Ore Body Modelling

A Discussion on 3D Geology and Resource

Estimation

1. Introduction
University of Queensland
Earth Sciences
ERTH7002 - Ore Body Modelling

M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Introduction
AIMS OF THE STUDY

Role of the Resource Geologist

COLLECT AVAILABLE DATA
Objectives of the Model
DATA DISTRIBUTION & STATISTICS
Tools of the Trade
MODEL GEOLOGY
Different Deposit Styles MODEL PHYSICAL CONSTRAINTS

Geology Concept Model DETERMINE MODEL EXTENTS

Database GLOBAL ESTIMATION

Models of Surfaces SELECT DATA

Block Models VARIOGRAPHY DATA STATISTICS

Estimation DOMAINS

Validation BLOCK MODEL SETUP

BLOCK MODEL
Reporting
VALIDATION

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 Course Timetable
Unit Title Main topics Presenters Date
1 Introduction Course framework, assessment, objectives, Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 21-Jul
deposit types, model types, data types: Surpac & Mike James
"Introduction" part 1
2 Mining Software Introduction to software, abilities and limitations: Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 28-Jul
Surpac "Introduction" part 2 & Mike James
3 Data, QAQC, Types Data types, review, quality, validation, QA/QC, Resource & Exploration 4-Aug
GIS, MSAccess DBS, fact vs. interp, soft data: Mapping
Surpac "Geological Database" part 1
4 Data Sets, 3 examples Introduce 3 training sets, examine differences in Andrew Vigar & Mike 11-Aug
data and approach: Surpac "Geological James
Database" part 2
5 Data Stats Basic statistics, spatial analysis, populations: Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 18-Aug
Surpac "Geostatistics" part 1 & Mike James
6 Modeling Surfaces uses, limitations, interpretation, sections, Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 25-Aug
examples: Surpac "Solids" & Mike James
7 Block Models and types types, uses, validation, estimation: Surpac Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 1-Sep
"Block Model" & Mike James
8 Numerical Modelling methods, theory, variograms, domains, search Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 8-Sep
para., simulations: Surpac "Geostatistics" part 2 & Mike James
9 Cut-off grades and optimisation cut-off grades, optimisation, whittle: Surpac "pit Gerald Whittle 15-Sep
optimiser"
10 Reporting and Confidence reporting, JORC & NI43-101, confidence, ranges Alice Clarke & David Jones 22-Sep
11 Financial models, studies, risk Financial methods, study types, risk, confidence Robin Polson 6-Oct
12 Final Report Review work to date, prepare final report Andrew Vigar & Mark 13-Oct
Noppe
13 Feedback & Advanced Topics Present final results, review and discuss, Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe 20-Oct
advanced topics & Mike James

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 Participants
Mining Associates

Consulting Geologists and Engineers

Andrew Vigar, Mark Noppe, David Jones and the team
Gemcom Surpac

Geology and Mining Software

Mike James and team
Resource and Exploration Mapping
Whittle Consulting Gerald Whittle
Alice Clarke Consultant and member of the JORC Committee
Deloitte Robin Polson

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 Assessment
Made up in 3 parts, 2 exercises and a
final report.
Working in pairs, but individual
assessment.
Exercise 1 Data and Data Analysis
following unit 5, to be presented by the
start of unit 6 15%
Exercise 2 Resource Estimation -
following unit 10, to be presented by the
start of unit 11 15%
Final Report A full resource estimation
report, to be presented using the NI43-
101 format provided, to be presented by
Friday 17 October, feedback unit 13
70%

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 Computers - Integrated Approach

0.14

PROBABILITY
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
17.7

26.6

35.5

44.5

53.4

62.4

71.6

80.3
8.8
1

Values in A$ Millions

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 Multiple Data Types
BLOCK MODELS

SOLIDS MODELS
DRILLHOLE DATABASES
ELECTRONIC DATA
Lithology Assay
TOPOGRAPHY

Structure
LINE DATA
Alteration
MAPS AND SECTIONS

HYDROLOGY
Geotechnical

Qualitative

Density

FIELD NOTES POINT DATABASES

SURFACE MODELS
Domaining
POLYGON DATA

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 Role of the Resource Geologist
Geology must be quantified before it can be meaningful used in
the mining design and production process.
The quantification is anathema to the exploration geologist,
who is interested in the genesis of deposits and the workings of
nature involved in their formation and distribution.
Such esoteric concepts are foreign to the mining engineer and
banker, who are interested in production rates and Net Present
Value (NPV).
It is the role of the Resource Geologist to bridge this gap and
build a model of actuality based on sound concepts that will
provide the framework for the calculations of the engineer and
the banker.

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 Conceptual Models
Underlying conceptual model are the key.
A clear understanding of the style of mineralisation being
examined and its characteristics, as based on collected
information from the deposit itself and from comparison with
other similar better known systems.
This is the foundation upon which all that follows will be built.
This does not of course preclude the introduction of new ideas
and concepts at a latter date with possible revision of the
concept model, in the true scientific process of hypothesis and
testing.

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 Model Components
The model is made up of two parts
1. a series of geological surfaces that may represent boundaries
between different geological domains, or actual surfaces such
as faults and unconformities.
2. A series of volumes, often defined by the surfaces, within
which the spatial distribution of a particular feature is
described.

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 Model is live
The model will be revised and amended many times during its
life as more data becomes available, each being a snap shot
of an unknown reality at various stages of the process from
exploration to mine closure.
The accuracy of this interpretation depends on the quantity and
quality of the input data, the ability of the tools being used to
model reality and the skill of the practitioner.

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 Team Approach
A number of specialists will be involved in this process,
including the structural geologist, alteration & mineralogy
specialist, metallurgist, environmental chemist, engineer.
The input and requirements of all these professionals must be
incorporated into the models.

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 Tools of the Trade
We are very fortunate in having a wide range of very powerful
data processing tools available.
It is possible for a single individual to achieve what would have
taken whole team weeks, and with greater flexibility.
The objective is using these tools with skill and application.
Examine tools available to the practitioner, their uses, strengths
and weaknesses, and then look at some examples of how they
are applied in practise.

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 Common Sense
Both manual and computer based skills should be used, along
with a large dose of Common Sense.
Validation an area often sadly overlooked but strongly linked
to the use of Common Sense. Many hours, even days, can be
spent in detailed modelling when a little perceptive would have
shown that the tools being used, or their application, was at
variance with the underlying geology and/or the result
expected.

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 Model Styles
The changing nature of the underlying deposit geology and
mining requirements, however, leads to a different emphasis in
the use of tools with each style.
We have divided deposits into 3 main groups for the purposes
of modelling

Layered

Vein

Disseminated styles.
The table below examines these differences in emphasis using
three groups of deposit styles
based on one that appeared in Duke & Hanna 1997.

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 Deposit Styles
Layered Vein Disseminated

Much smaller extent in
Much smaller extent in one
Equi-dimensional

one direction (generally direction (generally width)
Diffuse boundaries
Z)
Sharp external but difficult
Alteration overprint is

Sharp boundaries between internal boundaries the ore, multi phase
layers
Open space fill is the ore (minor with complex

Rock is the ore, single alteration halo), consecutive overprints
phase phases

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 Examples
Layered Vein Disseminated

Lateritic ores (nickel,
Precious metal veins
Porphyry copper/gold

bauxite)
Tin veins
Disseminated gold

Sedimentary ores (lead, zinc,
High grade base metal & nickel
iron, coal) veins

Segregated ores (nickel,
Skarns
platinoids)

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 Data Characteristics
Layered Vein Disseminated

Sampling by layer
Sample within vein only
Continuous sampling

Holes vertical & wide spaced
Holes closer (10s m) but erratic, with long intercepts
(100s m) survey important
Holes wide (100s m) but

Limited surface data
Assays highly variable various orientations

Often have geophysics
Low concentration of valuable
Good surface data

High concentration of element (ppm)
Moderate concentrations
valuable element (%)
Skewed & mixed populations of valuable elements

Single population (fractions of %)

Normal populations

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 Data Continuity Variography
Layered Vein Disseminated

Good along layers (typically
Moderate along vein (10s m) and
Good continuity
100s m), poor or nil across( ms)
between layers

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 Domaining
Layered Vein Disseminated

Sharp vertical contacts
Sharp external boundaries but
Diffuse definition of

Gridded models with complex internal mixing of ore and concentric domains based
contacts and thickness waste on cut-off grade and

Flat to shallow dips (10o)
Vein outlines, vein splits, faulting geology

May be small scale faults
Barren late intrusive

Lateral facies changes phases and high grade
sheeted vein areas.

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 Interpretation Focus
Layered Vein Disseminated

Fault definition often aided
Grade and thickness variations
Definition of cut-off
by soft data magnetics,
Very high grade shoots zones
landsat, air photos
Extreme grade outliers
Higher grade areas

Facies pinch outs
Structural control of shoots
Characterising grade

Weathering profiles distribution in the higher

Erosion, younger units (eg grade sheeted veins
intrusives)

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 Grade Modelling
Layered Vein Disseminated

Major elements, impurities,
Mixed populations
Extreme values, often use

moisture, density
Extreme values, often use top cuts top cuts

Shoots
Use soft boundaries with

Density data overlap

Problems, eg arsenic

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 Bulk Density
Layered Vein Disseminated

Uniform
Local variations, particularly if
Uniform

Low (coal, laterites) high grade is associated with
Average (2.6 to 2.7)

High (iron ore, base metals) sulphides

Average (2.7 to 2.8)

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 Mining
Layered Vein Disseminated

Geotech
Minimum mining width
Very large tonnages but

Ground water
Internal & external dilution low grades susceptible to

Small scale faults
Wall rock behaviour metal price variations

Faulting

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 Environmental
Layered Vein Disseminated

Large areas surface
Small surface disturbance good
Large areas surface
disturbance in highly populated areas disturbance that will be

Maximum area open at
Mine water disposal heavy permanently altered
any one time metals, sulphur, acids, arsenic
Acid generating mine &

Surface water run-off
Cyanide in tailings waste rock

Rehabilitation
Mine water disposal
heavy metals, sulphur,
acids, arsenic

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 Choose the best style
The process of determining the mineralisation style appropriate
for your deposit is the very first step.
The exploration effort that discovered the deposit was likely
targeted at a particular group of deposit styles expected within
that area. Even so, the scientific process will be followed with
the hypothesis being tested and revised by further work, the
practitioner should always keep an open mind.

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 Style factors
The modelling process involved will vary with the geological
environment, eg a coal deposit will be somewhat different to a
vein gold deposit.
The style selected should be based on an understanding of
these key points

The regional geological setting

The overall alteration and structural patterns

Detailed surface mapping of lithology, structure & alteration

Evidence from drill samples

A thorough Research of similar better known deposits.

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 Physical Dimensions
The selection of a particular style for your deposit will imply
that a range of physical dimensions is to be expected, based on
experience from other similar deposits.
This can be of assistance from several different directions

Guide exploration for additional resources

Indicate if further drilling at depth or along strike is warranted

Limits and dimensions for detailed modelling

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 Geological Controls
A detailed understanding of the geological controls on the
mineralisation is essential to ensure that the models
incorporate the key factors.
The geological processes involved in the formation of the
deposit and how they acted locally.
The controls will vary depending on the deposit style. These
will include consideration of

Structure

Host rocks

Alteration

Mineralisation

Weathering

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 Geological Controls (cont.)
How these elements have interacted locally to produce the
deposit will give an indication of how the model framework is
to be constructed. The timing of events is also important.
A number of controlling surfaces will be modelled based on this
understanding of what form these may take. This is the
Geology Modelling step of the process.

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 Internal Structure
The Internal Structure refers to how the deposit is expected to
behave between the controlling surfaces.
This is generally achieved by using a 3D grid of points with the
value at each point estimated mathematically from a number of
known points.
This estimation process needs to be related to a fundamental
understanding of the geological processes.

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 Constructing the Model
The model is a concept, or series of concepts, rather an actual
physical wire-frame or block model.
A plan or section with the actual data upon which the
interpretation of events and expected controls on
mineralisation, and its internal structure, are drawn is a good
aid in this process.
The model consists of a description of a series of events that
created the deposit, an expectation of the deposits general
form and structure and a discussion of the most suitable
methods to be employed in estimation.

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 Geology Concept Model
Seek to explain the following points.

Formation and nature of the host rocks.

Style of mineralisation

Controls on mineralisation

Internal structure and variation within the mineralisation

Timing of events

Effects of recent events, eg faulting and weathering

Response to, and effectiveness of, mapping, sampling and geophysics

Estimation methods that would be suitable

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 Database objectives
The objective of creating a database on a project is so that a
large amount of often very detailed information can be
collected from a variety of sources and displayed and
interpreted together.
A secondary, and no less important task, is the storage of this
interpretation so that others will have the benefit of our
insights.
The first we may refer to as just data, the latter is knowledge.
Systems exist to effectively handle masses of data, but
knowledge is more of a problem as we are introducing the
human element of interpretation in a big way. Interpretations,
that is knowledge, will change with time whilst the data upon
which they are based will not.

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 Data is not knowledge
The Knowledge on a mineral project will consist of the
interpretation of the data made by a skilled and experienced
team. This is in the form of

Hard copy sections and plans upon which the key geological features
were interpreted.

3D objects either as digitised lines on plans and sections or as 3D
interpreted objects with drill intercepts coded into an interpretation table
in the original database and/or direct interpretation from the raw data in
3D space.
The data is important, but it is Knowledge that is the most
valuable.

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 Data formats
The data collected on a project needs to be stored in an
appropriate form for the modelling process
Criteria Original Appropriate Form Usage

Notes on plans
Point data
Interpretion of key units
Surface mapping
Traces key features
Lines and mineralisation controls

Domain boundaries

Location and geology on
Point data
Input to grade estimation
Surface data maps, assays in database

Down-hole geology
Points, or intervals with point at
Domain boundaries
Drill logs
Down-hole geotech each end

Lab results
Point data
Input to grade estimation
Drill assays

Digital Magsus, density,
Points
Domains
Drill probes units, domains

Traces key features
Lines
Domain boundaries
Airphoto/satellite

Interpreted units
Point or lines
Domain boundaries
Geophysics

Prints
Digital
Interpretation
Photographs
Geotechnical

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 Data quality
The practitioner needs to have information on the quality of the
information being used in the modelling process. This is
necessary so that value judgements can be made when
different pieces of data are in conflict and to judge the quality
of the final product.
Analysis data has quality readily available, with information on
the laboratory and technique used. The efficacy of this data
can be judged from comparison with other laboratories using
duplicates, checks and standard samples.
Geological data quality should also be assessed based on past
experience of the team who collected the original information.
This is, of course, qualitative.

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 Validation
The information stored in the database needs to be validated
against the original, a reality check is needed from time to
time. Where a conflict arises, the practitioner will have make a
judgement and selection and this should be clearly documented
with explanation as to the reasoning behind the selection.
Suspect data should quarantined from the modelling process.
Analysis data should be checked against the original laboratory
sheets. The laboratory compared using repeat, duplicate and
standard samples.
The standard of the geological data should be confirmed with
selected re-mapping/re-logging and selected detailed
examination via the microscope or laboratory.

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 Fact & Interpretation
A clear distinction must be maintained in the database between
fact and interpretation. This is particularly the case with
geology data. There has been a trend in recent years to even
name alteration after the minerals present rather than generic
names for particular expected assemblages - a clear distinction
between fact and interpretation.
Major geological domain boundaries are clearly an
interpretation. As such, they can be expected to change with
the practitioner and available data.

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 Full data descriptions
We are working with increasing amounts of data and abilities to
collect ever-larger amounts with remote means.
A trend has developed to code geology in particular to make
the processing of these data more efficient for the computer.
Detailed descriptions that have been recorded by competent
geologists, in particular fine details or anomalies that do not fit
the system, are discarded. This information can be invaluable
in making an interpretation later on and should be stored along
with the brief coded summary

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 Non-geological data
Interpretation of domain boundaries can be aided by the use of
geophysical measurements. These can be indirect methods
such as IP, TEM or magnetics or direct measurements such as
magsus, density or infared.
Direct data can be used as for any digital information. Indirect
methods can help to define the position of a contact some
distance from hard data, such as at depth between drill holes.
The positions of domain boundaries can sometimes be
determined from remotely sensed data. The position is
digitised onto a plan and incorporated into the domain
boundary as a line.

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 Knowledge capture
A great deal of time and effort is put into the generation of a
geological model.
The interpretation will change with the practitioner and
available data. The interpretation is a snap shot of the
understanding at a particular point in time. The background
should be retained along with the interpretation, usually in the
form of a report.
All relevant data should be stored along with the interpretation
and thinking behind it much in the form of computer back
up.

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 Example drill-hole database
A MSAccess Database containing drill hole information directly
linked to the Computer Modelling System allowing raw
interpretation data to be stored and accessed directly.

Collar Table - drill hole number and collar position. Field called purpose
contains the code resource for holes that were to be used for resource
calculations. Other fields are prospect, drill hole type, date drilled, drill
company, hole status.

Survey Table - down hole survey positions and measurements.

Lithology Table - geological information. Fields for major and minor geological
units.

Alteration Table alteration minerals logged down the hole.

Structures Table intervals at structures their orientations.

Petrology Table selected samples using the same format as the Lithology and
Alteration tables.

Assay Table - analysis results for Au and minor elements.

Geotechnical Table core recovery and geotechnical data such as hardness,
RQD, density.

Ore Table - down hole intervals with codes for which reef and split a particular
interval has been allocated to. Fields are for coded for geological interpretation.

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 Modelling Surfaces
The basic method for the modelling of geological features is as
a series of boundaries that represent the limits of the feature
and/or the boundary between two different features. These
may be an open surface or enclosed to define an area or
volume. The enclosed space is known as a Domain.
It is possible, and indeed often desirable, for the surfaces pass
through each other and thereby mimic the complex interplay of
features seen in nature. A simple group of surfaces which
define a fault, alteration envelope cross cutting the host units
may lead to a complex pattern of high grade shoots.

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 Types of boundaries
Some definitions that will be used to define these boundaries
are given below
Name Definition Attributes Usage

Single point with 3D position in space and
One dimensional
Geological observation, analysis
Point attached data
XYZ of point result, geotechnical data or
measurement

Connects a series of points
Two dimensional
Geological contacts, faults, grade
Line
Representing continuity of a particular
Position along line boundaries, stress lines, isopachs,
feature
Has a length geophysical

Closed line
Two dimensional
Geological units, areas above
Polygon
Encloses an area of a particular feature
Has a perimeter length grade, geotechnical domains
and an enclosed area

Connects lines and points
Three dimensional
Geological contacts, faults, grade
Surface
Representing surface of a particular feature
Has a perimeter length boundaries, geotechnical domains
and surface area

Defines a volume in space
Three dimensional
Geological units, grade and
Solid
Representing volume of a particular feature
Has a surface area and geotechnical domains
enclosed volume

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 Uses of Surfaces
Many geological types can be modelled using domains, a few
are given in the table below.
Model Purpose Form Comments

Faults
Polygon, Surface
The fault surface defines the expected 3D position in space
Structure
Veins
Polygon, Surface, Solid of a fault.

A vein can be defined as a surface or a solid depending on
the data available and the complexity required of the end
product.

Unit boundaries
Polygon, Surface, Solid
The host lithology can be defined either as surfaces
Lithology
Facies changes
Solid separating different units or solids defining the unit itself.



Envelopes
Solid
The alteration zones can be defined, either as concentric
Alteration zones or as areas dominated by a particular alteration
mineral.



Domains
Solid

Grade

Domains
Solid

Geotech

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 Use of Plans and Sections
The original method of interpretation of data was via a series of plans and
sections of the ore body, generally on orthogonal axes. The mapping and
sampling was plotted by hand and interpreted in pencil using overlays.
The geological boundaries were defined by projecting all the data that lay
within the section range onto the section plane and interpreting their
position between the know points using the artistic skills of the practitioner.
The result was generally a series of lines defining the trace of important
faults and ore veins and polygons defining the host lithology.
Long sections were used to define vein deposits, and plans for layered
deposits. Polygons were again used to define ore areas, with tonnage and
grade estimated within the polygon. Corrections were made for thickness
where the feature was not exactly flat.
There are many simple computer systems that still employ this method, and
the GIS data systems employ a more sophisticated digital version working in
plan view.
The method has the advantage of simplicity of use and data processing.

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 Computer models
The newer computer systems allow the creation of surfaces in
3D space, but are essentially an extension of the polygon
system to surfaces and solids.
The models are created using point data, mainly from drill
holes, combined with lines from mapping of surface or
underground. The models may be smoothed by the
introduction of grids with interpreted points between the hard
data points. Lines are generally used as break lines.

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 Types & Uses of Block Models
A number of types to be discussed in forum session

Block Models

Seam Models
Cell has variable height

Whittle following Layer B

Geology models

Using Block Models
Cell has fixed height but contains
22% layer A and 78% layer B

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 Reporting & Confidence
Measures
Precision
Risk
JORC
Valmin
Audit & Review

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 Validation
Plan and section
3D examination
Mathematical comparisons
Against original data
Against Known model/ past production
Against Global Estimates
Common Sense

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 Model Applications
Model Purpose is Paramount
Exploration
Resources
Grade Control
Reconciliation
Financial
Risk
Geotechnical
Environmental
Ore Characterisation for Mine and Mill

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 Ore Genesis

Detailed modelling of the

lithology, alteration and structure N

of mineralisation will identify the

major controlling factors in ore
localisation and point to the
probable sources and processes
responsible

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 Exploration targeting

The primary factors in

mineralisation controls and provide
lithological and structural vectors
for successful exploration to
increase resource base or identify
new target areas

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 Resource and reserve estimation

Concurrent geological modelling

and statistical interpolation means
greater influence of geological
factors into ore calculations
providing for mineralogical,
lithological and structural domains

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Geotechnical assessment

Integration of geotechnical
parameters into the geology and
resource models provides more
precise delineation of mechanical
domains for optimising and planning
support systems

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Optimization & Characterization

Mineralogical and geomechanical

properties in the geology model
can be integrated into mine
scheduling to assign metallurgical
processing parameters to selected
resource domains

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Mine Planning

Modelling creates lithological and

structural domains that can be
drawn or tabulated to assist in
determining excavation stability
and costing for mine opening
geometry

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Example Mineral Sands
Information is stored databases, modelling package uses direct access.
A clear distinction is held in the computer database system for each project
area with sub-directories for GIS data, drill hole information, data imports,
infrastructure, macros, models, planning, plots, spreadsheets, rehabilitation,
stockpiles and topography.
Seam model
The calculation of cut off grades and therefore the base of the mineralised
horizon was done using a complex programmed spreadsheet on a hole by
hole basis.

tbo
tbo

eo
bo bo
bo eo

bo codes = wf A
bo & eo codes = wfbobo
B
lower of wf A or B = current DTM
actual base of economic mineralisation

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 Beaconsfield vein gold deposit
Typical mesothermal vein style gold deposit,
average 15 g/tAu.
Gold is in multiple narrow (average 2.7m)
veins.
The resource estimates were based entirely on
drill data.
Modelled as five mutually exclusive
wireframes, with block grades and densities.
The key feature of this style of mineralisation
is that reef continuity can be confirmed by
drilling to a high level of confidence, but the
gold grades are somewhat more erratic in
nature.

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 VHMS Copper Deposit
Integrated team developed Vigar, Brisbane, October 1997

3D geological model of Fault zone

controls and development of

mineralisation Massive Zinc lens
sulphide
chalcopyrite rich massive
pyrite body that is Semi-
approximately 50mx175m in sulphide
massive
1.8-4.5
plan and 150m in vertical 4.5-9
Cu%

extent Cu% >9

Zinc lens Cu%
Volcaniclastics & sediments
Massive volcanics

50 metres

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M I N I N G ASSOCIATES
 VHMS Copper Deposit (cont.)
Two geological units, the
semi massive (smpy) and Copper Grade Legend
Block model vertical slices on section,
massive sulphide (mpy)
Blue 0 to 1.8 %
Green 1.8 to 4.5 coloured for copper grade % with section northing
Yellow 4.5 to 9
Red >9 % Cu

units, were modeled as *1 Colours approx. only

*2 Only blocks inside 1.8%
envelope are shown
10150
10162.5
10175 10187.5
closed wireframe solids 10062.5
10075
10087.5
10087.5
10112.5
10125
10137.5

10100
whilst the base of the 10050

volcaniclastic unit was

modeled as a wireframe 10037.5

surface.
Block model for grades and
Solid wireframe enclosing
bulk density UP
suphides >9% copper
Outline of semi-massive
W
pyrite envelope
N SOUTH CENTRAL NORTH from drillholes
LENS LENS LENS
E
Vigar, Brisbane, October 1997

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 Further Reading
Clark, I, 1979. Practical Geostatistics, (McGraw Hill, New York).
David, M, 1977. Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, 364p,
(Elsiever Press).
Isaaks, E H and Srivastava, R M, 1989. Introduction to Applied
Geostatistics, 561p (Oxford Press).
Journel, A G, 1978. Mining Geostatistics, 760p (Academic Press,
London).
Edwards, A.C. (editor), 2001. Mineral Resource and Ore
Reserve Estimation The AusIMM Guide to Good Practice,
AusIMM Monograph 23, Melbourne.

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