
X
kg kg kg
M= yi Mi = y1 M1 + y2 M2 = (0.2101) 32 + (0.7899) 28 = 28.84 . (3.35)
i=1
kmole kmole kmole
Now postulates for mixtures are not as well established as those for pure substances.
The literature has much controversial discussion of the subject. A strong advocate of the
axiomatic approach, C. A. Truesdell, proposed the following metaphysical principles for
mixtures, which are worth considering.
3. The motion of the mixture is governed by the same equations as is a single body.
Most important for the present discussion is the first principle. When coupled with fluid
mechanics, the second two take on additional importance. The approach of mixture theory
is to divide and conquer. One typically treats each of the constituents as a single material
and then devises appropriate average or mixture properties from those of the constituents.
The best example of this is air, which is not a single material, but is often treated as
such.
U = U(T, P, n1 , n2 , . . . , nN ). (3.36)
A partial molar property is a generalization of an intensive property, and is defined such that
it is the partial derivative of an extensive property with respect to number of moles, with T
and P held constant. For internal energy, then the partial molar internal energy is
U
ui . (3.37)
ni T,P,nj ,i6=j
Pressure and temperature are held constant because those are convenient variables to control
in an experiment. One also has the partial molar volume
V
vi = . (3.38)
ni T,P,nj ,i6=j
It shall be soon seen that there are other natural ways to think of the volume per mole.
Now in general one would expect to find
ui = ui (T, P, n1 , n2 , . . . , nN ), (3.39)
vi = vi (T, P, n1, n2 , . . . , nN ). (3.40)
This is the case for what is known as a non-ideal mixture. An ideal mixture is defined as a
mixture for which the partial molar properties ui and vi are not functions of the composition,
that is
An ideal mixture also has the property that hi = hi (T, P ), while for a non-ideal mixture
hi = hi (T, P, n1 , . . . , nN ). Though not obvious, it will turn out that some properties of an
ideal mixture will depend on composition. For example, the entropy of a constituent of an
ideal mixture will be such that
Each constituent possesses a partial pressure which sums to form the total pressure of
the mixture.
The above characterize a Dalton model for any gas, ideal or non-ideal. One also takes for
convenience
It is more convenient to deal on a molar basis for such a theory. For the Dalton model,
additional useful quantities, the species mass concentration i , the mixture mass concentra-
tion , the species molar concentration i , and the mixture molar concentration , can be
defined. As will be seen, these definitions for concentrations are useful; however, they are not
in common usage. Following BS, the bar notation, , will be reserved for properties which
are mole-based rather than mass-based. As mentioned earlier, the notion of a partial molal
property is discussed extensively in the chemical engineering literature and has implications
beyond those considered here. For the Dalton model, in which each component occupies the
same volume, one has
Vi = V. (3.44)
The mixture mass concentration, also called the density is simply
m kg
= , . (3.45)
V m3
One can find a convenient relation between species molar concentration and species mole
fraction by the following operations
ni n
i = , (3.49)
V n
ni n
= , (3.50)
nV
= yi . (3.51)
A similar relation exists between species molar concentration and species mass fraction via
ni m Mi
i = , (3.52)
V m Mi
=m
z }|i{
m ni Mi
= , (3.53)
V mMi
=ci
z}|{
mi 1
= , (3.54)
m Mi
ci
= . (3.55)
Mi
The specific volumes, mass and molar, are similar. One takes
V V
v = , v= , (3.56)
m n
V V
vi = , vi = . (3.57)
mi ni
Note that this definition of molar specific volume is not the partial molar volume defined in
the chemical engineering literature, which takes the form vi = V /ni |T,P,nj ,i6=j .
For the partial pressure of species i, one can say for the Dalton model
N
X
P = Pi . (3.58)
i=1
P V = nRT. (3.63)
n
P = RT = RT. (3.64)
V
|{z}
=
Here n is the total number of moles in the system. Additionally R is the universal gas
constant with value
kJ J
R = 8.314472 = 8.314472 . (3.65)
kmole K mole K
R = kB N , (3.66)
molecule
N = 6.02214179 1023 , (3.67)
mole
J
kB = 1.380650 1023 . (3.68)
K molecule
Example 3.2
Compare the molar specific volume defined here with the partial molar volume from the chemical
engineering literature.
V
vi = . (3.69)
ni T,P,nj ,i6=j
ki = 0, k 6= i, (3.78)
ki = 1, k = i. (3.79)
Contrast this with the earlier adopted definition of molar specific volume
V
vi = . (3.80)
ni
So, why is there a difference? The molar specific volume is a simple definition. One takes the
instantaneous volume V , which is shared by all species in the Dalton model, and scales it by the
instantaneous number of moles of species i, and acquires a natural definition of molar specific volume
consistent with the notion of a mass specific volume. On the other hand, the partial molar volume
specifies how the volume changes if the number of moles of species i changes, while holding T and P
and all other species mole numbers constant. One can imagine adding a mole of species i, which would
necessitate a change in V in order to guarantee the P remain fixed.
n = nA + nB . (3.81)
PA VA = nA RTA , (3.82)
PB VB = nB RTB . (3.83)
PA V = nA RT, (3.84)
PB V = nB RT. (3.85)
PV
n = , (3.87)
RT
PA V
nA = , (3.88)
RT
PB V
nB = . (3.89)
RT
Now n = nA + nB , so one has
PV PA V PB V
= + . (3.90)
RT RT RT
P = PA + PB . (3.91)
That is the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures. This is a mixture rule for
pressure
One can also scale each constituent ideal gas law by the mixture ideal gas law to get
PA V nA RT
= , (3.92)
PV nRT
PA nA
= , (3.93)
P n
= yA , (3.94)
PA = yA P. (3.95)
Likewise
PB = yB P. (3.96)
Now, one also desires rational mixture rules for energy, enthalpy, and entropy. Invoke Trues-
dells principles on a mass basis for internal energy. Then the total internal energy U (with
U = mu = mA uA + mB uB , (3.97)
m mB
A
= m uA + uB , (3.98)
m m
= m (cA uA + cB uB ) , (3.99)
u = cA u A + cB u B . (3.100)
H = mh = mA hA + mB hB , (3.101)
m mB
A
= m hA + hB , (3.102)
m m
= m (cA hA + cB hB ) , (3.103)
h = cA hA + cB hB . (3.104)
It is easy to extend this to a mole fraction basis rather than a mass fraction basis. One can
also obtain a gas constant for the mixture on a mass basis. For the mixture, one has
S = ms = = mA sA + mB sB , (3.113)
m mB
A
= m sA + sB , (3.114)
m m
= m (cA sA + cB sB ) , (3.115)
s = cA sA + cB s B . (3.116)
Note that sA is evaluated at T and PA , while sB is evaluated at T and PB . For a CPIG, one
has
T PA
sA = so298,A + cP A ln RA ln , (3.117)
To Po
| {z }
soT,A
T yA P
= so298,A + cP A ln RA ln . (3.118)
To Po
Likewise
T yB P
sB = so298,B + cP B ln RB ln . (3.119)
To Po
| {z }
soT,B
Here the o denotes some reference state. As a superscript, it typically means that the
property is evaluated at a reference pressure. For example, soT,A denotes the portion of the
entropy of component A that is evaluated at the reference pressure Po and is allowed to vary
with temperature T . Note also that sA = sA (T, P, yA) and sB = sB (T, P, yB ), so the entropy
of a single constituent depends on the composition of the mixture and not just on T and P .
This contrasts with energy and enthalpy for which uA = uA (T ), uB = uB (T ), hA = hA (T ),
hB = hB (T ) if the mixture is composed of ideal gases. Occasionally, one finds hoA and hoB
used as a notation. This denotes that the enthalpy is evaluated at the reference pressure.
However, if the gas is ideal, the enthalpy is not a function of pressure and hA = hoA , hB = hoB .
If one is employing a calorically imperfect ideal gas model, then one finds for species i
that
o yi P
si = sT,i Ri ln , i = A, B. (3.120)
Po
Example 3.3
Initially calorically perfect ideal gases A and B are segregated within the same large volume by
a thin frictionless, thermally conducting diaphragm. Thus, both are at the same initial pressure and
temperature, P1 and T1 . The total volume is thermally insulated and fixed, so there are no global heat
or work exchanges with the environment. The diaphragm is removed, and A and B are allowed to mix.
Assume A has mass mA and B has mass mB . The gases are allowed to have distinct molecular masses,
MA and MB . Find the final temperature T2 , pressure P2 , and the change in entropy.
Likewise
0. (3.151)
We can also scale Eq. (3.149) by Rn to get
1 S nA nB
=
n ln yA2 + n ln yB2 , (3.152)
n
R |{z} |{z} |{z}
=s =yA2 =yB2
s
= (yA2 ln yA2 + yB2 ln yB2 ) , (3.153)
R
yA2 yB2
= (ln yA2 + ln yB2 ), (3.154)
yA2 yB2
= ln (yA2 yB2 ) . (3.155)
For an N-component mixture, mixed in the same fashion such that P and T are constant,
this extends to
N
X
S = R nk ln yk , (3.156)
k=1
N
!
X nk
= R nk ln PN 0, (3.157)
k=1 i=1 ni
| {z }
0
N
X nk
= R n ln yk , (3.158)
k=1
n
XN
nk
= Rn ln yk , (3.159)
k=1
n
XN
m
= R yk ln yk , (3.160)
M k=1
N
X
= Rm ln ykyk , (3.161)
k=1
= Rm (ln y1y1 + ln y2y2 + + ln yN
yN
), (3.162)
y1 y2 yN
= Rm ln (y1 y2 . . . yN ) , (3.163)
N
!
Y
= Rm ln ykyk , (3.164)
k=1
N
!
s s Y
= = ln ykyk . (3.165)
R R k=1
Note that there is a fundamental dependency of the mixing entropy on the mole fractions.
Since 0 yk 1, the product is guaranteed to be between 0 and 1. The natural logarithm
of such a number is negative, and thus the entropy change for the mixture is guaranteed
positive semi-definite. Note also that for the entropy of mixing, Truesdells third principle
is not enforced.
Now if one mole of pure N2 is mixed with one mole of pure O2 , one certainly expects
the resulting homogeneous mixture to have a higher entropy than the two pure components.
But what if one mole of pure N2 is mixed with another mole of pure N2 . Then we would
expect no increase in entropy. However, if we had the unusual ability to distinguish N2
molecules whose origin was from each respective original chamber, then indeed there would
be an entropy of mixing. Increases in entropy thus do correspond to increases in disorder.
where
cv cA cvA + cB cvB . (3.168)
Similarly for enthalpy
where
cP cA cP A + cB cP B . (3.171)
For the entropy
The mixture behaves as a pure substance when the appropriate mixture properties are de-
fined. One can also take
cP
k= . (3.175)
cv
N
X
M = yi Mi , (3.176)
i=1
XN
= i , (3.177)
i=1
1 1
v = PN 1
= , (3.178)
i=1 vi
N
X
u = ci u i , (3.179)
i=1
XN
h = ci hi , (3.180)
i=1
=R
N N
z }| { N
R X X yi Mi Ri R X
R = = ci Ri = = yi , (3.181)
M i=1 i=1
N
X M i=1
yj Mj | {z }
=1
j=1
| {z } =M
N
X
cv = ci cvi , (3.182)
i=1
cv = cP R, if ideal gas, (3.183)
XN
cP = ci cP i , (3.184)
i=1
cP
k = , (3.185)
cv
XN
s = ci si , (3.186)
i=1
yi Mi
ci = , (3.187)
M
Pi = yi P, (3.188)
i = ci , (3.189)
v 1
vi = = , (3.190)
ci i
V = Vi , (3.191)
T = Ti , (3.192)
hi = hoi , if ideal gas, (3.193)
Pi
hi = ui + = ui + Pi vi = ui + Ri T , (3.194)
i | {z }
if ideal gas
Z T
hi = ho298,i + cP i (T) dT, (3.195)
298
| {z }
if ideal gas
Z
cP i (T)
T
Pi
si = so298,i + dT Ri ln , (3.196)
298 T Po
| {z }
=soT,i
| {z }
if ideal gas
yi P Pi
si = soT,i Ri ln = soT,i Ri ln , (3.197)
Po Po
| {z } | {z }
if ideal gas if ideal gas
Ri T
Pi = i Ri T = Ri T ci = , (3.198)
vi
| {z }
if ideal gas
X N
ci RT
P = RT = RT = , (3.199)
i=1
Mi v
| {z }
if ideal gas
N
X Z T
h = ci ho298,i + cP (T ) dT , (3.200)
298
|i=1 {z }
if ideal gas
P
h = u+ = u + P v = |u +{zRT} , (3.201)
if ideal gas
N Z N
!
X T
cP (T ) P Y
s = ci so298,i + dT R ln R ln yiyi .
298 T Po
|i=1 {z i=1
}
if ideal gas
(3.202)
These relations are not obvious. A few are derived in examples here.
Example 3.4
Derive the expression h = u + P/.
Start from the equation for the constituent hi , multiply by mass fractions, sum over all species,
and use properties of mixtures:
Pi
hi = ui + , (3.203)
i
Pi
ci h i = ci u i + ci , (3.204)
i
N
X XN XN
Pi
ci h i = ci u i + ci , (3.205)
i=1 i=1 i=1
i
N
X N
X N
X i Ri T
ci h i = ci u i + ci , (3.206)
i=1 i=1 i=1
i
| {z } | {z }
=h =u
N
X
h = u+T ci Ri , (3.207)
i=1
| {z }
=R
= u + RT, (3.208)
P
= u+ . (3.209)
Example 3.5
Find the expression for mixture entropy of the ideal gas.
Z
T
cP i (T) Pi
si = so298,i + dT Ri ln , (3.210)
298 T Po
Z T
o cP i (T) Pi
ci si = ci s298,i + ci dT ci Ri ln , (3.211)
298 T Po
N N N Z T N
X X
o
X cP i (T) X Pi
s= ci si = ci s298,i + ci dT ci Ri ln , (3.212)
298 T P o
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
N Z T X N N
X ci cP i (T) X Pi
= ci so298,i + dT ci Ri ln , (3.213)
298 i=1
T Po
i=1 i=1
Z T N
o cP (T) X Pi
= s298 + dT ci Ri ln . (3.214)
298
T Po
i=1
All except the last term are natural extensions of the property for a single material. Consider now the
last term involving pressure ratios.
N N !
X Pi X Pi P P
ci Ri ln = ci Ri ln + R ln R ln , (3.215)
i=1
Po i=1
Po Po Po
N !
X Ri Pi P P
= R ci ln + ln ln , (3.216)
i=1
R Po Po Po
N !
X R/Mi Pi P P
= R ci P N ln + ln ln , (3.217)
i=1 j=1 cj R/Mj
Po Po Po
X !
N ci /Mi Pi P P
=
R PN ln + ln ln , (3.218)
i=1 j=1 c j /M j Po Po Po
| {z }
=yi
N !
X Pi P P
= R yi ln + ln ln , (3.219)
i=1
Po Po Po
N yi !
X Pi P P
= R ln ln + ln , (3.220)
i=1
Po Po Po
YN y ! !
Pi i Po P
= R ln + ln + ln , (3.221)
i=1
Po P Po
N y ! !
Po Y Pi i P
= R ln + ln , (3.222)
P i=1 Po Po
N
! !
Po 1 Y yi P
= R ln PN PN (Pi ) + ln , (3.223)
P i=1 yi Po i=1 yi i=1 Po
N y ! !
Y Pi i
P
= R ln + ln , (3.224)
i=1
P Po
YN y ! !
yi P i P
= R ln + ln , (3.225)
i=1
P Po
N
! !
Y yi P
= R ln yi + ln . (3.226)
i=1
Po
The extra entropy is not found in the theory for a single material, and in fact is not in the form suggested
by Truesdells postulates. While it is in fact possible to redefine the constituent entropy definition in
such a fashion that the mixture entropy in fact takes
on the classical form of a single material via the
R T cP i (T)
o Pi
definition si = s298,i + 298 T dT Ri ln Po + Ri ln yi , this has the disadvantage of predicting
no entropy change after mixing two pure substances. Such a theory would suggest that this obviously
irreversible process is in fact reversible.
N
X
cv = yi cvi = cv M, (3.233)
i=1
cv = cP R, (3.234)
XN
cP = yi cP i = cP M, (3.235)
i=1
cP
k = , (3.236)
cv
XN
s = yi si = sM, (3.237)
i=1
i
i = yi = , (3.238)
Mi
V v 1
vi = = = = vi Mi , (3.239)
ni y i
i
V V
vi = = = v = vM , (3.240)
ni P,T,nj |n {z }
if ideal gas
Pi = yi P, (3.241)
RT
P = RT = , (3.242)
| {z v }
if ideal gas
RT
Pi = i RT = , (3.243)
vi
| {z }
if ideal gas
P
h = u+ = u + Pv = u
| +{zRT} = hM, (3.244)
if ideal gas
o
hi = hi , if ideal gas, (3.245)
Pi
hi = ui + = ui + Pi v i = ui + P vi = ui + RT = hi Mi , (3.246)
i | {z }
if ideal gas
Z T
o
hi = h298,i + cP i(T ) dT = hi Mi , (3.247)
298
| {z }
if ideal gas
Z
cP i (T )
T
yi P
si = so298,i + dT R ln , (3.248)
Po
| {z T
298
}
=soT,i
| {z }
if ideal gas
o yi P
si = sT,i R ln = si Mi , (3.249)
Po
| {z }
if ideal gas
N Z N
!
X T
cP (T ) P Y yi
s = yi so298,i + dT R ln R ln yi = sM.
i=1 298 T Po i=1
| {z }
if ideal gas
(3.250)
CC BY-NC-ND. 03 August 2012, J. M. Powers.
92 CHAPTER 3. GAS MIXTURES
Considering an air water vapor mixture, one models the water vapor as an ideal gas and
expresses the total pressure as
P = Pa + Pv . (3.258)
Here v denotes vapor and a denotes air. A good model for the enthalpy of the water vapor
is to take
hv (T, lowP ) = hg (T ). (3.259)
Some definitions:
absolute humidity: , the mass of water present in a unit mass of dry air, also called
humidity ratio,
mv
, (3.261)
ma
Mv nv
= , (3.262)
Ma na
Pv V
Mv RT
= , (3.263)
Ma PRT aV
Mv Pv
= , (3.264)
Ma Pa
kg
18.015 kmole Pv
= kg
, (3.265)
28.97 kmole Pa
Pv
= 0.622 , (3.266)
Pa
Pv
= 0.622 . (3.267)
P Pv
dew point: temperature at which the vapor condenses when it is cooled isobarically.
saturated air: The vapor in the air-vapor mixture is at the saturation temperature and
pressure.
relative humidity: The ratio of the mole fraction of the vapor in the mixture to the mole
fraction of vapor in a saturated mixture at the same temperature and total pressure:
nv
n
ng , (3.268)
n
nv
= , (3.269)
ng
Pv V
RT
= Pg V
, (3.270)
RT
Pv
= . (3.271)
Pg
Note, here the subscript g denotes saturated gas values. Combining, one can relate the
relative humidity to the absolute humidity:
Pa
= . (3.272)
0.622Pg
Example 3.6
(from C engal and Boles, p. 670) A 5 m 5 m 3 m room contains air at 25 C and 100 kP a at a
relative humidity of 75%. Find the
partial pressure of dry air,
absolute humidity (i.e. humidity ratio),
masses of dry air and water vapor in the room, and the
dew point.
The relation between partial and total pressure is
P = Pa + Pv . (3.273)
Pv = Pg . (3.274)
Here Pg is the saturation pressure at the same temperature, which is 25 C. At 25 C, the tables give
So
Pv = 0.75(3.169 kP a) = 2.3675 kP a. (3.276)
So from the definition of partial pressure
Pa = P Pv , (3.277)
= 100 kP a 2.3675 kP a, (3.278)
= 97.62 kP a. (3.279)
Now for the absolute humidity (or specific humidity), one has
Pv
= 0.622 , (3.280)
Pa
2.3675 kP a
= 0.622 , (3.281)
97.62 kP a
kg H2 O
= 0.0152 . (3.282)
kg dry air
Now for the masses of air and water, one can use the partial pressures:
Pa V
ma = Ma , (3.283)
RT
Pa V
= , (3.284)
Ra T
(97.62 kP a) 75 m3
= kJ
, (3.285)
8.314 kmole
28.97 kg
K
(298 K)
kmole
mv = ma , (3.291)
= (0.0152)(85.61 kg), (3.292)
= 1.3 kg. (3.293)
Now the dew point is the saturation temperature at the partial pressure of the water vapor. With
Pv = 2.3675 kP a, the saturation tables give
Example 3.7
(BS, Ex. 13.5, pp. 536-537.) An air-water vapor mixture enters the cooling coils of an air conditioner
unit. The inlet is at P1 = 105 kP a, T1 = 30 C, 1 = 0.80. The exit state is P2 = 100 kP a, T2 = 15 C,
2 = 0.95. Liquid water at 15 C also exits the system. Find the heat transfer per kilogram of dry air.
m
a1 = a2 m
m a, (3.295)
m
v1 = m
v2 + m
l2 . (3.296)
Note at state 2, the mass flow of water is in both liquid and vapor form.
The first law for the control volume give
dEcv
= Q cv W cv +m v1 hv1 m
a ha1 + m a ha2 m
v2 hv2 m
l2 hl2 , (3.297)
|{z}
| dt
{z } =0
=0
Q cv + m a ha1 + m
v1 hv1 = m
a ha2 + m v1 m
v2 hv2 + (m v2 )hl2 , (3.298)
Qcv m v1 m
v2 v1 m
m v2
+ ha1 + hv1 = ha2 + hv2 + hl2 , (3.299)
ma ma ma ma
Q cv
+ ha1 + 1 hv1 = ha2 + 2 hv2 + (1 2 )hl2 , (3.300)
ma
Q cv
= ha2 ha1 1 hv1 + 2 hv2 + (1 2 )hl2 , (3.301)
m
a
= cpa (T2 T1 ) 1 hv1 + 2 hv2 + (1 2 )hl2 . (3.302)
Now at the inlet, one has from the definition of relative humidity
Pv1
1 = . (3.303)
Pg1
Here Pg is the saturated vapor pressure at the inlet temperature, T1 = 30 C. This is Pg1 = 4.246 kP a.
So one gets
a1 m
0 = m a2 , air (3.321)
0 = m
v1 + m lm v2 , water (3.322)
0 = m
a1 ha1 + m v1 hv1 + m l hl m
a2 ha2 m
v2 hv2 . (3.323)
m a2 m
a1 = m a. (3.324)
m v2 m
l=m v1 . (3.325)
0 = m a ha1 + m v1 hv1 + (m v2 m
v1 )hl m
a ha2 m v2 hv2 , (3.326)
m v1 m
v2 m v1 m
v2
0 = ha1 + hv1 + hl ha2 hv2 , (3.327)
ma ma ma ma
0 = ha1 + 1 hv1 + (2 1 ) hl ha2 2 hv2 , (3.328)
0 = ha1 ha2 + 1 (hv1 hl ) + 2 (hl hv2 ), (3.329)
1 (hv1 hl ) = ha1 ha2 + 2 (hl hv2 ), (3.330)
1 (hv1 hl ) = ha2 ha1 + 2 (hv2 hl ), (3.331)
1 (hv1 hl ) = cpa (T2 T1 ) + 2 hf g2 . (3.332)
Example 3.8
(BS, 13.7E, p. 540). The pressure of the mixture entering and leaving the adiabatic saturater is
14.7 psia, the entering temperature is 84 F , and the temperature leaving is 70 F , which is the adiabatic
saturation temperature. Calculate the humidity ratio and the relative humidity of the air-water vapor
mixture entering.
lbm H2 O
= 0.012895 . (3.340)
lbm dry air
Here hv1 was estimated as the saturated vapor value at T = 84 F by interpolating the tables. In the
absence of more information regarding the initial vapor state, this estimate is good as any. The value
of hl is estimated as the saturated liquid value at T = 70 F . Now
Pv1
1 = 0.622 , (3.341)
P1 Pv1
P1 1
Pv1 = , (3.342)
0.622 + 1
(14.7 psia)(0.0124895)
= , (3.343)
0.622 + 0.0124895
= 0.28936 psia. (3.344)
For the relative humidity
Pv1
1 = , (3.345)
Pg1
0.28936 psia
= , (3.346)
0.584 psia
= 0.495. (3.347)
Mathematical foundations of
thermodynamics
This is known to be an exact differential with the consequence that internal energy u is a
function of the state of the system and not the details of any process which led to the state.
As a counter-example, the work,
w = P dv, (4.2)
can be shown to be an inexact differential so that the work is indeed a function of the process
involved. Here we use the notation to emphasize that this is an inexact differential.
Example 4.1
Show the work is not a state function. If work were a state function, one might expect it to have
the form
w = w(P, v), provisional assumption, to be tested. (4.3)
101
102 CHAPTER 4. MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS
df (P )
0 = v+ , (4.9)
dP
df (P )
= v. (4.10)
dP
Equation (4.10) cannot be: a function of P only cannot be a function of v. So, w cannot be a state
property:
w 6= w(P, v). (4.11)
Now, if the differential in Eq. (4.12), when set to a differential dy, can be integrated to form
the function
y = y(x1 , x2 , . . . , xN ), (4.13)
the differential is said to be exact. In such a case, one has
N
X
dy = 1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + + N dxN = i dxi . (4.14)
i=1
Now, if the algebraic definition of Eq. (4.13) holds, what amounts to the definition of the
partial derivative gives the parallel result that
y y y
dy = dx1 + dx2 + + dxN . (4.15)
x1 xj ,j6=1 x2 xj ,j6=2 xN xj ,j6=N
Now, combining Eqs. (4.14) and (4.15) to eliminate dy, one gets
y y y
1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + + N dxN = dx1 + dx2 + + dxN .
x1 xj ,j6=1 x2 xj ,j6=2 xN xj ,j6=N
(4.16)
So when dy is exact, one says that each of the i and xi are conjugate to each other.
From here on out, for notational ease, the j 6= 1, j 6= 2, . . . , j 6= N will be ignored in
the notation for the partial derivatives. It becomes especially confusing for higher order
derivatives, and is fairly obvious for all derivatives.
If y and all its derivatives are continuous and differentiable, then one has for all i =
1, . . . , N, and k = 1, . . . , N that
2y 2y
= . (4.19)
xk xi xi xk
Now from Eq. (4.18), one has
y y
k = , l = . (4.20)
xk xj xl xj
Taking the partial of the first of Eq. (4.20) with respect to xl and the second with respect
to xk , one gets
k 2y l 2y
= , = . (4.21)
xl xj xl xk xk xj xk xl
Since by Eq. (4.19) the order of the mixed second partials does not matter, one deduces from
Eq. (4.21) that
k l
= . (4.22)
xl xk
xj xj
This is a necessary and sufficient condition for the exact-ness of Eq. (4.12). It is a gen-
eralization of what can be found in most introductory calculus texts for functions of two
variables.
For the Gibbs equation, (4.1), du = P dv + T ds, one has
y u, x1 v, x2 s, 1 P 2 T. (4.23)
The function y can only be determined to within an additive constant. That is, there
is no absolute value of y; physical significance is only ascribed to differences in y. In
fact now, other means, extraneous to this analysis, can be used to provide absolute
values of key thermodynamic variables. This will be important especially for flows
with reaction.
Example 4.2
Show the heat transfer q is not a state function. Assume all processes are fully reversible. The first
law gives
du = q w, (4.28)
q = du + w, (4.29)
= du + P dv. (4.30)
Take now the non-canonical, although acceptable, form u = u(T, v). Then one gets
u u
du = dv + dT. (4.31)
v T T v
So
u u
q = dv + dT + P dv, (4.32)
v T T v
u u
= + P dv + dT. (4.33)
v T T v
| {z } | {z }
M N
= M dv + N dT. (4.34)
This reduces to
2u P 2u
+ = . (4.37)
T v T v vT
P
P
This can only be true if T v = 0. But this is not the case; consider an ideal gas for which T v = R/v.
So dq is not exact.
Example 4.3
Show conditions for ds to be exact in the Gibbs equation.
du = T ds P dv, (4.38)
du P
ds = + dv, (4.39)
T T
1 u u P
= dv + dT + dv, (4.40)
T v T T v T
1 u P
1 u
= + dv + dT. (4.41)
T v T T T T v
| {z } | {z }
M N
Since x and z are independent, so are dx and dz, and the coefficients on each in Eq. (4.53)
must be zero. Therefore from the coefficient on dx in Eq. (4.53)
x y
1 = 0, (4.54)
y z x z
x y
= 1. (4.55)
y z x z
So
x 1
= , (4.56)
y z y
x z
So
x y z
= 1. (4.59)
z y x z y x
If one now divides Eq. (4.49) by a fourth differential, dw, one gets
dx x dy x dz
= + . (4.60)
dw y z dw z y dw
Example 4.4
Apply Eq. (4.65) to a standard P v T system and let
x T
= . (4.66)
y z v s
However, v and s may not be convenient for a particular problem. There may be other
combinations of variables whose canonical form gives a more convenient set of independent
variables for a particular problem. An example is the enthalpy:
h u + P v. (4.78)
dh = du + P dv + vdP. (4.79)
| P dv
dh {z vdP} = P dv + T ds. (4.80)
=du
So
dh = T ds + vdP. (4.81)
h = h(s, P ). (4.82)
This exercise can be systematized with the Legendre transformation,1 which defines a set
of second order polynomial combinations of variables. Consider again the exact differential
Eq. (4.14):
dy = 1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + + N dxN . (4.83)
1
Two differentiable functions f and g are said to be Legendre transformations of each other if their first
derivatives are inverse functions of each other: Df = (Dg)1 . With some effort, not shown here, one can
prove that the Legendre transformations of this section satisfy this general condition.
Each is a new dependent variable. Each has the property that when it is known as a
function of its N canonical variables, the remaining N variables from the original expression
(the xi and the conjugate i ) can be recovered by differentiation of . In general this is not
true for arbitrary transformations.
Example 4.5
Let y = y(x1 , x2 , x3 ). This has the associated differential form
dy = 1 dx1 + 2 dx2 + 3 dx3 . (4.90)
Choose now a Legendre transformed variable 1 z(1 , x2 , x3 ):
z = y 1 x1 . (4.91)
Then
z z z
dz = d1 + dx2 + dx3 . (4.92)
1 x2 ,x3 x2 1 ,x3 x3 1 ,x2
Now differentiating Eq. (4.91), one also gets
dz = dy 1 dx1 x1 d1 . (4.93)
Elimination of dy in Eq. (4.93) by using Eq. (4.90) gives
dz = dx + 2 dx2 + 3 dx3 1 dx1 x1 d1 , (4.94)
|1 1 {z }
=dy
= x1 d1 + 2 dx2 + 3 dx3 . (4.95)
Thus from Eq. (4.92), one gets
z z z
x1 = , 2 = , 3 = . (4.96)
1 x2 ,x3 x2 1 ,x3 x3 1 ,x2
So the original expression had three independent variables x1 , x2 , x3 , and three conjugate variables
1 , 2 , 3 . Definition of the Legendre function z with canonical variables 1 , x2 , and x3 allowed
determination of the remaining variables x1 , 2 , and 3 in terms of the canonical variables.
For the Gibbs equation, (4.1), du = P dv + T ds, one has y = u, two canonical variables,
x1 = v and x2 = s, and two conjugates, 1 = P and 2 = T . Thus N = 2, and one can
expect 22 1 = 3 Legendre transformations. They are
It has already been shown for the enthalpy that dh = T ds + vdP , so that the canonical
variables are s and P . One then also has
h h
dh = ds + dP, (4.100)
s P P s
from which one deduces that
h h
T = , v= . (4.101)
s P P s
From Eq. (4.101), a second Maxwell relation can be deduced by differentiation of the first
with respect to P and the second with respect to s:
T v
= . (4.102)
P s s P
The relations for Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies each supply additional useful relations
including two new Maxwell relations. First consider the Helmholtz free energy
a = u T s, (4.103)
da = du T ds sdT, (4.104)
= (P dv + T ds) T ds sdT, (4.105)
= P dv sdT. (4.106)
So the canonical variables for a are v and T . The conjugate variables are P and s. Thus
a a
da = dv + dT. (4.107)
v T T v
So one gets
a a
P = , s = . (4.108)
v T T v
g = |u +{zP v} T s, (4.110)
=h
= h T s, (4.111)
dg = dh T ds sdT, (4.112)
= (T ds + vdP ) T ds sdT, (4.113)
| {z }
=dh
= vdP sdT. (4.114)
So for Gibbs free energy, the canonical variables are P and T while the conjugate variables
are v and s. One then has g = g(P, T ), which gives
g g
dg = dP + dT. (4.115)
P T T P
So one finds
g g
v= , s = . (4.116)
P T T P
The resulting Maxwell function is then
v s
= . (4.117)
T P P T
Example 4.6
Canonical Form
If R/cP
P s
h(s, P ) = cP To exp + (ho cP To ) , (4.118)
Po cP
and cP , To , R, Po , and ho are all constants, derive both thermal and caloric state equations P (v, T )
and u(v, T ).
Now since
h
= T, (4.121)
s P
h
= v, (4.122)
P s
one has
R/cP
P s
T = To exp , (4.123)
Po cP
R/cP 1
RTo P s
v = exp . (4.124)
Po Po cP
T P
= , (4.125)
v R
Pv = RT , (4.126)
which is the thermal equation of state. Substituting from Eq. (4.123) into the canonical equation for
h, Eq. (4.118), one also finds for the caloric equation of state
h = cP T + (ho cP To ) , (4.127)
h = cP (T To ) + ho , (4.128)
So
c c
P P
u = 1 Pv 1 Po vo + uo , (4.131)
cR R
P
u = 1 (P v Po vo ) + uo , (4.132)
cR
P
u = 1 (RT RTo ) + uo , (4.133)
R
u = (cP R) (T To ) + uo , (4.134)
u = (cP (cP cv )) (T To ) + uo , (4.135)
u = cv (T To ) + uo . (4.136)
So one canonical equation gives us all the information one needs. Often, it is difficult to do a single
experiment to get the canonical form.
Consequently, u is not a function of v for an ideal gas, so u = u(T ) alone. Since Eq. (4.78),
h = u + P v, for an ideal gas reduces to h = u + RT
Now return to general equations of state. With s = s(T, v) or s = s(T, P ), one gets
s s
ds = dT + dv, (4.154)
T v v T
s s
ds = dT + dP. (4.155)
T P P T
Now divide both sides by dT and hold either P or v constant. In either case, one gets
P v
cP cv = T . (4.160)
T v T P
Now since T > 0, (v/T |P )2 > 0, and for all known materials P/v|T < 0, we must have
c P > cv . (4.162)
Example 4.7
For an ideal gas find cP cv .
RR
cP cv = T , (4.164)
vP
R2
= T , (4.165)
RT
= R. (4.166)
cP (T ) cv (T ) = R. (4.167)
For the ratio of specific heats for a general material, one can use Eqs. (4.141) and (4.144)
to get
s
cP T T
k= = s
P , then apply Eq. (4.56) to get (4.168)
cv T T v
s T
= , then apply Eq. (4.58) to get (4.169)
T P s v
s P T v
= , (4.170)
P T T s v s s T
v s P T
= . (4.171)
s T P T T s v s
The first term can be obtained from P v T data. The second term is related to the
isentropic sound speed of the material, which is also a measurable quantity.
Example 4.8
For a calorically perfect ideal gas with gas constant R and specific heat at constant volume cv ,
find expressions for the thermodynamic variable s and thermodynamic potentials u, h, a, and g, as
functions of T and P .
du = T ds P dv, (4.173)
T ds = du + P dv, (4.174)
T ds = cv dT + P dv, (4.175)
dT P
ds = cv + dv, (4.176)
T T
dT dv
= cv +R , (4.177)
Z Z T vZ
dT dv
ds = cv + R , (4.178)
T v
T v
s s0 = cv ln + R ln , (4.179)
T0 v0
s s0 T R RT /P
= ln + ln , (4.180)
cv T0 cv RT0 /P0
R/cv
T T P0
= ln + ln , (4.181)
T0 T0 P
1+R/cv R/cv
T P0
= ln + ln , (4.182)
T0 P
1+(cp cv )/cv (cp cv )/cv
T P0
= ln + ln , (4.183)
T0 P
k k1
T P0
= ln + ln . (4.184)
T0 P
So
k k1
T P0
s = s0 + cv ln + cv ln . (4.185)
T0 P
u = uo + cv (T To ). (4.186)
h = u + P v, (4.187)
= u + RT, (4.188)
= uo + cv (T To ) + RT, (4.189)
= uo + cv (T To ) + RT + RTo RTo , (4.190)
= uo + RTo +cv (T To ) + R(T To ), (4.191)
| {z }
=ho
= ho + (cv + R)(T To ). (4.192)
| {z }
=cp
So
h = ho + cp (T To ). (4.193)
a = u T s. (4.194)
Thus,
k k1 !
T P0
a = uo + cv (T To ) T s0 + cv ln + cv ln . (4.195)
T0 P
g = h T s. (4.196)
Thus
k k1 !
T P0
g = ho + cp (T To ) T s0 + cv ln + cv ln . (4.197)
T0 P
RT a
P (T, v) = 2, (4.198)
vb v
where b accounts for the finite volume of the molecules, and a accounts for intermolecular
forces.
Example 4.9
Find a general expression for u(T, v) if
RT a
P (T, v) = . (4.199)
v b v2
Proceed as before: First we have
u u
du = dT + dv, (4.200)
T v v T
recalling that
u u P
= cv , = T P. (4.201)
T v v T T v
So we have
u a
= , (4.205)
v T v2
a
u(T, v) = + f (T ). (4.206)
v
Here f (T ) is some as-of-yet arbitrary function of T . To evaluate f (T ), take the derivative with respect
to T holding v constant:
u df
= = cv . (4.207)
T v dT
Z T
1 1
u(T, v) = uo + cv (T)dT + a . (4.210)
To vo v
We also find
Z T
1 1
h = u + P v = uo + cv (T)dT + a + P v, (4.211)
To vo v
Z T
1 1 RT v a
h(T, v) = uo + cv (T)dT + a + . (4.212)
To vo v vb v
Example 4.10
A van der Waals gas with
J
R = 200 , (4.213)
kg K
P a m6
a = 150 , (4.214)
kg 2
m3
b = 0.001 , (4.215)
kg
J J
cv = 350 + 0.2 (T (300 K)), (4.216)
kg K kg K 2
begins at T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 105 P a. It is isothermally compressed to state 2 where P2 = 1 106 P a.
It is then isochorically heated to state 3 where T3 = 1000 K. Find 1 w3 , 1 q3 , and s3 s1 . Assume the
surroundings are at 1000 K.
Recall
RT a
P = , (4.217)
v b v2
so at state 1
J 6
200 (300 K) 150 P a m
kg K
5 kg2
10 P a = 2 . (4.218)
v1 0.001 m
3 v1
kg
The physical solution is v2 = 0.0585 m3 /kg. Now at state 3 it is known that v3 = v2 and T3 = 1000 K.
Determine P3 :
200 kgJ K (1000 K)
6
150 P akgm
2
P3 = 3
3
2 , (4.224)
0.0585 mkg 0.001 m
kg 0.0585 m
3
kg
R2 R3 R2
Now 1 w3 = 1 w2 + 2 w3 = 1 P dv + 2 P dv = 1 P dv since 2 3 is at constant volume. So
Z v2
RT a
1 w3 = dv, (4.227)
v1 v b v2
Z v2 Z v2
dv dv
= RT1 a 2
, (4.228)
v1 v b v1 v
v2 b 1 1
= RT1 ln +a , (4.229)
v1 b v2 v1
0.0585 m
3
0.001 m
3
J kg kg
= 200 (300 K) ln
kg K m3
0.598 kg 0.001 kgm3
!
P a m6 1 1
+ 150 3 , (4.230)
kg 2 0.0585 m kg 0.598 m
3
kg
J J
= 140408 + 2313 , (4.231)
kg kg
J
= 138095 , (4.232)
kg
kJ
= 138.095 . (4.233)
kg
u3 u1 = 1 q3 1 w3 , (4.243)
1 q3 = u3 u1 + 1 w3 , (4.244)
kJ kJ
1 q3 = 292 138 , (4.245)
kg kg
kJ
1 q3 = 154 . (4.246)
kg
T ds = du + P dv, (4.247)
1 P
ds = du + dv, (4.248)
T T
1 a P
ds = cv (T )dT + 2 dv + dv, (4.249)
T v T
1 a 1 RT a
ds = cv (T )dT + 2 dv + dv, (4.250)
T v T v b v2
cv (T ) R
ds = dT + dv, (4.251)
T vb
Z T3
cv (T ) v3 b
s3 s1 = dT + R ln , (4.252)
T1 T v1b
Z 1000 290 kgJ K
= + 0.2
J dT + R ln v3 b , (4.253)
T kg K 2 v1 b
300
J 1000 K J
= 290 ln + 0.2 ((1000 K) (300 K))
kg K 300 K kg K 2
0.0585 m3
0.001 m3
J kg kg
+ 200 ln , (4.254)
kg K m3
0.598 kg 0.001 kg m3
J J J
= 349 + 140 468 , (4.255)
kg K kg K kg K
J
= 21 , (4.256)
kg K
kJ
= 0.021 . (4.257)
kg K
First look at 1 2
u2 u1 = 1 q2 1 w2 , (4.258)
1 q2 = u2 u1 + 1 w2 , (4.259)
Z T2 !
1 1 v2 b 1 1
1 q2 = cv (T )dT + a + RT1 ln +a . (4.260)
T1 v1 v2 v1 b v2 v1
J kg kg
= 200 ln , (4.265)
kg K m3
0.598 kg 0.001 kgm3
J
= 468.0 . (4.266)
kg K
Check the second law. Note that in this portion of the process in which the heat is transferred out
of the system, that the surroundings must have Tsurr 300 K. For this portion of the process let us
take Tsurr = 300 K.
1 q2
s2 s1 ? (4.267)
T
J
J 140408 kg
468.0 , (4.268)
kg K 300 K
J J
468.0 468.0 ok. (4.269)
kg K kg K
Next look at 2 3
2 q3 = u3 u2 + 2 w3 , (4.270)
Z T3 ! Z v3
1 1
2 q3 = cv (T )dT + a + P dv , (4.271)
T2 v2 v3 v2
Z T3
since isochoric 2 q3 = cv (T )dT, (4.272)
T2
Z 1000 K
J J
= 290 + 0.2 T dT, (4.273)
300 K kg K kg K 2
J
= 294000 . (4.274)
kg
In order to transfer heat into the system we must have a different thermal reservoir. This one must
have Tsurr 1000 K. Assume here that the heat transfer was from a reservoir held at 1000 K to assess
the influence of the second law.
2 q3
s3 s2 ? (4.279)
T
J
J 294000 kg
489 , (4.280)
kg K 1000 K
J J
489 294 , ok. (4.281)
kg K kg K
RT a
P = . (4.282)
v b v(v + b)T 1/2
It is modestly more accurate than the van der Waals equation in predicting material behavior.
Example 4.11
For the case in which b = 0, find an expression for u(T, v) consistent with the Redlich-Kwong state
equation.
Here the equation of state is now
RT a
P = 2 1/2 . (4.283)
v v T
df
cvo (T ). (4.289)
dT
Integrating, then one gets
Z T
f (T ) = C + cvo (T) dT. (4.290)
To
1/2
Let us take C = uo +3a/2/vo/To . Thus we arrive at the following expressions for cv (T, v) and u(T, v):
3a
cv (T, v) = cvo (T ) + , (4.291)
4vT 3/2
Z !
T
3a 1 1
u(T, v) = uo + cvo (T) dT + 1/2
. (4.292)
To 2 vo To vT 1/2
For an ideal gas, Z = 1. For substances with a simple molecular structure, Z can be
tabulated as functions of the so-called reduced pressure Pr and reduced temperature Tr . Tr
and Pr are dimensionless variables found by scaling their dimensional counterparts by the
specific materials temperature and pressure at the critical point, Tc and Pc :
T P
Tr , Pr . (4.294)
Tc Pc
Often charts are available which give predictions of all reduced thermodynamic properties.
These are most useful to capture the non-ideal gas behavior of materials for which tables are
not available.
U = U(V, S, ni ). (4.295)
The extensive version of the Gibbs law in which all of the ni are held constant is
dU = P dV + T dS. (4.296)
Thus
U U
= P, = T. (4.297)
V S,ni S V,ni
In general, since U = U(S, V, ni ), one should expect, for systems in which the ni are allowed
to change that
N
U U X U
dU = dV + dS + dni . (4.298)
V S,ni S V,ni i=1
ni S,V,nj
Defining the new thermodynamics property, the chemical potential i , as
U
i , (4.299)
ni S,V,nj
N
X
dU = P dV + T dS + i dni . (4.300)
i=1
Obviously, by its definition, i is on a per mole basis, so it is given the appropriate overline
notation. In Eq. (4.300), the independent variables and their conjugates are
x1 = V, 1 = P, (4.301)
x2 = S, 2 = T, (4.302)
x3 = n1 , 3 = 1 , (4.303)
x4 = n2 , 4 = 2 , (4.304)
.. ..
. .
xN +2 = nN , N +2 = N . (4.305)
Equation (4.300) has 2N +1 1 Legendre functions. Three are in wide usage: the extensive
analog to those earlier found. They are
H = U + P V, (4.306)
A = U T S, (4.307)
G = U + P V T S. (4.308)
Differentiating each defined Legendre function, Eqs. (4.306-4.309), and combining with
Eq. (4.300), one finds
N
X
dH = T dS + V dP + i dni , (4.310)
i=1
XN
dA = SdT P dV + i dni , (4.311)
i=1
XN
dG = SdT + V dP + i dni , (4.312)
i=1
XN
d = P dV SdT ni di . (4.313)
i=1
Thus, canonical variables for H are H = H(S, P, ni). One finds a similar set of relations as
U H A G
i = = = = (4.319)
ni S,V,nj ni S,P,nj ni T,V,nj ni T,P,nj
If m = 1, one has
f (x1 , . . . , xN ) = f (x1 , . . . , xN ). (4.330)
Thermodynamic variables are examples of homogeneous functions.
Differentiate both sides of Eq. (4.332) with respect to , while holding P , T , and nj constant,
to get
G(T, P, n1 , n2 , . . . , nN ) =
G d(n1 ) G d(n2 ) G d(nN )
+ ++ , (4.333)
(n1 ) nj ,P,T d (n2 ) nj ,P,T d (nN ) nj ,P,T d
G G G
= n1 + n2 + + nN , (4.334)
(n1 ) nj ,P,T (n2 ) nj ,P,T (nN ) nj ,P,T
Recall now the definition partial molar property, the derivative of an extensive variable with
respect to species ni holding nj , i 6= j, T , and P constant. Because the result has units per
mole, an overline superscript is utilized. The partial molar Gibbs free energy of species i, g i
is then
G
gi , (4.337)
ni nj ,P,T
so that
N
X
G= g i ni . (4.338)
i=1
Using the definition of chemical potential, Eq. (4.319), one also notes then that
N
X
G(T, P, n1 , n2 , . . . , nN ) = i ni . (4.339)
i=1
The temperature and pressure dependence of G must lie entirely within i (T, P, nj ), which
one notes is also allowed to be a function of nj as well. Consequently, one also sees that the
Gibbs free energy per unit mole of species i is the chemical potential of that species:
g i = i . (4.340)
Using Eq. (4.338) to eliminate G in Eq. (4.308), one recovers an equation for the energy:
N
X
U = P V + T S + i ni . (4.341)
i=1
Note that these expressions do not formally involve partial molar properties since P and T
are not constant.
Take now the appropriate partial molar derivatives of G for an ideal mixture of ideal
gases to get some useful relations:
G = H T S, (4.347)
G H S
= T . (4.348)
ni T,P,nj ni T,P,nj ni T,P,nj
N
X
H = nk hk (T, P ), (4.349)
k=1
N
!
H X
= nk hk (T, P ) , (4.350)
ni T,P,nj ni k=1
N
X nk
= hk (T, P ), (4.351)
ni
k=1 |{z}
=ik
N
X
= ik hk (T, P ), (4.352)
k=1
= hi (T, P ). (4.353)
Here, the Kronecker delta function ki has been again used. Now for an ideal gas one further
has hi = hi (T ). The analysis is more complicated for the entropy, in which
N
X
o Pk
S = nk sT,k R ln , (4.354)
Po
k=1
XN
o yk P
= nk sT,k R ln , (4.355)
k=1
P o
N !!
X P nk
o
= nk sT,k R ln R ln PN , (4.356)
k=1
Po q=1 nq
N N
!
X P X nk
= nk soT,k R ln R nk ln PN , (4.357)
k=1
Po k=1 q=1 nq
N
S X o P
= nk sT,k R ln
ni T,P,nj ni k=1 Po
N
!!
X nk
R nk ln PN , (4.358)
ni T,P,nj q=1 nq
k=1
XN
nk o P
= sT,k R ln
ni
k=1 |{z}
Po
=ik
N
!!
X nk
R nk ln PN , (4.359)
ni T,P,nj q=1 n q
k=1
N
!!
P X nk
o
= sT,i R ln R nk ln PN .(4.360)
Po ni T,P,nj k=1 q=1 nq
Evaluation of the final term on the right side requires closer examination, and in fact, after
tedious but straightforward analysis, yields a simple result which can easily be verified by
direct calculation:
N
!! !
X nk ni
nk ln PN = ln PN . (4.361)
ni T,P,nj k=1 q=1 nq q=1 nq
g i = hi T si . (4.366)
Consider temporarily the assumption that the work and heat transfer are both reversible.
Thus, the irreversible entropy production must be associated with internal chemical reaction.
Now the first law for the entire system gives
dU = Q W, (4.378)
= Q P dV, (4.379)
Q = dU + P dV. (4.380)
Note because the system is closed, there can be no species entering or exiting, and so there
is no change dU attributable to dni . While within the system the dni may not be 0, the net
contribution to the change in total internal energy is zero. A non-zero dni within the system
simply re-partitions a fixed amount of total energy from one species to another. Substituting
Eq. (4.380) into Eq. (4.377) to eliminate Q, one gets
1
dS (dU + P dV ), (4.381)
T| {z }
=Q
T dS dU P dV 0, (4.382)
dU T dS + P dV 0. (4.383)
Eq. (4.383) involves properties only and need not require assumptions of reversibility for
processes in its derivation. In special cases, it reduces to simpler forms.
For processes which are isentropic and isochoric, the second law expression, Eq. (4.383),
reduces to
dU|S,V 0. (4.384)
For processes which are isoenergetic and isochoric, the second law expression, Eq. (4.383),
reduces to
dS|U,V 0. (4.385)
Now using Eq. (4.300) to eliminate dS in Eq. (4.385), one can express the second law as
!
1 P 1X
N
dU + dV i dni 0, (4.386)
T T T i=1
| {z }
=dS U,V
N
X
1
i dni 0. (4.387)
T i=1
| {z }
irreversible entropy production
The irreversible entropy production associated with the internal chemical reaction must be
the left side of Eq. (4.387). Often the irreversible entropy production is defined as , with
Now, while most standard texts focusing on equilibrium thermodynamics go to great lengths
to avoid the introduction of time, it really belongs in a discussion describing the approach
to equilibrium. One can divide Eq. (4.387) by a positive time increment dt to get
N
1 X dni
0. (4.389)
T i=1 i dt
|dH P dV
{z V dP} T dS + P dV 0, (4.391)
=dU
dH V dP T dS 0. (4.392)
dH|P,S 0. (4.393)
For the Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies, one analogously finds
dA|T,V 0, (4.394)
dG|T,P 0. (4.395)
The expression of the second law in terms of dG is especially useful as it may be easy in an
experiment to control so that P and T are constant. This is especially true in an isobaric
phase change, in which the temperature is guaranteed to be constant as well.
Now one has
N
X
G = ni g i , (4.396)
i=1
XN
= ni i . (4.397)
i=1
P
One also has from Eq. (4.312): dG = SdT + V dP + N i=1 i dni , holding T and P constant
that
N
X
dG|T,P = i dni . (4.398)
i=1
Here the dni are associated entirely with internal chemical reactions. Substituting Eq. (4.398)
into Eq. (4.395), one gets the important version of the second law which holds that
N
X
dG|T,P = i dni 0. (4.399)
i=1
In terms of time rates of change, one can divide Eq. (4.399) by a positive time increment
dt > 0 to get
N
G X dni
= i 0. (4.400)
t T,P i=1
dt
Example 4.12
Consider an equilibrium two-phase mixture of liquid and vapor H2 O at T = 100 C, x = 0.5. Use
the steam tables to check if equilibrium properties are satisfied.
In a two-phase gas liquid mixture one can expect the following reaction:
That is one mole of liquid, in the forward phase change, evaporates to form one mole of gas. In the
reverse phase change, one mole of gas condenses to form one mole of liquid.
Because T is fixed at 100 C and the material is a two phase mixture, the pressure is also fixed at a
constant. Here there are two phases at saturation; g for gas and l for liquid. Equation (4.399) reduces
to
l dnl + g dng 0. (4.402)
Now for the pure H2 O if a loss of moles from one phase must be compensated by the addition to
another. So one must have
dnl + dng = 0. (4.403)
Hence
dng = dnl . (4.404)
So Eq. (4.402), using Eq. (4.404) becomes
At this stage of the analysis, most texts, grounded in equilibrium thermodynamics, assert that l = g ,
ignoring the fact that they could be different but dnl could be zero. That approach will not be taken
here. Instead divide Eq. (4.406) by a positive time increment, dt 0 to write the second law as
dnl
( g ) 0. (4.407)
dt l
One convenient, albeit nave, way to guarantee second law satisfaction is to let
dnl
= (l g ), 0, convenient, but nave model (4.408)
dt
Here is some positive semi-definite scalar rate constant which dictates the time scale of approach to
equilibrium. Note that Eq. (4.408) is just a hypothesized model. It has no experimental verification; in
fact, other more complex models exist which both agree with experiment and satisfy the second law.
For the purposes of the present argument, however, Eq. (4.408) will suffice. With this assumption, the
second law reduces to
(l g )2 0, 0, (4.409)
which is always true.
Eq. (4.408) has two important consequences:
Differences in chemical potential drive changes in the number of moles.
The number of moles of liquid, nl , increases when the chemical potential of the liquid is less than that
of the gas, l < g . That is to say, when the liquid has a lower chemical potential than the gas, the
gas is driven towards the phase with the lower potential. Because such a phase change is isobaric and
isothermal, the Gibbs free energy is the appropriate variable to consider, and one takes = g. When
this is so, the Gibbs free energy of the mixture, G = nl l + ng g is being driven to a lower value. So
when dG = 0, the system has a minimum G.
The system is in equilibrium when the chemical potentials of liquid and gas are equal: l = g .
The chemical potentials, and hence the molar specific Gibbs free energies must be the same for
each constituent of the binary mixture at the phase equilibrium. That is
gl = gg . (4.410)
Now since both the liquid and gas have the same molecular mass, one also has the mass specific Gibbs
free energies equal at phase equilibrium:
gl = gg . (4.411)
This can be verified from the steam tables, using the definition g = h T s. From the tables
kJ kJ kJ
gl = hl T sl = 419.02 ((100 + 273.15) K) 1.3068 = 68.6 , (4.412)
kg kg K kg
kJ kJ kJ
gg = hg T sg = 2676.05 ((100 + 273.15) K) 7.3548 = 68.4 . (4.413)
kg kg K kg
The two values are essentially the same; the difference is likely due to table inaccuracies.
Example 4.13
This example is from BS, 16.20, p. 700. A container has liquid water at 20 C, 100 kP a, in
equilibrium with a mixture of water vapor and dry air, also at 20 C, 100 kP a. Find the water vapor
pressure and the saturated water vapor pressure.
Now at this temperature, the tables easily show that the pressure of a saturated vapor is Psat =
2.339 kP a . From the previous example, it is known that for the water liquid and vapor in equilibrium,
one has
gliq = gvap . (4.414)
Now if both the liquid and the vapor were at the saturated state, they would be in phase equilibrium
and that would be the end of the problem. But they have slight deviations from the saturated state.
One can estimate these deviations with the standard formula
The tables will be used to get values at 20 C, for which one can take dT = 0. This allows the
approximation of dg v dP . So for the liquid,
Z
gliq gf = v dP vf (P Psat ), (4.416)
Pvap
gf + vf (P Psat ) = gg + RT ln . (4.422)
| {z } Psat
=gliq | {z }
=gvap
5
10
Pvap(Pa)
4
10
3
10 5 6 7 8 9
10 10 10 10 10
P (Pa)
Figure 4.1: Pressure of water vapor as a function of total pressure for example problem.
= 2.3407 kP a. (4.426)
The pressure is very near the saturation pressure. This justifies assumptions that for such mixtures, one
can take the pressure of the water vapor to be that at saturation if the mixture is in equilibrium. If the
pressure is higher, the pressure of the vapor becomes higher as well. Figure 4.1 shows how the pressure
of the equilibrium vapor pressure varies with total pressure. Clearly, a very high total pressure, on
the order of 1 GP a is needed to induce the vapor pressure to deviate significantly from the saturation
value.
Example 4.14
At high temperatures, collisions between diatomic nitrogen molecules induce the production of
monatomic nitrogen molecules. The chemical reaction can be described by the model
N2 + N2 2N + N2 . (4.427)
Here one of the N2 molecules behaves as an inert third body. An N2 molecule has to collide with
something, to induce the reaction. Some authors leave out the third body and write instead N2 2N ,
but this does not reflect the true physics as well. The inert third body is especially important when
the time scales of reaction are considered. It plays no role in equilibrium chemistry.
Consider 1 kmole of N2 and 0 kmole of N at a pressure of 100 kP a and a temperature of 6000 K.
Using the ideal gas tables, find the equilibrium concentrations of N and N2 if the equilibration process
is isothermal and isochoric.
The ideal gas law can give the volume.
nN2 RT
P1 = , (4.428)
V
nN2 RT
V = , (4.429)
P1
kJ
(1 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (6000 K)
= , (4.430)
100 kP a
= 498.84 m3 . (4.431)
Initially, the mixture is all N2 , so its partial pressure is the total pressure, and the initial partial pressure
of N is 0.
Now every time an N2 molecule reacts and thus undergo a negative change, 2 N molecules are
created and thus undergo a positive change, so
1
dnN2 = dnN . (4.432)
2
This can be parameterized by a reaction progress variable , also called the degree of reaction, defined
such that
d = dnN2 , (4.433)
1
d = dnN . (4.434)
2
As an aside, one can integrate this, taking = 0 at the initial state to get
Now for the reaction, one must have, for second law satisfaction, that
d
= k(N2 + 2N ), k 0, convenient, but nave model (4.444)
dt
Note there are other ways to guarantee second law satisfaction. In fact, a more complicated model is
well known to fit data well, and will be studied later. For the present purposes, this nave model will
suffice. With this assumption, the second law reduces to
k(N2 + 2N )2 0, k 0, (4.445)
which is always true. Obviously, the reaction ceases when d/dt = 0, which holds only when
2N = N2 . (4.446)
Away from equilibrium, for the reaction to go forward, one must expect d/dt > 0, and then one
must have
N2 + 2N 0, (4.447)
2N N2 . (4.448)
The chemical potentials are the molar specific Gibbs free energies; thus, for the reaction to go forward,
one must have
2gN g N2 . (4.449)
Substituting using the definitions of Gibbs free energy, one gets
2 h N T sN h N 2 T sN 2 , (4.450)
yN P yN2 P
2 hN T soT,N R ln hN2 T soT,N2 R ln , (4.451)
Po Po
yN P yN2 P
2 hN T soT,N hN2 T soT,N2 2RT ln + RT ln , (4.452)
Po Po
yN P yN2 P
2 hN T soT,N + hN2 T soT,N2 2RT ln RT ln , (4.453)
Po Po
2 2
yN P Po
2 hN T soT,N + hN2 T soT,N2 RT ln , (4.454)
Po2 P yN2
2
yN P
2 hN T soT,N + hN2 T soT,N2 RT ln . (4.455)
yN2 Po
At the initial state, one has yN = 0, so the right hand side approaches , and the inequality holds.
At equilibrium, one has equality.
2
yN P
2 hN T soT,N + hN2 T soT,N2 = RT ln . (4.456)
yN2 Po
n2N RT
= , (4.460)
nN2 Po V
2
(2 ( nN2 |t=0 nN2 )) RT
= , (4.461)
nN 2 Po V
(2 (1 kmole nN2 ))2 (8.314)(6000)
= . (4.462)
nN 2 (100)(498.84)
The second root generates more N2 than at the start, and also yields non-physically negative nN =
0.25186 kmole. So at equilibrium, the physical root is
(nN2 + nN )RT
P2 = , (4.465)
V
kJ
(0.888154 kmole + 0.223693 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (6000 K)
= , (4.466)
498.84
= 111.185 kP a. (4.467)
The pressure has increased because there are more molecules with the volume and temperature being
equal.
The molar concentrations i at equilibrium, are
Now consider the heat transfer. One knows for the isochoric process that 1Q2 = U2 U1 . The
initial energy is given by
U2 = nN 2 u N 2 + nN u N , (4.474)
= nN2 (hN2 RT ) + nN (hN RT ), (4.475)
kJ kJ
= (0.888154 kmole) 2.05848 105 8.314 (6000 K) (4.476)
kmole kmole K
kJ kJ
+(0.223693 kmole) 5.9727 105 8.314 (6000 K) , (4.477)
kmole kmole K
= 2.60966 105 kJ. (4.478)
So
1Q2 = U2 U1 , (4.479)
= 2.60966 105 kJ 1.555964 105 kJ, (4.480)
= 1.05002 105 kJ. (4.481)
Heat needed to be added to keep the system at the constant temperature. This is because the nitrogen
dissociation process is endothermic.
One can check for second law satisfaction in two ways. Fundamentally, one can demand that
Eq. (4.377), dS Q/T , be satisfied for the process, giving
Z 2
Q
S2 S1 . (4.482)
1 T
1Q2
S2 S1 , (4.483)
T
(nN2 sN2 + nN sN )|2
1Q2
(nN2 sN2 + nN sN )|1 , (4.484)
T
yN2 P yN P
o
nN2 sT,N2 R ln o
+ nN sT,N R ln
Po Po
2
yN2 P yN P 1Q2
nN2 soT,N2 R ln + nN soT,N R ln , (4.485)
Po Po T
1
PN2 PN
nN2 soT,N2 R ln + nN soT,N R ln
Po Po
2
PN2 PN 1Q2
nN2 soT,N2 R ln + nN soT,N R ln , (4.486)
Po Po T
1
nN2 RT nN RT
o
nN2 sT,N2 R ln o
+ nN sT,N R ln
Po V Po V
2
n N RT n N RT 1Q2
o
nN2 sT,N2 R ln 2 o
+ nN sT,N R ln . (4.487)
Po V |{z} Po V T
=0 1
Now at the initial state nN = 0 kmole, and RT /Po /V has a constant value of
kJ
RT 8.314 kmole K (6000 K) 1
= =1 , (4.488)
Po V (100 kP a)(498.84 m3 ) kmole
Allowing for isobaric rather than isochoric equilibration introduces small variation in the
analysis.
Example 4.15
Consider the same reaction
N2 + N2 2N + N2 . (4.491)
for an isobaric and isothermal process. That is, consider 1 kmole of N2 and 0 kmole of N at a pressure
of 100 kP a and a temperature of 6000 K. Using the ideal gas tables, find the equilibrium concentrations
of N and N2 if the equilibration process is isothermal and isobaric.
The initial volume is the same as from the previous example:
V1 = 498.84 m3 . (4.492)
Note the volume will change in this isobaric process. Initially, the mixture is all N2 , so its partial
pressure is the total pressure, and the initial partial pressure of N is 0.
A few other key results are identical to the previous example:
and
2gN g N2 . (4.494)
At the initial state, one has yN = 0, so the right hand side approaches , and the inequality holds.
At equilibrium, one has equality.
2
yN
2 hN T soT,N + hN2 T soT,N2 = RT ln . (4.501)
yN2
n2N
= , (4.505)
nN2 (nN + nN2 )
(2 ( nN2 |t=0 nN2 ))2
= , (4.506)
nN2 (2 ( nN2 |t=0 nN2 ) + nN2 )
2
(2 (1 kmole nN2 ))
= . (4.507)
nN2 (2 (1 kmole nN2 ) + nN2 )
This is a quadratic equation for nN2 . It has two roots
nN2 = 0.882147 kmole physical; nN2 = 1.11785 kmole, non-physical (4.508)
The second root generates more N2 than at the start, and also yields non-physically negative nN =
0.235706 kmole. So at equilibrium, the physical root is
nN = 2(1 nN2 ) = 2(1 0.882147) = 0.235706 kmole. (4.509)
Again, the diatomic species is preferred. As the temperature is raised, one could show that the
monatomic species would come to dominate.
The volume at equilibrium is
(nN2 + nN )RT
V2 = , (4.510)
P
kJ
(0.882147 kmole + 0.235706 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (6000 K)
= , (4.511)
100 kP a
3
= 557.630 m . (4.512)
The volume has increased because there are more molecules with the pressure and temperature being
equal.
The molar concentrations i at equilibrium, are
The molar concentrations are a little smaller than for the isochoric case, mainly because the volume is
larger at equilibrium.
Now consider the heat transfer. One knows for the isobaric process that Q = H2 H1 . The initial
enthalpy is given by
kJ
H1 = nN2 hN2 = (1 kmole) 2.05848 105 = 2.05848 105 kJ. (4.515)
kmole
The enthalpy at the final state is
H2 = nN2 hN2 + nN hN , (4.516)
kJ kJ
= (0.882147 kmole) 2.05848 105 + (0.235706 kmole) 5.9727 105 (4.517)
,
kmole kmole
= 3.22368 105 kJ. (4.518)
So
1Q2 = H2 H1 = 3.22389 105 kJ 2.05848 105 kJ = 1.16520 105 kJ. (4.519)
Heat needed to be added to keep the system at the constant temperature. This is because the nitrogen
dissociation process is endothermic. Relative to the isochoric process, more heat had to be added to
maintain the temperature. This to counter the cooling effect of the expansion.
Lastly, it is a straightforward exercise to show that the second law is satisfied for this process.
Here i represents the net number of moles of species i generated in the forward reaction.
This negation of the term on the left side of Eq (4.520) is sometimes defined as the chemical
affinity, :
N
X
i i . (4.521)
i=1
So in the phase equilibrium example, Eq. (4.520) becomes
l (1) + g (1) = 0. (4.522)
In the nitrogen chemistry example, Eq. (4.520) becomes
N2 (1) + N (2) = 0. (4.523)
This will be discussed in detail in the following chapter.
This chapter will further develop notions associated with the thermodynamics of chemical
reactions. The focus will be on single chemical reactions.
149
150 CHAPTER 5. THERMOCHEMISTRY OF A SINGLE REACTION
Example 5.1
Find the molecular mass of H2 O. Here, one has two elements H and O, so L = 2, and one species,
so N = 1; thus, in this isolated problem, N < L. Take i = 1 for species H2 O. Take l = 1 for
element H. Take l = 2 for element O. From the periodic table, one gets M1 = 1 kg/kmole for H,
M2 = 16 kg/kmole for O. For element 1, there are 2 atoms, so 11 = 2. For element 2, there is 1 atom
so 21 = 1. So the molecular mass of species 1, H2 O is
11
M 1 = M1 M2 , (5.3)
21
= M1 11 + M2 21 , (5.4)
kg kg
= 1 (2) + 16 (1), (5.5)
kmole kmole
kg
= 18 . (5.6)
kmole
Example 5.2
Find the molecular masses of the two species C8 H18 and CO2 . Here, for practice, the vector matrix
notation is exercised. In a certain sense this is overkill, but it is useful to be able to understand a
general notation.
One has N = 2 species, and takes i = 1 for C8 H18 and i = 2 for CO2 . One also has L = 3 elements
and takes l = 1 for C, l = 2 for H, and l = 3 for O. Now for each element, one has M1 = 12 kg/kmole,
M2 = 1 kg/kmole, M3 = 16 kg/kmole. The molecular masses are then given by
11 12
M1 M2 = M1 M2 M3 21 22 , (5.7)
31 32
8 1
= 12 1 16 18 0 , (5.8)
0 2
= 114 44 . (5.9)
That is for C8 H18 , one has molecular mass M1 = 114 kg/kmole. For CO2 , one has molecular mass
M2 = 44 kg/kmole.
5.2 Stoichiometry
5.2.1 General development
Stoichiometry represents a mass balance on each element in a chemical reaction. For example,
in the simple global reaction
2H2 + O2 2H2 O, (5.10)
one has 4 H atoms in both the reactant and product sides and 2 O atoms in both the reactant
and product sides. In this section stoichiometry will be systematized.
Consider now a general reaction with N species. This reaction can be represented by
N
X N
X
i i i i . (5.11)
i=1 i=1
Here i is the ith chemical species, i is the forward stoichiometric coefficient of the ith
reaction, and i is the reverse stoichiometric coefficient of the ith reaction. Both i and i
are to be interpreted as pure dimensionless numbers.
In Equation (5.10), one has N = 3 species. One might take 1 = H2 , 2 = O2 , and
3 = H2 O. The reaction is written in more general form as
1 = 2, 1 = 0, (5.14)
2 = 1, 2 = 0, (5.15)
3 = 0, 3 = 2. (5.16)
It is common and useful to define another pure dimensionless number, the net stoichio-
metric coefficients for species i, i . Here i represents the net production of number if the
reaction goes forward. It is given by
i = i i . (5.17)
1 = 1 1 = 0 2 = 2, (5.18)
2 = 2 2 = 0 1 = 1, (5.19)
3 = 3 3 = 2 0 = 2. (5.20)
It remains to enforce a stoichiometric balance. This is achieved if, for each element, l =
1, . . . , L, one has the following equality:
N
X
li i = 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (5.24)
i=1
That is to say, for each element, the sum of the product of the net species production and
the number of elements in the species must be zero. In vector notation, this becomes
= 0. (5.25)
One may recall from linear algebra that this demands that lie in the right null space of .
Example 5.3
Show stoichiometric balance is achieved for 2H2 O2 + 2H2 O = 0.
Here again, the number of elements L = 2, and one can take l = 1 for H and l = 2 for O. Also
the number of species N = 3, and one takes i = 1 for H2 , i = 2 for O2 , and i = 3 for H2 O. Then for
element 1, H, in species 1, H2 , one has
11 = 2, H in H2 . (5.26)
Similarly, one gets
12 = 0, H in O2 , (5.27)
13 = 2, H in H2 O, (5.28)
21 = 0, O in H2 , (5.29)
22 = 2, O in O2 , (5.30)
23 = 1, O in H2 O. (5.31)
PN
In matrix form then, i=1 li i = 0 gives
2 0 2 1 0
2 = . (5.32)
0 2 1 0
3
This is two equations in three unknowns. Thus, it is formally under-constrained. Certainly the trivial
solution 1 = 2 = 3 = 0 will satisfy, but one seeks non-trivial solutions. Assume 3 has a known value
3 = . Then, the system reduces to
2 0 1 2
= . (5.33)
0 2 2
Again, this amounts to saying the solution vector (1 , 2 , 3 )T lies in the right null space of the coefficient
matrix li .
Here is any real scalar. If one takes = 2, one gets
1 2
2 = 1 , (5.36)
3 2
In summary, the stoichiometric coefficients are non-unique but partially constrained by mass conserva-
tion. Which set is chosen is to some extent arbitrary, and often based on traditional conventions from
chemistry. But others are equally valid.
There is a small issue with units here, which will be seen to be difficult to reconcile.
In practice, it will have little to no importance. In the previous example, one might be
tempted to ascribe units of kmoles to i . Later, it will be seen that in classical reaction
kinetics, i is best interpreted as a pure dimensionless number, consistent with the definition
of this section. So in the context of the previous example, one would then take to be
dimensionless as well, which is perfectly acceptable for the example. In later problems, it
will be more useful to give the units of kmoles. Note that multiplication of by any scalar,
e.g. kmole/(6.02 1026 ), still yields an acceptable result.
Example 5.4
Balance an equation for hypothesized ethane combustion
1 C2 H6 + 2 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2 O. (5.40)
1 C2 H6 + 2 O2 + 3 CO2 + 4 H2 O = 0. (5.41)
Here one takes 1 = C2 H6 , 2 = O2 , 3 CO2 , and 4 = H2 O. So there are N = 4 species. There are
Again, one finds a non-unique solution in the right null space of . If one chooses = 6, then one gets
1 2
2 7
= , (5.60)
3 4
4 6
Example 5.5
Consider stoichiometric balance for a propane oxidation reaction which may produce carbon monox-
ide and hydroxyl in addition to carbon dioxide and water.
1 C3 H8 + 2 O2 + 3 CO2 + 4 CO + 5 H2 O + 6 OH = 0. (5.63)
11 = 3, C in C3 H8 , (5.64)
12 = 0, C in O2 , (5.65)
13 = 1, C in CO2 , (5.66)
14 = 1, C in CO, (5.67)
15 = 0, C in H2 O, (5.68)
16 = 0, C in OH, (5.69)
21 = 8, H in C3 H8 , (5.70)
22 = 0, H in O2 , (5.71)
23 = 0, H in CO2 , (5.72)
24 = 0, H in CO, (5.73)
25 = 2, H in H2 O, (5.74)
26 = 1, H in OH, (5.75)
31 = 0, O in C3 H8 , (5.76)
32 = 2, O in O2 , (5.77)
33 = 2, O in CO2 , (5.78)
34 = 1, O in CO, (5.79)
35 = 1, O in H2 O, (5.80)
36 = 1, O in OH. (5.81)
Multiplying the first equation by 8/3 and adding it to the second gives
1
2
3 0 1 1 0 0 0
3
0 0 38 83 2 1
4 = 0 . (5.83)
0 2 2 1 1 1 0
5
6
Dividing the first row by 3, the second by 2 and the third by 8/3 gives
1
2
1 0 3 31 1
0 0 0
1 3
0 1 1 1 1
= 0 . (5.85)
2 2 2 4
0 0 1 1 43 38 0
5
6
Here, one finds three independent vectors in the right null space. To simplify the notation, take
1 = 1 /8, 2 = 2 /8, and 3 = 3 /8. Then,
1 0 2 1
2 4 10 7
3
= 1 8 + 2 6 + 3 3 . (5.89)
4 8 0 0
5 0 8 0
6 0 0 8
The most general reaction that can achieve a stoichiometric balance is given by
This will be balanced for all 1 , 2 , and 3 . The values that are actually achieved in practice depend
on the thermodynamics of the problem. Stoichiometry only provides some limitations.
A slightly more familiar form is found by taking 2 = 1/2 and rearranging, giving
One notes that often the production of CO and OH will be small. If there is no production of CO or
OH, 1 = 3 = 0 and one recovers the familiar balance of
C3 H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2 O. (5.93)
One also notes that stoichiometry alone admits unusual solutions. For instance, if 1 = 100, 2 = 1/2,
and 3 = 1, one has
This reaction is certainly admitted by stoichiometry but is not observed in nature. To determine
precisely which of the P infinitely many possible final states are realized requires a consideration of the
N
equilibrium condition i=1 i i = 0.
Looked at in another way, we can think of three independent classes of reactions admitted by the
stoichiometry, one for each of the linearly independent null space vectors. Taking first 1 = 1/4, 2 = 0,
3 = 0, one gets, after rearrangement
as one class of reaction admitted by stoichiometry. Taking next 1 = 0, 2 = 1/2, 3 = 0, one gets
as the second class admitted by stoichiometry. The third class is given by taking 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 1,
and is
C3 H8 + 7O2 3CO2 + 8OH. (5.97)
In this example, both and are dimensionless.
In general, one can expect to find the stoichiometric coefficients for N species composed
of L elements to be of the following form:
N
X L
i = Dik k , i = 1, . . . , N. (5.98)
k=1
N
X L
dni = Dik dk , i = 1, . . . , N. (5.99)
k=1
Example 5.6
Calculate the stoichiometry of the combustion of methane with air with an equivalence ratio of
= 0.5. If the pressure is 0.1 M P a, find the dew point of the products.
Now, one might expect to have one free variable, since one has five unknowns in four equations.
While casting the equation in row echelon form is guaranteed to yield a proper solution, one can often
use intuition to get a solution more rapidly. One certainly expects that CH4 will need to be present
for the reaction to take place. One might also expect to find an answer if there is one mole of CH4 . So
take 1 = 1. Realize that one could also get a physically valid answer by assuming 1 to be equal to
any scalar. With 1 = 1, one gets
0 1 0 0 2 1
0 0 2 0 3 4
= . (5.111)
2 2 1 0 4 0
3.76 0 0 1 5 0
One easily finds the unique inverse does exist, and that the solution is
2 2
3 1
=
4 2 . (5.112)
5 7.52
If there had been more than one free variable, the four by four matrix would have been singular, and
no unique inverse would have existed.
In any case, the reaction under stoichiometric conditions is
CH4 2O2 + CO2 + 2H2 O + (7.52 + (3.76)(2))N2 = 0, (5.113)
CH4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) CO2 + 2H2 O + 7.52N2. (5.114)
For the stoichiometric reaction, the fuel-air ratio on a mole basis is
1
Fstoichiometric = = 0.1050. (5.115)
2 + 2(3.76)
Now = 0.5, so
Factual = Fstoichiometric , (5.116)
= (0.5)(0.1050), (5.117)
= 0.0525. (5.118)
By inspection, one can write the actual reaction equation as
CH4 + 4(O2 + 3.76N2 ) CO2 + 2H2 O + 2O2 + 15.04N2. (5.119)
Check:
1
Factual = = 0.0525. (5.120)
4 + 4(3.76)
For the dew point of the products, one needs the partial pressure of H2 O. The mole fraction of
H2 O is
2
yH2 O = = 0.0499 (5.121)
1 + 2 + 2 + 15.04
So the partial pressure of H2 O is
PH2 O = yH2 O P = 0.0499(100 kP a) = 4.99 kP a. (5.122)
From the steam tables, the saturation temperature at this pressure is Tsat = Tdew point = 32.88 C . If
the products cool to this temperature in an exhaust device, the water could condense in the apparatus.
U2 U1 = 1W2 ,
1Q2 (5.124)
Z 2
= 1Q2 P dV, (5.125)
1
= 1Q2 P (V2 V1 ), (5.126)
1Q2 = U2 U1 + P (V2 V1 ), (5.127)
= H2 H1 , (5.128)
1Q2 = Hproducts Hreactants . (5.129)
So
X X
1Q2 = ni hi ni hi . (5.130)
products reactants
In this reaction, one measures that 1Q2 = 393522 kJ for the reaction of 1 kmole of C
and O2 . That is the reaction liberates such energy to the environment. So measuring the
heat transfer can give a measure of the enthalpy difference between reactants and products.
Assign a value of enthalpy zero to elements in their standard state at the reference state.
Thus, C and O2 both have enthalpies of 0 kJ/kmole at T = 298 K, P = 0.1 MP a. This
enthalpy is designated, for species i,
o o
hf,i = h298,i , (5.131)
and is called the enthalpy of formation. So the energy balance for the products and reactants,
here both at the standard state, becomes
o o o
1Q2= nCO2 hf,CO2 nC hf,C nO2 hf,O2 , (5.132)
o kJ kJ
393522 kJ = (1 kmole)hf,CO2 (1 kmole) 0 (1 kmole) 0 .
kmole kmole
(5.133)
o
Thus, the enthalpy of formation of CO2 is hf,CO2 = 393522 kJ/kmole, since the reaction
involved creation of 1 kmole of CO2 .
Often values of enthalpy are tabulated in the forms of enthalpy differences hi . These
are defined such that
o o
hi = hf,i + (hi hf,i ), (5.134)
| {z }
=hi
o
= hf,i + hi . (5.135)
Lastly, one notes for an ideal gas that the enthalpy is a function of temperature only,
and so does not depend on the reference pressure; hence
o o
hi = hi , hi = hi , if ideal gas. (5.136)
Example 5.7
(BS, Ex. 15.6 pp. 629-630). Consider the heat of reaction of the following irreversible reaction in a
steady state, steady flow process confined to the standard state of P = 0.1 M P a, T = 298 K:
All components are at their reference states. Table A.10 gives properties, and one finds
Qcv = nCO2 hCO2 + nH2 O hH2 O nCH4 hCH4 nO2 hO2 , (5.139)
kJ kJ
= (1 kmole) 393522 + (2 kmole) 285830
kmole kmole
kJ kJ
(1 kmole) 74873 (2 kmole) 0 , (5.140)
kmole kmole
= 890309 kJ. (5.141)
A more detailed analysis is required in the likely case in which the system is not at the
reference state.
Example 5.8
(adopted from Moran and Shapiro, p. 619) A mixture of 1 kmole of gaseous methane and 2 kmole
of oxygen initially at 298 K and 101.325 kP a burns completely in a closed, rigid, container. Heat
transfer occurs until the final temperature is 900 K. Find the heat transfer and the final pressure.
The combustion is stoichiometric. Assume that no small concentration species are generated. The
global reaction is given by
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O. (5.142)
The first law analysis for the closed system is slightly different:
1Q2 = U2 U1 , (5.144)
= nCO2 uCO2 + nH2 O uH2 O nCH4 uCH4 nO2 uO2 , (5.145)
= nCO2 (hCO2 RT2 ) + nH2 O (hH2 O RT2 ) nCH4 (hCH4 RT1 ) nO2 (hO2 RT1 ), (5.146)
= hCO2 + 2hH2 O hCH4 2hO2 3R(T2 T1 ), (5.147)
o o o o
= (hCO2 ,f + hCO2 ) + 2(hH2 O,f + hH2 O ) (hCH4 ,f + hCH4 ) 2(hO2 ,f + hO2 )
3R(T2 T1 ), (5.148)
= (393522 + 28030) + 2(241826 + 21937) (74873 + 0) 2(0 + 0)
3(8.314)(900 298), (5.149)
= 745412 kJ. (5.150)
Now V2 = V1 , so
The pressure increased in the reaction. This is entirely attributable to the temperature rise, as the
number of moles remained constant here.
as the heating value or the heat of reaction. The internal energy of combustion is related
and is the difference between the internal energy of products and reactants when complete
combustion occurs at a given volume and temperature.
The term higher heating value refers to the energy of combustion when liquid water is in
the products. Lower heating value refers to the energy of combustion when water vapor is
in the product.
The adiabatic flame temperature can be well over 5000 K for seemingly ordinary
mixtures.
Dilution of the mixture with an inert diluent lowers the adiabatic flame temperature.
The same effect would happen in rich and lean mixtures.
Preheating the mixture, such as one might find in the compression stroke of an engine,
increases the adiabatic flame temperature.
Consideration of the presence of minor species lowers the adiabatic flame temperature.
Example 5.9
A closed, fixed, adiabatic volume contains a stoichiometric mixture of 2 kmole of H2 and 1 kmole
of O2 at 100 kP a and 298 K. Find the adiabatic flame temperature and final pressure assuming the
irreversible reaction
2H2 + O2 2H2 O. (5.158)
The volume is given by
T2 = 5725 K. (5.172)
This is an extremely high temperature. At such temperatures, in fact, one can expect other species to
co-exist in the equilibrium state in large quantities. These may include H, OH, O, HO2 , and H2 O2 ,
among others.
The final pressure is given by
nH2 O RT2
P2 = , (5.173)
V
kJ
(2 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (5725 K)
= , (5.174)
74.33 m3
= 1280.71 kP a. (5.175)
The final concentration of H2 O is
2 kmole kmole
H2 O = = 2.69 102 . (5.176)
74.33 m3 m3
Example 5.10
Consider a variant on the previous example in which the mixture is diluted with an inert, taken
here to be N2 . A closed, fixed, adiabatic volume contains a stoichiometric mixture of 2 kmole of H2 ,
1 kmole of O2 , and 8 kmole of N2 at 100 kP a and 298 K. Find the adiabatic flame temperature and
the final pressure, assuming the irreversible reaction
2H2 + O2 + 8N2 2H2 O + 8N2 . (5.177)
U2 U1 = 1Q2 1W2 ,
U2 U1 = 0,
nH2 O uH2 O nH2 uH2 nO2 uO2 + nN2 (uN2 2 uN2 1 ) = 0,
nH2 O (hH2 O RT2 ) nH2 (hH2 RT1 ) nO2 (hO2 RT1 ) + nN2 ((hN2 2 RT2 ) (hN2 1 RT1 )) = 0,
2hH2 O 2 hH2 hO2 +R(10T2 + 11T1 ) + 8( hN2 2 hN2 1 ) = 0,
|{z} |{z} | {z } | {z }
=0 =0 =hN2 =0
At this point, one begins an iteration process, guessing a value of T2 and an associated hH2 O . When
T2 is guessed at 2000 K, the left side becomes 28006.7. When T2 is guessed at 2200 K, the left side
becomes 33895.3. Interpolate then to arrive at
T2 = 2090.5 K. (5.181)
The inert diluent significantly lowers the adiabatic flame temperature. This is because the N2 serves as
a heat sink for the energy of reaction. If the mixture were at non-stoichiometric conditions, the excess
species would also serve as a heat sink, and the adiabatic flame temperature would be lower than that
of the stoichiometric mixture.
The final pressure is given by
Example 5.11
Consider a variant on the previous example in which the diluted mixture is preheated to 1000 K.
One can achieve this via an isentropic compression of the cold mixture, such as might occur in an engine.
To simplify the analysis here, the temperature of the mixture will be increased, while the pressure will
be maintained. A closed, fixed, adiabatic volume contains a stoichiometric mixture of 2 kmole of H2 ,
1 kmole of O2 , and 8 kmole of N2 at 100 kP a and 1000 K. Find the adiabatic flame temperature and
the final pressure, assuming the irreversible reaction
2H2 + O2 + 8N2 2H2 O + 8N2 . (5.187)
The volume is given by
(nH2 + nO2 + nN2 )RT1
V = , (5.188)
P1
kJ
(2 kmole + 1 kmole + 8 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (1000 K)
= , (5.189)
100 kP a
= 914.54 m3 . (5.190)
The first law gives
U2 U1 = 1Q2 1W2 ,
U2 U1 = 0,
nH2 O uH2 O nH2 uH2 nO2 uO2 + nN2 (uN2 2 uN2 1 ) = 0,
nH2 O (hH2 O RT2 ) nH2 (hH2 RT1 ) nO2 (hO2 RT1 ) + nN2 ((hN2 2 RT2 ) (hN2 1 RT1 )) = 0,
2hH2 O 2hH2 hO2 + R(10T2 + 11T1 ) + 8(hN2 2 hN2 1 ) = 0,
2(241826 + hH2 O ) 2(20663) 22703 + (8.314) (10T2 + (11)(1000)) + 8hN2 2 8(21463) = 0,
2hH2 O 83.14T2 627931 + 8hN2 2 = 0.
At this point, one begins an iteration process, guessing a value of T2 and an associated hH2 O . When
T2 is guessed at 2600 K, the left side becomes 11351. When T2 is guessed at 2800 K, the left side
becomes 52787. Interpolate then to arrive at
T2 = 2635.4 K. (5.191)
The preheating raised the adiabatic flame temperature. Note that the preheating was by (1000 K)
(298 K) = 702 K. The new adiabatic flame temperature is only (2635.4 K) (2090.5 K) = 544.9 K
greater.
The final pressure is given by
(nH2 O + nN2 )RT2
P2 = , (5.192)
V
kJ
(2 kmole + 8 kmole) 8.314 kmole K (2635.4 K)
= , (5.193)
914.54 m3
= 239.58 kP a. (5.194)
The final concentrations of H2 O and N2 are
2 kmole kmole
H2 O = 3
= 2.19 103 , (5.195)
914.54 m m3
8 kmole kmole
N 2 = 3
= 8.75 103 . (5.196)
914.54 m m3
Example 5.12
Consider a variant on the previous example. Here allow for minor species to be present at equilib-
rium. A closed, fixed, adiabatic volume contains a stoichiometric mixture of 2 kmole of H2 , 1 kmole
of O2 , and 8 kmole of N2 at 100 kP a and 1000 K. Find the adiabatic flame temperature and the final
pressure, assuming reversible reactions. Here, the details of the analysis are postponed, but the result
is given which is the consequence of a calculation involving detailed reactions rates. One can also solve
an optimization problem to minimize the Gibbs free energy of a wide variety of products to get the
same answer. In this case, the equilibrium temperature and pressure are found to be
kmole
minor product H2 = 1.3 104 , (5.198)
m3
kmole
minor product H = 1.9 105 , (5.199)
m3
kmole
minor product O = 5.7 106 , (5.200)
m3
kmole
minor product O2 = 3.6 105 , (5.201)
m3
kmole
minor product OH = 5.9 105 , (5.202)
m3
kmole
major product H2 O = 2.0 103 , (5.203)
m3
kmole
trace product HO2 = 1.1 108 , (5.204)
m3
kmole
trace product H2 O2 = 1.2 109 , (5.205)
m3
kmole
trace product N = 1.7 109 , (5.206)
m3
kmole
trace product N H = 3.7 1010 , (5.207)
m3
kmole
trace product N H2 = 1.5 1010 , (5.208)
m3
kmole
trace product N H3 = 3.1 1010 , (5.209)
m3
kmole
trace product N N H = 1.0 1010 , (5.210)
m3
kmole
minor product N O = 3.1 106 , (5.211)
m3
kmole
trace product N O2 = 5.3 109 , (5.212)
m3
kmole
trace product N 2 O = 2.6 109 , (5.213)
m3
kmole
trace product HN O = 1.7 109 , (5.214)
m3
kmole
major product N 2 = 8.7 103 . (5.215)
m3
Note that the concentrations of the major products went down when the minor species were considered.
The adiabatic flame temperature also went down by a significant amount: 2635 2484.8 = 150.2 K.
Some thermal energy was necessary to break the bonds which induce the presence of minor species.
1 1 + 2 2 3 3 + 4 4 . (5.216)
1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 = 0. (5.217)
One can define a variable , the reaction progress. Take the dimension of to be kmoles.
When t = 0, one takes = 0. Now as the reaction goes forward, one takes d > 0. And a
forward reaction will decrease the number of moles of 1 and 2 while increasing the number
of moles of 3 and 4 . This will occur in ratios dictated by the stoichiometric coefficients of
the problem:
dn1 = 1 d, (5.218)
dn2 = 2 d, (5.219)
dn3 = +3 d, (5.220)
dn4 = +4 d. (5.221)
Note that if ni is taken to have units of kmoles, i , and i are taken as dimensionless, then
must have units of kmoles. In terms of the net stoichiometric coefficients, one has
dn1 = 1 d, (5.222)
dn2 = 2 d, (5.223)
dn3 = 3 d, (5.224)
dn4 = 4 d. (5.225)
n1 = 1 + n1o , (5.230)
n2 = 2 + n2o , (5.231)
n3 = 3 + n3o , (5.232)
n4 = 4 + n4o . (5.233)
One can also eliminate the parameter in a variety of fashions and parameterize the
reaction one of the species mole numbers. Choosing, for example, n1 as a parameter, one
gets
n1 n1o
= . (5.234)
1
Eliminating then one finds all other mole numbers in terms of n1 :
n1 n1o
n2 = 2 + n2o , (5.235)
1
n1 n1o
n3 = 3 + n3o , (5.236)
1
n1 n1o
n4 = 4 + n4o . (5.237)
1
dni = = i d, (5.239)
ni = i + nio , (5.240)
ni nio
= . (5.241)
i
Note that
dni
= i . (5.242)
d
Now, from the previous chapter, one manifestation of the second law is Eq. (4.399):
N
X
dG|T,P = i dni 0. (5.243)
i=1
Now, one can eliminate dni in Eq. (5.243) by use of Eq. (5.239) to get
N
X
dG|T,P = i i d 0, (5.244)
i=1
XN
G
= i i 0, (5.245)
T,P i=1
= 0. (5.246)
Then for the reaction to go forward, one must require that the affinity be positive:
0. (5.247)
One also knows from the previous chapter that the irreversible entropy production takes the
form of Eq. (4.387):
N
1X
dni 0, (5.248)
T i=1 i
N
1 X
d i i 0, (5.249)
T i=1
N
1 d X
i 0. (5.250)
T dt i=1 i
PN
In terms of the chemical affinity, = i=1 i i , Eq. (5.250) can be written as
1 d
0. (5.251)
T dt
Now one straightforward, albeit nave, way to guarantee positive semi-definiteness of the
irreversible entropy production and thus satisfaction of the second law is to construct the
chemical kinetic rate equation so that
X N
d
= k i i = k, k 0, provisional, nave assumption (5.252)
dt i=1
This provisional assumption of convenience will be supplanted later by a form which agrees
well with experiment. Here k is a positive semi-definite scalar. In general, it is a function of
temperature, k = k(T ), so that reactions proceed rapidly at high temperature and slowly at
low temperature. Then certainly the reaction progress variable will cease to change when
the equilibrium condition
XN
i i = 0, (5.253)
i=1
For the ideal gas, one can substitute for hi (T ) and si (T, P ) and write the equilibrium con-
dition as
Z Z
N
X o T o T
c P i (T ) yi P
h298,i + cP i (T ) dT T s298,i + dT R ln i = 0.
| T Po
i=1 | 298 {z }
298
{z }
o
=s o
=hT,i
|
T,i
{z }
| {z }
o
=hT,i =hT,i =sT,i
(5.257)
Now writing the equilibrium condition in terms of the enthalpies and entropies referred to
the standard pressure, one gets
XN
o o yi P
hT,i T sT,i R ln i = 0, (5.258)
i=1
Po
XN XN
o o yi P
hT,i T sT,i i = RT i ln , (5.259)
i=1 | {z } i=1
Po
=g oT,i =oT,i
N
X N
X i
yi P
g oT,i i = RT ln , (5.260)
Po
|i=1 {z } i=1
Go
X N
Go yi P i
= ln , (5.261)
RT i=1
P o
YN !
yi P i
= ln , (5.262)
i=1
P o
Y y i P i
N
Go
exp = , (5.263)
RT Po
| {z } i=1
KP
N
Y
yi P i
KP = , (5.264)
i=1
Po
PNi=1 i Y n
P
KP = yii . (5.265)
Po i=1
So
N
Y
Pi i
KP = , at equilibrium. (5.266)
i=1
Po
Only at equilibrium does the property KP also equal the product of the partial pressures
as in Eq. (5.266). The subscript P for pressure comes about because it is also related to
the product of the ratio of the partial pressure to the reference pressure raised to the net
stoichiometric coefficients. Also, the net change in Gibbs free energy of the reaction at the
reference pressure, Go , which is a function of T only, has been defined as
N
X
o
G g oT,i i . (5.268)
i=1
The term Go has units of kJ/kmole; it traditionally does not get an overbar. If Go > 0,
one has 0 < KP < 1, and reactants are favored over products. If Go < 0, one gets KP > 1,
and products are favored over reactants. One can also deduce that higher pressures P push
the equilibrium in such a fashion that fewer moles are present, all else being equal. One can
also define Go in terms of the chemical affinity, referred to the reference pressure, as
Go = o . (5.269)
One can also define another convenient thermodynamic property, which for an ideal gas
is a function of T alone, the equilibrium constant Kc :
PNi=1 i
Po Go
Kc exp , generally valid. (5.270)
RT RT
This property is dimensional, and the PN
units depend on the stoichiometry of the reaction.
3 i
The units of Kc will be (kmole/m ) i=1 .
The equilibrium condition, Eq. (5.266), is often written in terms of molar concentrations
and Kc . This can be achieved by the operations, valid only at an equilibrium state:
YN i
i RT
KP = , (5.271)
i=1
Po
PNi=1 i YN
Go RT
exp = i i , (5.272)
RT Po i=1
PNi=1 i o
YN
Po G
exp = i i . (5.273)
RT RT
| {z } i=1
Kc
So
N
Y
Kc = i i , at equilibrium. (5.274)
i=1
One must be careful to distinguish between the general definition of Kc as given in Eq. (5.270),
and the fact that at equilibrium it is driven to also have the value of product of molar species
concentrations, raised to the appropriate stoichiometric power, as given in Eq. (5.274).
d i i
= . (5.275)
dt
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.275) by molecular mass Mi and using the definition of mass
fraction ci then gives the alternate form
dci i Mi
= . (5.276)
dt
Because the density is constant for the isochoric system, Eq. (5.275) reduces to
di
= i . (5.278)
dt
Then, experiment, as well as a more fundamental molecular collision theory, shows that the
evolution of species concentration i is given by
i
z }| {
!
di E
N
Y 1 Y k
N
k
= i aT exp k 1 k , isochoric system. (5.279)
dt RT Kc
| {z } | k=1{z } | k=1 {z }
k(T ) forward reaction reverse reaction
| {z }
r
This relation actually holds for isochoric, non-isothermal systems as well, which will not be
considered in any detail here. Here some new variables are defined as follows:
a: a kinetic rate constant called the collision frequency factor. Its units will depend
on the actual reaction and could involve various combinations of length, time, and
temperature. It is constructed so
PN
that di /dt has units of kmole/m3 /s; this requires it
to have units of (kmole/m3 )(1 k=1 k ) /s/K .
E: the activation energy. It has units of kJ/kmole, though others are often used, and is
fit by both experiment and fundamental theory to account for the strong temperature
dependency of reaction.
Note that in Eq. (5.279) that molar concentrations are raised to the k and k powers. As
it does not make sense to raise a physical quantity to a power with units, one traditionally
interprets the values of k , k , as well as k to be dimensionless pure numbers. They are
also interpreted in a standard fashion: the smallest integer values that actually correspond
to the underlying molecular collision which has been modeled. While stoichiometric balance
can be achieved by a variety of k values, the kinetic rates are linked to one particular set
which is defined by the community.
Equation (5.279) is written in such a way that the species concentration production rate
increases when
The temperature increases; here, the sensitivity may be very high, as one observes in
nature,
The species concentrations of species involved in the forward reaction increase; this
embodies the principle that the collision-based reaction rates are enhanced when there
are more molecules to collide,
or
1 Y k
N
Y N
E
r = aT exp k k k . (5.281)
RT Kc
| {z } k=1
| {z } | k=1 {z }
k(T ), Arrhenius rate
| forward reaction{z reverse reaction }
law of mass action
This equation was advocated by vant Hoff in 1884; in 1889 Arrhenius gave a physical justifi-
cation. The units of k(T ) actually depend on the reaction. This is a weakness of the
P
theory,
3 (1 N k )
and precludes a clean non-dimensionalization. The units must be (kmole/m ) k=1 /s.
In terms of reaction progress, one can also take
1 d
r= . (5.283)
V dt
The factor of 1/V is necessary because r has units of molar concentration per time and
has units of kmoles. The over-riding importance of the temperature sensitivity is illustrated
as part of the next example. The remainder of the expression involving the products of the
species concentrations is the defining characteristic of systems which obey the law of mass
action. Though the history is complex, most attribute the law of mass action to Waage and
Guldberg in 1864.1
Last, the overall molar production rate of species i, is often written as i , defined as
i i r. (5.284)
1
P. Waage and C. M. Guldberg, 1864, Studies Concerning Affinity, Forhandlinger: Videnskabs-Selskabet
i Christiania, 35. English translation: Journal of Chemical Education, 63(12): 1044-1047.
Example 5.13
Study the nitrogen dissociation problem considered in an earlier example, see p. 140, in which at
t = 0 s, 1 kmole of N2 exists at P = 100 kP a and T = 6000 K. Take as before the reaction to be
isothermal and isochoric. Consider again the elementary nitrogen dissociation reaction
N2 + N2 2N + N2 , (5.285)
which has kinetic rate parameters of
cm3 K 1.6
a = 7.0 1021 , (5.286)
mole s
= 1.6, (5.287)
cal
E = 224928.4 . (5.288)
mole
In SI units, this becomes
3
cm3 K 1.6 1m 1000 mole m3 K 1.6
a = 7.0 1021 = 7.0 1018 , (5.289)
mole s 100 cm kmole kmole s
cal J kJ 1000 mole kJ
E = 224928.4 4.186 = 941550 . (5.290)
mole cal 1000 J kmole kmole
At the initial state, the material is all N2 , so PN2 = P = 100 kP a. The ideal gas law then gives at
t=0
P |t=0 = PN2 |t=0 = N2 t=0 RT, (5.291)
P |t=0
N2 t=0 = , (5.292)
RT
100 kP a
= kJ
, (5.293)
8.314 kmole K (6000 K)
kmole
= 2.00465 103 . (5.294)
m3
Thus, the volume, constant for all time in the isochoric process, is
nN2 |t=0 1 kmole
V =
= kmole
= 4.9884 102 m3 . (5.295)
N2 t=0 2.00465 103 m3
3
k(T) (m /kmole/s)
10000
0.0001
1. x 10-12
1. x 10-20
1. x 10-28
1. x 10-36 T (K)
1000 1500 2000 3000 5000 7000 10000
Now the general equation for kinetics of a single reaction, Eq. (5.279), reduces for N2 molar con-
centration to
dN2 E 1
= N2 aT exp (N2 )N2 (N )N 1 (N2 )N2 (N )N . (5.302)
dt RT Kc
Realizing that N 2
= 2, N = 0, N2 = 1, and N = 2, one gets
dN2 E 1 2N
= aT exp 2N2 1 . (5.303)
dt RT K c N 2
| {z }
=k(T )
f ( N ) (kmole/m 3 /s)
2
unstable
equilibrium
1
(kmole/m 3 )
N2
-1
unstable stable,
equilibrium physical
-2 equilibrium
PN
For this system, since i=1 i = 1, this reduces to
Po (2goN g oN2 )
Kc = exp , (5.310)
RT RT
o o !
Po (2(hN T soT,N ) (hN2 T soT,N2 ))
= exp , (5.311)
RT RT
100 (2(597270 (6000)216.926) (205848 (6000)292.984))
= exp ,(5.312)
(8.314)(6000) (8.314)(6000)
kmole
= 0.000112112 . (5.313)
m3
The differential equation for N2 evolution is then given by
kmole
2 !
dN2 m3 1 2 2.00465 103 N2
= 40071.6 2N2 1 m3
,
dt kmole 0.000112112 kmole
m3
N 2
| {z }
f (N2 )
(5.314)
= f (N2 ). (5.315)
The system is at equilibrium when f (N2 ) = 0. This is an algebraic function of N2 only, and can be
plotted. Figure 5.2 gives a plot of f (N2 ) and shows that it has three potential equilibrium points. It
is seen there are three roots. Solving for the equilibria requires solving
2 !
m3 2 1 2 2.00465 103 kmole
m3 N 2
0 = 40071.6 N 2 1 .
kmole 0.000112112 kmole
m3
N 2
(5.316)
By inspection of the topology of Fig. 5.2, the only stable root is 0.00178121 kmole
m3 . This root agrees with
the equilibrium value found in an earlier example for the same problem conditions. Small perturbations
from this equilibrium induce the forcing function to supply dynamics which restore the system to its orig-
inal equilibrium state. Small perturbations from the unstable equilibria induce non-restoring dynamics.
For this root, one can then determine that the stable equilibrium value of N = 0.000446882 kmole m3 .
One can examine this stability more formally. Define an equilibrium concentration eq N2 such that
f (eq
N2 ) = 0. (5.318)
Now perform a Taylor series of f (N2 ) about N2 = eq
N2 :
df 1 d2 f
f (N2 ) f (eq
N2 ) + (N2 eq
N2 ) +
eq 2
2 (N2 N2 ) + . . . (5.319)
| {z } d N2 N =eq 2 d N2
2 N2
=0
Now the first term of the Taylor series is zero by construction. Next neglect all higher order terms as
small so that the approximation becomes
df
f (N2 ) ( eq N2 ). (5.320)
dN2 =eq N2
N2 N2
Since the derivative of a constant is zero, one can also write the equation as
d df
(N2 eq ) ( eq N2 ). (5.322)
dt N2
dN2 =eq N2
N2 N2
Here C is some constant whose value is not important for this discussion. If the slope of f is positive,
that is,
df
> 0, unstable, (5.325)
dN2 =eq
N2 N2
the equilibrium will be unstable. That is a perturbation will grow without bound as t . If the
slope is zero,
df
= 0, neutrally stable, (5.326)
dN2 =eq
N2 N2
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
N
t (s)
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Figure 5.3: N2 (t) and N (t) in isothermal, isochoric nitrogen dissociation problem.
the solution is stable in that there is no unbounded growth, and moreover is known as neutrally stable.
If the slope is negative,
df
< 0, asymptotically stable, (5.327)
dN2 =eq
N2 N2
the solution is stable in that there is no unbounded growth, and moreover is known as asymptotically
stable.
A numerical solution via an explicit technique such as a Runge-Kutta integration is found for
Eq. (5.314). The solution for N2 , along with N is plotted in Fig. 5.3.
Linearization of Eq. (5.314) about the equilibrium state gives rise to the locally linearly valid
d
0.00178121 = 1209.39(N2 0.00178121) + . . . (5.328)
dt N2
This has local asymptotically stable solution
Here C is some integration constant whose value is irrelevant for this analysis. The time scale of
relaxation is the time when the argument of the exponential is 1, which is
1
= = 8.27 104 s. (5.330)
1209.39 s1
One usually finds this time scale to have high sensitivity to temperature, with high temperatures giving
fast time constants and thus fast reactions.
The equilibrium values agree exactly with those found in the earlier example; see Eq. (4.469). Here
the kinetics provide the details of how much time it takes to achieve equilibrium. This is one of the key
questions of non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
dni
= 0, inert, isobaric mixture. (5.331)
dt
Now carry out the sequence of operations, realizing the the total mass m is also constant:
1 d
(ni ) = 0, (5.332)
m dt
d ni
= 0, (5.333)
dt m
d ni V
= 0, (5.334)
dt V m
d i
= 0, (5.335)
dt
1 di d
2i = 0, (5.336)
dt dt
di i d
= . (5.337)
dt dt
So a global density decrease of the inert material due to volume increase of a fixed mass
system induces a concentration decrease of each species. Extended to a material with a
single reaction rate r, one could say either
di d
= i r + i , or (5.338)
dt dt
d i 1
= i r, generally valid, (5.339)
dt
i
= . (5.340)
Equation (5.339) is consistent with Eq. (5.275) and is actually valid for general systems with
variable density, temperature, and pressure.
However, in this section, it is required that pressure and temperature be constant. Now
differentiate the isobaric, isothermal, ideal gas law to get the density derivative.
N
X
P = i RT, (5.341)
i=1
XN
di
0 = RT , (5.342)
i=1
dt
XN
di
0 = , (5.343)
i=1
dt
XN
i d
0 = i r + , (5.344)
i=1
dt
N
X N
1 d X
0 = r i + , (5.345)
i=1
dt i=1 i
P
d r N i
= PN i=1i . (5.346)
dt i=1
P
r N i
= PNi=1 , (5.347)
i=1 i
PN
r i=1 i
= P
, (5.348)
RT
PN
RT r i=1 i
= , (5.349)
P
PN
RT r k=1 k
= . (5.350)
P
PN
Note that if there is no net number change in the reaction, k=1 k = 0, the isobaric,
isothermal reaction also guarantees there would be no density or volume change. It is
convenient to define the net number change in the elementary reaction as n:
N
X
n k . (5.351)
k=1
Now use Eq. (5.350) to eliminate the density derivative in Eq. (5.338) to get
P
di i RT r Nk=1 k
= i r , (5.352)
dt P
N
RT X
= r
|{z} i i
k , (5.353)
reaction effect P k=1
| {z }
expansion effect
or
di
= r i yi n . (5.354)
dt |{z} | {z }
reaction effect expansion effect
There are two terms dictating the rate change of species molar concentration. The first, a
reaction effect, is precisely the same term that drove the isochoric reaction. The second is
due to the fact that the volume can change if the number of moles change, and this induces
an intrinsic change in concentration. Note that the term i RT /P = yi, the mole fraction.
Example 5.14
Study a variant of the nitrogen dissociation problem considered in an earlier example, see p. 145,
in which at t = 0 s, 1 kmole of N2 exists at P = 100 kP a and T = 6000 K. In this case, take the
reaction to be isothermal and isobaric. Consider again the elementary nitrogen dissociation reaction
N2 + N2 2N + N2 , (5.355)
cm3 K 1.6
a = 7.0 1021 , (5.356)
mole s
= 1.6, (5.357)
cal
E = 224928.4 . (5.358)
mole
At the initial state, the material is all N2 , so PN2 = P = 100 kP a. The ideal gas law then gives at
t=0
P = RT (N2 + N ); (5.366)
P
N = N 2 , (5.367)
RT
100 kP a
= kJ
N2 , (5.368)
8.314 kmole K (6000 K)
kmole
= 2.00465 103 N 2 . (5.369)
m3
Then the equations for kinetics of a single isobaric isothermal reaction, Eq. (5.353) in conjunction
with Eq. (5.280), reduce for N2 molar concentration to
!
dN2 E 1 N RT
= aT exp (N2 ) N2 (N )N 1 ( )N2 (N )N N2 2 (N2 + N ) .
dt RT Kc N2 P
| {z }
=r
(5.370)
Realizing that N 2
= 2, N = 0, N2 = 1, and N = 2, one gets
!
dN2 2 RT
E 1
= aT exp 2N2 1 N
1 N2 . (5.371)
dt RT K c N 2 P
| {z }
=k(T )
The temperature dependency of the reaction is unchanged from the previous reaction:
E
k(T ) = aT exp , (5.372)
RT
!
3 1.6 kJ
18 m K 1.6 941550 kmole
= 7.0 10 T exp kJ
, (5.373)
kmole s 8.314 kmole KT
7.0 1018 1.1325 105
= exp . (5.374)
T 1.6 T
The system is at equilibrium when f (N2 ) = 0. This is an algebraic function of N2 only, and can be
plotted. Figure 5.4 gives a plot of f (N2 ) and shows that it has four potential equilibrium points. It is
seen there are four roots. Solving for the equilibria requires solving
3 kmole
2 !
m3 1 2.00465 10 N
2N2 1 m 3
0 = 40130.2 2
f ( N ) (kmole/m 3 /s)
2
4
unstable
unstable 3
equilibrium
equilibrium
2
By inspection of the topology of Fig. 5.2, the only stable, physical root is 0.001583 kmole m3 . Small
perturbations from this equilibrium induce the forcing function to supply dynamics which restore the
system to its original equilibrium state. Small perturbations from the unstable equilibria induce non-
restoring dynamics. For this root, one can then determine that the stable equilibrium value of N =
0.000421 kmole
m3 .
A numerical solution via an explicit technique such as a Runge-Kutta integration is found for
Eq. (5.385). The solution for N2 , along with N is plotted in Fig. 5.5.
Linearization of Eq. (5.385) about the equilibrium state gives rise to the locally linearly valid
d
N2 0.001583 = 967.073(N2 0.001583) + . . . (5.387)
dt
This has local solution
N2 = 0.001583 + C exp (967.073t) . (5.388)
Again, C is an irrelevant integration constant. The time scale of relaxation is the time when the
argument of the exponential is 1, which is
1
= = 1.03 103 s. (5.389)
967.073 s1
Note that the time constant for the isobaric combustion is about a factor 1.25 greater than for isochoric
combustion under the otherwise identical conditions.
The equilibrium values agree exactly with those found in the earlier example; see Eq. (4.514).
Again, the kinetics provide the details of how much time it takes to achieve equilibrium.
0.002
concentration (kmole/m 3 )
N2
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
N
t (s)
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Figure 5.5: N2 (t) and N (t) in isobaric, isothermal nitrogen dissociation problem.
di
= i r, (5.390)
dt
d ci
= i r, (5.391)
dt Mi
d
(ci ) = i Mi r, (5.392)
dt
L
X
d
(ci ) = i Ml li r, (5.393)
dt
|l=1 {z }
=Mi
XL
d
(ci ) = Ml lii r, (5.394)
dt l=1
XN XN X L
d
(ci ) = Ml li i r, (5.395)
i=1
dt i=1 l=1
d
N L X N
X X
ci = Ml li i r, (5.396)
dt i=1
l=1 i=1
| {z }
=1
X L
X N
d
= r Ml li i . (5.397)
dt l=1 i=1
| {z }
=0
Therefore, we get
d
= 0. (5.398)
dt
PN
Note the term i=1 li i = 0 because of stoichiometry, Eq. (5.24).
di
= i r, (5.399)
dt
d
li i = li i r, l = 1, . . . , L, (5.400)
dt
d
(li i ) = rli i , l = 1, . . . , L, (5.401)
dt
XN XN
d
(li i ) = rlii , l = 1, . . . , L, (5.402)
i=1
dt i=1
N
! N
d X X
li i = r li i , l = 1, . . . , L, (5.403)
dt i=1 i=1
| {z }
=0
N
!
d X
li i = 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (5.404)
dt i=1
P
The term N i=1 li i represents the number of moles of element l per unit volume, by the
following analysis
N
X XN
moles element l moles species i moles element l
li i = = l e . (5.405)
i=1 i=1
moles species i volume volume
Here the elemental mole density, l e , for element l has been defined. So the element concen-
tration for each element remains constant in a constant volume reaction process:
dl e
= 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (5.406)
dt
One can also multiply by the elemental mass, Ml to get the elemental mass density, el :
el Ml l e , l = 1, . . . , L. (5.407)
Since Ml is a constant, one can incorporate this definition into Eq. (5.406) to get
del
= 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (5.408)
dt
The element mass density remains constant in the constant volume reaction. One could also
simply say since the elements density is constant, and the mixture is simply a sum of the
elements, that the mixture density is conserved as well.
But there is no heat transfer or work in the adiabatic isochoric process, so one gets
dU
= 0, (5.414)
dt
d
(mu) = 0, (5.415)
dt
du dm
m +u = 0, (5.416)
dt dt
|{z}
=0
du
= 0. (5.417)
dt
Thus for the mixture of ideal gases, u(T, 1 , . . . , N ) = uo. One can see how reaction rates
affect temperature changes by expanding the derivative in Eq. (5.417)
N
!
d X
ci u i = 0, (5.418)
dt i=1
X N
d
(ci ui ) = 0, (5.419)
i=1
dt
XN
dui dci
ci + ui = 0, (5.420)
i=1
dt dt
XN
dui dT dci
ci + ui = 0, (5.421)
i=1
dT dt dt
XN
dT dci
ci cvi + ui = 0, (5.422)
i=1
dt dt
N N
dT X X dci
ci cvi = ui , (5.423)
dt i=1 i=1
dt
| {z }
=cv
N
X
dT d Mi i
cv = ui , (5.424)
dt i=1
dt
N
X
dT di
cv = ui Mi , (5.425)
dt i=1
dt
XN
dT
cv = ui Mi i r, (5.426)
dt i=1
PN
dT r i=1 i ui
= . (5.427)
dt cv
N
X
U i ui , (5.428)
i=1
dT rU
= . (5.429)
dt cv
The rate of temperature change is dependent on the absolute energies, not the energy dif-
ferences. If the reaction is going forward, so r > 0, and that is a direction in which the net
molar energy change is negative, then the temperature will rise.
Solving for the reaction dynamics in an adiabatic isobaric system requires some non-obvious
manipulations. First, the first law of thermodynamics says dU = dQdW . Since the process
is adiabatic, one has dQ = 0, so dU + P dV = 0. Since it is isobaric, one gets d(U + P V ) = 0,
or dH = 0. So the total enthalpy is constant. Then
d
H = 0, (5.430)
dt
d
(mh) = 0, (5.431)
dt
dh
= 0, (5.432)
dt!
N
X
d
ci hi = 0, (5.433)
dt i=1
N
X d
(ci hi ) = 0, (5.434)
i=1
dt
XN
dhi dci
ci + hi = 0, (5.435)
i=1
dt dt
XN
dhi dT dci
ci + hi = 0, (5.436)
i=1
dT dt dt
N
X N
dT X dci
ci cP i + hi = 0, (5.437)
i=1
dt i=1
dt
N N
dT X X dci
ci cP i + hi = 0, (5.438)
dt i=1 i=1
dt
| {z }
=cP
N
dT X d i Mi
cP + hi = 0, (5.439)
dt i=1
dt
N
dT X d i
cP + hi Mi = 0. (5.440)
dt i=1
dt
Now use Eq (5.339) to eliminate the term in Eq. (5.440) involving molar concentration
derivatives to get
N
dT X i r
cP + hi = 0, (5.441)
dt i=1
PN
dT r i=1 hi i
= . (5.442)
dt cP
So the temperature derivative is known as an algebraic function. If one defines the net
enthalpy change as
XN
H hi i , (5.443)
i=1
one gets
dT rH
= . (5.444)
dt cP
Now differentiate the isobaric ideal gas law to get the density derivative.
N
X
P = i RT, (5.445)
i=1
XN N
dT X d
0 = i R + RT i , (5.446)
i=1
dt i=1
dt
N N
dT X X i d
0 = + T i r + , (5.447)
dt i=1 i i=1 dt
N N N
1 dT X X 1 d X
0 = +r i + . (5.448)
T dt i=1 i i=1
dt i=1 i
Solving, we get
PN PN
d 1 dT i=1 i r i=1 i
= T dt PN i . (5.449)
dt i=1
PN
Defining the change of enthalpy of the reaction as H k=1 k hk , and the change of
P
number of the reaction as n N k=1 k , one can also say
di H
= r i + yi n . (5.459)
dt cP T
Exothermic reaction, H < 0, and net number increases, n > 0, both tend to decrease the
molar concentrations of the species in the isobaric reaction.
Lastly, the evolution of the adiabatic, isobaric system, can be described by the simul-
taneous, coupled ordinary differential equations: Eqs. (5.442, 5.450, 5.458). These require
numerical solution in general. Note also that one could also employ a more fundamental
P
treatment as a differential algebraic system involving H = H1 , P = P1 = RT N i=1 i and
Eq. (5.338).
Now consider whether the kinetics law that has been posed actually satisfies the second law
of thermodynamics. Consider again Eq. (4.387). There is an algebraic relation on the right
side. If it can be shown that this algebraic relation is positive semi-definite, then the second
law is satisfied, and the algebraic relation is known as a Clausius-Duhem relation.
Now take Eq. (4.387) and perform some straightforward operations on it:
N
1X
dS|U,V = dni 0, (5.460)
T i=1 i
| {z }
irreversible entropy production
N
dS V X dni 1
= 0, (5.461)
dt U,V T i=1 i dt V
N
V X di
= 0, (5.462)
T i=1 i dt
Y !
V X
N
E
N 1 Y k
N
= i aT exp k k
1 k 0,(5.463)
T i=1 i RT K c
| {z } | k=1{z } | k=1 {z }
k(T ) forward reaction reverse reaction
| {z }
r
N N
! N
!
V X Y 1 Y
= i k(T ) k k 1 kk 0, (5.464)
T i=1 i k=1
K c
k=1
N
! N
! N !
V Y 1 Y X
= k(T ) k k 1 kk i i 0, (5.465)
T k=1
Kc k=1 i=1
| {z }
=
Change the dummy index from k back to i,
N
! N
!
V Y 1 Y
= k(T ) i i 1 i i 0, (5.466)
T i=1
Kc i=1
V
= r, (5.467)
T
d
= . (5.468)
T dt
Consider now the affinity term in Eq. (5.466) and expand it so that it has a more useful
form:
N
X N
X
= i i = g i i , (5.469)
i=1 i=1
XN
Pi
= g oT,i + RT ln i , (5.470)
i=1
Po
N
X N
X i
Pi
= g oT,i i RT ln , (5.471)
i=1 i=1
Po
| {z }
=Go
N i
Go X Pi
= RT
RT ln ,
(5.472)
| {z } i=1 Po
=ln KP
N !
Y Pi i
= RT ln KP ln , (5.473)
i=1
P o
YN !
1 Pi i
= RT ln + ln , (5.474)
KP i=1
Po
N !
1 Y Pi i
= RT ln , (5.475)
KP i=1 Po
PNi=1 i N
Po Y RT i
i
= RT ln RT , (5.476)
Kc i=1
P o
N
!
1 Y i
= RT ln . (5.477)
Kc i=1 i
Equation (5.477) is the common definition of affinity. Another form can be found by em-
ploying the definition of Kc from Eq. (5.270) to get
PNi=1 i N !
Po Go Y i
= RT ln exp i , (5.478)
RT RT i=1
PNi=1 i YN
!!
Go Po
= RT + ln i i , (5.479)
RT RT i=1
PNi=1 i YN
!
P o
= Go RT ln i i . (5.480)
RT i=1
To see clearly that the entropy production rate is positive semi-definite, substitute
Eq. (5.477) into Eq. (5.466) to get
N
! N
! N
!!
dS V Y i 1 Y i 1 Y i
= k(T ) i 1 RT ln 0,
dt U,V T i=1
Kc i=1 i Kc i=1 i
(5.481)
N
! N
! N
!
Y i 1 Y 1 Y
= RV k(T ) i 1 i i ln i i 0. (5.482)
i=1
Kc i=1
Kc i=1
r = R R . (5.485)
Note that since k(T ) > 0, Kc > 0, and i 0, that both R 0 and R 0. Since
i = i i , one finds that
N N
1 Y i 1 k(T ) Y i i R
i = = . (5.486)
Kc i=1 Kc k(T ) i=1 i R
Finally, we get
dS R
= RV (R R ) ln 0. (5.488)
dt U,V R
Obviously, if the forward rate is greater than the reverse rate R R > 0, ln(R /R ) > 0,
and the entropy production is positive. If the forward rate is less than the reverse rate,
R R < 0, ln(R /R ) < 0, and the entropy production is still positive. The production
rate is zero when R = R .
Note that the affinity can be written as
R
= RT ln . (5.489)
R
And so when the forward reaction rate exceeds the reverse, the affinity is positive. It is zero
at equilibrium, when the forward reaction rate equals the reverse.
for isomerization reactions. However, as a pedagogical tool as well as a qualitative model for
real chemistry, it can be valuable.
Consider the reversible reaction
A B. (5.490)
where chemical species A and B have identical molecular masses MA = MB = M. Consider
further the case in which at the initial state, no moles of A only are present. Also take the
reaction to be isochoric and isothermal. These assumptions can easily be relaxed for more
general cases. Specializing then Eq. (5.240) for this case, one has
nA = A + nAo , (5.491)
|{z} |{z}
=1 =no
nB = B + nBo . (5.492)
|{z} |{z}
=1 =0
Thus
nA = + no , (5.493)
nB = . (5.494)
Now no is constant throughout the reaction. Scale by this and define the dimensionless
reaction progress as /no to get
nA
= + 1, (5.495)
no
|{z}
=yA
nB
= . (5.496)
no
|{z}
=yB
yA + yB = 1. (5.504)
Now r = (1/V )d/dt = (1/V )d(no )/dt
= (no /V )d()/dt
= o d/dt. So the reaction
dynamics can be described by a single ordinary differential equation in a single unknown:
!
d 1 1
o = ko (1 ) , (5.509)
dt Kc 1
!
d 1 1
= k(1 ) . (5.510)
dt Kc 1
For k > 0, Kc > 0, the equilibrium is stable. The time constant of relaxation is
1
= . (5.513)
1
k 1+ Kc
For the isothermal, isochoric system, one should consider the second law in terms of the
Helmholtz free energy. Combine then Eq. (4.394), dA|T,V 0, with Eq. (4.311), dA =
PN
SdT P dV + i dni and taking time derivatives, one finds
i=1
!
XN
dA|T,V = SdT P dV + i dni 0, (5.514)
i=1 T,V
N
dA X dni
= i 0, (5.515)
dt T,V i=1
dt
N
1 dA V X di
= 0. (5.516)
T dt T i=1 i dt
This is exactly the same form as Eq. (5.482), which can be directly substituted into Eq. (5.516)
to give
N
! N
! N
!
1 dA Y i 1 Y i 1 Y i
= RV k(T ) i 1 ln 0,
T dt T,V i=1
Kc i=1 i Kc i=1 i
(5.517)
N
! N
! N
!
dA Y i 1 Y 1 Y
= RV T k(T ) i 1 i i ln i i 0.
dt T,V i=1
Kc i=1
Kc i=1
(5.518)
Since the present analysis is nothing more than a special case of the previous section,
Eq. (5.520) certainly holds. One questions however the behavior in the irreversible limit,
1/Kc 0. Evaluating this limit, one finds
dA
ln 1 +(1 )
(1 ) ln (1 )
ln(1 )
+ . . . 0.
lim = kn RT
1/Kc 0 dt T,V
o | {z }
K
>0 | {z c }
(5.521)
Now, performing the distinguished limit as 1; that is the reaction goes to completion,
one notes that all terms are driven to zero for small 1/Kc . Recall that 1 goes to zero
goes to . Note that the entropy inequality is ill-defined for a formally
faster than ln(1 )
irreversible reaction with 1/Kc = 0.
Thermochemistry of multiple
reactions
This chapter will extend notions associated with the thermodynamics of a single chemical
reactions to systems in which many reactions occur simultaneously.
However, each reaction has a stoichiometric coefficient. The j th reaction can be summarized
in the following ways:
N
X N
X
i ij i ij , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.2)
i=1 i=1
XN
i ij = 0, j = 1, . . . , J. (6.3)
i=1
203
204 CHAPTER 6. THERMOCHEMISTRY OF MULTIPLE REACTIONS
Stoichiometry for the j th reaction and lth element is given by the extension of Eq. (5.24):
N
X
liij = 0, l = 1, . . . , L, j = 1, . . . , J. (6.4)
i=1
The net change in Gibbs free energy and equilibrium constants of the j th reaction are defined
by the extensions of Eqs. (5.268, 5.267, 5.270):
N
X
Goj g oT,iij , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.5)
i=1
Goj
KP,j exp , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.6)
RT
PNi=1 ij
Po Goj
Kc,j exp , j = 1, . . . , J. (6.7)
RT RT
N
X
i ij = 0, j = 1, . . . , J, (6.8)
i=1
In terms of the chemical affinity of each reaction, the equilibrium condition is simply the
extension of Eq. (5.254):
j = 0, j = 1, . . . , J. (6.11)
At equilibrium, then the equilibrium constraints can be shown to reduce to the extension
of Eq. (5.266):
N
Y
Pi ij
KP,j = , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.12)
i=1
Po
For isochoric reaction, the evolution of species concentration i due to the combined effect
of J reactions is given by the extension of Eq. (5.279):
i
z }| {
!
di
J
X E j
N
Y 1 Y kj
N
j
kj
= ij aj T exp k 1 k , i = 1, . . . , N.
dt RT Kc,j k=1
j=1 | {z } | k=1{z } | {z }
kj (T ) forward reaction reverse reaction
| {z }
rj =(1/V )dj /dt
(6.14)
The extension to isobaric reactions is straightforward, and follows the same analysis as for
a single reaction. Again, three intermediate variables which are in common usage have been
defined. First one takes the reaction rate of the j th reaction to be the extension of Eq. (5.280)
Y !
E j
N 1 Y kj
N
j
kj
rj aj T exp k 1 k , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.15)
RT K c,j
| {z } | k=1{z } | k=1
{z }
kj (T ) forward reaction reverse reaction
1 dj
rj = . (6.17)
V dt
Here j is the reaction progress variable for the j th reaction.
Each reaction has a temperature-dependent rate function kj (T ), which is an extension of
Eq. (5.282):
j E j
kj (T ) aj T exp , j = 1, . . . , J. (6.18)
RT
The evolution rate of each species is given by i , defined now as an extension of Eq. (5.284):
J
X
i ij rj , i = 1, . . . , N. (6.19)
j=1
The multi-reaction extension of Eq. (5.239) for mole change in terms of progress variables
is
J
X
dni = ij dj , i = 1, . . . , N. (6.20)
j=1
For a set of adiabatic, isochoric reactions, one can show the extension of Eq. (5.429) is
PJ
dT j=1 rj Uj
= , (6.27)
dt cv
where the energy change for a reaction Uj is defined as the extension of Eq. (5.428):
N
X
Uj = ui ij , j = 1, . . . , J. (6.28)
i=1
Similarly for a set of adiabatic, isobaric reactions, one can show the extension of Eq. (5.444):
PJ
dT j=1 rj Hj
= , (6.29)
dt cP
where the enthalpy change for a reaction Hj is defined as the extension of Eq. (5.443):
N
X
Hj = hi ij , j = 1, . . . , J. (6.30)
i=1
Moreover, the density and species concentration derivatives for an adiabatic, isobaric set can
be shown to be extensions of Eqs. (5.455, 5.459):
XJ XN
d hi
= M rj ij 1 , (6.31)
dt j=1 i=1
c P T
XJ
di Hj
= rj ij + yi nj , (6.32)
dt j=1
cP T
where
N
X
nj = kj . (6.33)
k=1
In a similar fashion to that shown for a single reaction, one can further sum over all
reactions and prove that mixture mass is conserved, element mass and number are conserved.
Example 6.1
Show that element mass and number are conserved for the multi-reaction formulation.
XJ
d
(li i ) = li ij rj , (6.36)
dt j=1
X N XN X J
d
(li i ) = li ij rj , (6.37)
i=1
dt i=1 j=1
N
! J X N
d X X
li i = li ij rj , (6.38)
dt i=1 j=1 i=1
| {z }
=l e
J
X N
X
dl e
= rj li ij , (6.39)
dt j=1 i=1
| {z }
=0
dl e
= 0, l = 1, . . . , L, (6.40)
dt
d
(Ml l e ) = 0, l = 1, . . . , L, (6.41)
dt
dl e
= 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (6.42)
dt
It is also straightforward to show that the mixture density is conserved for the multi-reaction, multi-
component mixture:
d
= 0. (6.43)
dt
The proof of the Clausius-Duhem relationship for the second law is an extension of the
single reaction result. Start with Eq. (5.460) and operate much as for a single reaction model.
N
1X
dS|U,V = dni 0, (6.44)
T i=1 i
| {z }
irreversible entropy production
N
dS V X dni 1
= 0, (6.45)
dt U,V T i=1 i dt V
N
V X di
= 0, (6.46)
T i=1 i dt
N J
V X X
= ij rj 0, (6.47)
T i=1 i j=1
N J
V XX
= ij rj 0, (6.48)
T i=1 j=1 i
J N
V X X
= rj ij 0, (6.49)
T j=1 i=1 i
J N N
! N
V X Y ij 1 Y ij X
= kj 1 i ij 0, (6.50)
T j=1 i=1 i Kc,j i=1 i i=1
J N N
! N
!!
V X Y 1 Y 1 Y ij
= kj i ij 1 i ij RT ln 0,
T j=1 i=1
Kc,j i=1
Kc,j i=1 i
(6.51)
J N N
! N
!
X Y 1 Y ij 1 Y ij
= RV kj i ij 1 ln 0. (6.52)
j=1 i=1
Kc,j i=1 i Kc,j i=1 i
Note that Eq. (6.49) can also be written in terms of the affinities (see Eq. (6.10)) and reaction
progress variables (see Eq. (6.17) as
J
dS 1 X dj
= j 0. (6.53)
dt U,V T j=1 dt
Similar to the argument for a single reaction, if one defines extensions of Eqs. (5.483,
5.484) as
N
Y
ij
Rj = kj i , (6.54)
i=1
N
kj Y ij
Rj = , (6.55)
Kc,j i=1 i
then it is easy to show that
rj = Rj Rj , (6.56)
and we get the equivalent of Eq. (5.488):
J
dS X Rj
= RV R R ln 0. (6.57)
dt U,V j=1
j j
Rj
Since kj (T ) > 0, R > 0, and V 0, and each term in the summation combines to be positive
semi-definite, one sees that the Clausius-Duhem inequality is guaranteed to be satisfied for
multi-component reactions.
N
X
li (nio ni ) = 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (6.58)
i=1
Here recall nio is the initial number of moles of species i in the mixture, and li is the number
of moles of element l in species i. If one interprets nio ni as ij , the negative of the net
P
mole change, Eq. (6.58) becomes N i=1 li ij = 0, equivalent to Eq. (6.4).
One can now use the method of constrained optimization given by the method of Lagrange
multipliers to extremize G subject to the constraints of element conservation. The extremum
will be a minimum; this will not be proved, but it will be demonstrated. Define a set of L
Lagrange multipliers l . Next define an augmented Gibbs free energy function G , which is
simply G plus the product of the Lagrange multipliers and the constraints:
L
X N
X
G =G+ l lk (nko nk ). (6.59)
l=1 k=1
Now when the constraints are satisfied, one has G = G, so assuming the constraints can be
satisfied, extremizing G is equivalent to extremizing G . To extremize G , take its differential
with respect to ni , with P , T and nj constant and set it to zero for each species:
L N
!
G G X X
= + l lk (nko nk ) = 0, i = 1, . . . , N,
ni T,P,nj ni T,P,nj ni T,P,nj l=1 k=1
| {z }
=i
(6.60)
L
X N
X
nk
= i l lk = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.61)
ni T,P,nj
l=1 k=1
| {z }
ki
L
X N
X
= i l lk ki = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.62)
l=1 k=1
XL
= i l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N. (6.63)
l=1
Next, for an ideal gas, one can expand the chemical potential so as to get
L
X
Pi
oT,i + RT ln l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.64)
Po
| {z } l=1
=i
! L
ni P 1 X
o
T,i + RT ln PN l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N. (6.65)
k=1 nk
Po
l=1
| {z }
=Pi
PN
Recalling that k=1 nk = n, in summary then, one has N + L equations
L
X
ni P
oT,i + RT ln l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.66)
n Po l=1
N
X
li (nio ni ) = 0, l = 1, . . . , L. (6.67)
i=1
in N + L unknowns: ni , i = 1, . . . , N, l , l = 1, . . . , L.
Example 6.2
Consider a previous example problem, see p. 145, in which
N2 + N2 2N + N2 . (6.68)
Take the reaction to be isothermal and isobaric with T = 6000 K and P = 100 kP a. Initially one has
1 kmole of N2 and 0 kmole of N . Use the extremization of Gibbs free energy to find the equilibrium
composition.
First find the chemical potentials at the reference pressure of each of the possible constituents.
o o o
oT,i = goi = hi T soi = h298,i + hi T soi . (6.69)
kJ
oN2 = 0 + 205848 (6000)(292.984) = 1552056 , (6.70)
kmole
kJ
oN = 472680 + 124590 (6000)(216.926) = 704286 . (6.71)
kmole
To each of these one must add
ni P
RT ln ,
nPo
to get the full chemical potential. Now P = Po = 100 kP a for this problem, so one only must consider
RT = 8.314(6000) = 49884 kJ/kmole. So, the chemical potentials are
nN 2
N2 = 1552056 + 49884 ln , (6.72)
nN + nN 2
nN
N = 704286 + 49884 ln . (6.73)
nN + nN 2
Then one adds on the Lagrange multiplier and then considers element conservation to get the
following coupled set of nonlinear algebraic equations:
nN 2
1552056 + 49884 ln 2N = 0, (6.74)
nN + nN 2
nN
704286 + 49884 ln N = 0, (6.75)
nN + nN 2
nN + 2nN2 = 2. (6.76)
Example 6.3
Consider a mixture of 2 kmole of H2 and 1 kmole of O2 at T = 3000 K and P = 100 kP a.
Assuming an isobaric and isothermal equilibration process with the products consisting of H2 , O2 ,
H2 O, OH, H, and O, find the equilibrium concentrations. Consider the same mixture at T = 298 K
and T = 1000 K.
The first task is to find the chemical potentials of each species at the reference pressure and
T = 3000 K. Here one can use the standard tables along with the general equation
o o o
oT,i = goi = hi T soi = h298,i + hi T soi . (6.80)
kJ
oH2 = 0 + 88724 3000(202.989) = 520242 , (6.81)
kmole
kJ
oO2 = 0 + 98013 3000(284.466) = 755385 , (6.82)
kmole
kJ
oH2 O = 241826 + 126548 3000(286.504) = 974790 , (6.83)
kmole
kJ
oOH = 38987 + 89585 3000(256.825) = 641903 , (6.84)
kmole
kJ
oH = 217999 + 56161 3000(162.707) = 213961 , (6.85)
kmole
kJ
oO = 249170 + 56574 3000(209.705) = 323371 . (6.86)
kmole
ni P
RT ln ,
nPo
to get the full chemical potential. Now P = Po = 100 kP a for this problem, so one must only consider
RT = 8.314(3000) = 24942 kJ/kmole. So, the chemical potentials are
nH2
H2 = 520243 + 24942 ln , (6.87)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nO2
O2 = 755385 + 24942 ln , (6.88)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nH2 O
H2 O = 974790 + 24942 ln , (6.89)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nOH
OH = 641903 + 24942 ln , (6.90)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nH
H = 213961 + 24942 ln , (6.91)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nO
O = 323371 + 24942 ln . (6.92)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
Then one adds on the Lagrange multipliers and then considers element conservation to get the following
nH2
520243 + 24942 ln 2H = 0, (6.93)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nO2
755385 + 24942 ln 2O = 0, (6.94)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nH2 O
974790 + 24942 ln 2H O = 0, (6.95)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nOH
641903 + 24942 ln H O = 0, (6.96)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nH
213961 + 24942 ln H = 0, (6.97)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
nO
323371 + 24942 ln O = 0, (6.98)
nH2 + nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nH + nO
2nH2 + 2nH2 O + nOH + nH = 4, (6.99)
2nO2 + nH2 O + nOH + nO = 2. (6.100)
These non-linear algebraic equations can be solved numerically via a Newton-Raphson technique.
The equations are sensitive to the initial guess, and one can use ones intuition to help guide the
selection. For example, one might expect to have nH2 O somewhere near 2 kmole. Application of the
Newton-Raphson iteration yields
At this relatively high value of temperature, all species considered have a relatively major presence.
That is, there are no truly minor species.
Unless a very good guess is provided, it may be difficult to find a solution for this set of non-
linear equations. Straightforward algebra allows the equations to be recast in a form which sometimes
Then solve these considering ni , exp (O /24942), and exp (H /24942) as unknowns. The same result
is recovered, but a broader range of initial guesses converge to the correct solution.
One can verify that this choice extremizes G by direct computation; moreover, this will show
that the extremum is actually a minimum. In so doing, one must exercise care to see that element
conservation is retained. As an example, perturb the equilibrium solution above for nH2 and nH such
that
Leave all other species mole numbers the same. In this way, when = 0, one has the original equilibrium
solution. For 6= 0, the solution
PN moves off the equilibrium value in such a way that elements are
conserved. Then one has G = i=1 i ni = G().
The difference G() G(0) is plotted in Fig. 6.1. When = 0, there is no deviation from the value
predicted by the Newton-Raphson iteration. Clearly when = 0, G() G(0), takes on a minimum
value, and so then does G(). So the procedure works.
At the lower temperature, T = 298 K, application of the same procedure yields very different
results:
40
30
20
10
Figure 6.1: Gibbs free energy variation as mixture composition is varied maintaining element
conservation for mixture of H2 , O2 , H2 O, OH, H, and O at T = 3000 K, P = 100 kP a.
PNi=1 ij N
Y
Po Goj kj
Kc,j = exp = k , j = 1, . . . , J. (6.135)
RT RT k=1
With some effort it can be shown that not all of the J equations are linearly independent.
Moreover, they do not possess a unique solution. However, for closed systems, only one of
the solutions is physical, as will be shown in the following section. The others typically
involve non-physical, negative concentrations.
Nevertheless, Eqs. (6.135) are entirely consistent with the predictions of the N + L equa-
tions which arise from extremization of Gibbs free energy while enforcing element number
constraints. This can be shown by beginning with Eq. (6.65), rewritten in terms of molar
concentrations, and performing the following sequence of operations:
! L
ni /V P X
oT,i + RT ln PN l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.136)
k=1 nk /V
Po
l=1
! L
iP X
oT,i + RT ln PN l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.137)
k=1 k
P o
l=1
X L
i P
oT,i + RT ln l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.138)
Po l=1
X L
o RT
T,i + RT ln i l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N, (6.139)
Po l=1
XL
o RT
ij T,i + ij RT ln i ij l li = 0, i = 1, . . . , N,
Po l=1
j = 1, . . . , J, (6.140)
N
X N
X X N XL
RT
ij oT,i + ij RT ln i ij l li = 0, j = 1, . . . , J, (6.141)
Po
|i=1 {z } i=1 i=1 l=1
=Goj
N
X X L X N
RT
Goj + RT ij ln i l li ij = 0, j = 1, . . . , J, (6.142)
i=1
Po l=1
|i=1 {z }
=0
N
X
RT
Goj + RT ij ln i = 0, j = 1, . . . , J. (6.143)
i=1
Po
Here, the stoichiometry for each reaction has been employed to remove the Lagrange multi-
In summary,
N
Y
i ij = Kc,j , j = 1, . . . , J, (6.149)
i=1
which is identical to Eq. (6.135), obtained by equilibrating each of the J reactions. Thus,
extremization of Gibbs free energy is consistent with equilibrating each of the J reactions.
One would like to invert for dk /dt. However, Dik is non-square and has
P and solve directly P
no inverse. But since N D
i=1 li ip = 0, and N
i=1 li ij = 0, L of the equations N equations
in Eq. (6.154) are redundant.
At this point, it is more convenient to go to a Gibbs vector notation, where there is an
obvious correspondence between the bold vectors and the indicial counterparts:
d 1 d
= D = r, (6.155)
dt V dt
d
DT D = V DT r, (6.156)
dt
d
= V (DT D)1 DT r. (6.157)
dt
Because of the L linear dependencies, there is no loss of information in this matrix projection.
This system of N L equations is the smallest number of differential equations that can be
solved for a general system in which J > (N L).
Lastly, one recovers the original system when forming
d
D = V D (DT D)1 DT r. (6.158)
dt | {z }
=P
Here, the N N projection matrix P is symmetric, has norm of unity, has rank of N L,
has N L eigenvalues of value unity, and L eigenvalues of value zero. And, while application
of a general projection matrix to r filters some of the information in r, because the
N (N L) matrix D spans the same column space as the N J matrix , no information
is lost in Eq. (6.158) relative to the original Eq. (6.155). Mathematically, one can say
P = . (6.159)
1 d
= r. (6.160)
V dt
= 0, t = 0, (6.162)
= o , t = 0. (6.163)
Then, since is a constant, Eq. (6.161) is easily integrated. After applying the initial
conditions, Eq. (6.163), one gets
1
= o + . (6.164)
V
Last, if J = (N L), either approach yields the same number of equations, and is equally
concise.
Example 6.4
Consider the full time-dependency of a problem considered in a previous example in which the
equilibrium state was found; see Sec. 5.3.3.4,. A closed, fixed, adiabatic volume contains at t = 0 s a
stoichiometric mixture of 2 kmole of H2 , 1 kmole of O2 , and 8 kmole of N2 at 100 kP a and 1000 K.
Find the reaction dynamics as the system proceeds from its initial state to its final state.
This problem requires a detailed numerical solution. Such a solution was performed by solving
Eq. (6.14) along with the associated calorically imperfect species state equations for a mixture of
eighteen interacting species: H2 , H, O, O2 , OH, H2 O, HO2 , H2 O2 , N , N H2 , N H3 , N2 H, N O, N O2 ,
N2 O, HN O, and N2 . The equilibrium values were reported in a previous example.
The dynamics of the reaction process are reflected in Fig. 6.2. At early time, t < 4 104 s, the
pressure, temperature, and major reactant species concentrations (H2 , O2 , N2 ) are nearly constant.
0
H2
HO
10
O2 2 N2
H2
5
10 Hydrogen- O2 NO
10 NO2
(kmole/m 3 )
Oxygen-Related OH
10 N N2O
Species H
(kmole/m 3 )
O
10
10 Evolution 20
HO2 10 Nitrogen
H2O2
HO
2 and Nitrogen
i
NO
15
10 10
30 Oxides Species
i
Evolution
H2O2 a b
20 40
10 10
6 4 2 6 4 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
t (s) t (s)
3000 250
2500
200
P (kPa)
T (K)
2000
150
1500 induction
time
c d
1000 100
6 4 2 6 4 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
t (s) t (s)
Figure 6.2: Plot of a) H2 (t), H (t), O (t), O2 (t), OH (t), H2 O (t), HO2 (t), H2 O2 (t), b) N (t),
N O (t), N O2 (t), N2 O (t), N2 (t), c) T (t), and d) P (t) for adiabatic, isochoric combustion of
a mixture of 2H2 + O2 + 8N2 initially at T = 1000 K, P = 100 kP a.
However, the minor species, e.g. OH, N O, HO2 and the major product, H2 O, are undergoing very
rapid growth, albeit concentrations whose value remains small. In this period, the material is in what
is known as the induction period.
After a certain critical mass of minor species has accumulated, exothermic recombination of these
minor species to form the major product H2 O induces the temperature to rise, which accelerates further
the reaction rates. This is manifested in a thermal explosion. A common definition of the end of the
induction period is the induction time, t = tind , the time when dT /dt goes through a maximum. Here
one finds
tind = 4.53 104 s. (6.165)
At the end of the induction zone, there is a final relaxation to equilibrium.
Here we give further details of kinetics. These notes are also used to introduce a separate
combustion course and have some overlap with previous chapters.
Let us consider the reaction of N molecular chemical species composed of L elements via
J chemical reactions. Let us assume the gas is an ideal mixture of ideal gases that satisfies
Daltons law of partial pressures. The reaction will be considered to be driven by molecular
collisions. We will not model individual collisions, but instead attempt to capture their
collective effect.
An example of a model of such a reaction is listed in Table 7.1. There we find a N = 9
species, J = 37 step irreversible reaction mechanism for an L = 3 hydrogen-oxygen-argon
mixture from Maas and Warnatz,1 with corrected fH2 from Maas and Pope.2 The model has
also been utilized by Fedkiw, et al.3 We need not worry yet about fH2 , which is known as
a collision efficiency factor. The one-sided arrows indicate that each individual reaction is
considered to be irreversible. Note that for nearly each reaction, a separate reverse reaction is
listed; thus, pairs of irreversible reactions can in some sense be considered to model reversible
reactions.
In this model a set of elementary reactions are hypothesized. For the j th reaction we have
the collision frequency factor aj , the temperature-dependency exponent j and the activation
energy E j . These will be explained in short order. Other common forms exist. Often
reactions systems are described as being composed of reversible reactions. Such reactions are
usually notated by two sided arrows. One such system is reported by Powers and Paolucci4
reported here in Table 7.2. Both overall models are complicated.
1
Maas, U., and Warnatz, J., 1988, Ignition Processes in Hydrogen-Oxygen Mixtures, Combustion and
Flame, 74(1): 53-69.
2
Maas, U., and Pope, S. B., 1992, Simplifying Chemical Kinetics: Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifolds
in Composition Space, Combustion and Flame, 88(3-4): 239-264.
3
Fedkiw, R. P., Merriman, B., and Osher, S., 1997, High Accuracy Numerical Methods for Thermally
Perfect Gas Flows with Chemistry, Journal of Computational Physics, 132(2): 175-190.
4
Powers, J. M., and Paolucci, S., 2005, Accurate Spatial Resolution Estimates for Reactive Supersonic
Flow with Detailed Chemistry, AIAA Journal, 43(5): 1088-1099.
223
224 CHAPTER 7. KINETICS IN SOME MORE DETAIL
(mol/cm3 )(
1
M,j
PN
i=1 ij ) kJ
j Reaction aj s K j
j Ej mole
Table 7.1: Third body collision efficiencies with M are fH2 = 1.00, fO2 = 0.35, and fH2 O =
6.5.
CC BY-NC-ND. 03 August 2012, J. M. Powers.
225
(mol/cm3 )(
1
M,j
PN
i=1 ij ) cal
j Reaction aj s K j
j Ej mole
Table 7.2: Nine species, nineteen step reversible reaction mechanism for an H2 /O2 /N2 mix-
ture. Third body collision efficiencies with M are f5 (H2 O) = 21, f5 (H2 ) = 3.3, f12 (H2 O) = 6,
f12 (H) = 2, f12 (H2 ) = 3, f14 (H2 O) = 20.
7.1.1 O O2 dissociation
One of the simplest physical examples is provided by the dissociation of O2 into its atomic
component O.
7.1.1.1.1 Mathematical model The reactions describe oxygen dissociation and recom-
bination in a pair of irreversible reactions:
13 : O + O + M O2 + M, (7.1)
14 : O2 + M O + O + M, (7.2)
with
2
17 mole K kJ
a13 = 2.90 10 3
, 13 = 1.00, E 13 = 0 (7.3)
cm s mole
1
mole K kJ
a14 = 6.81 1018 3
, 14 = 1.00, E 14 = 496.41 . (7.4)
cm s mole
The irreversibility is indicated by the one-sided arrow. Though they participate in the overall
hydrogen oxidation problem, these two reactions are in fact self-contained as well. So let us
just consider that we have only oxygen in our box with N = 2 species, O2 and O, J = 2
reactions (those being 13 and 14), and L = 1 element, that being O.
Recall that in the cgs system, common in thermochemistry, that 1 erg = 1 dyne cm =
107 J = 1010 kJ. Recall also that the cgs unit of force is the dyne and that 1 dyne =
1 g cm/s2 = 105 N. So for cgs we have
10
erg kJ 10 erg erg
E 13 = 0 , E 14 = 496.41 = 4.96 1012 . (7.5)
mole mole kJ mole
5
W. G. Vincenti and C. H. Kruger, 1965, Introduction to Physical Gas Dynamics, Wiley, New York.
The standard model for chemical reaction induces the following two ordinary differential
equations for the evolution of O and O2 molar concentrations:
dO 13 E 13 14 E 14
= 2 a13 T exp O O M +2 a14 T exp O2 M , (7.6)
dt RT RT
| {z } | {z }
=k13 (T ) =k14 (T )
| {z } | {z }
=r13 =r14
dO2 13 E 13 14 E 14
= a13 T exp O O M a14 T exp O2 M . (7.7)
dt RT RT
| {z } | {z }
=k13 (T ) =k14 (T )
| {z } | {z }
=r13 =r14
Here we use the notation i as the molar concentration of species i. Also a common usage for
molar concentration is given by square brackets, e.g. O2 = [O2 ]. The symbol M represents
an arbitrary third body and is an inert participant in the reaction. We also use the common
notation of a temperature-dependent portion of the reaction rate for reaction j, kj (T ), where
j Ej
kj (T ) = aj T exp . (7.8)
RT
The reaction rates for reactions 13 and 14 are defined as
r13 = k13 O O M , (7.9)
r14 = k14 O2 M . (7.10)
We will give details of how to generalize this form later. The system Eq. (7.6-7.7) can be
written simply as
dO
= 2r13 + 2r14 , (7.11)
dt
dO2
= r13 r14 . (7.12)
dt
Even more simply, in vector form, Eqs. (7.11-7.12) can be written as
d
= r. (7.13)
dt
Here we have taken
O
= , (7.14)
O2
2 2
= , (7.15)
1 1
r13
r = . (7.16)
r14
Equations (7.24-7.25) with Eqs. (7.22) represent two non-linear ordinary differential equa-
tions with initial conditions in two unknowns O and O2 . We seek the behavior of these two
species concentrations as a function of time.
Systems of non-linear equations are generally difficult to integrate analytically and gen-
erally require numerical solution. Before embarking on a numerical solution, we simplify as
much as we can. Note that
dO d
+ 2 O2 = 0, (7.26)
dt dt
d
O + 2O2 = 0. (7.27)
dt
We can integrate and apply the initial conditions (7.22) to get
O + 2O2 = b
O + 2b
O2 = constant. (7.28)
The fact that this algebraic constraint exists for all time is a consequence of the conservation
of mass of each O element. It can also be thought of as the conservation of number of
O atoms. Such notions always hold for chemical reactions. They do not hold for nuclear
reactions.
Standard linear algebra provides a robust way to find the constraint of Eq. (7.28). We
can use elementary row operations to cast Eq. (7.16) into a row-echelon form. Here our goal
is to get a linear combination which on the right side has an upper triangular form. To
achieve this add twice the second equation with the first to form a new equation to replace
the second equation. This gives
d O 2 2 r13
= . (7.29)
dt O + 2O2 0 0 r14
Obviously the second equation is one we obtained earlier, d/dt(O + 2O2 ) = 0, and this
induces our algebraic constraint. We also note the system can be recast as
1 0 d O 2 2 r13
= . (7.30)
1 2 dt O2 0 0 r14
This is of the matrix form
d
L1 P = U r. (7.31)
dt
Here L and L1 are N N lower triangular matrices of full rank N, and thus invertible.
The matrix U is upper triangular of dimension N J and with the same rank as , R L.
The matrix P is a permutation matrix of dimension N N. It is never singular and thus
always invertable. It is used to effect possible row exchanges to achieve the desired form;
often row exchanges are not necessary, in which case P = I, the N N identity matrix.
Equation (7.31) can be manipulated to form the original equation via
d 1
=P
| L U} r.
{z (7.32)
dt
=
This gives the dependent variables in terms of a smaller number of transformed dependent
variables in a way which satisfies the linear constraints. In vector form, the equation becomes
b + D .
= (7.35)
Here D is a full rank matrix which spans the same column space as does . Note that
may or may not be full rank. Since D spans the same column space as does , we must also
have in general
D = 0. (7.36)
We also note that the term exp(E j /RT ) is a modulating factor to the dynamics. Let
us see how this behaves for high and low temperatures. First for low temperature, we have
E j
lim exp = 0. (7.38)
T 0 RT
At high temperature, we have
E j
lim exp = 1. (7.39)
T RT
And lastly, at intermediate temperature, we have
E j Ej
exp O(1) when T =O . (7.40)
RT R
A sketch of this modulating factor is given in Figure 7.1. Note
Ej/ R T
for small T , the modulation is extreme, and the reaction rate is very small,
for T , the modulation is unity, and the reaction rate is limited only by molecular
collision frequency.
Now O and O2 represent molar concentrations which have standard units of mole/cm3 .
So the reaction rates
dO dO2
and
dt dt
have units of mole/cm3 /s.
Note that after conversion of E j from kJ/mole to erg/mole we find the units of the
argument of the exponential to be unitless. That is
Ej erg mole K 1
= dimensionless. (7.41)
RT mole erg K
Here the brackets denote the units of a quantity, and not molar concentration. Let us get
units for the collision frequency factor of reaction 13, a13 . We know the units of the rate
(mole/cm3 /s). Reaction 13 involves three molar species. Since 13 = 1, it also has an
extra temperature dependency. The exponential of a unitless number is unitless, so we need
not worry about that. For units to match, we must have
mole mole mole mole
= [a13 ] K 1 . (7.42)
cm3 s cm3 cm3 cm3
O, O2 (mole/cm3)
0.00150
O2
0.00100
0.00070
0.00050
t HsL
10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6
Figure 7.2: Molar concentrations versus time for oxygen dissociation problem.
1.5 10-16
1.0 10-16
7.0 10-17
5.0 10-17
3.0 10-17
t HsL
10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6
Figure 7.3: Dimensionless residual numerical error r in satisfying the element conservation
constraint in the oxygen dissociation example.
We can check how well the numerical solution satisfied the algebraic constraint of element
conservation by plotting the dimensionless residual error r
+ 2 b 2b
O2
r= O O2 O
, (7.56)
b
O + 2b O2
as a function of time. If the constraint is exactly satisfied, we will have r = 0. Any non-zero
r will be related to the numerical method we have chosen. It may contain roundoff error
and have a sporadic nature. A plot of r(t) is given in Figure 7.3. Clearly the error is small,
and has the character of a roundoff error. In fact it is possible to drive r to be smaller by
controlling the error tolerance in the numerical method.
7.1.1.1.2.2 Pressure versus time We can use the ideal gas law to calculate the
pressure. Recall that the ideal gas law for molecular species i is
Pi V = ni RT. (7.57)
Here Pi is the partial pressure of molecular species i, and ni is the number of moles of
molecular species i. Note that we also have
ni
Pi = RT. (7.58)
V
Note that by our definition of molecular species concentration that
ni
i = . (7.59)
V
P (dyne/cm2)
8.4 108
8.2 108
8. 108
7.8 108
7.6 108
7.4 108
7.2 108
t HsL
10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6
7.1.1.1.2.3 Dynamical system form Now Eqs. (7.50-7.51) are of the standard form
for an autonomous dynamical system:
dy
= f(y). (7.72)
dt
Here y is the vector of state variables (O , O2 )T . And f is an algebraic function of the state
variables. For the isothermal system, the algebraic function is in fact a polynomial.
Equilibrium
f(y) = 0. (7.73)
This non-linear set of algebraic equations can be difficult to solve for large systems. For
common chemical kinetics systems, such as the one we are dealing with, there is a guarantee
of a unique equilibrium for which all state variables are physical. There are certainly other
equilibria for which at least one of the state variables is non-physical. Such equilibria can
be quite mathematically complicated.
Solving Eq. (7.73) for our oxygen dissociation problem gives us symbolically from Eq. (7.6-
7.7)
E 13 e e e 13 E 14
2a13 exp O O M T + 2a14 exp eO2 eM T 14 = 0, (7.74)
RT RT
13 E 13 e e e 14 E 14
a13 T exp O O M a14 T exp eO2 eM = 0. (7.75)
RT RT
We notice that eM cancels. This so-called third body will in fact never affect the equilib-
rium state. It will however influence the dynamics. Removing eM and slightly rearranging
Eqs. (7.74-7.75) gives
13 E 13 e e 14 E 14
a13 T exp O O = a14 T exp eO2 , (7.76)
RT RT
13 E 13 e e 14 E 14
a13 T exp O O = a14 T exp eO2 . (7.77)
RT RT
These are the same equations! So we really have two unknowns for the equilibrium state eO
and eO2 but seemingly only one equation. Note that rearranging either Eq. (7.76) or (7.77)
gives the result
14 E 14
e e
O O a14 T exp RT
e = = K(T ). (7.78)
O2
a T exp 13 E 13
13 RT
That is, for the net reaction (excluding the inert third body), O2 O+O, at equilibrium the
product of the concentrations of the products divided by the product of the concentrations
of the reactants is a function of temperature T . And for constant T , this is the so-called
equilibrium constant. This is a famous result from basic chemistry. It is actually not complete
yet, as we have not taken advantage of a connection with thermodynamics. But for now, it
will suffice.
We still have a problem: Eq. (7.78) is still one equation for two unknowns. We solve
this be recalling we have not yet taken advantage of our algebraic constraint of element
conservation, Eq. (7.28). Let us use the equation to eliminate eO2 in favor of eO :
1 b
eO2 = O eO + b O2 . (7.79)
2
So Eq. (7.76) reduces to
13 E 13 e e 14 E 14 1 b e b
a13 T exp O O = a14 T exp O + O2 . (7.80)
RT RT 2 O
| {z }
=eO
2
Equation (7.80) is one algebraic equation in one unknown. Its solution gives the equilibrium
value eO . It is a quadratic equation for eO . Of its two roots, one will be physical. We note
f(O) (mole/cm3/s)
300 000
200 000
100 000
3
-0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.001 O (mole/cm )
-100 000
-200 000
that the equilibrium state will be a function of the initial conditions. Mathematically this
is because our system is really best posed as a system of differential-algebraic equations.
Systems which are purely differential equations will have equilibria which are independent
of their initial conditions. Most of the literature of mathematical physics focuses on such
systems of those. One of the foundational complications of chemical dynamics is the the
equilibria is a function of the initial conditions, and this renders many common mathematical
notions from traditional dynamic system theory to be invalid Fortunately, after one accounts
for the linear constraints of element conservation, one can return to classical notions from
traditional dynamic systems theory.
Consider the dynamics of Eq. (7.24) for the evolution of O . Equilibrating the right hand
side of this equation, gives Eq. (7.74). Eliminating M and then O2 in Eq. (7.74) then
substituting in numerical parameters gives the cubic algebraic equation
33948.3 (1.78439 1011 )(O )2 (5.8 1013 )(O )3 = f (O ) = 0. (7.81)
This equation is cubic because we did not remove the effect of M . This will not affect
the equilibrium, but will affect the dynamics. We can get an idea of where the roots are
by plotting f (O ) as seen in Figure 7.5. Zero crossings of f (O ) in Figure 7.5 represent
equilibria of the system, eO , f (eO ) = 0. The cubic equation has three roots
mole
eO = 0.003 , non-physical, (7.82)
cm3
mole
eO = 0.000518944 , non-physical, (7.83)
cm3
mole
eO = 0.000442414 , physical. (7.84)
cm3
Note the physical root found by our algebraic analysis is identical to that which was identified
by our numerical integration of the ordinary differential equations of reaction kinetics.
Stability of equilibria
We can get a simple estimate of the stability of the equilibria by considering the slope of
f near f = 0. Our dynamic system is of the form
dO
= f (O ). (7.85)
dt
Near the first non-physical root at eO = 0.003, a positive perturbation from equi-
librium induces f < 0, which induces dO /dt < 0, so O returns to its equilibrium.
Similarly, a negative perturbation from equilibrium induces dO /dt > 0, so the system
returns to equilibrium. This non-physical equilibrium point is stable. Note stability
does not imply physicality!
Perform the same exercise for the non-physical root at eO = 0.000518944. We find
this root is unstable.
Perform the same exercise for the physical root at eO = 0.000442414. We find this
root is stable.
In general if f crosses zero with a positive slope, the equilibrium is unstable. Otherwise, it
is stable.
Consider a formal Taylor series expansion of Eq. (7.85) in the neighborhood of an equi-
librium point 3O :
d e e df
( O ) = f (O ) + ( eO ) + . . . (7.86)
dt O | {z } dO =e O
O O
=0
Here A is an arbitrary constant of integration. The local time constant which governs the
times scales of local evolution is where
1
= = 5.20983 109 s. (7.91)
1.91945 108
This nano-second time scale is very fast. It can be shown to be correlated with the mean
time between collisions of molecules.
7.1.1.1.3 Effect of temperature Let us perform four case studies to see the effect of
T on the systems equilibria and it dynamics near equilibrium.
T = 3000 K. Here we have significantly reduced the temperature, but it is still higher
than typically found in ordinary combustion engineering environments. Here we find
mole
eO = 8.9371 106 , (7.92)
cm3
= 1.92059 107 s. (7.93)
mole
eO = 2.0356 1014 , (7.94)
cm3
= 2.82331 101 s. (7.95)
mole
eO = 1.14199 1044 , (7.96)
cm3
= 1.50977 1031 s. (7.97)
The O concentration is effectively zero at room temperature, and the relaxation time
is effectively infinite. As the oldest star in our galaxy has an age of 4.4 1017 s, we see
that at this temperature, our mathematical model cannot be experimentally validated,
so it loses its meaning. At such a low temperature, the theory becomes qualitatively
correct, but not quantitatively predictive.
7.1.1.2.1.1 Kinetics For the reversible O O2 reaction, let us only consider reaction
13 from Table 7.2 for which
13 : O2 + M O + O + M. (7.100)
For this system, we have N = 2 molecular species in L = 1 elements reacting in J = 1
reaction. Here
1
11 mole 0.5 cal
a13 = 1.85 10 (K) , 13 = 0.5, E 13 = 95560 . (7.101)
cm3 mole
Units of cal are common in chemistry, but we need to convert to erg, which is achieved via
7
cal 4.186 J 10 erg erg
E 13 = 95560 = 4.00014 1012 . (7.102)
mole cal J mole
For this reversible reaction, we slightly modify the kinetics equations to
dO 13 E 13 1
= 2 a13 T exp O2 M , (7.103)
dt RT Kc,13 O O M
| {z }
=k13 (T )
| {z }
=r13
dO2 13 E 13 1
= a13 T exp O2 M . (7.104)
dt RT Kc,13 O O M
| {z }
=k13 (T )
| {z }
=r13
Here we have used equivalent definitions for k13 (T ) and r13 , so that Eqs. (7.103-7.104) can
be written compactly as
dO
= 2r13 , (7.105)
dt
dO2
= r13 . (7.106)
dt
In matrix form, we can simplify to
d O 2
= (r13 ). (7.107)
dt O2 1
| {z }
=
As for the irreversible reactions, the reversible reaction rates are constructed to conserve
O atoms. We have
d
O + 2O2 = 0. (7.116)
dt
Thus, we once again find
O + 2b
O + 2O2 = b O2 = constant. (7.117)
This gives the dependent variables in terms of a smaller number of transformed dependent
variables in a way which satisfies the linear constraints. In vector form, the equation becomes
b + D .
= (7.119)
Once again D = 0.
Here Po = 1.01326 106 dyne/cm2 = 1 atm is the reference pressure. The net change of
Gibbs free energy at the reference pressure for reaction 13, Go13 is defined as
We further recall that the Gibbs free energy for species i at the reference pressure is defined
in terms of the enthalpy and entropy as
o
g oi = hi T soi . (7.122)
o
It is common to find hi and soi in thermodynamic tables tabulated as functions of T .
We further note that both Eqs. (7.103) and (7.104) are in equilibrium when
1 e e e
eO2 eM = . (7.123)
Kc,13 O O M
We rearrange Eq. (7.123) to find the familiar
Q
eO eO [products]
Kc,13 = e =Q . (7.124)
O2 [reactants]
If Kc,13 > 1, the products are preferred. If Kc,13 < 1, the reactants are preferred.
Now, Kc,13 is a function of T only, so it is known. But Eq. (7.124) once again is one
equation in two unknowns. We can use the element conservation constraint, Eq. (7.117) to
reduce to one equation and one unknown, valid at equilibrium:
eO eO
Kc,13 = (7.125)
O2 + 12 (b
b O eO )
Using the element constraint, Eq. (7.117), we can recast the dynamics of our system by
modifying Eq. (7.103) into one equation in one unknown:
dO 13 E 13
= 2a13 T exp
dt RT
1 b 1 1 1
b
(O2 + O2 + (b
(O O )) (b O O ) + O ) O O ) + O )
O2 + (b
O O (b ,
| 2 {z }| 2 {z } K c,13 | 2 {z }
=O2 =M =M
(7.126)
7.1.1.2.2 Example calculation Let us consider the same example as the previous sec-
tion with T = 5000 K. We need numbers for all of the parameters of Eq. (7.126). For O,
we find at T = 5000 K that
o erg
hO = 3.48382 1012 , (7.127)
mole
erg
soO = 2.20458 109 . (7.128)
mole K
So
erg
o 12 erg 9
g O = 3.48382 10 (5000 K) 2.20458 10 ,
mole mole K
erg
= 7.53908 1012 . (7.129)
mole
For O2 , we find at T = 5000 K that
o erg
hO2 = 1.80749 1012 , (7.130)
mole
erg
soO2 = 3.05406 109 . (7.131)
mole K
So
erg erg
g oO2 = 1.80749 1012 (5000 K) 3.05406 109
mole mole K
erg
= 1.34628 1013 . (7.132)
mole
Substitution of all numerical parameters into Eq. (7.126) and expansion yields the fol-
lowing
dO
= 3899.47 (2.23342 1010 )2O (7.3003 1012 )3O = f (O ), O (0) = 0.001.(7.136)
dt
A plot of the time-dependent behavior of O and O2 from solution of Eq. (7.136) is given
in Figure 7.6. The behavior is similar to the predictions given by the pair of irreversible
reactions in Fig. 7.1. Here direct calculation of the equilibrium from time integration reveals
mole
eO = 0.000393328 . (7.137)
cm3
mole
eO2 = 0.00130334 . (7.138)
cm3
We note the system begins significant reaction for t 109 s and is equilibrated for t
107 s.
The equilibrium is verified by solving the algebraic equation
O, O2 (mole/cm3)
0.00150
O2
0.00100
0.00070
0.00050
O
0.00030
t HsL
10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 0.001
Figure 7.6: Plot of O (t) and O2 (t) for oxygen dissociation with reversible reaction.
f(O) (mole/cm3/s)
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
3
-0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.001 O (mole/cm )
-10 000
-20 000
Figure 7.7: Plot of f (O ) versus O for oxygen dissociation with reversible reaction.
This is consistent with the time scale to equilibrium which comes from integrating the full
equation.
1: N + NO N2 + O, (7.147)
2: N + O2 NO + O. (7.148)
similar to our results for O2 dissociation, N2 and O2 are preferred at low temperature. As
the temperature rises N and O begin to appear, and it is possible when they are mixed for
NO to appear as a product.
6
Yakov Borisovich Zeldovich, 1915-1987, prolific Soviet physicist and father of thermonuclear weapons.
7.1.2.1.1 Standard model form Here we have the reaction of N = 5 molecular species
with
N O
N
=
N2 . (7.149)
O
O2
The first row of is for the N atom; the second row is for the O atom.
And we have J = 2 reactions. The reaction vector of length J = 2 is
1 Ta,1 1
r1 a1 T exp
r = = T N N O Kc,1 N2 O , (7.151)
r2 a2 T 2 exp TTa,2 N O2 K1c,2 N O O
k1 N N O K1c,1 N2 O
= . (7.152)
k2 N O2 K1c,2 N O O
Here, we have
1 Ta,1
k1 = a1 T exp , (7.153)
T
2 Ta,2
k2 = a2 T exp . (7.154)
T
Here the matrix has dimension N J which is 5 2. The model is of our general form
d
= r. (7.156)
dt
Note that our stoichiometric constraint on element conservation for each reaction = 0
holds here:
1 1
1 1
1 1 2 0 0 0 0
= 1 0 = 0 0 . (7.157)
1 0 0 1 2 1 1
0 1
We get 4 zeros because there are 2 reactions each with 2 element constraints.
7.1.2.1.2 Reduced form Here we describe non-traditional, but useful reductions, using
standard techniques from linear algebra to bring the model equations into a reduced form in
which all of the linear constraints have been explicitly removed.
Let us perform a series of row operations to find all of the linear dependencies. Our aim
is to convert the matrix into an upper triangular form. The lower left corner of already
has a zero, so there is no need to worry about it. Let us add the first and fourth equations
to eliminate the 1 in the 4, 1 slot. This gives
N O 1 1
N 1 1
d N
= 1
r1
0 r2 . (7.158)
dt 2
N O + O 0 2
O2 0 1
Next, add the first and third equations to get
N O 1 1
N 1 1
d
N O + N = 0
r1
2 1 r2 . (7.159)
dt
N O + O 0 2
O2 0 1
Now multiply the first equation by 1 and add it to the second to get
N O 1 1
N O + N 0 2
d
N O + N = 0
r1
1 r . (7.160)
dt 2
N O + O 0 2 2
O2 0 1
Next multiply the fifth equation by 2 and add it to the second to get
N O 1 1
N O + N 0 2
d
= 0
r1
N O + N2 1 r2 . (7.161)
dt
N O + O 0 2
N O + N 2O2 0 0
Next multiply the third equation by 2 and add it to the second to get
N O 1 1
N O + N 0 2
d
N O + N + 2N = 0
r1
2 0 r2 . (7.163)
dt
N + O 0 0
N O + N 2O2 0 0
A way to think of this type of row echelon form is that it defines two free variables, those
associated with the non-zero pivots of U: N O and N . The remain three variables N2 , O
and O2 are bound variables which can be expressed in terms of the free variables.
The last three of the ordinary differential equations are homogeneous and can be inte-
grated to form
N O + N + 2N2 = C1 , (7.165)
N + O = C2 , (7.166)
N O + N 2O2 = C3 . (7.167)
The constants C1 , C2 and C3 are determined from the initial conditions on all five state
variables. In matrix form, we can say
N O
1 1 2 0 0 N
C1
0 1 0 1 0 N = C2 . (7.168)
2
1 1 0 0 2 O C3
O2
Considering the free variables, N O and N , to be known, we move them to the right side
to get
2 0 0 N2 C1 N O N
0 1 0 O = C2 N . (7.169)
0 0 2 O2 C3 + N O N
We can get a more elegant form by defining N O = N O and N = N . Thus we can say our
state variables have the form
N O 0 1 0
N 0 0
1 1 11 N O
N = C1 + . (7.172)
2 2 2 2
O C2 0 1 N
O2 21 C3 21 12
By translating via N O = N O + b
N O and N = N + bN and choosing the constants C1 , C2
and C3 appropriately, we can arrive at
b
N O N O 1 0
N N
b
01 11 N O
N = b + 2 2 . (7.173)
2 N2
O b O
0 1 | {z } N
O2 b
O2 12 21 =
| {z } | {z } | {z }
= b =D
=
Here the matrix D is of dimension N R, which here is 5 2. It spans the same column
space as does the N J matrix which is of rank R. Here in fact R = J = 2, so D has the
same dimension as . In general it will not. If c1 and c2 are the column vectors of D, we
see that c1 c2 forms the first column vector of and c1 c2 forms the second column
vector of . Note that D = 0:
1 0
0 1
1 1 2 0 0 1
1 0 0
D= 2 2 = . (7.175)
1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0
21 21
Equations (7.165-7.167) can also be linearly combined in a way which has strong phys-
ical relevance. We rewrite the system as three equations in which the first is identical to
Eq. (7.165); the second is the difference of Eqs. (7.166) and (7.167); and the third is half of
Eq. (7.165) minus half of Eq. (7.167) plus Eq. (7.166):
N O + N + 2N2 = C1 , (7.176)
O + N O + 2O2 = C2 C3 , (7.177)
1
N O + N + N2 + O + O2 = (C1 C3 ) + C2 . (7.178)
2
Equation (7.176) insists that the number of nitrogen elements be constant; Eq. (7.177)
demands the number of oxygen elements be constant; and Eq. (7.178) requires the number
of moles of molecular species be constant. For general reactions, including the earlier studied
oxygen dissociation problem, the number of moles of molecular species will not be constant.
Here because each reaction considered has two molecules reacting to form two molecules,
we are guaranteed the number of moles will be constant. Hence, we get an additional
linear constraint beyond the two for element conservation. Note that since our reaction is
isothermal, isochoric and mole-preserving, it will also be isobaric.
Ej
Ta,j = . (7.183)
R
Substituting numbers we obtain for the reaction rates
1
13 0 0 13 mole 1
k1 = (2.107 10 )(6000) exp = 2.107 10 3
, (7.184)
6000 cm s
1
9 1.01 3120 13 mole 1
k2 = (5.8394 10 )(6000) exp = 2.27231 10 3
.
6000 cm s
(7.185)
We will also need thermodynamic data. The data here will be taken from the Chemkin
database.8 Thermodynamic data for common materials is also found in most thermodynamic
texts. For our system at 6000 K, we find
erg
g oN O = 1.58757 1013 , (7.186)
mole
erg
g oN = 7.04286 1012 , (7.187)
mole
erg
g oN2 = 1.55206 1013 , (7.188)
mole
erg
g oO = 9.77148 1012 , (7.189)
mole
erg
g oO2 = 1.65653 1013 . (7.190)
mole
Thus for each reaction, we find Goj :
Again, omitting details, we find the two differential equations governing the evolution of
the free variables are
dN O
= 0.723 + 2.22 107 N + 1.15 1013 2N 9.44 105 N O 3.20 1013 N N O ,
dt
(7.203)
dN
= 0.723 2.33 107 N 1.13 1013 2N + 5.82 105 N O 1.00 1013 N N O .
dt
(7.204)
Solving numerically, we obtain a solution shown in Fig. 7.8. The numerics show a relaxation
to final concentrations of
mole
lim N O = 7.336 107 , (7.205)
t cm3
mole
lim N = 3.708 108 . (7.206)
t cm3
dN O
= fN O (N O , N ), (7.207)
dt
dN
= fN (N O , N ). (7.208)
dt
fN O (N O , N ) = 0, (7.209)
fN (N O , N ) = 0. (7.210)
N, NO (mole/cm3)
1 10-5
5 10-6
1 10-6
5 10-7 NO
1 10-7
5 10-8
N
t s
10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5
mole
1 : (N O , N ) = (1.605 106 , 3.060 108 ) , non-physical, (7.211)
cm3
mole
2 : (N O , N ) = (5.173 108 , 2.048 106 ) , non-physical, (7.212)
cm3
mole
3 : (N O , N ) = (7.336 107 , 3.708 108 ) , physical. (7.213)
cm3
Evaluation of Eqs. (7.214-7.215) near the physical root, root 3, yields the system
d N O 7.336 107 2.129 106 4.155 105 N O 7.336 107
= .
dt N 3.708 108 2.111 105 3.144 107 N 3.708 108
| {z }
=J= |
f
e
(7.216)
This is of the form
d e f
( ) = ( e ) = J ( e ) . (7.217)
dt e
It is the eigenvalues of the Jacobian9 matrix J that give the time scales of evolution of the
concentrations as well as determine the stability of the local equilibrium point. Recall that
we can usually decompose square matrices via the diagonalization
J = S S1 . (7.218)
Here, S is the matrix whose columns are composed of the right eigenvectors of J, and is
the diagonal matrix whose diagonal is populated by the eigenvalues of J. For some matrices
(typically not those encountered after our removal of linear dependencies), diagonalization
is not possible, and one must resort to the so-called near-diagonal Jordan form. This will
not be relevant to our discussion, but could be easily handled if necessary. We also recall the
eigenvector matrix and eigenvalue matrix are defined by the standard eigenvalue problem
J S = S . (7.219)
We also recall that the components of are found by solving the characteristic polynomial
which arises from the equation
det (J I) = 0, (7.220)
where I is the identity matrix. Defining z such that
S z e , (7.221)
and using the decomposition Eq. (7.218), Eq. (7.217) can be rewritten to form
d
(S z) = |S {z S1} (S z), (7.222)
dt | {z }
J
e
dz
S = S z, (7.223)
dt
dz
S1 S = S1 S z, (7.224)
dt
dz
= z. (7.225)
dt
9
after Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, 1804-1851, German mathematician.
Here, our matrix J, see Eq. (7.216), has two real, negative eigenvalues in the neighborhood
of the physical root 3:
1
1 = 3.143 107 , (7.230)
s
1
2 = 2.132 106 . (7.231)
s
Thus we can conclude that the physical equilibrium is linearly stable. The local time con-
stants near equilibrium are given by the reciprocal of the magnitude of the eigenvalues.
These are
Evolution on these two time scales is predicted in Fig. 7.8. This in fact a multiscale problem.
One of the major difficulties in the numerical simulation of combustion problems comes in
the effort to capture the effects at all relevant scales. The problem is made more difficult as
the breadth of the scales expands. In this problem, the breadth of scales is not particularly
challenging. Near equilibrium the ratio of the slowest to the fastest time scale, the stiffness
ratio , is
2 4.691 107 s
= = = 14.75. (7.234)
1 3.181 108 s
Many combustion problems can have stiffness ratios over 106 . This is more prevalent at
lower temperatures.
We can do a similar linearization near the initial state, find the local eigenvalues, and
the the local time scales. At the initial state here, we find those local time scales are
So initially the stiffness, = (2.403 108 s)/(2.123 108 s) = 1.13 is much less, but the
time scale itself is small. It is seen from Fig. 7.8 that this initial time scale of 108 s well
predicts where significant evolution of species concentrations commences. For t < 108 s, the
model predicts essentially no activity. This can be correlated with the mean time between
molecular collisionsthe theory on which estimates of the collision frequency factors aj are
obtained.
We briefly consider the non-physical roots, 1 and 2. A similar eigenvalue analysis of root
1 reveals that the eigenvalues of its local Jacobian matrix are
1
1 = 1.193 107 , (7.237)
s
1
2 = 5.434 106 . (7.238)
s
Thus root 1 is a saddle and is unstable.
For root 2, we find
1
1 = 4.397 107 + i7.997 106 , (7.239)
s
1
2 = 4.397 107 i7.997 106 . (7.240)
s
The eigenvalues are complex with a positive real part. This indicates the root is an unstable
spiral source.
A detailed phase portrait is shown in Fig. 7.9. Here we see all three roots. Their local
character of sink, saddle, or spiral source is clearly displayed. We see that trajectories are
attracted to a curve labeled SIM for Slow Invariant Manifold. A part of the SIM is
constructed by the trajectory which originates at root 1 and travels to root 3. The other
part is constructed by connecting an equilibrium point at infinity into root 3. Details are
omitted here.
7.1.2.2.1 Effect of temperature Let us see how the same Zeldovich mechanism be-
haves at lower temperature, T = 1500 K; all other parameters, including the initial species
concentrations are the same as the previous high temperature example. The pressure how-
ever, lowers, and here is P = 6.23550105 dyne/cm2 , which is close to atmospheric pressure.
For this case, a plot of species concentrations versus time is given in Figure 7.10.
-7
x 10
5
saddle 3 sink
0 SIM
SIM 1
N (mole/cm 3)
-5
-10
-15
spira l
-20 source
2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -6
x 10
NO (mole/cm 3)
Figure 7.9: NO and N phase portraits for T = 6000 K, P = 2.4942 106 dyne/cm2
Zeldovich mechanism.
N, NO (mole/cm3)
10-6
NO
10-8
10-10
10-12
N
t s
10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 0.001 0.1 10
The onset of significant reaction is consistent with the prediction given by 1 at the initial
state. Moreover, initially, the reaction is not very stiff; the stiffness ratio is = 17.9.
At equilibrium, we find
mole
lim N O = 4.6 109 , (7.243)
t cm3
mole
lim N = 4.2 1014 , (7.244)
t cm3
and
The slowest time scale near equilibrium is an excellent indicator of how long the system
takes to relax to its final state. Note also that near equilibrium, the stiffness ratio is large,
= 2 /1 3.8 105 . This is known as the stiffness ratio. When it is large, the scales in
the problem are widely disparate and accurate numerical solution becomes challenging.
In summary, we find the effect of lowering temperature while leaving initial concentrations
constant
lowers the pressure somewhat, slightly slowing down the collision time, and slightly
slowing the fastest time scales, and
slows the slowest time scales many orders of magnitude, stiffening the system signifi-
cantly, since collisions may not induce reaction with their lower collision speed.
b mole
N O = b
N = b
N2 = b
O2 = b
O = 108 . (7.247)
cm3
With this decrease in number of moles, the pressure now is
dyne
P = 6.23550 103 . (7.248)
cm2
This pressure is two orders of magnitude lower than atmospheric. We solve for the species
concentration profiles and show the results of numerical prediction in Figure 7.11 Relative to
the high pressure P = 6.2355 105 dyne/cm2 , T = 1500 K case, we notice some similarities
and dramatic differences. The overall shape of the time-profiles of concentration variation
is similar. But, we see the reaction commences at a much later time, t 106 s. For
t 104 s, there is a temporary cessation of significant reaction. We notice a long plateau
in which species concentrations do not change over several decades of time. This is again
actually a pseudo-equilibrium. Significant reaction recommences for t 10 s. Only around
t 100 s does the system approach final equilibrium. We can perform an eigenvalue analysis
both at the initial state and at the equilibrium state to estimate the time scales of reaction.
At the initial state, we find
The onset of significant reaction is consistent with the prediction given by 1 at the initial
state. Moreover, initially, the reaction is not very stiff; the stiffness ratio is = 17.9.
N, NO (mole/cm3)
10-8
NO
10-10
10-12
10-14
N
10-16
t s
10-8 10-6 10-4 0.01 1 100
Interestingly, by decreasing the initial pressure by a factor of 102 , we increased the initial
time scales by a complementary factor of 102 ; moreover, we did not alter the stiffness.
At equilibrium, we find
mole
lim N O = 4.6 1011 , (7.251)
t cm3
mole
lim N = 4.2 1016 , (7.252)
t cm3
(7.253)
and
1 = 7.86 105 s, (7.254)
2 = 3.02 101 s. (7.255)
By decreasing the initial pressure by a factor of 102 , we decreased the equilibrium concentra-
tions by a factor of 102 and increased the time scales by a factor of 102 , leaving the stiffness
ratio unchanged.
In summary, we find the effect of lowering the initial concentrations significantly while
leaving temperature constant
lowers the pressure significantly, proportionally slowing down the collision time, as well
as the fastest and slowest time scales, and
does not affect the stiffness of the system.
7.1.2.2.3 Stiffness and numerics The issue of how to simulate stiff systems of ordinary
differential equations, such as presented by our Zeldovich mechanism, is challenging. Here a
brief summary of some of the issues will be presented. The interested reader should consult
the numerical literature for a full discussion. See for example the excellent text of Iserles.10
We have seen throughout this section that there are two time scales at work, and they are
often disparate. The species evolution is generally characterized by an initial fast transient,
followed by a long plateau, then a final relaxation to equilibrium. We noted from the phase
plane of Fig. 7.9 that the final relaxation to equilibrium (shown along the green line labeled
SIM) is an attracting manifold for a wide variety of initial conditions. The relaxation onto
the SIM is fast, and the motion on the SIM to equilibrium is relatively slow.
Use of common numerical techniques can often mask or obscure the actual dynamics.
Numerical methods to solve systems of ordinary differential equations can be broadly cat-
egorized as explicit or implicit. We give a brief synopsis of each class of method. We cast
each as a method to solve a system of the form
d
= f(). (7.256)
dt
Explicit: The simplest of these, the forward Euler method, discretizes Eq. (7.256) as
follows:
n+1 n
= f(n ), (7.257)
t
so that
n+1 = n + t f(n ). (7.258)
Explicit methods are summarized as
easy to program, since Eq. (7.258) can be solved explicitly to predict the new
value n+1 in terms of the old values at step n.
need to have t < f astest in order to remain numerically stable,
able to capture all physics and all time scales at great computational expense for
stiff problems,
requiring much computational effort for little payoff in the SIM region of the phase
plane, and thus
inefficient for some portions of stiff calculations.
Implicit: The simplest of these methods, the backward Euler method, discretizes
Eq. (7.256) as follows:
n+1 n
= f(n+1 ), (7.259)
t
10
A. Iserles, 2008, A First Course in the Numerical Analysis of Differential Equations, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, UK.
so that
n+1 = n + t f(n+1 ). (7.260)
Implicit methods are summarized as
more difficult to program since a non-linear set of algebraic equations, Eq. (7.260),
must be solved at every time step with no guarantee of solution,
requiring potentially significant computational time to advance each time step,
capable of using very large time steps and remaining numerically stable,
suspect to missing physics that occur on small time scales < t,
in general better performers than explicit methods.
A wide variety of software tools exist to solve systems of ordinary differential equations.
Most of them use more sophisticated techniques than simple forward and backward Euler
methods. One of the most powerful techniques is the use of error control. Here the user
specifies how far in time to advance and the error that is able to be tolerated. The algorithm,
which is complicated, selects then internal time steps, for either explicit or implicit methods,
to achieve a solution within the error tolerance at the specified output time. A well known
public domain algorithm with error control is provided by lsode.f, which can be found in
the netlib repository.11
Let us exercise the Zeldovich mechanism under the conditions simulated in Fig. 7.11,
T = 1500 K, P = 6.2355 103 dyne/cm2 . Recall in this case the fastest time scale near
equilibrium is 1 = 7.86 105 s 104 s at the initial state, and the slowest time scale is
= 3.02 101 s at the final state. Let us solve for these conditions using dlsode.f, which
uses internal time stepping for error control, in both an explicit and implicit mode. We
specify a variety of values of t and report typical values of number of internal time steps
selected by dlsode.f, and the corresponding effective time step tef f used for the problem,
for both explicit and implicit methods, as reported in Table 7.3.
Obviously if output is requested using t > 104 s, the early time dynamics near t
104 s will be missed. For physically stable systems, codes such as dlsode.f will still provide
a correct solution at the later times. For physically unstable systems, such as might occur in
turbulent flames, it is not clear that one can use large time steps and expect to have fidelity
to the underlying equations. The reason is the physical instabilities may evolve on the same
time scale as the fine scales which are overlooked by large t.
Table 7.3: Results from computing Zeldovich NO production using implicit and explicit
methods with error control in dlsode.f.
A (0) = b
A , (7.264)
B (0) = 0. (7.265)
For our alternate compact linear algebra based form, we note that
E 1
r = a exp A , (7.266)
RT Kc B
and that
d A 1
= (r). (7.267)
dt B 1
Performing the decomposition yields
d A 1
= (r). (7.268)
dt A + B 0
Expanded, this is
1 0 d A 1
= (r). (7.269)
1 1 dt B 0
Thus, we find
U = Uo . (7.277)
Recall the total internal energy for a mixture of two calorically perfect ideal gases is
U = nA uA + nB uB , (7.278)
n n
A B
= V uA + uB , (7.279)
V V
= V (A uA + B uB ) , (7.280)
PA PB
= V A hA + B hB , (7.281)
A B
= V A hA RT + B hB RT , (7.282)
o
o
= V A cP (T To ) + hTo ,A RT + B cP (T To ) + hTo ,B RT ,(7.283)
o o
= V (A + B )(cP (T To ) RT ) + A hTo ,A + B hTo ,B , (7.284)
o o
= V (A + B )((cP R)T cP To ) + A hTo ,A + B hTo ,B , (7.285)
o o
= V (A + B )((cP R)T (cP R + R)To ) + A hTo ,A + B hTo ,B , (7.286)
o o
= V (A + B )(cv T (cv + R)To ) + A hTo ,A + B hTo ,B , (7.287)
o o
= V (A + B )cv (T To ) + A (hTo ,A RTo ) + B (hTo ,B RTo ) , (7.288)
= V (A + B )cv (T To ) + A uoTo ,A + B uoTo ,B . (7.289)
And because we have assumed the molecular masses are the same, MA = MB , the mole
fractions are the mass fractions, and we can write on a mass basis
Returning to Eq. (7.292), our energy conservation relation, Eq. (7.277), becomes
0 = V (b A + b
B )cv (T To ) + (A b
A )uoTo ,A + (B b
B )uoTo ,B . (7.295)
We also note that our caloric state equation, Eq. (7.293) can, for yAo = 1, yBo = 0 as
u uo = cv (T To ) + (yA 1)uoTo ,A + yB uoTo ,B , (7.303)
= cv (T To ) + ((1 yB ) 1)uoTo ,A + yB uoTo ,B , (7.304)
= cv (T To ) yB (uoTo ,A uoTo ,B ). (7.305)
Similarly, on a mass basis, we can say,
u uo = cv (T To ) cB (uoTo ,A uoTo ,B ). (7.306)
For this problem, we also have
Go
Kc = exp , (7.307)
RT
with
Go = g oB g oA , (7.308)
o o
= hB T soB (hA T soA ), (7.309)
o o
= (hB hA ) T (soB soA ), (7.310)
o o
= (hTo ,B hTo ,A ) T (soTo ,B soTo ,A ). (7.311)
So
o o !
hTo ,A hTo ,B T (soTo ,A soTo ,B )
Kc = exp , (7.312)
RT
o o !!
cv To hTo ,A hTo ,B T (soTo ,A soTo ,B )
= exp , (7.313)
RT cv To
o o !!
1 1 hTo ,A hTo ,B T (soTo ,A soTo ,B )
= exp . (7.314)
k 1 TTo cv To To cv
Here we have used the definition of the ratio of specific heats, k = cP /cv along with R =
cP cv . So we can solve Eq. (7.273) by first using Eq. (7.314) to eliminate Kc and then
Eq. (7.301) to eliminate T .
B c A
= = A . (7.325)
b
A b
A
Thus,
= 1 z. (7.326)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1. 106 2. 106 3. 106 4. 106 5. 106
Figure 7.12: Dimensionless plot of reaction product concentration versus time for adia-
batic isochoric combustion with simple reversible kinetics.
The right side of Eq. (7.331) is at equilibrium for values of which drive it to zero.
Numerical root finding methods show this to occur at 0.920539. Near this root, Taylor
series expansion shows the dynamics are approximated by
d
( 0.920539) = 0.17993( 0.920539) + . . . (7.332)
d
Thus the local behavior near equilibrium is given by
Here C is some arbitrary constant. Clearly the equilibrium is stable, with a time constant
of 1/0.17993 = 5.55773.
Numerical solution shows the full behavior of the dimensionless species concentration
( ); see Figure 7.12. Clearly the product concentration is small for some long period of
time. At a critical time near = 2.7 106 , there is a so-called thermal explosion with a
rapid increase in . Note that the estimate of the time constant near equilibrium is orders
of magnitude less than the explosion time, 5.55773 << 2.7 106 . Thus, linear analysis
here is a poor tool to estimate an important physical quantity, the ignition time. Once the
ignition period is over, there is a rapid equilibration to the final state. The dimensionless
temperature plot is shown in Figure 7.13. The temperature plot is similar in behavior to
the species concentration plot. At early time, the temperature is cool. At a critical time,
the thermal explosion time, the temperature rapidly rises. This rapid rise, coupled with the
exponential sensitivity of reaction rate to temperature, accelerates the formation of product.
This process continues until the reverse reaction is activated to the extent it prevents further
creation of product.
10
1. 106 2. 106 3. 106 4. 106 5. 106
Figure 7.13: Dimensionless plot of temperature versus time for adiabatic, isochoric
combustion with simple reversible kinetics.
with (0) = 0. The key trouble in getting an analytic solution to Eq. (7.334) is the presence
of in the denominator of an exponential term. We need to find a way to move it to the
numerator. Asymptotic methods provide one such way.
Now we recall for early time << 1. Let us assume takes the form
= 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + . . . (7.335)
Here we will assume 0 < << 1 and that 1 ( ) O(1), 2 ( ) O(1), . . . , and will define
in terms of physical parameters shortly. Now with this assumption, we have
1 1
= . (7.336)
1 + q 1 + q1 + q2 + 3 q3 + . . .
2
12
J. D. Buckmaster and G. S. S. Ludford, 1983, Lectures on Mathematical Combustion, SIAM, Philadelphia.
Long division of the term on the right side yields the approximation
1
= = 1 q1 + 2 (q 2 21 q2 ) + . . . , (7.337)
1 + q
= 1 q1 + O(2 ). (7.338)
So
exp exp (1 q1 + O(2 )) , (7.339)
1 + q
e exp q1 + O(2 ) , (7.340)
We have moved from the denominator to the numerator of the most important exponential
term.
Now, let us take the limit of high activation energy by defining to be
1
. (7.341)
Let us let the assume the remaining parameters, q and k are both O(1) constants. When
is large, will be small. With this definition, Eq. (7.340) becomes
exp e1/ exp q1 + O(2 ) . (7.342)
1 + q
With these assumptions and approximations, Eq. (7.334) can be written as
d
(1 + . . . ) = e1/ exp q1 + O(2 )
d
q
(1 1 . . . ) (1 + . . . ) exp .
(k 1)(1 + q1 + . . . )
(7.343)
Now let us rescale time via
1
= e1/ . (7.344)
With this transformation, the chain rule shows how derivatives transform:
d d d 1 d
= = 1/ . (7.345)
d d d e d
With this transformation, Eq. (7.343) becomes
1 d 1
1/
(1 + . . . ) = 1/ exp q1 + O(2 )
e d e
q
(1 1 . . . ) (1 + . . . ) exp .
(k 1)(1 + q1 + . . . )
(7.346)
This simplifies to
d
(1 + . . . ) = exp q1 + O(2 )
d
q
(1 1 . . . ) (1 + . . . ) exp .
(k 1)(1 + q1 + . . . )
(7.347)
d1
= exp (q1 ) . (7.348)
d
This is supplemented by the initial condition 1 (0) = 0. Separating variables and solving,
we get
So
1 1
exp(q1 ) = , (7.353)
q q
exp(q1 ) = q + 1, (7.354)
1
exp(q1 ) = q , (7.355)
q
1
q1 = ln q , (7.356)
q
1 1
1 = ln q . (7.357)
q q
For q = 10, a plot of 1 ( ) is shown in Fig. 7.14. We note at a finite that 1 begins to
exhibit unbounded growth. In fact, it is obvious from Eq. (7.348) that as
1
,
q
1
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
that
1 .
That is there exists a finite time for which 1 violates the assumptions of our asymptotic
theory which assumes 1 = O(1). We associate this time with the ignition time, i :
1
i = . (7.358)
q
Let us return this to more primitive variables:
1 1 1
exp i = , (7.359)
q
exp 1
i = , (7.360)
q
exp
i = . (7.361)
q
For our system with = 20 and q = 10, we estimate the dimensionless ignition time as
exp 20
i = = 2.42583 106 . (7.362)
(20)(10)
This is a surprisingly good estimate, given the complexity of the problem. Recall the nu-
merical solution showed ignition for 2.7 106 .
Note the ignition is suppressed if the ignition time is lengthened, which happens when
cH2 = 0.0285,
cO2 = 0.226,
cN2 = 0.745.
To avoid issues associated with numerical roundoff errors at very early time for species
with very small compositions, the minor species were initialized at a small non-zero value
near machine precision; each was assigned a value of 1015 mole. The minor species all have
i = 1.803 1016 mole/cm3 . They have correspondingly small initial mass fractions.
13
This temperature and pressure correspond to that of the same ambient mixture of H2 , O2 and N2 which
was shocked from 1.01325 105 P a, 298 K, to a value associated with a freely propagating detonation.
0 H
10
O
H2
O2
OH
H 2O
5 H 2O2
10 HO 2
N2
ci
10
10
15
10
10 5 0
10 10 10
t (s)
Figure 7.15: Plot of cH2 (t), cH (t), cO (t), cO2 (t), cOH (t), cH2 O (t), cHO2 (t), cH2 O2 (t), cN2 (t), for
adiabatic, isochoric combustion of a mixture of 2H2 + O2 + 3.76N2 initially at To = 1542.7 K,
Po = 2.8323 106 P a.
We seek the reaction dynamics as the system proceeds from its initial state to its final
state. We use the reversible detailed kinetics mechanism of Table 7.2. This problem requires
a detailed numerical solution. Such a solution was performed by solving the appropriate
equations for a mixture of nine interacting species: H2 , H, O, O2 , OH, H2 O, HO2 , H2 O2 ,
and N2 . The dynamics of the reaction process are reflected in Figs. 7.15-7.17.
At early time, t < 107 s, the pressure, temperature, and major reactant species con-
centrations (H2 , O2 , N2 ) are nearly constant. However, the minor species, e.g. OH, HO2 ,
and the major product, H2 O, are undergoing very rapid growth, albeit with math fractions
whose value remains small. In this period, the material is in what is known as the induction
period.
After a certain critical mass of minor species has accumulated, exothermic recombination
of these minor species to form the major product H2 O induces the temperature to rise, which
accelerates further the reaction rates. This is manifested in a thermal explosion. A common
definition of the end of the induction period is the induction time, t = tind , the time when
dT /dt goes through a maximum. Here one finds
4000
3500
3000
2500
T (K)
2000
1500
1000
500
0 10 5
10 10
t (s)
Figure 7.16: Plot of T (t), for adiabatic, isochoric combustion of a mixture of 2H2 +O2 +3.76N2
initially at To = 1542.7 K, Po = 2.8323 106 P a.
7
10
P (Pa)
6
10 10 5
10 10
t (s)
Figure 7.17: Plot of P (t), for adiabatic, isochoric combustion of a mixture of 2H2 + O2 +
3.76N2 initially at To = 1542.7 K, Po = 2.8323 106 P a.
0
10
H
O
5 H2
ci 10 O2
OH
H 2O
H 2O2
10 HO 2
10
N2
2 4 6 8 10
t (s) x 10
7
Figure 7.18: Plot near thermal explosion time of cH2 (t), cH (t), cO (t), cO2 (t), cOH (t), cH2 O (t),
cHO2 (t), cH2 O2 (t), cN2 (t), for adiabatic, isochoric combustion of a mixture of 2H2 +O2 +3.76N2
initially at at To = 1542.7 K, Po = 2.8323 106 P a.
We note that because our model takes N2 to be inert that its value remains unchanged.
Other than N2 , the final products are dominated by H2 O. The equilibrium temperature is
3382.3 K and 5.53 106 P a.
P. Atkins, 2010, The Laws of Thermodynamics: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Oxford.
This is a short book by an eminent chemist summarizing the foundations of thermodynamics for an
interested general reader.
A. Bejan, 2006, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, Third Edition, John Wiley, Hobo-
ken, New Jersey.
This is an advanced undergraduate text first published in 1988. It gives a modern treatment of
the science of classical thermodynamics. It does not confine its attention to traditional engineering
problems, and considers applications across biology and earth sciences as well; some readers will
find parts of the discussion to be provocative, as received wisdom is occasionally challenged. The
thermodynamics of irreversible processes are discussed in detail.
R. S. Berry, S. A. Rice, and J. Ross, 2000, Physical Chemistry, Second Edition, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
This is a rigorous general text in physical chemistry at a senior or first year graduate level. First
appearing in 1980, it has a full treatment of classical and statistical thermodynamics as well as
quantum mechanics.
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This classic and popular undergraduate mechanical engineering text, which in earlier editions was
authored by J. G. van Wylen and Sonntag, has stood the test of time and has a full treatment of
most classical problems. Its first edition appeared in 1965.
M. Born, 1949, Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
This monograph is a summary of the Waynflete Lectures delivered at Oxford University in 1948 by
the author, the winner of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics. The lectures consider various topics, and
include an important chapter on thermodynamics with the authors earlier defense of the approach of
Carath`eodory playing a prominent role.
S. Carnot, 2005, Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, Dover, New York.
This is a translation of the authors foundational 1824 work on the heat engines, Reflexions sur la
Puissance Motrice du Feu et sur les Machines propres a ` developper cette Puissance (Reflections on
the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power). Also included is a paper
of Clausius.
Y. A. C
engel and M. A. Boles, 2010, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, Seventh
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Boston.
This popular undergraduate mechanical engineering text which first appeared in 1989 has most of the
features expected in a modern book intended for a large and varied audience.
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R. J. E. Clausius, 2008, The Mechanical Theory of Heat, Kessinger, Whitefish, Montana.
This is a reprint of the 1879 translation of the 1850 German publication of the great German scientist
who in many ways founded classical thermodynamics.
J. W. Gibbs, 1957, The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, Yale U. Press, New Haven.
This compendium gives a complete reproduction of the published work of the monumental American
engineer and scientist of the nineteenth century, including his seminal work on classical and statistical
thermodynamics.
W. T. Grandy, 2008, Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems, Oxford,
Oxford.
This monograph gives an enlightening description, fully informed by both historical and modern
interpretations, of entropy and its evolution in the context of both continuum and statistical theories.
283
E. P. Gyftopoulos and G. P. Beretta, 1991, Thermodynamics: Foundations and Applica-
tions, Macmillan, New York.
This beginning graduate text has a rigorous development of classical thermodynamics.
W. F. Hughes and J. A. Brighton, 1999, Fluid Dynamics, Third Edition, Schaums Outline
Series, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Written in the standard student-friendly style of the Schaums series, this discussion of fluid mechanics
includes two chapters on compressible flow which bring together fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
It first appeared in 1967.
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This is a foundational textbook that can be read on many levels. All first principles are reported in a
readable fashion. In addition the author makes a great effort to expose the underlying mathematical
foundations of thermodynamics.
R. J. Kee, M. E. Coltrin, and P. Glarborg, 2003, Chemically Reacting Flow: Theory and
Practice, John Wiley, New York.
This comprehensive text gives an introductory graduate level discussion of fluid mechanics, thermo-
chemistry, and finite rate chemical kinetics. The focus is on low Mach number reacting flows, and
there is significant discussion of how to achieve computational solutions.
C. Kittel and H. Kroemer, 1980, Thermal Physics, Second Edition, Freeman, San Francisco.
This is a classic undergraduate text, first introduced in 1970; it is mainly aimed at physics students.
It has a good introduction to statistical thermodynamics and a short effective chapter on classical
thermodynamics. Engineers seeking to broaden their skill set for new technologies relying on micro-
scale thermal phenomena can use this text as a starting point.
K. K. Kuo, 2005, Principles of Combustion, Second Edition, John Wiley, New York.
This is a readable graduate level engineering text for combustion fundamentals. First published in
1986, it includes a full treatment of reacting thermodynamics as well as discussion of links to fluid
mechanics.
K. J. Laidler, 1987, Chemical Kinetics, Third Edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River,
NJ.
This is a standard advanced undergraduate chemistry text on the dynamics of chemical reactions. It
first appeared in 1965.
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, 2000, Statistical Physics, Part 1, Volume 5 of the Course
of Theoretical Physics, Third Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
This book, part of the monumental series of graduate level Russian physics texts, first published in
English in 1951 from Statisticheskaya fizika, gives a fine introduction to classical thermodynamics as
a prelude to its main topic, statistical thermodynamics in the spirit of Gibbs.
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B. H. Lavenda, 1978, Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, John Wiley, New York.
This is a lively and opinionated monograph describing and commenting on irreversible thermodynam-
ics. The author is especially critical of the Prigogine school of thought on entropy production rate
minimization.
G. N. Lewis and M. Randall, 1961, Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical
Substances, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
This book, first published in 1923, was for many years a standard reference text of physical chemistry.
I. M
uller and T. Ruggeri, 1998, Rational Extended Thermodynamics, Springer-Verlag, New
York.
This modern, erudite monograph gives a rigorous treatment of some of the key issues at the frontier
of modern continuum thermodynamics.
286
I. M
uller and W. Weiss, 2005, Entropy and Energy, Springer-Verlag, New York.
This is a unique treatise on fundamental concepts in thermodynamics. The author provide mathe-
matical rigor, historical perspective, and examples from a diverse set of scientific fields.
I. M
uller, 2007, A History of Thermodynamics: the Doctrine of Energy and Entropy,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
The author gives a readable text at an advanced undergraduate level which highlights some of the
many controversies of thermodynamics, both ancient and modern.
I. M
uller and W. H. M uller, 2009, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Applications:
with Historical Annotations and Many Citations from Avogadro to Zermelo, Springer,
Berlin.
The author presents an eclectic view of classical thermodynamics with much discussion of its history.
The text is aimed at a curious undergraduate who is unsatisfied with industrial-strength yet narrow
and intellectually vapid textbooks.
W. Nernst, 1969, The New Heat Theorem: Its Foundation in Theory and Experiment,
Dover, New York.
This monograph gives the authors exposition of the development of the third law of thermodynamics.
It first appeared in English translation in 1917 and was originally published in German.
W. Pauli, 2000, Thermodynamics and the Kinetic Theory of Gases, Dover, New York.
This is a monograph on statistical thermodynamics by the winner of the 1945 Nobel Prize in physics.
It is actually derived from his lecture course notes given at ETH Zurich, as compiled by a student in
his class, E. Jucker, published in 1952.
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W. J. M. Rankine, 1908, A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers, Seven-
teenth Edition, Griffin, London.
This in an accessible undergraduate text for mechanical engineers of the nineteenth century. It first
appeared in 1859. It contains much practical information on a variety of devices, including steam
engines.
L. E. Reichl, 1998, A Modern Course in Statistical Physics, John Wiley, New York.
This full service graduate text has a good summary of key concepts of classical thermodynamics and
a strong development of modern statistical thermodynamics.
O. Reynolds, 1903, Papers on Mechanical and Physical Subjects, Volume III, The Sub-
Mechanics of the Universe, Cambridge, Cambridge.
This volume compiles various otherwise unpublished notes of Reynolds and includes his detailed deriva-
tions of general equations of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy employing his transport
theorem.
S. I. Sandler, 1998, Chemical and Engineering Thermodynamics, Third Edition, John Wiley,
New York.
This is an advanced undergraduate text in thermodynamics from a chemical engineering perspective
with a good mathematical treatment. It first appeared in 1977.
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A. Sommerfeld, 1956, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, Lectures on Theoretical
Physics, Vol. V, Academic Press, New York.
This is a compilation of the authors lecture notes on this subject. The book reflects the authors
stature of a leader of theoretical physics of the twentieth century who trained a generation of students
(e.g. Nobel laureates Heisenberg, Pauli, Debye and Bethe). The book gives a fine description of
classical thermodynamics with a seamless transition into quantum and statistical mechanics.
J. W. Tester and M. Modell, 1997, Thermodynamics and Its Applications, Third Edition,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
First appearing in 1974, this entry level graduate text in thermodynamics is written from a chemical
engineers perspective. It has a strong mathematical development for both classical and statistical
thermodynamics.
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B. Woodcraft, 1851, The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria, London, Taylor Walton and
Maberly.
This is a translation and compilation from the ancient Greek of the work of Hero (10 A.D.-70 A.D.).
The discussion contains descriptions of the engineering of a variety of technological devices including
a primitive steam engine. Other devices which convert heat into work are described as well.
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