Sustainability of Steel and Concrete Written by Ilze Liepina

Bachelor of Architectural Technology and
Construction Management
7th semester disseratation
SUSTAINABILITY OF STEEL AND CONCRETE
2011
ILZE LIEPINA CAHS71P

Consultant: Henrik Jansson
VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Horsens Campus
DENMARK
[SUSTAINABILITY OF STEEL AND CONCRETE] November 28, 2011
Bachelor of Architectural Technology and Construction Management
Elective Subject (7th semester Dissertation)
SUSTAINABILITY OF STEEL AND CONCRETE
Consultant: Henrik Jansson
Author: Ilze Liepina (143924)CAHS71P
---------------------(28.11.2011)
Title page
VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Horsens Campus, Denmark
Number of copies: 2 copies, 2 CD
Number of pages: 39
All rights reserved no part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the author.
NOTE: This dissertation was completed as part of a Bachelor of Architectural and Construction Management
degree course no responsibility is taken for any advice, instruction or conclusion given within!
November 2011
1
Summary
This report examines steel and concrete as sustainable materials of building

industry. It defines advantages and disadvantages of steel and concrete showing
features that make them irreplaceable, as well as indicates what should be
improved to reach nowadays requirements of sustainability. In practical part,
there is made a comparison between steel and concrete that are definitely the
main materials for base structure of buildings. It mentions also in which situation
one or the other construction type is used, thus making this report a valuable
reading material for constructing architects who have to decide what material to
choose in specific design. In the last chapter the focus is put on how and in
which case these materials are used in a real life and what is a useful
information for conclusion until which helps to provide more realistic
assumptions on which of these materials are more sustainable.
Key words: Sustainable materials, concrete, steel constructions, recycling, CO2

emissions, durability, building industry.
Methodology
Report is written according to primary and secondary researches, which mainly

is dividing it in two parts. Primary research is based on information which was
found, compared and analyzed using books and internet. I used information
from libraries to identify the key properties that characterize each of these
materials. However, data from internet reflects newest information and the
latest trends of building industry and sustainability. These two information
sources were helpful to get the first impression and basic knowledge to draw up
the first conclusion. I particularly want to emphasize a book named
Sustainability of construction materials, edited by Jamal M. Khatib, 2009, that
helped me to understand the main idea about sustainable materials and to solve
my stated problem.
Secondary research was based on interviews and my current project. After

primary research, these were important factors to find the right solution because
the most objective view is always coming from the experience of real life. To find
out the key factors in selection of materials, it was useful and interesting to
know the opinions of persons who are working in building industry and are
coming from two, different situated countries Denmark and Latvia. In a
problem-solving process, a useful material was my current project which is a
bright example to compare these two materials. It was also the main source of
inspiration and necessity to write this report.
2
Contents
Title page ............................................................................................................................................. 1

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 2
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
2. Problem statement .......................................................................................................... 5
3. Sustainability ...................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Climate changes ............................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Recycling ............................................................................................................................ 10
4. Properties of steel and concrete ........................................................................... 13
4.1 Stainless steel ...................................................................................................................... 14
4.2 Corrosion protection .......................................................................................................... 15
4.2.1 Paint system ................................................................................................................. 16
4.2.2 Hot-dip galvanizing .................................................................................................... 16
4.2.3 Duplex systems ........................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Fire protection ..................................................................................................................... 19
5. Price.............................................................................................................................................. 22
6. Steel comparing with concrete ..................................................................................... 23
6.1 Safety ...................................................................................................................................... 23
6.2 Cost.......................................................................................................................................... 24
6.3 Material availability ............................................................................................................ 24
6.4 Construction scheduling................................................................................................... 24
6.5 Design possibilities ............................................................................................................ 25
7. What influences ones choice of materials. ........................................................... 26
7.1 Office building in Viby ....................................................................................................... 27
7.2 Analyze of building structures ....................................................................................... 27
8. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 33
9. List of figures .............................................................................................................................. 35
10. List of references .................................................................................................................... 36
11. Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 39
3
1. Introduction
For many years all over the world, wide attention is being paid to energy saving.
More than 15 years ago an energy saving device in the building was a luxury.
Nowadays successful and recognized is only a sustainable architecture. We all
know that energy can be obtained, or saved on natural resources sun, wind,
rain, water etc. But now sustainability plays a bigger role in the construction
industry. One of the most important things is how the building is designed that
actually is the factor which determines its sustainability. It means that material
production process as well as their usefulness after life of a building must end
with much more economical aspects and less harmful to the nature. After
researches and personal experience I can say that two construction types steel
and concrete, dominate the world market.
This report reflects the options which give the steel and concrete structures. It
can be a helpful material for construction architects to decide which construction
to use for their project design. I will talk about ways how to build a sustainable
building whether it is easier and cheaper done by steel or concrete. Firsts of
all, it is important to understand the properties of these materials because of the
way they are produced. How they are responding to the ongoing processes
around is already the first step to naming them (or not) as sustainable
materials. Next step is to become aware of the level these materials can fulfill
architects wishes for a specific project.
Information that is provided by this report is important and useful for those, who
are in the building industry. Durability as well as the materials is fundamental
principles of construction. That is why we have to be aware of which one of
these two world's most approved materials steel or concrete can justify the
requirements of individual architecture. For me, as a constructing architect and a
high level specialist in future, it is very important to know the technical
characteristics of building materials. Todays building industry is growing very
fast it is a business, which is constantly growing. Every day new projects are
won in the contests, made and are attempted to be built as fast as possible.
Thousands of tones of building materials are used per day and no one in this
rush thinks of how much waste building leaves behind, what kind of damage we
do for environment and which material actually would be better to use taking it
from the sustainabilitys point of view.
That is why for the better energy saving and sustainable building is important to
choose material, which meets our needs and requirements.
4
2. Problem statement
Steel as a building material has unimaginable properties to realize almost all

incredible ideas in building industry. Concrete, in the same time, fulfills all
requirements for strength and safety. When we talk about sustainability and
energy saving, it is also important to know whether these materials are strong
enough. For me, it is very important to know which material is more durable and
economic to use in individual building. By experience working with some
projects, there are often cases in which the building is constructively tricky. In
that kind of situations, I could quickly find a response to which building way is
the most suitable.
How I understand the meaning of sustainability: For me it means long-lasting

and durable material that is able to resist the environmental impact during the
estimated lifetime of the specific material, starting from production until the end
of its validity is economic in relation to environmental pollution.
PROBLEM STATEMENT: Which material is most sustainable - steel or concrete?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
1. Why it is important to build sustainable buildings?
2. What effect steel and concrete pose on environment?
3. Which properties make them sustainable and what disadvantages should
be improved?
4. What are the main factors in a real life that determine our choice of
material?
This knowledge helps to understand which of these materials can fulfill intension
to build your individual project that meets the modern requirements.
5
3. Sustainability
What does sustainability mean for me? Learning at VIA University College I
started paying more attention to durability like I never did it before. I
understood how important it is for our society and environment. In less
developed countries the economic situation is much worse, therefor almost
everything is a basic necessities product. However, after understanding the
building functional conception and realizing the kind of harm we cause to nature
by thinking in short terms, I am sure that sustainable buildings are a future for
further generations and a step forward to better environment. For each of us it is
important to gradually regain from what we have invested, but from my point of
view, sustainability I can see more as a challenge for the whole world. That is
why for such as big industry like building industry, from which comes a large
amount of carbon dioxide emission sources for the production of building
materials, should pay attention to material recycling or how they can be
successfully reused. We are afraid to use the resources that are not renewable
or threatened with extinction, but sometimes we forget that our most valuable
resource is the environment itself.
After a long period of studies and inquiring about the global architecture, I have
noticed that the leading materials that are most commonly used are steel and
concrete. Each of them is functional enough to draw up the main house structure
but often there are situations or specific
architecture designs that have to be mixed
together. That is the real situation, and they
will not disappear because somebody will
say that they cause a great damage to the
world. Accordingly, I want to emphasize that
it is in the interests of manufacturers to
suffer the competition with its products.
That is why they are doing everything
possible to make them better, but our task
is to use our knowledge in constructions and
with a clear conscience choose material
which is the best for an individual building.
Figure 1 Processes including in sustainable design
6
3.1 Climate changes
Europe Union member states in collaboration with the World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) and other key countries around the world have agreed to
reduce 50-85% of CO2 due to the fact that the average global temperature has
risen to 2-2,4oC, says IPCC. If the temperature will still rise there will be more
floods, windstorm damages, droughts and other adverse impacts of nature. Till
year 2020 there should be 20% less CO2 emissions. 1
That means that more attention should be paid to materials that can be
successfully used again and again because production process of any of them
takes lot of energy and pollution to the environment. Therefore, for long lasting
and sustainable material I can name the one that is trying to get a balance
between the negative aspects that has accumulated during its production time
and the positive aspects during its existence period.
Every year, all over the world there has been produced more than 7 gigaton
carbon dioxide which is released into the atmosphere. Big part of carbon dioxide
comes from steel manufactories all over the world. Depending on the
manufacturing techniques and raw materials used in producing one ton of metal,
in the atmosphere there is emitted almost the same amount of CO2.2 Today the
American steel industry is growing more recent studies to reduce CO2 emissions
from steel production process. It is an expensive and high-risk research, but
from 1990 - 2009 the North American steel companies have made progress in
this area, because one tone of steel has been able to reduce 35% of intensity of
the CO2. 3
By Canadian engineers is found that steel

by-products can be used to capture
Greenhouse - carbon dioxide gas. During
the steel making process the steel by-
products in huge quantities are emitted into
the air. It is proved that the steel slag is
very alkaline and contains a big amount of
calcium. Their pH value is 12. Engineers
have discovered that 1 kg of steel slag can
isolate 0.25 kg of CO2. This method, which
reduces emissions from steel slag could be
more easy and inexpensive way to curb
carbon dioxide emissions from production. 2 Figure 2 CO2 intensity of the US steel industry
1.
http://www.rockwool.com/energy+efficiency/climate+change
2.
http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/article/news/36966
3.
http://www.recycle-steel.org/en/Sustainability
7
During the last century, concrete has won the title of the most important
building material. On the one hand, it is because concrete is made from natural
materials that are available all over the world, on the other hand, because it
possesses qualities which are necessary to create an impressive architecture. 4
Concrete composed of 70-75% of the various components - (6% air; 11%

portland cement; 41% gravel or crushed stone; 26% sand; 16% water).
Therefore, concrete production directly affects the production of components.
Cement has a big impact of concrete like a sustainable material because it binds
with high energy consumption and CO2 emissions. While the steel compared
with cement has 3 times higher energy consumption. 5
One of the main ingredients of concrete is portland cement. To produce 1 kg of

this material, inevitably is emitted 0.8-0.9 kg of CO2 emissions. By year 2020
the production of portland cement is expected to increase volume by 30% and
at the same time trying to reduce amounts of emissions. 4
Concrete is a commonly used construction material. Its primary constituent is

cement. In the process of manufacture 1 ton of cement there is formed the
same amounts of CO2 emissions.
Emissions are the result of the
calcination of raw materials and fuel
combustion. They are accounting even
7-8% of global (CO2) emissions.6
Especially in Nordic countries is being

paid attention how to produce green
concrete. But according on different
economic situation in Europe it is
difficult to invest and develop such a big
project. Figure 3 Cement production effect of CO2 intensity
4.
Sustainability of construction materials, Jamal M. Khatib, 2009, page 120
5.
http://www.eco-serve.net/publish/cat_index_69.shtml
6.
http://www.ecosmartconcrete.com/enviro_cement.cfm
8
Part conclusion
This chapter shows how big faults the production processes cause to the
environment. This is a proof that these two products have the same effect on
emissions occurring in the air even though concrete is made from natural
ingredients. It shows that in manufacturing process concrete creates a little less
emissions but if taking into account the reinforcement as well, then, from the
production point of view there is no difference between these two materials.
Sometimes those who do not know these figures cannot even imagine that a
piece of steel or concrete may have implications to the global future. It is,
therefore, important to understand the nature of material to create even more
professionals in the building industry and sustainable environment around us.
I admit that steel production process causes more harm to nature, taking into
account also the fact that it is derived from non-renewable resources. I assume
that there are metal manufacturers who are leaders in the global market and
can afford to improve production techniques to reduce CO2 emissions. But there
is a higher percentage of small manufacturers who do not worry about that at
all. Manufacturing process of any building material is irreversible as long as
there will be a necessity for them. I think that possibility to produce materials
without CO2 emissions is close to zero. The only possibility is to improve the
same material, to make them with higher thermal performance, with lower heat
transfer, thus reducing CO2 from fuel.
The question is whether one or the other material may rebut this production
process?
9
3.2 Recycling
Every year, all over the world there have been recycled more than 400 million
tons of metal. In a recycling process metal doesnt lose any of its properties.
Recycled can be furnace slag, scrap vessels, scrap steel, used rails, scrap
aluminum, crap cooper etc.7 Metals do not contaminate the environment,
through a large dump of waste, but is a substitute for the creation of a new
product. The process of recycling is never-ending cycle. There is no difference
how many times metal has been recycled, it still wont lose any qualities or
strength. That is a unique way how to save energy and resources.8
Recycling is a way to how to reduce the negative impact of the material, that is
the outcome of the production process. Recycling is rising up also the economic
situation, like it is happening in China in a year China is recycling one million
tons of copper, even
though at the same time a
new copper is produced
two times less counting
per year.9
Both, metal and concrete

production process
releases carbon dioxin. If
the metal would not be
recycled and would be
produced each time from
scratch and made from
imported ore in a blast
furnace than carbon dioxin Figure 4 The scrap to steel billet process
would be emitted into the
atmosphere in the same amount as concrete. That is why steel construction
buildings embody less carbon than those building which are made only from
concrete. In this situation there are approximately 40% of steel buildings that
are new and will be recycled after amortization. Calculating according to sales,
there are 60% of used steel elements that are already recycled. Metal recycling
saves up to 75% of energy and CO2 which could be used to produce new steel
elements. If there would be no recycling opportunities, it would be possible with
that amount to supply with energy 18 million of households.10
7.
http://www.gh-construction.co.uk/news/steel-framed-buildings-eco-friendly/
8.
http://www.farwestfibers.com/Products-and-Services/Metal.html
9.
http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/Metals_Recycling_Rates_Summary.pdf page 8
10.
http://earth911.com/recycling/metal/steel/facts-about-steel-recycling/
10
It would be a perfect solution to reduce CO2 with building material recycling.

Still, not all materials can be recycled. In this aspect, metal is advantageous
unless the construction does not consist of other layers of materials as it usually
is with floor systems. Then the process is difficult and it is not always possible to
recover 100% of all metals. The difficulty is also with wall panels, amongst which
are incorporated into the thermal elements.
Waste amount of demolished houses in Europe is huge and still continues to

grow. Especially from the demolished concrete buildings, the amount is till 180
million tones per year. In order to reuse concrete, it has to be crashed. The
crashing process and transportation requires and leads to CO2 emissions. This
process is beneficial only if there is a small distance where to get this new
concrete material. Usually that kind of concrete is possible to use for road
constructions, rarely are used as an aggregate for a new concrete.11
Data shows that in central and north Europe, concrete is being recycled more
than in other parts of Europe. It shows that these countries are often using
concrete in the buildings and have reached the level of development that lets to
focus more on sustainability. In Italy and Spain the amount of concrete recycling
is about 10 %, in France it amounts to 20%, in Germany about 80 % and in the
Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark 90% plus.13
Figure 5 Schematic drawing for the Total recycling process of Figure 6 Development of a new recycling process of
concrete fine aggregate from waste concrete using carbon
dioxide
11
But still, not all demolished concrete can be used again. Engineers says that
concrete mixture where is added aggregate concrete from demolished buildings
does not have the same quality as the original ones; that concrete has higher
drying shrinkage and creep. If there are more than 20% of concrete aggregate,
these recycled fines can produce a harsh and unworkable mixture.12
Part conclusion
Recycling is at the heart of any sustainable design undertaking and the

opportunity to use recycled materials in new home construction is almost
limitless James Grayson, New sustainable homes, year 2008. This quotation,
from my view reflects the fact that recycling is one of the main prerequisites to
build a sustainable building.
Steel is a unique material, taking into account the fact that it can be recycled
again and again. Strongly it is one of the main points that most directly
characterized sustainability. Metals are recovered already for 150 years and if
this sector now is starting to bring economic growth to the country, then,
presumably, at some moment this point will be reached, when the steel
production from a new could be stopped for a while because of large recycling
amounts. If the material can be reused, then I think it is a great deal to the
metal industry and environmental issues in the future.
Recycling might be relevant for all materials thus making it more important in
the context of future. After demolishing, concrete is useful only in some cases,
depending on location and situation at that moment. In this respect, steel has a
convincing impact on concrete, if we talk in context of sustainability.
11.
Sustainability of construction materials, Jamal M. Khatib, 2009, page 138
12.
http://www.concretethinker.com/solutions/Recyclable.aspx
13.
http://www.eco-serve.net/publish/cat_index_78.shtml
12
4. Properties of steel and concrete
Looking from my point of view as a constructing architect, I can say that it is

possible to make an assumption for every material if I have an idea about its
properties. Then I can make a conclusion and deduced about their durability,
sustainability or strength. I, as a professional, must be aware of that, especially
if I have to choose the main construction for each building. Before making any
conclusions, it is necessary to know the mechanical and physical properties of
steel and concrete. If you know them, it is easy to understand and predict how
durable the building made of steel or concrete will be.
Steel, unlike wood, does not warp or twist, and does not substantially expand
and contract with the weather. Unlike concrete, steel does not need time to cure
and is immediately at full strength. Steel is versatile, has more strength with
less weight, has an attractive appearance, can be erected in most weather
conditions, is of uniform quality, has proven durability and has a low life cycle
costs. These properties make steel a material to choose. Metal has many
qualities that make both, the unusual architecture and construction process
easier to carry out. If it is properly used and installed, the metal may have a
much longer life than any other material. But this advantage is highly influenced
by the environment, human health. To produce metal, it asks for a lot of raw
materials and resources three and even eight times more than the amount of
metal that is actually produced. As a result of that, there is a huge amount of
waste that finally gets into the environment - air, soil and water. That makes a
serious impact to human health. Of course, we are aware that from every kind of
production there is a risk to pollution to the environment, as it is happening with
producing all the other building materials. In this case, we have to continue the
research and try to find other benefits for materials that we are so commonly
used.
Above-mentioned advantages satisfy architects and engineers. For the
environment, that nowadays is the key issue in building industry, the most
important thing is sustainability. And steel, as a nearly 100% recycled material,
takes a major part in saving the environment and energy. Also long lifetime is
another key issue for steel to be considered a sustainable material. This feature
may be partly offset emissions and waste materials as a result of metal
production process.
13
4.1 Stainless steel
Stainless steel is the most popular metal used for work on the building site. It is
because of its good corrosion resistance without finishes. There are many types
of stainless steel that include selenium, nickel, manganese or molybdenum.
Resistance of corrosion is one of the most important properties for steel
constructions. Corrosion of a passive surface layer consists of chromium, nickel,
and sometimes molybdenum. Corrosion of these metals contents upon exposure
to oxygen. This layer is a safe barrier between environment and construction. 14
To produce stainless steel it takes 60 % more energy than to produce carbon

steel. It shows that every metal consists of different other metals and each of it
has its own properties. That is why stainless steel takes longer to melt and
requires a higher temperature, which is also why, as a final product, it becomes
stronger and with more benefits. 15
In the end of 19th century when the use of reinforcement concrete began, it
became a permanent building material in the world. Before was thoughtthat
steel is a very expensive material with a high self - weight, but wood lacks many
properties that are necessary to give a freedom for architects and engineers
ideas.16
Maximum content of sulphur and phosphorus in stainless steel is 0,035%. DIN

EN 10088 parts 1 to 5 specifies stainless steels classification, properties,
applications and forms of supply. The first non-rusting steel alloying with
chromium and nickel was patented in 1912. Since then there are lot of different
classifications for steel given by manufacturers. Non-corroding, acid-resistant
steels contain at least 10.5% chromium - the chemical constituent that ensures
better corrosion resistance than unalloyed steels. The most important aspect
here is the passive layer that forms on the surface and is full of chromium oxide.
It helps to protect construction against corrosion but in the same time requires
an unhindered oxygen exchange to not affect the function of steel.
During transportation and storage, surface of the material should be covered

with plastic sheeting. Grinding, coloring or pickling can be used to improve the
surface. The smoother the surface, the less susceptible it is to accumulations of
dust and dirt, and a smooth surface also improves resistance to corrosion. For a
higher alloy steel is better to have a surface that is more desired.17
14.
Materials for sustainable sites Meg Calkins, Leed AP, 2009, page 328
15.
Materials for sustainable sites Meg Calkins, Leed AP, 2009, page 332
16.
Concrete - design, construction, examples Martin Peck, 2006, page 9
17.
Building with steel , A. Reichel, P. Ackermann, A. Hentschel, A. Hochberg, 2007, page 80, 81
14
4.2 Corrosion protection
Iron as a stable oxide is a contain of iron ore. Melting process results in iron and
steel connection, which have a very high energy level. In time, this connection
becomes thermodynamically unstable and the energy level goes down. The
corrosion process is happens when iron atoms in connection of oxygen and water
changes to iron oxides. As a result, there starts a corrosion process that lowers
the rigidity of metal. In a result of oxidation, material becomes heavier, the
volume expansion leads to stresses, and the rust layer flakes off. Corrosion
amount is reflected in the degree of how long material has been in wet condition
together with relative humidity and atmospheric conditions. It is important to
realize the amount of moisture in the building site that may result from the
condensation or precipitation. If two metals with
different thermochemical properties are in contact,
than there is a possibility of galvanic corrosion
process. In a result is a corrosion of the less noble
metal. 18
To avoid corrosion, it is important to remember that

different metals should be isolated with specific
compounds, which are usually used in constructions.
In process of corrosion, carbon steel expands. That is Figure 7 Rusted surface of

aluminium beam
why engineers have to be careful what kind of steel to
use for reinforcement in concrete constructions. If
reinforced concrete is outside in connection with
environment, the problems may arise with its
durability. For example, salt water is a corrosive
substance which contains hydrogen carbonation ions
and sulfate ions which promote corrosion of concrete
structure, especially for reinforcement. In a case of
expansion, there will begin a formation of cracks in
concrete. 19
If talking about bolts and screws there are plastic

washers and sleeves which to put between. Corrosion Figure 8 Corroded bolt
may deteriorate the steel structure. As a result of that,
it can also affect other materials. For example, if they are combined with steel,
or are based on them. If the load bearing structure starts to move or becomes
fragile, also others building structures cannot function effectively.
18.
Building with steel , A. Reichel, P. Ackermann, A. Hentschel, A. Hochberg,
2007, page 79
19.
http://www.pondarmor.com/blog/?p=12
15
There are passive and active work activities of how to protect construction from
atmospheric corrosion. The active protection depends on design and how the
construction is protected - with moisture barriers or special insulation materials.
Passive protection is direct - it is included already in steel properties. Passive
protection means ready steel products: stainless steel, weathering steel, hot-dip
galvanized steel (with coating), painted steel and duplex systems. For installed
structures most attention should be paid to places that are no longer bother, or
they will not be present, because such places are at greater risk of corrosion.
Risk also exists in welding process, because then the microstructure of steel is
changed. Welding should be done accurate, without even the smallest gaps.
4.2.1 Paint system
For protection of corrosion, it is also possible to use painting systems. Painting is

usually used because of a big area that is not advantageous to protect by hot-
dip galvanizing or just painted surface in
either case looks better. To achieve a longer
lasting paint protection is important to choose
the right painting system and method. The
duration of protection can be from 8 to 40
years. It depends on the environmental
impact and painting system. Paint systems
have also an important economical factor
because they are helping with establishing the
maintenance program. There are three Figure 9 Applying a paint material through hot
painting coats: priming coat, undercoat and melt coating using the airless spraying method
finishing coat. Primary coat, with active
pigments in its contain, stops chemical and physical processes of corrosion.
Undercoat guarantees the thickness of painting. It protects construction as a
barrier with its strength and impermeable. Finishing coat strengthens
construction for UV resistance. In other words, it works as an ostentatious
layer.20
4.2.2 Hot-dip galvanizing
Hot-dip galvanizing is a corrosion protection

system that depends on DIN EN ISO 1461.
Zinc coatings are completely melted with
steel. It provides protection even if the
surface is scratched. Zinc is less noble than
iron, which means that a galvanic cell is
formed in the presence of a sufficient amount
Figure 10 Hot-dip galvanizing process
of moisture (electrolyte).This alloy has a
higher hardness than a normal steel has, so it
16
can be much more resistant to wear scratches. Compared to the painting

system, this solution is safer in terms of transportation, installation and general
use. Hot dip galvanizing takes place in a large bath, which is full of molten zinc.
When the temperature is increased till 450oC, on the surface there alloys a
formation of iron-zinc. The appearance of the surface coverage depends on the
temperature, immersion depth and chemical composition of steel in galvanizing
process. Additional galvanizing does not influence the strength of steel because
it depends solely on its chemical composition. A result of hot-dip galvanizing is a
bright metal surface finish. To get that kind of surface it is necessary to put alloy
into hydrochloric acid pickling baths with subsequent flux. This process removes
grease and rust, but impurities such as old paint, welding residue, slag and
markings must be cleaned off first.21
4.2.3 Duplex systems
It is a metallic coating that consists of hot-dip galvanizing and painting in the

finish. This method is normally used when there is a necessity for a long-term
protection against corrosion. Protection can be extended 2,5 times by using the
two methods together. Although this is an expensive way to avoid corrosion, it is
the most widely used one.
Costs depend on the maintenance and repair prices. It is important to think

about the long-term protection against corrosion which would be suitable for
long term buildings. It does not pay back, if trying to save on resources when
talking about corrosion problems. If doing so, in a close future, there might
begin an unstoppable process of house collapsing. In that case, it is not a
sustainable building anymore. This also applies to other materials. No matter
how high the physical parameters for building materials are, without principles
that must be kept, successive building will never be built to its highest quality. 22
Steel provides tensile properties in concrete constructions.23 Without that,

concrete would be just a little applied element in building industry. But once
steel is an ingredient in the concrete structure, it should be protected from risks
of corrosion.
20.
Building with steel , A. Reichel, P. Ackermann, A. Hentschel, A. Hochberg, 2007, page 71
21.
Building with steel , A. Reichel, P. Ackermann, A. Hentschel, A. Hochberg, 2007, page 82, 83
22.
23.
http://www.cadman.com/section.asp?pageid=3162
17
Steel construction takes such strengths as tension and compression. Concrete

without rebar can only take compression. Concrete would not be strong enough
or useful in different parts of a building without reinforcement. That is why also
the reinforced concrete is exposed to corrosion. Nowadays requirements state
that steel rebar should be more inside the concrete structure and the gap
between them and the edge of concrete has to be bigger. It provides a lower risk
of the chemical substances reaching the steel though the surface. Other option is
to save the ratio of cement and water below 0,4, which is a factor that ensures
the highest level of cement. After having been added to concrete, it provides a
high quality material, thus, prevents the formation of cracks or shrinkage. Such
as reinforcement concrete is safe to use even near by the sea, although concrete
is constantly in the contact with salt water.24
If there is found a crack in reinforced concrete construction and it is situated in

salty environment, it is possible to seal it by a resin injection. It depends on
whether the crack has a tendency to expand. If so, it must be covered by joints.
In the worst cases, the damaged part of concrete should be taken out. Filling in
the cracks is only possible in cases where there has not yet started a chloride
contamination process. There are different ways of how to protect and repair
concrete and these are well-developed procedures, which are undertaken by
specialists.25
Part conclusion
Corrosion is one of the most important factors that reveal durability of material.
Sustainability includes itself the fact of long existence. I believe that steel and
concrete are the two most commonly used materials that do not deformed,
decompose, nor provide a suitable climate for insect invasions. That is why I
found it very important to mention the different ways of how steel and concrete
can be protected of corrosion. It is characterized by the most direct way - what
steps are to be taken these materials universal and strong against the
environmental impacts, thus assuring a long lasting lifetime for the building.
No material can fulfill all requirements. Knowing the available resources in the
world, it is clear that steel and concrete are essential materials. I wrote this
paragraph to show what kind of negative features exist of these materials and
how they can be solved.
24.
http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/corrincon.htm
25.
Concrete reinforcement corrosion from assessment to repair decisions Peter Pullar-Strecker,
Institution of Civil Engineer, 2002
18
4.3 Fire protection
Steel is an incombustible material and is not conducive the spread of fire. It also
does not contribute to fire load or fire propagation. Metal has a good ability to
manage the heat, and it can heat up in a very short time. But in situations
where temperature is scaled up till 500 degrees per Celsius, the yield stress
drops by two-thirds and the load-carrying capacity is lost. The design must be
constructed and insulated so that at high temperatures, the structure remains
sufficiently long for people to evacuate from the building.
Fire protection serves to avoid or prevent

temperature raise in steel construction. To
achieve this, barriers, heat-dissipating
effect or fireproof insulation is used. From
the physics point of view, it is possible to
achieve fire protection by transferring the
heat build-up to other components with
larger mass. For example, hollow steel
columns can be filled with concrete or
circulating water but trapezoidal profile Figure 12 Squashed column which wasnt protected
in full height
sheets can be filled with concrete topping
(for suspended floors). Fire protection is
also possible to improve by using higher
strength steel or intumescent paint
system. It works similar like painting
system for protection against corrosion.
This paint is only 0,3 - 3,5 mm thick,
depending on fire resistance required. But
it is a relatively expensive form of
protection compared to others, like filling
construction with concrete or covering it by Figure 11 Compartment following fire
boards or insulation. 26
Concrete fire resistance is influenced by tensile strength, moisture content,

density, aggregate type, and thickness of construction. Strongest aggregate
against fire is carbonate. It is better than sanded lightweight and siliceous
aggregates.27
Above 400oC concrete becomes weaker. The damage is determined by the

thickness of concrete construction, but normal slab in this case can be destroyed
only by few mm on top or underneath layer.28
26.
27.
http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~paulmont/241/Reports_04/Fire_pp.pdf
28.
http://www.structuraldesigns.com.au/FAQs/Concrete/Fire%20damaged%20concrete.htm
19
Steel comparing to concrete have more weaknesses that can result in accidents.
For buildings, steel should be fabricated already against fire protection and
corrosion but that costs a lot, otherwise, there have to be taken several actions
to make it protected on the building site.
For example, I can use Danish building requirements to show the difference
between these two materials, taking into account the typical case where the load
bearing construction must be REI 60 A2-s1,do. For unreinforced concrete
column, the dimensions have to be 240 x 240 mm, height up to 3 m. If there is
used reinforced concrete, the numbers are the
same, but the reinforcing rebar have to be at
least 35 mm from the surface. How I
mentioned before, in fire case, concrete is
damaged only few mm (2-3). That is why 35
mm is a quite safe distance not to reach steel
rebar and therefore make them weak.
It is more difficult with steel. Column made of

sectional steel, I or H profile, encased in 35 mm Figure 13 Reinforced concrete beam before
concrete reinforced with expanded metal, 1.4 fire
kg/m2, or with welded mesh of 2 mm steel wire
with max mesh size 100 mm placed 15 mm
from the surface, and with the spaces between
the flanges completely filled out with mineral
wool.29
From my point of view, to completely finish, for

example, one construction element, it takes a
lot of time and energy. Normally fabricated
element is delivered to building site as simple Figure 14 Reinforced concrete after the damage
steel. Big plus for steel constructions is that it caused by fire
is possible to assemble them together twice as
faster than concrete elements. However, if each column has to be specially
treated, it causes problems with recycling steel after the period of buildings
limitation.
29.
Fire technical examples Danish Institute of Fire and Security Technology - (DIFT), 2000, page 8
20
Part conclusion
Concrete structures that are damaged by the fire are possible to restore by
casting a new layer in the damage area. But if the metal structure is damaged
and the fire has gotten its core, there is no possibility to safeguard anything,
especially if steel is a load bearing structure. This chapter helps to understand
and decide whether steel or concrete are durable materials and how they rely on
sustainability. I paid attention to fire protection because it is a serious problem
in the building industry. The most requirements and demands are adapted to
this issue it means it is the highest risk factor to the buildings.
Sustainability is a broad concept which includes the meaning of durability. I cant
see the point of recycling processes and processes of environmental
performance if the so-called eco house is unsafe. That is why, I believe, it is
really necessary to describe and go more into this problem that could jeopardize
the meaning of sustainability. It is excellent if a building is built from recycled
materials and is energy efficient. However, it is not enough in order to call it
sustainable. The main point of this definition should be safety. Without safety no
building is durable.
21
5. Price
In the year 2007 the metal manufacturing industry experienced a crisis, as it did
throughout any industry in that period. It did not depend on the lack of
resources or manpower. 30
From my interview with Vagn H. Jorgensen (education - blacksmith, now adm.

director in company named ProVag) I learned that this is due to the fact that
somewhere in the world in one place or another, is a magnificent building, on
what focuses all producers. He mentioned the Pekin Olympic Center which was
built in year 2008. During the construction process the prices were high and
small customers were waiting when it will be normal again. He added that the
steel price in World stock Exchanges is jumping up and down like it is
happening with gold, grains or oil.
However, the years 2010 and 2011 are an indication that the crisis in the metal
industry is overcome. All indicators show that metal production has been as high
as it has never been before. Economy in this industry works like this - the
developed economies help underdeveloped and emerging economies.
Consequently, in 2011, 72% of purchases were made in small countries. It is
also not surprising that the largest steel manufacturing companies focus directly
in developed countries and in regions where the resources are enough.30
Analysis, data collection and environmental problems are the base to promoting
a successful production of steel. This helps also to solve the sustainability
problems. In the worlds context, steel is an important low-carbon product that
helps to keep the transport, construction and electricity networks. Metal
producers in the world require that the demand for the metal could rise up to the
2050th year. Keeping in mind the large
investment to promote as harmful metal
manufacturing process as possible, also
requires that the metal can become a
leader in the construction industry.
Every year the World steel
organizations asks every steel
production company to take all the
necessary tests and make calculations in
order to know how significant the
damage done to the nature really is. It
is necessary to understand what security Figure 15 Producer price indices competitive building
measures should be adopted and what materials: steel, asphalt, concrete, lumber
should be improved. 31
30.
http://188.93.152.242/pictures/publicationfiles/WSIF_2011.pdf
31.
http://188.93.152.242/pictures/publicationfiles/WSIF_2011.pdf page 5
22
Part conclusion
That also is one of the indicators why price is changing. Leaders in steel
production are forced to improve the quality, make the production process less
harmful to environment by reducing emissions. Why is it important to talk about
prices in the context of sustainability? Steel has a unique property for
sustainability recyclability. More often in different countries people reject
building steel constructions because it is much more expensive than building
from other material, such as, wood or concrete. As these prices are constantly
changing, it makes it difficult for the steel industry to remain stable, thereby; it
does help with choosing the proposed material. Otherwise, if the world market
were more stable, metal industry would be better developed. Therefore,
sustainability and its meaning would reach even a greater significance.
6. Steel comparing with concrete
Of course, it is not possible to build a house from one material and expect for it
to modern requirements. Therefore, in any case, it must be connected to
different materials to get the perfect result. In today's world is dominated by a
large variety of materials. Leaders of building industry, of course, are those who
are able to maintain the building. The most common is a steel and concrete.
Each of them has its trumps and weaknesses that can be compared to determine
which material should be chosen for what project.
6.1 Safety
Concrete industry is sure that concrete is safer material than others. For
example, vertical communications like staircases and elevator shafts is best to
build from concrete because it best protects against fire or explosions. At high
temperature concrete does not lose its strength or shape, it is fire resistant up to
2 hours, depending on thickness of the construction. Reinforced concrete is
resistant to explosions. It fully complies with the provisions that the safest place
in the building should be an evacuation route - staircase. (says Alfred G. Gerosa,
president, Concrete Alliance Inc., New York City.) Concrete does not require any
additional cladding or painting to protect it from fire. Since the concrete is dense
and heavy material, designed by the relevant rules, it can even withstand a
large storm, or earthquakes. Best engineers and designers are able to design
and calculate buildings so that the concrete construction becomes flexible. But it
takes time, so the project inevitably costs more.
Experts agree that steel in contact with high temperature is starting to melt,
however, there are both active and passive ways how to protect steel. It is not
anything uncommon. For buildings, normally, there already is delivered fire
protected steel. In such cases steel construction buildings are very safe and can
23
match to the same protection quality as concrete. There have been accidents
where buildings did not fall down just because of special redundancy and
strength of steel construction. (explanes John P. Cross, vice president,
marketing, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago.) Steel is an
indispensable material in seismic areas. The flexible connection combined with
strength allows adapting to the impacts of nature.
6.2 Cost
Market prices for building materials are highly volatile. However, the production
cost of concrete is the same. Even if steel price rapidly increases during the
global crisis, the fact did not affect the price of concrete. Insurance companies
recognize that cast-in-place concrete is more advantage because it is solid and
secure. Therefore, it is possible to save up to 25% of the insurance per year, if
building is built from reinforced concrete.
No matter how bizarre it sounds, but metal construction prices depends on what
kind of buildings at any given time are built in the world and how much of steel
amount they took. It also depends on the dollar exchange rate fluctuations and
other factors, which are limited in most of the world. The price fluctuations are
as variable as the ranges for gold or oil.
6.3 Material availability
Concrete supply and availability may limit the availability of transport ships and
shipping rates. In the event of a tight supply of any individual regions or
countries, the smaller companies either pay abusive prices during concrete price
or wait until the concrete is available.
A few years ago, the availability of steel was to blame because of Asia and
China, which had intensive works in building industry, for example, the Olympic
Centre of Pekin. But the U.S. maintains that it is able to produce up to 6 million
tons of steel per year, so the availability of steel is not a problem.
6.4 Construction scheduling
Concrete building construction takes up to twice as long building period than

steel buildings. Especially when we are talking about reinforced cast-in concrete.
Each floor for reinforced concrete buildings can be built every 2nd to 4th day,
depending on the thickness and type of concrete. In one day it can be build up
to 4,000 m2. Such a cyclical construction also gives its advantages in biggest
cities, where buildings are tightly next to each other and have limited traffic,
where it is difficult to access with cranes and other construction equipment.
24
Time is money. In unique cases concrete has advantages, but steel structures
are possible to assembled much quicker and the building can be completed much
faster. It also reduces the cost of labor remuneration, rental costs of
construction equipment etc. Metal structures and parts of the construction can
be delivered in ready position to the building site - they should be only
assembled in the site. The fact that it is possible to order a ready-made
segments and the detailed construction of the structure means growth of the
productivity, which makes steel a viable construction material today and in the
future.
6.5 Design possibilities
It is possible to make any desired shape out of concrete. That gives a good
scope for design. By using reinforced cast-in concrete floors, it is also possible to
reach a wider space in the room, because the thickness of floor is relatively
small. In particular, it is typical for offices and multistory buildings.
Steel has the highest weight and strength ratio compared to any other building
material. With metal construction it is possible to construct a building where
between the load-bearing elements there is a relatively large span. With help of
steel structures it is possible to build a large overhang - up to 20 meters, what
gives building a unique look. 32
32.
http://www.buildings.com/Default.aspx?TabId=3321&ArticleID=2511
25
7. What influences ones choice of materials.
There are various factors which are influencing our actions, even thoughts.
Significant factors like geographic location, the state structure, economic
situation, traditions, weather effects, our current needs/desires as well as
demands are these which actually take control over our main choice according to
materials what to choose for a new building. These are aspects by which we
subordinate our lives until they adapt the construction market as well. Mainly,
changes happen, if any of these factors mentioned above improves or become
worse. I would like to show an example of how I, as a constructing architect, can
take decisions which one of the two materials steel or concrete to use in
order to build a sustainable office building. After having gathered the literature
and completed my research, I got a lot of new and important information about
these two materials that bring a lot of opportunities; of course I had to figure
out how things are going on in a real life as well. It is really important to know
the reasons for what it might be good or harmful to build a building using these
materials.
In some countries steel constructions are not as popular to use in such large
quantities as the concrete elements. They are available in comparative higher
price than other materials like concrete, wood, or bricks. In some regions in
Europe, none of these materials are used because they have their own sources
in abundance like it is with wood in Norway. There are a lot of facts that effect
one or the other material development in different counties. That is why I
shouldnt say any last conclusion because all of that depends on situation in a
specific country.
In real life, things happen in a different way. Literature shows general

information about each of these materials. In the internet, manufacturers, of
course, emphasize that their product is number one in the worlds market. That
is why this information provides only the first impression that does not always
satisfy our needs. That is why I took interviews from two businessmen from two
countries that differ from each other in terms of economical situation and market
of building materials. For this moment, these are the two countries that I am
most familiar with Denmark (where I study) and Latvia (my home country). A
lot of positive reviews and information about steel constructions I get also from
building engineers like Henrik Kortermann Hansen from a company called
Ramboll, who I established a contact with during a visit to an exhibition in
Copenhagen Building green.
26
7.1 Office building in Viby
For my final project I set a challenge for myself and I chose a building, which
form differs form stage to stage. It has sloping walls, which are merging with the
roof, giving the impression that the building consists of one element. Both ends
of the building are observed with overhangs up to 3 m, which also led me to
thinking and figuring out the main construction of this building. Projects that I
have worked with previously consisted of straight walls and roofs of simple
shapes, build of concrete and other relevant materials. So, I knew for sure the
properties of concrete when it is used in buildings of standard type. But this
project made everything more complicated and made me sort out more clearly
what materials to use.
My first conviction was to make it from steel, so I started developing this idea. I
had heard before, that from steel it is possible to make any connections, so I
decided that it could be a suitable material for this building. I admit that it was a
desire to work with steel because never did it before. I must admit, however,
that the fact that I had never worked with steel before was definitely the major
reason why I made my final decision in favor to steel construction.
Nowadays, in order to build a successful and recognizable building it must

comply with building regulations, has to be energy-efficient, and above all
long-lasting. As we live in time, where actions harmful to the environment are
no longer tolerable, I questioned myself which material is more sustainable
steel or concrete? I have never had a chance to analyze these materials from
this point of view.
7.2 Analyze of building structures
In my opinion, sustainability is a synonym for durability. It means that the more

sustainable the material, the less it is spoken of as a subject of influence to
environment, accidents or man-made effects. It recognizes also the utility of
material after expiry date of building. According to the literature part where I
described the risks of steel and concrete, I will analyze two, the most confusing
parts of building which are the key issues of my decisions.
1. Both of these construction types can be pre- fabricated elements that

could be easy to erect on the building site. Sloping walls, at first glance,
confuses but actually, in this case, where the angle is not extremely big, there is
no difference, in building technic between this and standard construction of
concrete. For steel the building process is more effective because light steel
increases the crane range. For the same span of concrete element, the
equipment should be more powerful and higher so, it costs more money and
have bigger impact on environment.
27
Recycling concrete elements can be crashed and reused for a layer of road or
aggregate for new concrete. There are some situations when it pays back,
depending on how big distance is between building site and concrete
manufacturers because transportation also causes CO2.
Looking from this point of view, steel construction is easy to recycle. There could
only be taken flooring and trapeze deck which is filled with concrete, because
mixed materials cause problems with separating them, therefore, achieving
success in recycling. In this case almost 70% of steel can be recycled again. So,
it can be saved raw materials and 30% of CO2 in producing materials for almost
the same size of building in the future.
Fire protection concrete elements in the right thickness according to fire

protection requirements are already protected because of concrete properties
stating is as a non-combustible material. If steel construction is treated by paint
system than it will cost a big money but since steel is a relatively more
expensive material than the building should be designed in way that the cost of
steel is as much as possible approximated to the concrete price. That is why
there are two opportunities cast in situ steel elements that will take time and
money to produce, or just covered steel with gypsum boards which is the
cheapest way.
Figure 16 Wall connections with storey partitions. Comparing concrete and steel
28
2. This part showing the roof is a bright example why steel could be more
suitable material. Columns can be easy connected with roof slabs, making it as
one element, therefore creating base for placing the roof bearing elements.
Between steel columns is possible to place extra strong steel elements, making
it stable and safe for transmitting forces. It is easy to design complicated roof
connections. Cold formed steel profiles in walls and roofs give much less heat
loss as cold bridge than other materials because of perforations in the web says
the Technical committee of Steel and environment. That meansless fuel
consumption and lower CO2. To connect the same roof deck with columns, made
of concrete, would be quite risky and complicated. First, there should be
supporting elements that could make the frame construction but then concrete
would have big thickness of construction with serious reinforcement inside
because of spans which are ranging between 6,8 and 10,8 meters. Since the
building will be designed
from steel frame
construction, the spans
repeatedly are 4.8 m,
thus causing problems
the roof construction rely
on the frame.
In concrete case,
connecting these
elements that are in
different angles, both-wall
and roof rafters or the
deck, may be at risk of a
high pressure on the
coupling parts. Otherwise,
there should be taken
various actions to make
this construction safe:
reinforcement, special
steel brackets or even
some extra covering of Figure 17 Cross section of Office building
concrete.
Part conclusion
In Denmark, the most commonly used material is concrete because of price,

opportunities it offers, and also because of its accessibility. For me it was a hard
decision to choose between this well-known material and steel with what I have
never worked before. Taking into account researches about stability, concrete
did not seem the option for this project. Spans, slopping walls and roof
construction are easier and faster to solve by steel construction. There are a few
reasons why steel could be a better solution for this project:
29
1) A bigger span that is not easy solvable when using concrete;

2) It could be a problematic and time-consuming process to solve connection
between roof slabs and columns;
3) There should be special rafters that could support roof construction;
4) Building from steel can take less time, approx. 3 days save money and
time;
5) 70% of material can be saved afterwards because of steel recycling.
By this I also want to add that in architecture and engineering the first place is
taking into consideration the buildability itself, after having chosen the material,
it should be improved to reach the modern requirements in this case,
sustainability.
7.3 Different points of view
To have a broader perspective about steel and concrete as sustainable materials,

I took two interviews. I think it is a good way gain more knowledge and expand
ones view of how the building industry in evolving in two economical different
countries.
First interview I arranged with Vagn H. Jorgensen (education - blacksmith, now

adm. director in company named ProVag). He was worked with steel
constructions for 30 years. Most commonly he worked with big garage or storage
buildings. Occasionally, there were also some public buildings, for example,
office building. He emphasized that working with metal construction is very easy,
because it is already delivered to building sites in its right size, for the last job
leaving only assembling them together. When I asked about other building
types, if they are also build from steel or more from concrete, he said that, for
example, private houses are never build from steel, because it is too expensive
and in Denmark is not common to use much steel in buildings. One of the
mainstream materials is concrete, because it is relatively cheap and complies
with weather conditions and climate. Advantage of steel is that it is easy to
continue other steel building and make like an extension. Especially, it is
typical for storage buildings. He thinks that it is the greatest plus for steel
buildings comparing with concrete. Even though most of his life he worked as a
blacksmith and had extensive knowledge about steel. However, he acknowledges
that money is the determining factor in building industry in Denmark. Because
there are a lot of concrete producers in Denmark, it makes a competitive
environment for both price and quality. As concrete is used so much, builders
are more familiar with it and in process of creative a sustainable industry,
concrete is involved and improved as a sustainable material.
However, an owner of glass construction company Altehs, in Latvia, has a

different opinion on this subject. His education is machinery engineering, but
now for more than 10 years he has worked in a building industry. As the
30
company is developing and growing all the time, almost every second year it is
necessary to build a new production building. As there are lot of work tables and
special equipment where the huge glass sheets should are moved from one
place to other, it is necessary to have that kind of ceiling construction which is
able to hold all that weight. So, that is one of the factors why he always chooses
steel.
In Latvia, it is common to build production hangars from steel constructions

because there are a lot of good companies that offer beneficial deals with special
panel systems around the building. The last hangar was built this autumn. It
took 3 days to lift up the main steel frame construction for around 1000 m2
large hangar. Elements were delivered already prepared, so the only thing left to
do was to install them. In Baltic States, it is not common to work with pre-
fabricated concrete elements. That is why from steel, in this case, is easier to
use to achieve the results faster, than it would be when using cast in situ
concrete. It also depends on where the concrete manufacturers are situated
because concrete is a very heavy material and the longer the distance to where
the concrete should be delivered to, the more it costs. Main load bearing
constructions are common to be built from fiber blocks, aerated concrete blocks,
bricks or cast in situ concrete.
The more he knows about steel constructions from his own buildings, the more
different opinion he gets about it. He mentioned also some disadvantages. He
says that steel has a high module of elasticity, it means steel is fluctuating all
the time, especially where story partitions are constructed from steel elements,
even though all the beams have been selected higher than calculations required.
It is not comfortable from a human being point of view. He also mentioned that
it is a good feature of steel in other parts of world where there are constant
windstorms or earthquakes but here in Europe, it is sometimes a hampered
factor.
In Eastern Europe countries, it is not jet popular to build sustainable buildings

due to the current economical situation; therefore, it is not in high level and only
approximately 20% of citizens can afford the luxury goods. And sustainable
building is a luxury. Of course he admires the property of steel and supports the
idea of sustainability as much as it is possible, because his company offers the
best glass constructions that fallow all the modern demands and also takes
sustainability into consideration. Concrete and steel prices in Latvia are similar.
What helps to making the final decision between choosing one or the other
material is the time deadline the specific building is ought to be erected before,
and, steel so far has taken the first place.
He emphasizes that steel is an irreplaceable material in case of big spans in the

buildings, but as soon as it is no longer the determining factor and building is
impressive in its scope, reinforced concrete takes the first place in building
industry. From his experience, he says that relatively smaller buildings according
31
to square meters, are more advantageous to build from steel constructions. It is

logical because the smaller the building, the more space we want to save. In this
case, steel properties provide big spans, so it is possible to save energy and
money in addition of the
internal walls.
This graphic which is taken

from RICS Construction
33
Faculty by BCIS ,
relatively shows what size
of building is feasible to
build out of concrete and
what of steel. The same
opinion had both of
engineers, who I took
interviews from, and who
are in contact with steel Figure 18 The choice of the best suitable material, whether it
should be steel or concrete, depends on the floor area
constructions. This picture
directly expresses the properties of both materials.
Both businessmen who are associated with the construction industry of the most
literal sense, said that none of the materials are able to replace one another. At
least they cannot see that kind of possibility. Each one of these materials is
unique with its properties and each has characteristics that describe long-lasting
and sustainability. Vagn H. Jorgensen said that in Denmark concrete is the
mainly used building material and he sees no possibility that steel would possibly
be used more than it has been until now. As they run companies, they absolutely
agree that the main factor in building industry is money; other features are
extras that can still be improved over time.
Denmark is a country where the economic situation is in balance. That is why it

has tools to generate new innovations and start thinking about the
environmental well- being. Thus, creating conditions for new construction and
making itself a leader in the modern building industry. This is a normal
reaction in welfare state. However, a significant number of countries are still
working to develop this idea and sustainability is included in their future plans.
Generally speaking, steel is usually used in buildings where it is a necessity;
otherwise it is regarded as a luxury to meet the requirements of architectural
needs, such as, to get large spans and areas. Concrete is the most common
material for other types of buildings. It is possible to produce it in any country.
Normally every state is making their own market, according to citizen needs.
Another fact that plays a big role is whether the material sales are advantageous
or disadvantageous for countrys economy. In the same way is building up the
industry of sustainability.
33.
http://www.rics.org/site/download_feed.aspx?fileID=2314&fileExtension=PDF
32
8. Conclusion
Writing this report was really important for me because it helped me with
making the right decisions and to argue my own choices related to the project
that I am currently working on.
Previously, I had never been interested in a process of material production and

emissions that are led into the atmosphere because it never made a lot of sense
for me. Now, however, when such a huge significance is placed upon the idea of
sustainability, I wanted to discover what it really stands for. When I started
collecting all the information and finally had a chance to compare CO2 amounts
and how they are divided into sectors, I was unpleasantly surprised. I can
conclude that the meaning of sustainability should more focus on conditions
about materials that are used for buildings, not only talk about technical tools
that help saving the energy, because one does not realize what it takes to
produce them.
In the building industry the 21st century is emerging as era of sustainability. It

is because of the observations and evidence regarding the hazard that humidity
has caused to the nature. To prevent this, attention has to be paid to reducing
CO2 emissions into the environment for various reasons. Great attention should
also be paid to building materials used in the building industry, as so many of
them in a direct way make up the percentage of these emissions. Sustainable
buildings are a part of the case of environmental improvement. They are built to
reduce man-made damage to the nature. Meaning, materials should be
produced by practicing the least harmless production methods possible. Such
buildings are a necessity and first step toward promoting sustainable production
in construction sector, saving energy, and ensuring a higher comfort level for
citizens. These conditions together can help to ensure the future for us, and,
more importantly - for our next generations.
Biggest manufacturers are trying to improve the way of how materials are
produced. New solutions have shown good results, thus making steel more
environmentally friendly. After having done my research, I realized that concrete
manufacturing process creates as much CO2 emissions, as in the production of
steel. While, previously it was believed that concrete is more eco-friendly.
Disadvantage for steel is that it is produced from non-renewable resources. Even
though the aggregates for concrete also come from natural resources, I believed
that everything that is consumed from nature is being depleted. It leaves one
with the fact that only the quantities of steel raw material extractions are known.
Strong characteristic of sustainability is recycling which is a unique property for

steel. Comparing with concrete that has an unknown reaction after demolishing,
steel has its singular characteristics that make it possible for it to be recycled
over and over again without losing any of its properties. No material has
33
properties that would work for all kinds of damages or natures impacts. It was
important to mention these weaknesses and describe how they can be improved.
Sustainability consists of improved building components and mechanisms. It
means that the materials should not have perfect properties to be a part of
sustainable buildings. Main disadvantages for steel are low resistance to fire and
corrosion unless it is sufficiently protected. In the same time, concrete is strong
enough even in both cases, and is built so that it fulfills the building regulations.
Sustainability is not yet a requirement for new houses. Up until now, it has taken
a lot of investments but is still not seen as a necessity for all buildings. For well-
resourced and prosperous countries, sustainability goes on top of the list for the
clients wishes; however, not so secured governmental countries are still
postponing this idea for the future. Despite of that, both of my interviewees
recognized that the main factor of building and what everything comes down to
is its cost. Although Denmark has sufficient funds to develop the idea of
sustainability and has big investments for developing this project even further,
people are still choosing to build cheaper houses. Undeniable is the fact that
sustainable building requires a large investment. The choice of materials
depends on building type, area, design and plot properties. The conclusion that I
have come up with, according to my research, is that buildings that are
relatively small but has a necessity for large areas-which means big spans,
larger premises, and less internal walls, are typically office buildings, hangars
and garages.
In conclusion, I must say that both materials steel and concrete have
properties that fulfill requirements for sustainability. For steel it is recyclability
and rapid mounting speed of the construction that helps to save money, time
and the energy. For concrete it is its competitive price comparing with steel, its
resistance to environmental impacts, and its low thermal transmittance that
helps saving the cost for heating. Both of these materials are sustainable enough
when used for a building that requires them architecturally, as well if they are
used in the correct way. The matter of which material is more sustainable
depends of the specific situation. In conclusion, I can say that both of these
materials are sustainable and are definitely a part of future buildings.
For the future generations, I think, it would be beneficial to challenge the idea of
sustainability even further and, hopefully, discover a way of how to recycle
almost all of the materials used in the building industry. All the information that
I gathered while writing my final dissertation has extended my view on a lot of
things, and together with the extensive amount of knowledge that I have
gained, I see myself to become a better specialist in my work field.
34
9. List of figures
Figure 1 Processes including in sustainable design.......................................... 6

Figure 2 CO2 intensity of the US steel industry .............................................. 7
Figure 3 Cement production effect of CO2 intensity ........................................ 8
Figure 4 The scrap to steel billet process ..................................................... 10
Figure 5 Schematic drawing for the Total recycling process of concrete ........... 11
Figure 6 Development of a new recycling process of fine aggregate from waste
concrete using carbon dioxide ........................................................ 11
Figure 7 Rusted surface of aluminium beam ................................................ 15
Figure 8 Corroded bolt .............................................................................. 15
Figure 9 Applying a paint material through hot melt coating using the airless
spraying method .......................................................................... 16
Figure 10 Hot-dip galvanizing process......................................................... 16
Figure 11 Compartment following fire ......................................................... 19
Figure 12 Squashed column which wasnt protected in full height ................... 19
Figure 13 Reinforced concrete beam before fire ........................................... 20
Figure 14 Reinforced concrete after the damage caused by fire ..................... 20
Figure 15 Producer price indices competitive building materials: steel, asphalt,
concrete, lumber ...................................................................................... 22
Figure 16 Wall connections with storey partitions. Comparing concrete and steel
............................................................................................................. 28
Figure 17 Cross section of Office building .................................................... 29
Figure 18 The choice of the best suitable material, whether it should be steel or
concrete, depends on the floor area .............................................. 32
35
10. List of references
Internet:
1. http://www.rockwool.com/energy+efficiency/climate+change
19 September 2011
2. http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/article/news/36966
19 September 2011
3. http://www.recycle-steel.org/en/Sustainability
20 September 2011
4. http://www.eco-serve.net/publish/cat_index_69.shtml
29 September 2011
5. http://www.ecosmartconcrete.com/enviro_cement.cfm
29 September 2011
6. http://www.pondarmor.com/blog/?p=12
29 September 2011
7. http://www.gh-construction.co.uk/news/steel-framed-buildings-eco-friendly/
11 October 2011
8. http://www.building.co.uk/data/whole-life-costs-concrete-vs-steel/3069406.article
11 October 2011
9. http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/file_source/StaticFiles/Construction/Library/sust
ainable%20steel%20construction.pdf
11 October 2011
10. http://www.livingsteel.org/sustainability-4
11 October 2011
11. http://www.reidsteel.com/environmentally-friendly-steel-buildings.htm
11 October 2011
12. http://www.farwestfibers.com/Products-and-Services/Metal.html
11 October 2011
13. http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/Metals_Recycling_Rates_Sum
mary.pdf
11 October 2011
14. http://earth911.com/recycling/metal/steel/facts-about-steel-recycling/
11 October 2011
15. http://www.concretethinker.com/solutions/Recyclable.aspx
18 October 2011
16. http://www.eco-serve.net/publish/cat_index_78.shtml
18 October 2011
17. http://www.cadman.com/section.asp?pageid=3162
19 October 2011
18. http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/corrincon.htm
19 October 2011
19. http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~paulmont/241/Reports_04/Fire_pp.pdf
26 October 2011
20. http://www.structuraldesigns.com.au/FAQs/Concrete/Fire%20damaged%20concrete.h
tm
26 October 2011
21. http://188.93.152.242/pictures/publicationfiles/WSIF_2011.pdf
27 October 2011
22. http://www.buildings.com/Default.aspx?TabId=3321&ArticleID=2511
2 November 2011
23. http://www.metal-steel-buildings.com/office-buildings.html
2 November 2011
36
24. http://195.210.48.207/english/business_and_politics/economic_and_trade_policy/stee
l_in_figures/start.asp
3 November 2011
25. http://international.arcelormittal-construction.ch/downloads/green_building.pdf
3 November 2011
26. http://www.aist.org/education/Life_of_Steel.pdf
4 November 2011
27. http://www.csisteelbuildings.com/green-steel-buildings.php
6 November 2011
28. http://www.rics.org/site/download_feed.aspx?fileID=2314&fileExtension=PDF
8 November 2011
29. http://greensource.construction.com/news/2010/100908concrete_versus_steel.asp
9 November 2011
30. http://www.archinode.com/lcasteel.html
9 November 2011
31. http://188.93.152.242/pictures/publicationfiles/WSIF_2011.pdf
16 November 2011
Books:
1. Sustainability of construction materials, Jamal M. Khatib, 2009, page 120, 138

2. Materials for sustainable sites Meg Calkins, Leed AP, 2009, page 328, 332
3. Concrete - design, construction, examples Martin Peck, 2006, page 9
4. Building with steel , A. Reichel, P. Ackermann, A. Hentschel, A. Hochberg,
2007, page 71, 72, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84
5. Fire technical examples Danish Institute of Fire and Security Technology -
(DIFT), 2000, page 8
6. Concrete reinforcement corrosion from assessment to repair decisions Peter
Pullar-Strecker, Institution of Civil Engineers, 2002
Illustrations:
1. http://www.hawkridgesys.com/products/sustainability/
(Figure 1)
2. http://www.recycle-steel.org/en/Sustainability/CO2%20Reduction.aspx
(Figure 2)
3. http://www.concretethinker.com/technicalbrief/Concrete-Cement-CO2.aspx
(Figure 3)
4. http://www.pacificsteel.co.nz/process
(Figure 4)
5. http://www.yy.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp/eg/graduated/graduatedstudy2005.html
(Figure 5;6)
6. http://www.citizenarcane.com/index.php/archives/category/crime-criminals/
(Figure 7)
7. http://www.superstock.com/stock-photography/Rusted+Steel
(Figure 8)
8. http://www.frijnsqatar.com/strengths/blasting.html
(Figure 9)
9. http://www.frontlinesteel.com/manufacturing.aspx
(Figure 10)
37
10. http://911research.wtc7.net/mirrors/guardian2/fire/SCI.htm
(Figure 11;12)
11. http://dcnonl.com/article/20070323150
(Figure 13;14)
12. http://www.concreteiron.com/classifieds/uploaded/articles/April__PPI_Steel_Prices_Co
ntinue_Climb.html
(Figure 15)
13. Figure 16 and 17 is taken from personal drawings
14. http://www.rics.org/site/download_feed.aspx?fileID=2314&fileExtension=PDF
(Figure 18)
38
11. Appendix
Questions which were asked in the interviews with Andris Liepins (Latvia) and
Vagn H. Jorgensen (Denmark).
1. Name, profession, companys name where is working now.

2. How long you are working in the building industry?
3. What building have you designed till now?
4. How it is happening in the real life usually building elements are
delivered to building site like pre-fabricated elements?
5. What factors determine that building should be built either of steel or
concrete?
6. Which are the main advantages and disadvantages for steel and concrete?
7. What are the main difficulties working with these materials?
8. What kind of covering system of building is usually used for steel
construction buildings? (Double walls, panels etc?)
9. How you can compare steel and concrete if we are speaking about price?
10. Your viewpoint if steel and concrete are sustainable materials.
11. Looking after your experience, your opinion if steel can displace
concrete in the future? How about Denmark/Latvia?
12. Which is the main factor in building industry? (time, money, energy
saving or sustainability?)
*Interviews were based on these questions. Taking into account the limit of report and the amount
of information which I got from the interviews, not all answers are included. There is placed the
main information, which is coming from the most meaningful replies.
39

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Bachelor of Architectural Technology and

7th semester disseratation

SUSTAINABILITY OF STEEL AND CONCRETE

ILZE LIEPINA CAHS71P

VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Bachelor of Architectural Technology and Construction Management

Elective Subject (7th semester Dissertation)

SUSTAINABILITY OF STEEL AND CONCRETE

Consultant: Henrik Jansson

Author: Ilze Liepina (143924)CAHS71P

VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Horsens Campus, Denmark

Number of copies: 2 copies, 2 CD

This report examines steel and concrete as sustainable materials of building

Key words: Sustainable materials, concrete, steel constructions, recycling, CO2

Report is written according to primary and secondary researches, which mainly

Secondary research was based on interviews and my current project. After

Title page ............................................................................................................................................. 1

Steel as a building material has unimaginable properties to realize almost all

How I understand the meaning of sustainability: For me it means long-lasting

PROBLEM STATEMENT: Which material is most sustainable - steel or concrete?

1. Why it is important to build sustainable buildings?

2. What effect steel and concrete pose on environment?

3. Which properties make them sustainable and what disadvantages should

Figure 1 Processes including in sustainable design

3.1 Climate changes

Europe Union member states in collaboration with the World Meteorological

By Canadian engineers is found that steel

Concrete composed of 70-75% of the various components - (6% air; 11%

One of the main ingredients of concrete is portland cement. To produce 1 kg of

Concrete is a commonly used construction material. Its primary constituent is

Especially in Nordic countries is being

Both, metal and concrete

It would be a perfect solution to reduce CO2 with building material recycling.

Waste amount of demolished houses in Europe is huge and still continues to

Recycling is at the heart of any sustainable design undertaking and the

4. Properties of steel and concrete

Looking from my point of view as a constructing architect, I can say that it is

4.1 Stainless steel

To produce stainless steel it takes 60 % more energy than to produce carbon

Maximum content of sulphur and phosphorus in stainless steel is 0,035%. DIN

During transportation and storage, surface of the material should be covered

4.2 Corrosion protection

To avoid corrosion, it is important to remember that

In process of corrosion, carbon steel expands. That is Figure 7 Rusted surface of

If talking about bolts and screws there are plastic

4.2.1 Paint system

For protection of corrosion, it is also possible to use painting systems. Painting is

4.2.2 Hot-dip galvanizing

Hot-dip galvanizing is a corrosion protection

can be much more resistant to wear scratches. Compared to the painting

4.2.3 Duplex systems

It is a metallic coating that consists of hot-dip galvanizing and painting in the

Costs depend on the maintenance and repair prices. It is important to think

Steel provides tensile properties in concrete constructions.23 Without that,

Steel construction takes such strengths as tension and compression. Concrete

If there is found a crack in reinforced concrete construction and it is situated in

4.3 Fire protection

Fire protection serves to avoid or prevent

Concrete fire resistance is influenced by tensile strength, moisture content,

Above 400oC concrete becomes weaker. The damage is determined by the

It is more difficult with steel. Column made of

From my point of view, to completely finish, for

From my interview with Vagn H. Jorgensen (education - blacksmith, now adm.

6. Steel comparing with concrete