Fatigue(material)
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Inmaterialsscience,fatigueistheweakeningofamaterialcausedbyrepeatedlyappliedloads.Itisthe
progressiveandlocalisedstructuraldamagethatoccurswhenamaterialissubjectedtocyclicloading.The
nominalmaximumstressvaluesthatcausesuchdamagemaybemuchlessthanthestrengthofthematerial
typicallyquotedastheultimatetensilestresslimit,ortheyieldstresslimit.
Fatigueoccurswhenamaterialissubjectedtorepeatedloadingandunloading.Iftheloadsareabovea
certainthreshold,microscopiccrackswillbegintoformatthestressconcentratorssuchasthesurface,
persistentslipbands(PSBs),andgraininterfaces.[1]Eventuallyacrackwillreachacriticalsize,thecrack
willpropagatesuddenly,andthestructurewillfracture.Theshapeofthestructurewillsignificantlyaffect
thefatiguelifesquareholesorsharpcornerswillleadtoelevatedlocalstresseswherefatiguecrackscan
initiate.Roundholesandsmoothtransitionsorfilletswillthereforeincreasethefatiguestrengthofthe
structure.
Contents
1 Fatiguelife
2 Characteristicsoffatigue
3 Timelineofearlyfatigueresearchhistory
4 Highcyclefatigue
4.1 Stresscycle(SN)curve
4.2 Probabilisticnatureoffatigue
4.3 Complexloadings
4.3.1 Formultiaxialloading
4.4 Miner'sRule
4.5 Paris'Law
4.6 GoodmanRelation
5 Lowcyclefatigue
6 Fatigueandfracturemechanics
7 Designagainstfatigue
7.1 Stoppingfatigue
7.2 Materialchange
7.3 Peeningtreatmentofweldsandmetalcomponents
7.4 Highfrequencymechanicalimpact(HFMI)treatmentofwelds
7.4.1 DeepCryogenictreatment
8 Notablefatiguefailures
8.1 Versaillestraincrash
8.2 deHavillandComet
8.3 AlexanderL.Kiellandoilplatformcapsizing
8.4 Others
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks
Fatiguelife
ASTMdefinesfatiguelife,Nf,asthenumberofstresscyclesofaspecifiedcharacterthataspecimen
sustainsbeforefailureofaspecifiednatureoccurs.[2]Forsomematerials,notablysteelandtitanium,there
isatheoreticalvalueforstressamplitudebelowwhichthematerialwillnotfailforanynumberofcycles,
calledafatiguelimit,endurancelimit,orfatiguestrength.[3]
Engineershaveusedanyofthreemethodstodeterminethefatiguelifeofamaterial:thestresslifemethod,
thestrainlifemethod,andthelinearelasticfracturemechanicsmethod.[4]Onemethodtopredictfatigue
lifeofmaterialsistheUniformMaterialLaw(UML).[5]UMLwasdevelopedforfatiguelifepredictionof
aluminiumandtitaniumalloysbytheendof20thcenturyandextendedtohighstrengthsteels,[6]andcast
iron.[7]
Characteristicsoffatigue
Inmetalalloys,andforthesimplifyingcasewhentherearenomacroscopicormicroscopic
discontinuities,theprocessstartswithdislocationmovementsatthemicroscopiclevel,which
eventuallyformpersistentslipbandsthatbecomethenucleus
ofshortcracks.
Macroscopicandmicroscopicdiscontinuities(atthe
crystallinegrainscale)aswellascomponentdesignfeatures
whichcausestressconcentrations(holes,keyways,sharp
changesofloaddirectionetc.)arecommonlocationsatwhich
thefatigueprocessbegins.
Fatigueisaprocessthathasadegreeofrandomness
(stochastic),oftenshowingconsiderablescatterevenin
seeminglyidenticalsampleinwellcontrolledenvironments.
Fatigueisusuallyassociatedwithtensilestressesbutfatigue
crackshavebeenreportedduetocompressiveloads.[8]
Thegreatertheappliedstressrange,theshorterthelife. Fractureofanaluminiumcrankarm.
Fatiguelifescattertendstoincreaseforlongerfatiguelives. Darkareaofstriations:slowcrack
Damageiscumulative.Materialsdonotrecoverwhenrested. growth.Brightgranulararea:sudden
Fatiguelifeisinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors,suchas fracture.
temperature,surfacefinish,metallurgicalmicrostructure,
presenceofoxidizingorinertchemicals,residualstresses,
scuffingcontact(fretting),etc.
Somematerials(e.g.,somesteelandtitaniumalloys)exhibitatheoreticalfatiguelimitbelowwhich
continuedloadingdoesnotleadtofatiguefailure.
Highcyclefatiguestrength(about104to108cycles)canbedescribedbystressbasedparameters.A
loadcontrolledservohydraulictestrigiscommonlyusedinthesetests,withfrequenciesofaround
2050Hz.Othersortsofmachineslikeresonantmagneticmachinescanalsobeused,toachieve
frequenciesupto250Hz.
Lowcyclefatigue(loadingthattypicallycausesfailureinlessthan104cycles)isassociatedwith
localizedplasticbehaviorinmetalsthus,astrainbasedparametershouldbeusedforfatiguelife
predictioninmetals.Testingisconductedwithconstantstrainamplitudestypicallyat0.015Hz.
Timelineofearlyfatigueresearchhistory
1837:WilhelmAlbertpublishesthefirstarticleonfatigue.Hedevisedatestmachineforconveyor
chainsusedintheClausthalmines.[9]
1839:JeanVictorPonceletdescribesmetalsasbeing'tired'inhislecturesatthemilitaryschoolat
Metz.
1842:WilliamJohnMacquornRankinerecognisestheimportanceofstressconcentrationsinhis
investigationofrailroadaxlefailures.TheVersaillestrainwreckwascausedbyfatiguefailureofa
locomotiveaxle.[10]
1843:JosephGlynnreportsonthefatigueofanaxleonalocomotivetender.Heidentifiesthe
keywayasthecrackorigin.
1848:TheRailwayInspectoratereportsoneofthefirsttyrefailures,probablyfromarivetholein
treadofrailwaycarriagewheel.Itwaslikelyafatiguefailure.
1849:EatonHodgkinsonisgranteda"smallsumofmoney"toreporttotheUKParliamentonhis
workin"ascertainingbydirectexperiment,theeffectsofcontinuedchangesofloaduponiron
structuresandtowhatextenttheycouldbeloadedwithoutdangertotheirultimatesecurity".
1854:Braithwaitereportsoncommonservicefatiguefailuresandcoinsthetermfatigue.[11]
1860:SystematicfatiguetestingundertakenbySirWilliamFairbairnandAugustWhler.
1870:Whlersummariseshisworkonrailroadaxles.Heconcludesthatcyclicstressrangeismore
importantthanpeakstressandintroducestheconceptofendurancelimit.[9]
1903:SirJamesAlfredEwingdemonstratestheoriginof
fatiguefailureinmicroscopiccracks.
1910:O.H.BasquinproposesaloglogrelationshipforSN
curves,usingWhler'stestdata.
1945:A.M.MinerpopularisesPalmgren's(1924)linear
damagehypothesisasapracticaldesigntool.
1954:Theworld'sfirstcommercialjetliner,thedeHavilland
Comet,suffersdisasterasthreeplanesbreakupinmidair,
causingdeHavillandandallothermanufacturerstoredesign
highaltitudeaircraftandinparticularreplacesquareapertures
likewindowswithovalones.
1954:L.F.CoffinandS.S.Mansonexplainfatiguecrack
growthintermsofplasticstraininthetipofcracks.
1961:P.C.Parisproposesmethodsforpredictingtherateof
growthofindividualfatiguecracksinthefaceofinitial
scepticismandpopulardefenceofMiner'sphenomenological
approach.
Micrographsshowinghowsurface
1968:TatsuoEndoandM.Matsuishidevisetherainflow
countingalgorithmandenablethereliableapplicationof fatiguecracksgrowasmaterialis
furthercycled.FromEwing&
Miner'sruletorandomloadings.[12]
Humfrey,1903
1970:W.Elberelucidatesthemechanismsandimportanceof
crackclosureinslowingthegrowthofafatiguecrackdueto
thewedgingeffectofplasticdeformationleftbehindthetipofthecrack.
Highcyclefatigue
Historically,mostattentionhasfocusedonsituationsthatrequiremorethan104cyclestofailurewhere
stressislowanddeformationisprimarilyelastic.
Stresscycle(SN)curve
Inhighcyclefatiguesituations,materialsperformanceiscommonlycharacterizedbyanSNcurve,also
knownasaWhlercurve.Thisisagraphofthemagnitudeofacyclicstress(S)againstthelogarithmic
scaleofcyclestofailure(N).
SNcurvesarederivedfromtestsonsamplesofthematerialtobe
characterized(oftencalledcoupons)wherearegularsinusoidal
stressisappliedbyatestingmachinewhichalsocountsthenumber
ofcyclestofailure.Thisprocessissometimesknownascoupon
testing.Eachcoupontestgeneratesapointontheplotthoughin
somecasesthereisarunoutwherethetimetofailureexceedsthat
availableforthetest(seecensoring).Analysisoffatiguedata
requirestechniquesfromstatistics,especiallysurvivalanalysisand
linearregression. SNcurveforabrittlealuminium
withanultimatetensilestrengthof
TheprogressionoftheSNcurvecanbeinfluencedbymanyfactors 320MPa
suchascorrosion,temperature,residualstresses,andthepresenceof
notches.TheGoodmanLineisamethodusedtoestimatethe
influenceofthemeanstressonthefatiguestrength.
Probabilisticnatureoffatigue
Ascouponssampledfromahomogeneousframewilldisplayavariationintheirnumberofcyclesto
failure,theSNcurveshouldmoreproperlybeaStressCycleProbability(SNP)curvetocapturethe
probabilityoffailureafteragivennumberofcyclesofacertainstress.Probabilitydistributionsthatare
commonindataanalysisandindesignagainstfatigueincludethelognormaldistribution,extremevalue
distribution,BirnbaumSaundersdistribution,andWeibulldistribution.
Complexloadings
Inpractice,amechanicalpartisexposedtoacomplex,often
random,sequenceofloads,largeandsmall.Inordertoassessthe
safelifeofsuchapart:
1. Complexloadingisreducedtoaseriesofsimplecyclic
loadingsusingatechniquesuchasrainflowanalysis
2. Ahistogramofcyclicstressiscreatedfromtherainflow
analysistoformafatiguedamagespectrum
3. Foreachstresslevel,thedegreeofcumulativedamageis Spectrumloading
calculatedfromtheSNcurveand
4. TheeffectoftheindividualcontributionsarecombinedusinganalgorithmsuchasMiner'srule.
Formultiaxialloading
SinceSNcurvesaretypicallygeneratedforuniaxialloading,someequivalenceruleisneededwhenever
theloadingismultiaxial.Forsimple,proportionalloadinghistories(lateralloadinaconstantratiowiththe
axial),Sinesrulemaybeapplied.Formorecomplexsituations,suchasnonproportionalloading,Critical
planeanalysismustbeapplied.
Miner'sRule
In1945,MAMinerpopularisedarulethathadfirstbeenproposedbyA.Palmgrenin1924.Therule,
variouslycalledMiner'sruleorthePalmgrenMinerlineardamagehypothesis,statesthatwheretherearek
differentstressmagnitudesinaspectrum,Si(1ik),eachcontributingni(Si)cycles,thenifNi(Si)isthe
numberofcyclestofailureofaconstantstressreversalSi(determinedbyuniaxialfatiguetests),failure
occurswhen:
Cisexperimentallyfoundtobebetween0.7and2.2.Usuallyfordesignpurposes,Cisassumedtobe1.
Thiscanbethoughtofasassessingwhatproportionoflifeisconsumedbyalinearcombinationofstress
reversalsatvaryingmagnitudes.
ThoughMiner'sruleisausefulapproximationinmanycircumstances,ithasseveralmajorlimitations:
1. Itfailstorecognisetheprobabilisticnatureoffatigueandthereisnosimplewaytorelatelife
predictedbytherulewiththecharacteristicsofaprobabilitydistribution.Industryanalystsoftenuse
designcurves,adjustedtoaccountforscatter,tocalculateNi(Si).
2. Thesequenceinwhichhighvs.lowstresscyclesareappliedtoasampleinfactaffectthefatiguelife,
forwhichMiner'sRuledoesnotaccount.Insomecircumstances,cyclesoflowstressfollowedby
highstresscausemoredamagethanwouldbepredictedbytherule.Itdoesnotconsidertheeffectof
anoverloadorhighstresswhichmayresultinacompressiveresidualstressthatmayretardcrack
growth.Highstressfollowedbylowstressmayhavelessdamageduetothepresenceofcompressive
residualstress.
Paris'Law
InFracturemechanics,Anderson,Gomez,andParisderived
relationshipsforthestageIIcrackgrowthwithcyclesN,intermsof
thecyclicalcomponentKoftheStressIntensityFactorK[13]
whereaisthecracklengthandmistypicallyintherange3to5(for
metals),whichstatesthattherateofcrackgrowthwithrespecttothe
cyclesofloadappliedisafunctionofthestressintensityfactorthis
isnamedParis'law.
Typicalfatiguecrackgrowthrate
Thisrelationshipwaslatermodified(byForman,1967[14])tomake graph
betterallowanceforthemeanstress,byintroducingafactor
dependingon(1R)whereR=minstress/maxstress,inthe
denominator.
GoodmanRelation
Inthepresenceofasteadystresssuperimposedonthecyclicloading,theGoodmanrelationcanbeusedto
estimateafailurecondition.Itplotsstressamplitudeagainstmeanstresswiththefatiguelimitandthe
ultimatetensilestrengthofthematerialasthetwoextremes.AlternativefailurecriteriaincludeSoderberg
andGerber.[15]
Lowcyclefatigue
Wherethestressishighenoughforplasticdeformationtooccur,theaccountingoftheloadingintermsof
stressislessusefulandthestraininthematerialoffersasimplerandmoreaccuratedescription.Thistype
offatigueisnormallyexperiencedbycomponentswhichundergoarelativelysmallnumberofstraining
cycles.LowcyclefatigueisusuallycharacterisedbytheCoffinMansonrelation(publishedindependently
byL.F.Coffinin1954[16]andS.S.Mansonin1953):[17]
where,
p/2istheplasticstrainamplitude
f'isanempiricalconstantknownasthefatigueductilitycoefficient,thefailurestrainforasingle
reversal
2Nisthenumberofreversalstofailure(Ncycles)
cisanempiricalconstantknownasthefatigueductilityexponent,commonlyrangingfrom0.5to
0.7formetalsintimeindependentfatigue.Slopescanbeconsiderablysteeperinthepresenceof
creeporenvironmentalinteractions.
AsimilarrelationshipformaterialssuchasZirconiumisusedinthenuclearindustry.[18]
Fatigueandfracturemechanics
Theaccountaboveispurelyempiricaland,thoughitallowslifepredictionanddesignassurance,life
improvementordesignoptimisationcanbeenhancedusingFracturemechanics.Fatigueofmaterialscanbe
describedashavingfourstages.
1. Cracknucleation,
2. StageIcrackgrowth,
3. StageIIcrackgrowth,and
4. Ultimateductilefailure.
Designagainstfatigue
Dependabledesignagainstfatiguefailurerequiresthorougheducationandsupervisedexperiencein
structuralengineering,mechanicalengineering,ormaterialsscience.Therearefourprincipalapproachesto
lifeassuranceformechanicalpartsthatdisplayincreasingdegreesofsophistication:[19]
1. Designtokeepstressbelowthresholdoffatiguelimit(infinitelifetimeconcept)
2. Failsafe,gracefuldegradation,andfaulttolerantdesign:Instructtheusertoreplacepartswhenthey
fail.Designinsuchawaythatthereisnosinglepointoffailure,andsothatwhenanyonepart
completelyfails,itdoesnotleadtocatastrophicfailureoftheentiresystem.
3. Safelifedesign:Design(conservatively)forafixedlifeafterwhichtheuserisinstructedtoreplace
thepartwithanewone(asocalledlifedpart,finitelifetimeconcept,or"safelife"designpractice)
plannedobsolescenceanddisposableproductarevariantsthatdesignforafixedlifeafterwhichthe
userisinstructedtoreplacetheentiredevice
4. Damagetolerantdesign:Instructtheusertoinspectthepartperiodicallyforcracksandtoreplacethe
partonceacrackexceedsacriticallength.Thisapproachusuallyusesthetechnologiesof
nondestructivetestingandrequiresanaccuratepredictionoftherateofcrackgrowthbetween
inspections.Thedesignersetssomeaircraftmaintenancechecksschedulefrequentenoughthatparts
arereplacedwhilethecrackisstillinthe"slowgrowth"phase.Thisisoftenreferredtoasdamage
tolerantdesignor"retirementforcause".
Stoppingfatigue
Fatiguecracksthathavebeguntopropagatecansometimesbestoppedbydrillingholes,calleddrillstops,
inthepathofthefatiguecrack.[20]Thisisnotrecommendedasageneralpracticebecausethehole
representsastressconcentrationfactorwhichdependsonthesizeoftheholeandgeometry,thoughthehole
istypicallylessofastressconcentrationthantheremovedtipofthecrack.Thepossibilityremainsofanew
crackstartinginthesideofthehole.Itisalwaysfarbettertoreplacethecrackedpartentirely.
Materialchange
Changesinthematerialsusedinpartscanalsoimprovefatiguelife.Forexample,partscanbemadefrom
betterfatigueratedmetals.Completereplacementandredesignofpartscanalsoreduceifnoteliminate
fatigueproblems.Thushelicopterrotorbladesandpropellersinmetalarebeingreplacedbycomposite
equivalents.Theyarenotonlylighter,butalsomuchmoreresistanttofatigue.Theyaremoreexpensive,
buttheextracostisamplyrepaidbytheirgreaterintegrity,sincelossofarotorbladeusuallyleadstototal
lossoftheaircraft.Asimilarargumenthasbeenmadeforreplacementofmetalfuselages,wingsandtails
ofaircraft.[21]
Peeningtreatmentofweldsandmetalcomponents
Increasesinfatiguelifeandstrengthareproportionallyrelatedtothe
depthofthecompressiveresidualstressesimpartedbysurface
enhancementprocessessuchasshotpeeningbutparticularlyby
laserpeening.Shotpeeningimpartscompressiveresidualstresses
approximately0.005inchesdeep,laserpeeningimpartscompressive
residualstressesfrom0.040to0.100inchesdeep,ordeeper.Laser
peeningprovidesignificantfatiguelifeextensionthroughshock
wavemechanicswhichplasticallydeformthesurfaceofthemetal
componentchangingthematerialproperties.[22]Laserpeeningcan
beappliedtoexistingpartswithoutredesignrequirementsor ExampleofaHFMItreatedsteel
incorporatedintonewdesignstoallowforlightermaterialsor highwaybridgetoavoidfatiguealong
thinnerdesignstoachievecomparableengineeringresults. theweldtransition.
Highfrequencymechanicalimpact(HFMI)treatment
ofwelds
Thedurabilityandlifeofdynamicallyloaded,weldedsteelstructuresaredeterminedoftenbythewelds,
particularbytheweldtransitions.ByselectivetreatmentofweldtransitionswiththeHighFrequency
MechanicalImpact(HFMI)treatmentmethod,[23][24]thedurabilityofmanydesignscanbeincreased
significantly.Thismethodisuniversallyapplicable,requiresonlyspecificequipmentandoffershigh
reproducibilityandahighdegreeofqualitycontrol.
DeepCryogenictreatment
TheuseofDeepCryogenictreatmenthasbeenshowntoincreaseresistancetofatiguefailure.Springsused
inindustry,autoracingandfirearmshavebeenshowntolastuptosixtimeslongerwhentreated.Heat
checking,whichisaformofthermalcyclicfatiguehasbeengreatlydelayed.[25]
Notablefatiguefailures
Versaillestraincrash
FollowingtheKing'sfte
celebrationsatthePalaceof
Versailles,atrainreturning
toPariscrashedinMay1842
atMeudonaftertheleading
locomotivebrokeanaxle.
Drawingofafatiguefailureinan
Thecarriagesbehindpiled
axlebyJosephGlynn,1843
intothewreckedenginesand
Versaillestraindisaster caughtfire.Atleast55
passengerswerekilledtrappedinthecarriages,includingthe
explorerJulesDumontd'Urville.ThisaccidentisknowninFrance
asthe"CatastropheferroviairedeMeudon".TheaccidentwaswitnessedbytheBritishlocomotiveengineer
JosephLockeandwidelyreportedinBritain.Itwasdiscussedextensivelybyengineers,whosoughtan
explanation.
Thederailmenthadbeentheresultofabrokenlocomotiveaxle.Rankine'sinvestigationofbrokenaxlesin
Britainhighlightedtheimportanceofstressconcentration,andthemechanismofcrackgrowthwith
repeatedloading.Hisandotherpaperssuggestingacrackgrowthmechanismthroughrepeatedstressing,
however,wereignored,andfatiguefailuresoccurredataneverincreasingrateontheexpandingrailway
system.Otherspurioustheoriesseemedtobemoreacceptable,suchastheideathatthemetalhadsomehow
"crystallized".Thenotionwasbasedonthecrystallineappearanceofthefastfractureregionofthecrack
surface,butignoredthefactthatthemetalwasalreadyhighlycrystalline.
deHavillandComet
TwodeHavillandCometpassengerjetsbrokeupinmidairand
crashedwithinafewmonthsofeachotherin1954.Asaresult,
systematictestswereconductedonafuselageimmersedand
pressurisedinawatertank.Aftertheequivalentof3,000flights,
investigatorsattheRoyalAircraftEstablishment(RAE)wereable
toconcludethatthecrashhadbeenduetofailureofthepressure
cabinattheforwardAutomaticDirectionFinderwindowintheroof.
This'window'wasinfactoneoftwoaperturesfortheaerialsofan
electronicnavigationsysteminwhichopaquefibreglasspanelstook
theplaceofthewindow'glass'.Thefailurewasaresultofmetal Therecovered(shaded)partsofthe
fatiguecausedbytherepeatedpressurisationanddepressurisation wreckageofGALYPandthesite
oftheaircraftcabin.Also,thesupportsaroundthewindowswere (arrowed)ofthefailure
riveted,notbonded,astheoriginalspecificationsfortheaircrafthad
calledfor.Theproblemwasexacerbatedbythepunchrivet
constructiontechniqueemployed.Unlikedrillriveting,theimperfectnatureoftheholecreatedbypunch
rivetingcausedmanufacturingdefectcrackswhichmayhavecausedthestartoffatiguecracksaroundthe
rivet.
TheComet'spressurecabinhadbeendesignedtoasafetyfactor
comfortablyinexcessofthatrequiredbyBritishCivil
AirworthinessRequirements(2.5timesthecabinprooftestpressure
asopposedtotherequirementof1.33timesandanultimateloadof
2.0timesthecabinpressure)andtheaccidentcausedarevisionin
theestimatesofthesafeloadingstrengthrequirementsofairliner
ThefuselagerooffragmentofG pressurecabins.
ALYPondisplayintheScience
MuseuminLondon,showingthetwo Inaddition,itwasdiscoveredthatthestressesaroundpressurecabin
ADFwindowsatwhichtheinitial apertureswereconsiderablyhigherthanhadbeenanticipated,
failureoccurred. [26] especiallyaroundsharpcorneredcutouts,suchaswindows.Asa
result,allfuturejetairlinerswouldfeaturewindowswithrounded
corners,greatlyreducingthestressconcentration.Thiswasa
noticeabledistinguishingfeatureofalllatermodelsoftheComet.InvestigatorsfromtheRAEtoldapublic
inquirythatthesharpcornersneartheComets'windowopeningsactedasinitiationsitesforcracks.The
skinoftheaircraftwasalsotoothin,andcracksfrommanufacturingstresseswerepresentatthecorners.
AlexanderL.Kiellandoilplatformcapsizing
TheAlexanderL.KiellandwasaNorwegiansemisubmersible
drillingrigthatcapsizedwhilstworkingintheEkofiskoilfieldin
March1980killing123people.Thecapsizingwastheworstdisaster
inNorwegianwaterssinceWorldWarII.Therig,located
approximately320kmeastofDundee,Scotland,wasownedbythe
StavangerDrillingCompanyofNorwayandwasonhiretothe
UnitedStatescompanyPhillipsPetroleumatthetimeofthedisaster.
Indrivingrainandmist,earlyintheeveningof27March1980
morethan200menwereoffdutyintheaccommodationonthe
AlexanderL.Kielland.Thewindwasgustingto40knotswith
wavesupto12mhigh.Therighadjustbeenwinchedawayfrom
theEddaproductionplatform.Minutesbefore18:30thoseonboard
felta'sharpcrack'followedby'somekindoftrembling'.Suddenly Fracturesontherightsideofthe
therigheeledover30andthenstabilised.Fiveofthesixanchor AlexanderL.Kiellandrig
cableshadbroken,withoneremainingcablepreventingtherigfrom
capsizing.Thelistcontinuedtoincreaseandat18.53theremaininganchorcablesnappedandtherigturned
upsidedown.
AyearlaterinMarch1981,theinvestigativereport[27]concludedthattherigcollapsedowingtoafatigue
crackinoneofitssixbracings(bracingD6),whichconnectedthecollapsedDlegtotherestoftherig.
Thiswastracedtoasmall6mmfilletweldwhichjoinedanonloadbearingflangeplatetothisD6
bracing.Thisflangeplateheldasonardeviceusedduringdrillingoperations.Thepoorprofileofthefillet
weldcontributedtoareductioninitsfatiguestrength.Further,theinvestigationfoundconsiderable
amountsoflamellartearingintheflangeplateandcoldcracksinthebuttweld.Coldcracksinthewelds,
increasedstressconcentrationsduetotheweakenedflangeplate,thepoorweldprofile,andcyclicalstresses
(whichwouldbecommonintheNorthSea),seemedtocollectivelyplayaroleintherig'scollapse.
Others
The1862HartleyCollieryDisasterwascausedbythefractureofasteamenginebeamandkilled220
people.
The1919GreatMolassesFloodhasbeenattributedtoafatiguefailure.
The1948NorthwestAirlinesFlight421crashduetofatiguefailureinawingsparroot
The1957"Mt.Pinatubo",presidentialplaneofPhilippinePresidentRamonMagsaysay,crasheddue
toenginefailurecausedbymetalfatigue.
The1965capsizeoftheUK'sfirstoffshoreoilplatform,theSeaGem,wasduetofatigueinpartof
thesuspensionsystemlinkingthehulltothelegs.
The1968LosAngelesAirwaysFlight417lostoneofitsmainrotorbladesduetofatiguefailure.
The1968MacRobertsonMillerAirlinesFlight1750thatlostawingduetoimpropermaintenance
leadingtofatiguefailure
The1977DanAirBoeing707crashcausedbyfatiguefailureresultinginthelossoftheright
horizontalstabilizer
The1980LOTFlight7thatcrashedduetofatigueinanengineturbineshaftresultinginengine
disintegrationleadingtolossofcontrol
The1985JapanAirlinesFlight123crashedaftertheaircraftlostitsverticalstabilizerduetofaulty
repairsontherearbulkhead.
The1988AlohaAirlinesFlight243sufferedanexplosivedecompressionduetofatiguefailure.
The1989UnitedAirlinesFlight232lostitstailengineduetofatiguefailureinafandiskhub.
The1992ElAlFlight1862lostbothenginesonitsrightwingduetofatiguefailureinthepylon
mountingofthe#3Engine.
The1998Eschedetraindisasterwascausedbyfatiguefailureofasinglecompositewheel.
The2000Hatfieldrailcrashwaslikelycausedbyrollingcontactfatigue.
The2000recallof6.5millionFirestonetiresonFordExplorersoriginatedfromfatiguecrackgrowth
leadingtoseparationofthetreadfromthetire.[28]
The2002ChinaAirlinesFlight611haddisintegratedinflightduetofatiguefailure.
The2005Chalk'sOceanAirwaysFlight101lostitsrightwingduetofatiguefailurebroughtaboutby
inadequatemaintenancepractices.
The2009Viareggiotrainderailmentduetofatiguefailure.
Seealso
Aviationsafety
Embedment
Forensicmaterialsengineering
Fractography
Thermomechanicalfatigue
Criticalplaneanalysis
Vibrationfatigue
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11. F.Braithwaite.(1854)."Onthefatigueandconsequentfractureofmetals".InstitutionofCivilEngineers,
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12. Matsuishi,M.,Endo,T.,1968,FatigueofMetalsSubjectedtoVaryingStress,JapanSocietyofMechanical
Engineers,Jukvoka,Japan.
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(1961).13,914.
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15. http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Fatigue/Stress_levels.html
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f%20metals.pdf),p.54.sut.ac.th,2007.
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jersey58419432.html"MaterialTechnologies,Inc.CompletesEFSInspectionofBridgeinNewJersey".Press
releaseregardingmetalfatiguedamagetotheManahawkinBayBridgeinNewJersey
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nics+Science+installing+linoleum&source=bl&ots=ntxUR1RGVz&sig=NdCEzBMspY21K7yYWDdf3p84Ug&h
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PopularMechanics,June1989,pp.6770.
22. https://engineering.purdue.edu/LAMPL/research_peening.html
23. CanYldrm,HalidMarquis,Gary."Fatiguestrengthimprovementfactorsforhighstrengthsteelweldedjoints
treatedbyhighfrequencymechanicalimpact".InternationalJournalofFatigue.44:168176.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2012.05.002.
24. CanYldrm,HalidMarquis,GaryBarsoum,Zuheir."FatigueassessmentofHighFrequencyMechanical
Impact(HFMI)improvedfilletweldsbylocalapproaches".InternationalJournalofFatigue.52:5767.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2013.02.014.
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ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJanuary7,2009.Retrieved9October2009.
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Failure".WallStreetJournal.Retrieved6September2016.
Furtherreading
Andrew,W.(1995)FatigueandTribologicalPropertiesofPlasticsandElastomers,ISBN1884207
154.
Leary,M.,Burvill,C.Applicabilityofpublisheddataforfatiguelimiteddesign(http://onlinelibrar
y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qre.1010/pdf)QualityandReliabilityEngineeringInternationalVolume25,
Issue8,2009.
Dieter,G.E.(1988)MechanicalMetallurgy,ISBN0071004068.
Little,R.E.&Jebe,E.H.(1975)StatisticaldesignoffatigueexperimentsISBN0470541156.
Palmgren,A.G.(1924):DieLebensdauervonKugellagern(LifeLengthofRollerBearings.In
German).ZeitschriftdesVereinesDeutscherIngenieure(VDIZeitschrift),ISSN03417255(http
s://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:03417255),Vol68,No14,April1924,pp.339341.
Schijve,J.(2009).FatigueofStructuresandMaterials,2ndEditionwithCdRom.Springer.
ISBN9781402068072.
Lalanne,C.(2009).FatigueDamage.ISTEWiley.ISBN9781848211254.
Pook,Les(2007).MetalFatigue,Whatitis,whyitmatters.Springer.ISBN9781402055966.
Draper,John(2008).ModernMetalFatigueAnalysis.EMAS.ISBN0947817794.
SubraSuresh,FatigueofMaterials,SecondEdition,CambridgeUniversityPress,1998,ISBN0521
570468.
Externallinks
FatiguebyShawnM.Kelly(http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MS
WikimediaCommonshas
E2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/anal/kelly/fatigue.html)
mediarelatedtoMaterial
SAEFatigue,Design,andEvaluationCommitteewebsite(htt fatigue.
p://www.fatigue.org)
ArticleregardingFatigueTestingofBoltedJoints(http://www.zwick.co.uk/appsdisp.php?id=25)
Examplesoffatiguedmetalproducts(http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/mem_mf.htm)
Acollectionoffatigueknowledgeandcalculators(http://www.fatiguecalculator.com)
MATDAT.COMMaterialPropertiesDatabaseMonotonic,CyclicandFatiguePropertiesofSteels,
AluminumandTitaniumAlloys(http://www.matdat.com)
ApplicationnoteonfatiguecrackpropagationinUHMWPE(http://www.campoly.com/index.php/do
wnload_file/view/204/108/)
Videoonthefatiguetest(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhUclxBUV_E),KarlsruheUniversity
ofAppliedSciences
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