2: Kinematic Equations

Considering the UAV as a rigid body, the standard kinematic equations will be used. Due
to the scope of this analysis, the Flat-Earth model equations will be used, instead of
a round Earth (eg WGS-84 model). This option was made since the intended UAV area
of operations will be constrained over a small area. GPS coordinates will be used as in a
Cartesian grid.

2.1 Position

We express the position vector as

p = [n e d]T (2.1)
The variables n, e and d correspond to the North, East and Down direction, which consti-
tute the primary axis of the NED (as it is called) coordinate system. We shall denote this
frame as FF . The origin of the NED frame is arbitrarily located at the home of operations
(or launch point) of every mission and placed on the surface of the Eearth. In contrast,
the origin of the so-called body-axes FB is the center of gravity point of the aircraft. Its
x-axis is placed on the line of longitudinal symmetry, its y-axis starboard and the z-axis
downwards, producing a right-handed frame, which can be seen in the following gure.

Figure 2.1: Aircraft body axes

4
The derivative of the position is

p = RbT vb (2.2)

We denote with Rb the transformation matrix from the Body frame to the Inertial frame.
Its elements are:

cos cos cos sin sin

Rb = cos sin + sin sin cos cos cos + sin sin sin sin cos (2.3)
sin sin + cos sin cos sin cos + cos sin sin cos cos

Equation (2.2) can be broken down onto its three elements as

n = (cos cos )u + ( cos sin + sin sin cos )v

+ (sin sin + cos sin cos )w (2.3a)
e = (cos sin )u + (cos cos + sin sin sin )v
+ ( sin cos + cos sin sin )w (2.3b)

d = ( sin )u + (sin cos )v + (cos cos )w (2.3c)

We see that the rotation matrix RB is dependent upon three variables, , and . These
are explained below.

2.2 Orientation

We use Euler angle notation to express the orientation of the aircraft. Roll, pitch and yaw
are denoted as , and respectively.

= [ ]T (2.4)

Figure 2.2 has a visual representation of those angles. Take a note at the order of rotations:
the standard order for aircraft applications, in order to come up with the body frame FB ,
starting from the NED frame is:
1. Rotate around NED z-axis by angle , producing frame F1
2. Rotate around F1 y-axis by angle , producing frame F2
3. Rotate around F2 x-axis by angle , producing the FB frame

5
This convention is called the Tait-Bryan angles [6]

Figure 2.2: Euler angles

The time derivative of the Euler angles is

= E()b
(2.5)

where E() is a rotation matrix, dependent upon the current orientation.

The individual angle propagation equations are

= p + tan sin q + tan cos r (2.5a)

= cos q sin r (2.5b)
sin cos
= q+ r (2.5c)
cos cos

and equivalenty, E() is written as

1 tan sin tan cos
0
E( = cos sin (2.6)
sin cos
0 cos cos

2.3 Angular velocity

We dene the angular velocity vector as

= [p q r]T (2.7)

6
and its time derivative is
1
= (Tb (J b )) (2.8)
J
This equation incorporates the inertia matrix J and the input torque, expressed in the
body axes Tb .
By spreading out the lines of the above vector equation we get

1 2

p = Jxz (Jx Jy + Jz )pq (Jz (Jz Jy ) + Jxz )qr + Jz Tx + Jxz Tz (2.8a)

1
q = (Jz Jx )pr Jxz (p2 r2 ) + Ty (2.8b)
Jy
1 2

q = ((Jx Jy )Jx + Jxz )pq Jxz (Jx Jy + Jz)qr + Jxz Tx + Jx Tz (2.8c)

Commonly, the inertia matrix in xed-wing aircraft is considered to have zero elements in
the x-y direction.
Jx 0 Jxz

J = 0 Jy 0 (2.9)
Jxz 0 Jz

2
= Jx Jz Jxz (2.10)

2.4 Linear Velocity

We dene linear velocity and its components as

vb = [u v w]T (2.11)

Its time derivative is

Fb
vb = b vb + (2.12)
m
which is equivalent to
Fx
u = rv qw + (2.12a)
m
Fy
v = ru + pw + (2.12b)
m
Fz
w = qu pv + (2.12c)
m

7
We need to dene the wind velocity, in the body frame. This is the velocity of the air-mass,
moving above the ground, expressed in the body axes.

vw = [uw vw ww ] (2.13)

The resulting relative (air)speed of the aircraft is

vr = vB vw (2.14)

Relative velocity is a very important quantity in aeronautics, as every aspect of the aircrafts
aerodynamic response depends on it, rather than the inertial speed.
Based on the relative velocity, we dene three more quantities:
the angle of attack,
the angle of sideslip,
the airspeed, Va

wr
= tan 1
(2.15a)
u
r
1 vr
= sin (2.15b)
Va
Va = [ur vr wr ] (2.16)

Using these angles, a new frame of reference can be constructed, the Stability frame FS .
The relative speed components (expressed in the body frame) can be constructed from the
airspeed (expressed in the stability frame) using the following rotation:

Va

vr = S 0 (2.17)
0

cos cos sin sin cos
S = cos sin cos sin sin

(2.18)
sin 0 cos

2.5 Mass Distribution

It is useful to model the mass distribution of our aircraft. It has a nominal mass mnom ,
placed at the center of gravity, the origin of the body axes. Any extra weights, such as

8
payloads, debris, or component detachment can be modeled with extra masses mi . Under
this denition, mi is allowed to be negative.

m = mnom + mi (2.19a)
pm,nom = [0 0 0]T (2.19b)
1
pCG = pi mi (2.20)
m

2.6 Wind Disturbances

Another interesting model, primarily for simulation of autopilot software, is the one de-
scribing wind disturbances. It incorporates two sub-models: one for describing the constant
wind velocity, as a function of altitude and one for producing wind turbulence. Static wind
is intuitively expressed in the inertial frame, while turbulence is usually expressed in the
body frame, so care is required in order to avoid confusion and errors in notation and
coding.

vw = vws + vwg (2.21)

We denote with vws the constant wind vector, with components.

vws = RB
T
[vws,n , vws,e , vws,d ]T (2.22)

Usually we consider the vertical component of the wind to be zero (vws,d = 0)

Another useful expression for constant wind is:

vws = RB
T
Vws [ cos w , sin w , 0]T (2.23)

where Vws is the wind overall magnitude (in m/s) and w is the wind direction (0degrees
for North wind)
This allows us to introduce an altitude model for the wind magnitude, commonly known
as the Power Law:
h
Vws = Vws,hr (2.24)
hr
This formula describes the increase of the wind magnitude as an exponential function of the
altitude, given a measurement of wind magnitude Vws,h0 at altitude h0 . is the Hellmann
exponent (roughness exponent), which describes the wind shear eect. Commonly, surface

9
wind magnitude measurements are available for the altitude of 10m, so the above formula
becomes.
h
Vws = Vws,h1 0 (2.25)
h1 0

Values for vary with terrain morphology and wind turbulence. Some indicative values
can be found in references [3], [13], [15], [16], but it is also claimed that the "1/7th power
law" (using a value = 1/7) is an adequate approximation for most purposes. It should
be noted, however, that most of the reviewed studies where oriented towards wind farm
applications and wind models where validated up to a few hundred meters above ground.
The following table is pulled from [3]

Landscape type Friction coecient

Lakes, ocean and smooth hard ground 0.1
Grasslands (ground level) 0.15
Tall crops, hedges and shrubs 0.20
Heavily forested land 0.25
Small town with some trees and shrubs 0.3
City areas with high rise buildings 0.4

Table 2.1: Hellmann Exponent Values over Various Terrain

An alternative model for wind shear can be found in [11]

Wind gusts can be modeled using Dryden transfer functions, as presented in [11], [4],
[10] and [5] . Time responses can be generated by feeding unit variance white noise in
the following lters. Note that airspeed is a parameter for these functions, but it can be
replaced with the mean or cruise airspeed of the aircraft.

2Va 1
uLu s+ Va
Lu

s+ Va
Vwg (s) = v 3Va 3Lv
Va 2 (2.26)
v (s+ Lu )
L

s+ Va
3Va 3Lw
w Lw (s+ Va )2
Lw

Typical values for the transfer function parameters for a small UAV can be found in [9]
and are copied below.

10
Description altitude (m) Lu (m) Lw (m) u (m/s) w (m/s)
low altitude, light turbu- 50 200 50 1.06 0.7
lence
low altitude, moderate tur- 50 200 50 2.12 1.4
bulence
medium altitude, light tur- 600 533 533 1.5 1.5
bulence
medium altitude, moderate 600 533 533 3.0 3.0
turbulence

Table 2.2: Gust Field Properties

11
 3: Dynamic Equations

In this chapter the forces and moments exerted on the aircraft will be presented. The main
dynamic components are gravity, aerodynamic reactions and propulsion.
Before proceeding to any denitions, it is worth mentioning the control input variables.
In normal airplane congurations, there are four control dimensions which the pilot can
aect. These correspond to three sets of control surfaces (aileron, elevator and rudder) and
the throttle command. The notation for these control variables is a , a , t , r . Essentially,
these are the input variables to the aircraft model.a , e , and r are usually expressed in
degrees of deection from the neutral (zero) angle and t is normalized in the (0,1) range.
Conventions for the positive direction of each control surface are not always consistent. In
this text, the proposed positive direction of a control surface is the one which results in a
positive moment around each primary axis (aileron - roll right, elevator - pitch up, rudder
- yaw right).

3.1 Gravity

In this take, we assume a constant value for the acceleration of gravity, g = 9.805416m/s2
[14, p. 27]. The magnitude of the acceleration of gravity normally varies with altitude
and geodetic coordinates, but a constant value is a valid approach for low altitude ight;
unmodeled components are negligible to an adequate accuracy. The orientation of the
gravity vector is always vertical, towards the center of the Earth, thus in the z-direction
in the NED frame.
0
Fgi = RbT
0

(3.1)
mi g

Fg = mi g (3.2)

12
3.2 Aerodynamics

This is the dening part of the ight characteristics of an airplane. The aerodynamic
response of the airplane is crucial for its stability as well as its maneuverability. Aerody-
namic forces are presented in two frames of reference. The rst is the body frame, whose
corresponding forces, Fa are used for kinematic calculations.

Fax

Fa = Fay (3.3)
Faz

Aerodynamic forces are considered to be exerted, under normal operation, at the center
of lift (pCoL ), a point located on the symmetry plane of the aircraft at one-quarter of the
main wing chord.
However, for both historical and practical reasons, the ight characteristics of the air-
plane and the resulting forces (lift, drag and sideforce) are expressed in the stability frame
(see eq.2.18). Models of aircraft aerodynamics are also parametrized so as to predict the
aerodynamic forces in the stability frame as well.

FD

Fs = FY (3.4)
FL

Fs = SFa (3.5)

Aerodynamic moments need not be modeled in the stability frame. However, aerodynamic
forces are generally not applied on the center of gravity of the aircraft, thus we need
to model the moment they apply on it separately. This usually reects the shift of the
stability margin (longitudinal movement of the center of mass), but it can also be due to
mass additions and subtractions to the airframe.

Tax
Ta =
Tay + (pCoL pCG ) Fa (3.6)
Taz

The next step in exploring the aerodynamic model is the denition of dynamic pressure.
This quantity expresses the pressure exerted by the air moving around the airplane per unit
of surface. It is proportional with the density of the air and with the square of the airspeed.
Dynamic pressure is a crucial scaling factor for the rest of the aerodynamic equations
1
q = Va2 (3.7)
2

13
The air density, , is dependent upon altitude but its sea level value is adequate for numeric
calculations (0 = 1.225kg/m3 )
At this point we are able to express the force components as the product of dynamic
pressure, the wing surface S, and the aerodynamic coecients of lift, drag and sideforce,
CL , CD , CY . It is very important to appreciate that these coecients are not constant
values; instead, they are functions of the state of the ying body, albeit their dependence
from some state variables is more dominant than others. A more detailed explanation is
given further down.

FD = qSCD (3.8a)
FY = qSCY (3.8b)
FL = qSCL (3.8c)

CD = CD (, q, e ) (3.9a)
CY = CY (, p, r, a , r ) (3.9b)
CL = CL (, q, e ) (3.9c)

The aerodynamic moments are dened in a similar fashion, with the additional inclusion
of wingspan b and wing chord c. The notation for the moment coecients may vary from
source to source.

Tax = qSbCl (3.10a)

Tay = qScCm (3.10b)
Taz = qSbCn (3.10c)

Cl = Cl (, p, r, a , r ) (3.11a)
Cm = Cm (, q, e ) (3.11b)
Cn = Cn (, p, r, a , r ) (3.11c)

Finally, a model for the aerodynamic coecients is provided. Undoubtedly, the most com-
mon and established approach is to use multivariable polynomials which are linear with
respect to their coecients. This representation lends itself nicely for parameter identica-
tion techniques, such as least-squares avours, very common in real-world aircraft design
and testing.
c
CD = CD0 + CD + CDq q + CDe e (3.12a)
2Va
b b
CY = CY 0 + CY + CY p p + CY r rCDa a + CY r r (3.12b)
2Va 2Va
c
CL = CL0 + CL + CLq q + CLe e (3.12c)
2Va

14
 b b
Cl = Cl0 + Cl + Clp p + Clr r + Cla a + Clr r (3.13a)
2Va 2Va
c
Cm = Cm0 + Cm + Cmq q + Cme e (3.13b)
2Va
b b
Cn = Cn0 + Cn + Cnp p + Cnr r + Cna a + Cnr r (3.13c)
2Va 2Va

The coecients which correspond to state variables (CD ,CDq ,CY ,CY p , CY r ,CL ,CLq ,Cl ,
Clp ,Clr ,Cm ,Cmq ,Cn ,Cnp ,Cnr ) in most cases have values such that the resulting forces and
moments tend to revert the aircraft to straight and level ight. Hence they are called
stability derivatives.
On the other hand, coecients which correspond to the input variables (CDe ,CDa ,CY r ,
CLe ,Cla ,Clr ,Cme ,Cna ,Cnr ) describe how the aircraft responds to control inputs and are
hence called control derivatives
Not all of the above derivatives need to be used in the formulation of the aerodynamic
model of a plane. Some of them might be statistically insignicant for certain airframes
([8]). On the other hand, longitudinal quantities usually do not incorporate coecients of
coecients of lateral quantities and vice versa. This is in-line with the eort of decoupling
the aircraft dynamics into a longitudinal and lateral plane, as much as possible, but there
also are physical reasons, stemming from the aircraft geometry.

3.3 Propulsion

In the case of xed-wing aircraft, most of the times the thrust is provided by a single
propeller, acting upon the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, placed either in the front or the
back of the fuselage. This discussion mainly draws from [2, p. 127] but extends its contents
from other sources to adapt to an electric power plant. Propeller placement does not have
an impact on the set of equation which form the model, even in the case of twin-propeller
congurations, mounted on the wings.
Usually, thrust is considered to be produced only along the body x-axis, however, this
approach may lack realism: it is not uncommon for the propeller to be mounted slightly
tilted right and downwards, in order to minimize the counter-moment it produces and
which aects the aircraft negatively.

FT x
FT = FT y

(3.14)
FT z

15
 FT y = 0 (3.14a)
FT z = 0 (3.14b)

Similarly, we consider in our model only the aforementioned counter-moment produced in

the x-axis by the propeller, and not gyroscopic eects caused by the spinning propeller
disc.

TT x
TT = TT y

(3.15)
TT z

TT y = 0 (3.15a)
TT z = 0 (3.15b)

In order to build a detailed and useful thrust model for our aircraft, it is common to break it
down into two main components: The propeller, along with its aerodynamic characteristics
(after all, it is an airfoil operating inside the atmosphere), and the power plant. In this
document, due to the authors research interests, a model for an electric power plant will be
presented, comprised of an electric brushless motor, an Electronic Speed Controller (ESC)
and a battery.

3.3.1 Propeller Model

Much like the aerodynamics of the airplane lifting surfaces, propeller thrust is dependent
upon a coecient function (CT ), the air density (d) and its scale (propeller diameter D).
Additionally, it is proportional to the square of its rotational speed (n, in revolutions per
second).

FT x = CT n2 D4 (3.16)
p
n= (3.17)
2

This time, the coecient of thrust function has only one variable, the advance ratio (J).
This quantity is the ratio of the aircraft airspeed to the speed the propeller "screws" itself
into the air volume. It is a means to quantify how eciently the propeller forces itself into
the air volume. CT generally doesnt have a simple shape. It is usually given by propeller
manufacturers as a data set, which peaks at the nominal advance ratio and falls o at

16
either side of the advance ratio range. This function can adequately model propeller stall,
as well as the windmilling eect.

CT = CT (J) (3.18)
Va
J= (3.19)
nD

In a similar fashion, there is an expression for the power that is consumed by the propeller
in order to produce thrust and it uses a coecient of power (CP ).

Pp = CP n3 D5 (3.20)
CP = CP (J) (3.21)

A detail included in this model, not mentioned in most resources, is the equation which
describes how the rotational speed of the propeller changes transiently in time. This is
a dierential equation of the rotational speed as a function of the dierence between the
available power from the motor (Pe ) and the power consumed by the propeller. A necessary
parameter is the moment of inertia along the x-axis of the whole engine-rotor and propeller
system, which is summed up in the term Jp .

1 Pe Pp
n = (3.22)
Jp n

Finally, the expression of propeller moment is simply derived from the ratio of the propeller
power over the propeller rotational speed.

Pp
TTx = (3.23)
p

3.3.2 Electric Motor Model

The most wide-spread motor used in small UAVs is brushless outrunner permanent magnet
electrical motor. Usually a 3-constant model is used, but for the sake of completeness, a
4-constant model will be used here, as presented in [7].
The input to the motor is the driving voltage, Vin and the output is the output power, Pe .
Naturally, if there is a direct-drive conguration between the motor and the propeller, the
motor rotational speed (n) is the same as that of the propeller.

17
 n = Kv Ei (3.24)
Ei = Vin Im Rm (3.25)
Pe = Ei Ii (3.26)
Ei
Ii = Im I0 (3.27)
R1
Pin = Vin Im (3.28)

3.3.3 Battery and Electronic Speed Controller

Finally, an expression for the overall combination of the battery and ESC is given.
VB is the internal battery voltage
RB is the battery internal resistance
RS is the ESC in-line resistance
t is the throttle command, essentially modulating the output voltage

Vin = (VB Io (RB + RS ))t (3.29)

18
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