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I. N GIO
1. Veda - Upanishad
Danh t nghip hay karma (skt.) c cp thng xuyn trong cc lun gii v t tng
trit hc v tn gio n-. Hu ht cc h t tng u xem trng im ny, trong n- gio,
Pht gio, K-na gio (Jainism) v c trong o Sikh, c nhng nn tng chung nhng vn c
nhiu l gii mu thun nhau, k c trong cc h t tng chnh truyn ca Veda nh Nyya
(Chnh l lun), Vaies ika (Thng lun), Samkhy (S lun), Du-gi (Yoga), Di-man-tt
(Mmms) v Ph-n- (Vednta).
Nh vy, karman c dng trong cc Veda bao gm c hai phng din: nhn sinh quan v v
tr lun. V nhn sinh quan, karman lin h n hnh vi m hu qu s l tt hay xu i vi
ngi lm; v v ngha v tr lun, l quy lut iu hnh v tr.
Th nhng, trong cc Veda cha h thy xut hin nim v ti sinh lun hi, v do cng
khng hm cha nim gii thot. Mc d y s l nhng nim then cht trong cc lun gii
v nghip ca cc h t tng tn gio sau Veda.
1
Ni rng tng v lun hi ti sinh khng h c trong Veda, iu ny lm mch lng a s tn
n gio. Nhng nu cho rng cc tng ny c hm cha trong Veda di dng n mt,
th th ngi ta cng c th tm thy nhng tng nh vy ngay c trong Thnh kinh Thin
cha gio.[3]
Mc d trong Veda ngi ta cng tm thy tin tng rng sau khi cht, linh hn con ngi la
khi thn xc v linh hn y vn tn ti, tuy vy, nh Dasgupta nhn xt, chng ta khng tm
thy trong bt c du hiu no m ch hc thuyt lun hi di dng pht trin.[4]
Trong on dch ny xut hin t next rebirth, mun nu chng c hin nhin xc nhn nim
v s ti sinh chnh trong Veda. Nguyn vn sanskrit ca on ny c thy trong Rig Veda
(RV x.59.6) nh sau: asunte punar asmsu caks uh punah prn amiha no dhehibhogham | jyok
payema sryam uccarantam anumate mr l ay nah svasti ||Trong khng h thy c t no m
ch next rebirth, ti sinh. R rng Dayanand mun ti lp Veda theo tng tng ca mnh.
i chiu, chng ta c th c on dch ting Anh bi Ralph T.H. Griffith nh sau: Give us our
sight again, O Asuniti, give us again our breath and our enjoyment. Long may we look upon the
Sun uprising; O Anumati, favour thou and bless us.[5] L tt nhin, Griff khng phi ngi n
gio, li l con ca mt mc s, nn bn dch Anh ca ng khng c my tin tng, ngoi
vic c dng lm ti liu nghin cu ca cc hc gi.
Nu cch din dch ca Dayanand khng c nhng ngi ngoi n gio tin tng, v nhng
ngi ny cng khng tin rng cc Veda l li ca Thn cn phi hiu bng tri kin ca
Thn. Vi h, cc Veda cng nh ht thy Thnh th ca cc tn gio u l sng tc ca con
ngi, phn nh trnh t duy ca con ngi vo mt giai on vn minh tin ha nht nh.
N l ngn ng ca con ngi nn cn phi c hiu trong bi cnh hay ng cnh ca con
ngi.
Cc thi tng Veda trong thi u ca lch s vn minh n ch lin h n nhng ngi Aryan v
thn linh ca h. Cht hay sng u l s chuyn dch qua li gia m qu tc thng tr ny;
khng phi l ni m hng pr thag, hng phm dn, ng cp h lit, c th tham d.
2
Hoc ni rng tin tng lun hi ti sinh c th thy nhiu ni trong cc b lc bn khai, hay
trong mt giai on pht trin x hi no , iu ny c th chp nhn;[6] n- v Hy-lp l
hai dn tc c khi nim c bit v lun hi; nhng vi tnh phn bit giai cp, c tin l
chnh do Thn Sng To Brahman thit lp, ngi b-la-mn cho n ngy nay vn khng chp
nhn gi tr bnh ng gia cc giai cp. Cho nn, trong qu kh, cc Veda ca ngi Aryan m
giai cp b-la-mn l thng ng tt khng th tng tng sau khi cht gi s do ti c
lm m h phi ti sinh vo cc giai cp thp. T tng ny cn c thy ghi chp trong kinh
Pht vi nhng ph phn bi tr. Cho nn, Veda khng ni n lun hi ti sinh l iu tt
nhin.
Mc d danh sch lit k trong Kinh cho thy du vt m h v s xut hin ca cc Upanishad
ti c; nhng by gi cng ch manh nha tng v mt ng Phm thin hu ng, ch cha
chng t rng cc o s trong dng truyn tha ny c nim g v lun hi v do cng
khng c tng r rt v nghip v nghip qu. Tt nhin, nu hiu nghip v nghip bo nh
l hnh vi v bo ng ca hnh vi, th ngay c trong Veda ngi ta vn tm thy tng v s
thng pht: nhng ai lm tt s c hng kt qu tt, nu lm xu th tri li s b trng pht
thch ng. l tng ph thng trong mi nn vn minh khi x hi loi ngi tin n giai
on c t chc, lut php c thit lp. Khng th bng vo ni c tin tng nghip v
nghip bo.
V tng v nghip lin h n nghip bo v lun hi cha xut hin trong cc Veda, v cc
Upanishad cng ch xut hin sau thi c Pht, cho nn nu ni no cc Upanishad ni v
nghip, th tng y nu khng phi chu nh hng ca Pht gio, th cng t ngun nh
hng khc, ch khng th t Veda nh cc v n- gio ngy nay qu quyt. Quan nim v
nghip m tr thnh tn l trong n- gio ch c lp thnh y trong Vednta v trong
Bhagavad-gta, sau Pht nhiu th k.
2. Tin-Mmms
Trong thi Pht, cc b-la-mn l nhng ngi truyn tng Veda. Nhng v ny cng thng
xuyn n tranh lun vi Pht. Vn ca h hu ht l s tn ti ca tman thng hng bt
bin, v mt Brahman sng to cng thng hng bt bin; hai ch t tng trong cc
Upanishad. Nghip v ti sinh l nhng ch im hc thuyt, hoc thun hoc nghch, ca cc
h t tng ngoi Veda trong thi c Pht. Nhng ti ny ch c lun thut trong cc
Kinh th n- gio sm nht cng sau thi A-dc vng, hoc k t trit gia a kara tr i,
c bit l Vednta hu-akara v Bhagavadgta.
Svarga hay sinh thin l nim c t Veda. Trong thi c Pht, i b phn nhng gia ch n
vi Pht ch vi mc ch ny, v Pht khng t chi, cng ch h con ng sinh thin, nhng
khng bng t t v cu nguyn, m bng s tr gii v b th.
Sinh thin trong Mmms khng ch l tng cht phc nh trong tn ngng qun chng,
m n hm cha mt ngha siu hnh. Thin gii trong ngha c i v ph thng l ni m
dc lc c hng y hn v lu di hn so vi trong th gii phm trn. Kinh Pht h
thp gi tr ny ca thin gii v ch ra cn c lc th cao hn na v thanh khit hn, l lc
do thin nh. Tc trong phm vi sinh t, c hai con ng hng th lc i sau cao hn
loi ngi: Thin o (devyana) cho ch thin Dc gii m s hng lc khng cn n thin
nh, v Phm o (Brahmyana), con ng cng tr vi Phm thin bng tu tp cc bc thin
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nh. Cao nht l lc v lu gii thot t c bng Thnh o (ryyana). Mmms nguyn
thy ch tha nhn svarga nh c ni trong Veda nn khng bit n hai o kia; v hnh vi
t t l phn truyn duy nht cn phi tun theo, do cng khng cn n thin nh. Sbara
quyt lit khng tha nhn rng kinh nghim gic quan ca con ngi c th bit c thin
gii svarga. Th nhng, thc ti gm hai mt: dr s t a, kh kin vadr s t a, v kin. Th d, ngi
ta bit rng Devadatta cn sng, nhng y khng c mt trong nh ny, vy y phi c mt mt
ni no . Hoc th d b tc bi Kumrila: Mt ngi khe mnh nhng khng thy y n lc
no vo ban ngy, vy nht nh y c n vo ban m. L lun ny c gi l arthpatti[12],
c hiu l gi nh mc nhin. N l mt trong su ngun nhn thc hay tiu chun nhn
thc c gi tr ng (pramn a)[13] m Kumrila lp nn chng minh chn l c ni trong
Veda. L lun ny c p dng cho hnh vi t t.
Trc ht, v mt nhn thc lun, t svarga c chng minh bng thanh lng (abda-
pramn a). Ng thanh ca con ngi tt phi dng sc, c , cho nn khng th thng hng.
Ng thanh ca Veda khng phi do con ngi, cng khng phi t cc thn linh (apaurus eya),
cho nn t nhin, t hu (autpatti) v do hng hu (nitya). Chnh do nhng c tnh ny m
ng thanh ca Veda l ngun chn l ca mi nhn thc. Veda ni: svarga; vy svarga tn ti.
Bi v trong l thuyt v ngn ng ca Mmms, mi ng thanh (abda) u ch vo mt ci g
hay iu g v cha ng mt ngha no (artha);[17] cho nn t svarga c Veda ni
n khng phi l t rng, tt ch vo thc ti thc hu, m thc ti ny vt ngoi kinh nghim
gic quan ca con ngi.
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Th n, v mt ng php, trong mnh , bara nhn mnh n ngha v chc nng ca
ng t. ng ni, C mt ng thanh pht ng hnh vi t t ny c nhn bit
l aprva. Bi , chng ta ni chnh th thanh (bhvaabda: ng t) mi gi aprva. Nhng
khng c ng thanh no trc tip pht ng cho aprva. Cho nn, chnh cc i tng ca th
thanh ku dy nghip thanh l aprva.[18]
Halbfass cho rng cc vn gii thot (moks a) v lun hi (samsra), nhng vn quan
trng trong trit hc n-, khng c my lu tm bi Sbara. Tuy nhin, t Kumrila, vi
mt h thng trit hc Mmms bao qut, cc vn ny tr thnh quan trng. Cho n ch
nghip, khi thy ch gii hn trong hnh vi t t, nhng vi Kumrila, n tr thnh nguyn l
nhn qu ph qut, nhm l gii ngha lun hi, v aprva tr thnh trng im l lun.[19]
Kumrila, c xem l thnh cng nht trong cng trnh h thng ha Mmms,[20] xut hin
khong 660, giai on m tng phi Du-gi hnh (Yogcrin) lp bi V Trc (Asaga) v Th
Thn (Vasubandhu), v lun l hc Pht gio hon thin bi Dignga (Trn-na, trc Huyn
Trang, khong 480-540) v Dharmakrti (Php Xng, sau Huyn Trang, khong th k 7 tl.),
pht trin n cao . Cuc lun chin v chin thng ca Huyn Trang vi cc danh s trit hc
tn gio n- vo nm 643 Tl. di s bo tr ca vua Hars avardhana cho thy Duy thc hc
v lun l hc Pht gio ang chim lnh v i t tng. Kumrila xut hin v hot ng
khong na th k sau . Di p lc lun l ca Pht gio, Mmms lin kt vi lun l
hc Nyya v trit hc a nguyn thc ti lun ca Vaies ika bo v truyn thng t t ca
Veda.
K tha Sbara, Kumrila hon thin l lun Mmms. Tng truyn Kumrila tng ci
trang vo Nalanda nghin cu Pht hc, v c Dharmakrti truyn dy do rt tinh thng
lun l hc. Cng hin ca Kumrila cho lun l hc n- ni chung c nh gi l khng
di Dignga. Nhng ng gp ln nht ca Kumrila ni ring v Mmms ni chung l khi
phc nim tin vo t t Veda v phc hi ch giai cp khc nghit, trong cm nhng k tt
nguyn v giai cp Sudra c hnh t t.[21] y l mt trong nhng im chnh gp phn vo
vic loi tr Pht gio ra khi n-. Cng chnh im ny m mc d Kumrila l mt nh t
tng v thn, bc b s tn ti ca mt Thng sng to, ng v Mmms vn c k l
thuc h t tng Veda chnh thng.
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Mc ch chnh trong s nghip ca Kumrila l chng minh Pht gio l t thuyt, v n
khng da trn nhng phn truyn ca Veda. thc hin mc ch ny, Kumrila tn cng
hc k nhn minh lun, ngnh lun l hc Pht gio, v xy dng mt h thng nhn thc lun
hon ton i khng vi Dignga v Dharmakrti. Trong khi Dinga tha nhn ch c hai ngun
nhn thc ng tin cy, l hin lng hay trc gic, v t lng tc suy l nhn qu,
Kumrila thnh lp su ngun nhn thc trong ngun chn l tuyt i l Veda. Nhng nhn
thc no khng tm thy c ngun gc t Veda u l sai lm. Lp lun ca Kumrila, khi gii
thch cu kinh 134 ca Mmmsstra, c th tm tt nh sau: Tt c nhng thuyt l khng
xut pht t Veda u sai lm, v c thuyt bi cc nguyn nhn khc (nh tham, v si).
Thuyt ca Thch-ca v nhng ngi khc sai lm, v thuyt bi si hoc tham.[22]
Hoc do v trong s pht trin lch s, quan h v nh hng h tng gia cc h t tng l
iu hin nhin; hoc do v trong thi k u Mmms ch ch trng ch php (dharma) v
nghip (karma) cho nn khng p ng c yu cu ca mt h thng c lp v hon chnh;
cc nh Mmms v sau, hoc Kumrila v bn tm bi bc Pht gio nn tp trung vo cc ch
nhn thc lun v lun l hc. C hai chi phi Mmms v sau, Bhat t a di nh hng
ca Kumrila, v di nh hng ca Prabhkara, tha nhn phn ln cc phm tr trit hc
ca Nyya-Vaies ika (Chnh l v Thng lun); ch bc b phn nhn thc lun, s tn ti ca
Thng , v mt s yu t trong phm tr phm tnh (gun a: c) ca Thng lun.
Thc s, gia Vaies ika v Mmms c nhiu im tng ng, cho nn Dasgupta t cu hi:
Phi chng Vaies ika i biu cho mt trng phi c ca Mmms?[23] im c bit
l Vaies ikastra, cng tng t nh Mmmssra, m u bng gii thuyt v dharma[24],
tip sau khng nh ngn ng ca Veda l ngun nhn thc c thm quyn ti thng.[25]
Chng ta bit, trong khi lun chng v aprva, Sbara dn adr s t anh l c s suy l.
Trong Vaies ika, adr s t a, mt yu t trong c ngha v nghip (karma-padrtha), cng c nhng
c im nh aprva, duy ch khc bit l adr s t athuc phm vi nhn thc thng nghim, mc
d khng th thy bng mt.
Phm tr nghip trong Vaies ika bao hm rng ri, ch cho vn ng ca mi vt th, thn th
v t ng. nh ngha cn bn v nghip, Vaies ikastra ni, do tng ng vi t ng (tma-
samyoga) v do dng ca t ng (tma-prayna) m c hnh ng ni bn tay.[26] Cc hin
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tng t nhin nh nc ht trong thn cy, la bc ln, st b ht bi nam chm, cho n thi
vng do ba ch t ng i n tay tn trm, nhng hin tng vn ng ny u l nghip,
nhng bn trong chng tim n yu t v kin (adr s t a) vn hnh. Nghip ca cnh tay c ng
nng ln, xung v.v. c gii thch l do (manas). S xut khi thn (: cht) hay nhp thn
khc (: ti sinh) ca t ng cng c vn hnh bi yu t v kin ny. Yu t v kin
hay adr s t anh vy l th lc tim n ca nghip hay vn ng, chi phi tt c mi tn ti v
hin tng, t vt cht n tinh thn. Halbfass cho rng khi nim adr s t any, nh l lc tim n
ca cc hnh vi qu kh c xem nh l mt phm tnh ca t ng, khi nim ny cung cp
cho Kumrila v cc tc gi v sau mt in hnh gii thch aprva.[27] V nh hng phn
hi, cc i biu trong Nyya-Vaies ika v sau thu nhp ngha ca aprva t thuyt l v
nghip t t ca Kumrila m rng khi nim adr s t a[28]T sau Kumrila, cc
t aprva v adr s t athng c dng nh l ng ngha.
3. Vednta-Bhagavadgta.
Vednta < Veda anta: cu cnh ca Veda, ch cho phn cui ca Veda tc cc Upanishad. Vn
hin Veda phn lm bn phn: Samhita, Brhmn a, Aran yaka, Upanis ad. Hai phn u ch
trng cc nghi thc t t, mnh danh l karma-kanda nghip kin- hay nghip o. Hai
phn sau lun thuyt v Brahman v tman, ch trng phn tri thc, mnh danh l jna-
kanda tr kin- hay tr o. H phi ch trng phn u c gi l Prva-Mmms
(Tin Di-man-tt), nhng thng ch gi l Mmms. H phi ch trng phn sau c gi l
Uttara-Mmms (Hu Di-man-tt), nhng thng gi l Vednta.
Mmms v Vednta tr thnh hai hn tng ca n- gio, trn pht sinh nhiu chi
nhnh nhiu khi nghch nhau. Vednta nh hng v mt t tng trit hc. Mmms nh
hng o c v lut php. Hai khun mt ln i biu cho hai h ny l Kumrila v a kara.
C hai u c nhng ngi n- gio tn dng l nhng trit gia v i nht khng ch
ring n- m ton th nhn loi, v chnh hai ngi ny loi tr Pht gio ra khi t n.
Trong , mc d nh hng t tng ca akara trm ln Kumrila, nhng con ng dn
sn loi tr Pht gio c k l pht ng bi Kumrila.
Tn gio Veda truyn cho n Kumrila vn l tn gio th tc, khng nh Pht gio v K-na
gio bao gm chng t ti gia v xut gia. Chnh a kara l ngi t chc thnh mt tn
gio c tp on tng l (xut gia) mnh danh l samnyasa (thot ly).
8
l Govinda, v Govinda l mn trc tip ca Gaud apada. Chnh Gaud apa mi l ngi trc
tip chu nh hng ca Trung qun rt m.
akara ch trch quan im ny. Ch gii Brahmastra cu kinh III.2.38[29], akara ph bnh
Mmms; phi ny cho rng nghip t n dn n kt qu trong tng lai m khng c s can
thip ca Thin cha vara. Theo akara, nghip l hnh vi pht sinh ri dit trong thong
chc, v aprva nh Mmms ni th vn l yu t v tm (acetan), t n khng dn n kt
qu lu di v sau. Cho nn, iu hp l phi ni l nghip v kt qu ca nghip u do vara.
Chnh vara l ng phn xt thin c v thng pht. Bhagavadgta ni, Ai mun th phng
thn linh no bng tn tm, Ta s lm cho tn tm ca n khng dao ng.[30]
9
Ch trong cc Upanis ad mi bt u tm thy khi mim gii thot. nim v gii thot nh
c hiu sau ny lin h n tng nghip qu v lun hi; c hai u kh m h ngay c
trong cc Upanishad. Gn nhng khi nim ny vo Veda v Upanishad ch do cc th h sau
ny. Cho nn, Halbfass pht biu mt cu kh l lng: L thuyt v nghip v lun hi khng
phi l, v chc chn khng phi lun lun l, phong cch t duy ca n-.[32]
Sm nht cng ch trc mt thi gian ngn tc l sm nht cng sau Pht gio thi A-dc,
hoc t Brahmastra tr i, khi nim gii thot mi chnh thc c a vo cc Upanishad
cng lc vi thuyt Bt nh (advaita), Phm-Ng nht th, nh c thy cu kinh trong s
gii ca akara ang cp. Trong cc cu kinh dn (BS. III.2.38, 41)[33], hai khi nim
chnh v gii thot c m ch: jvanmukti hin thn gii thot, v dehamukti hu thn gii
thot. Nhng r nht l cc cu kinh BS. iv 1.13, 14, 15. Cu kinh iv.1.13 ni, do thng t
Brahman m nghip qu kh tiu dit, nghip ng lai x ly.
y c ba loi nghip: (1) nghip tch tp (sacita-karma), nhng hnh vi thin hay c trong
cc i trc c tch ly ch cho kt qu; (2) nghip chnh pht (prrabdha-karma),
nghip tch ly ang hnh thnh kt qu trong i ny; v (3) nghip v lai (gama-karma), cng
gi l nghip chnh tc (kriyamna-karma), nhng hnh vi thin c c lm trong i hin ti,
c gom chung vo nghip tch tp ch cho kt qu trong cc i sau.
S gii cng ni rng, vi nghip tch ly (sacita-karma) cn tn ng ni ngi chng tr, sau
khi ngi y cht, nu l thin s truyn li cho con chu hng; nu l c, s truyn li cho k
th n chu qu bo thay (!). y l nhng hnh vi thin khng thuc nghip thng hnh
(nityakarma) nh l cng t thn La (agnihotra: ha cng, hay ha t).
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Th nhng, trong i sng thng nht, pryacitta khng th thiu v phm ti l iu kh
trnh. Tn ca hu ht cc tn gio u t cm thy yu ui trc nhng cm d hay b chi
phi bi v minh, ngu dt, khin d c hnh vi sai quy, do cn n s tha th ca Thng
. Lut in Dharmastra c nhng quy nh kh chi tit v iu khon ny, ty theo mc ti
v ty theo giai cp. Cc pryacitta c thc hnh bng nhng hnh vi nh co trc u, tm
bn, tm phn b, hay nc thnh.
Pryacitta c xem l mt phn trong n hu ca Thng do bi lng nhn t ban pht cho
k bit hi li. Nhng trn tt c, phng tin dit ti ny l nhn thc v sng knh Thng .
Kr s n a ni vi Arjuna: Ai nhn thc rng Ta l ng V sanh (aja), ng V thy (andi), l
Thin cha Cao c (Mahevara: i T Ti thin) ca th gian, ngi y khng ngu si gia
nhng phm phu ngu mui; n gii thot khi tt c mi ti li.[36]
Sng knh l s th hin c tin tuyt i ni Thng , tp trung hon ton thc ni
Thng , chuyn tm nht tr vo Thng , v nh vy c ng ngay trong Thng .
Nhng lm c iu khng phi d. Nu khng lm c nh th, Kr s n a ch dn, hy i
theo con ng hnh s (abhysa), l con ng hnh ng m khng mong cu kt qu.
Hnh ng khng mong cu kt qu, hay nghip v cu, l im ct yu trong trit l hnh
ng, hay thuyt l nghip, ca Bhagavadgta.
Khi u l Arjuna, t nhin cm thy rn ch ngay trc giy pht lm trn: Sao ta li phi
git anh em mnh, v vinh quang chin thng, v vng quc, hay v dc vng?
Trn chin trng Kuru, nhn t lch s hin thc trong th gii con ngi, l cuc chin
huynh tng tn ca anh em rut tht trong mt vng triu. Cuc chin li c nng ln
hng t tng trit hc, cho nn trng Kuru (Kuru-ks etra) tr thnh trng ngha v (dharma-
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ks etra). Kr s n a, Thng ha thn lm ngi nh xe, khin trch thi bt xng ca
Arjuna; v khch l tinh thn chin u, Kr s n a khng phn tch chnh ngha hay phi ngha
ca cuc chin huynh tng tn ny, m ch ni n ngha v ca ngi chin s; ngha v
y c quy nh bi chnh Thng . Cc nh ch gii khng cho rng Arjuna phn vn v
cuc chin phi ngha, m v khng phn bit c tnh bt dit ca T ng tman v thn xc
hy hoi ny. Kr s n a bo Arjuna: Ta, v ngi, v cc th lnh ny, , ang v s thng
hng tn ti. Thn xc ny ri gi, ri cht, v ri t ng tman s chuyn sang thn th khc.
Cc tr gi khng m h v iu ny.[37] Ni cch khc, trong chn l tuyt i, khng c k
git cng khng c k b git. y l tn l ca hnh ng. Hai nguyn l cu cnh ca tn ti
Brahman v tman, thng hng, bt dit. T m nhn thc v th gii, con ngi, sng v
cht, v ngha v. Trong ton b ni dung Bhagavadgta, ha thn Thng Kr s n a din gii
cho ngi hc tr yu qu ca mnh l Arjuna v ngha tr tu v hnh ng, con ng bng
tr tng ng (jna-yoga) v nghip tng ng (karma-yoga). Bng tr tu m nhn thc bn
tnh ca tman v Brahman t n cu cnh gii thot. Bng hnh ng, thc hin cc ngha
v mt cch hon ho, cng dn n cu cnh gii thot. Ci no chnh hay ph, hay c hai h
tng, ty theo trng phi v xu hng t tng. Trong lin h y, chng ta cp mt vi
kha cnh trong tng ng nghip.
Hy lm trong ngha v tng ng, ny Arjuna, dp b tham trc ni cc nghip hnh ng.
Thnh cng hay tht bi u bnh ng. gi l tng ng bnh ng tnh.[38] y l ni
dung c bn ca thuyt l nghip nh l trit l hnh ng ca Bhagavadgta.
Vy, theo y, nghip l g? Kinh in Veda quy nh ba loi nghip, cn phi gic tri: nghip
(karma), hnh vi chn chnh theo nhng iu kinh in quy nh; phi nghip (akarma), nhng
hnh vi bt chnh m kinh in cm ch; v v nghip (akarma). Trong , v nghip hm th
n o, kh thy kh hiu; l hnh vi lm m khng lm, khng lm m lm tt c. Hnh ng
vi tm v chp, v cu, v bit rng k hnh ng chnh l t ng, v mi hnh ng u do
Thng v dng hin cho Thng . Ai thy nghip trong v nghip, v nghip trong
nghip, y l ngi gic ng gia loi ngi, t tng ng, l tc gi ca nghip bin
mn.[39]
Nghip chn chnh cn phi thc hin gm ba hng mc: (a) Nghip thng hnh (nitya-
karma), nhng ngha v cn phi thc hin thng xuyn, nh hin t thn linh, t t t tin v
cc b-la-mn qu vng, tm nc thnh sng Hng.v.v. (b) Nghip ty thi (naimittika-karma),
ngha v bt thng, trong nhng trng hp c bit, nh chm sc ngi m, cu nguyn cho
linh hn ngi cht, hoc tm sng khi c nht hay nguyt thc. (c) Nghip ty i (kmya-
karma), hnh vi vi mc ch mong cu, nh con ci, ti sn.
Nhn t biu din, nghip c ni nh vy hon ton khng lin h g n ngha c hiu
trong cc Kinh Lun Pht gio. Bi v, nghip c hiu trong Pht gio l nhng hnh vi mang
tnh thin c, hu ch hay gy hi cho mnh v cho ngi trong i ny v nhng i sau, c
thc hin bng ch t do, bng quyt nh la chn ca chnh chng sinh, khng mt quyn
lc ngoi ti hay ti cao no ch nh. C s trit l ca thuyt nghip ny l khng tn ti mt
t ng thng hng bt bin ng sau mi hnh ng, v cng khng tn ti mt ng Ch t
ng tr trn cao gim st mi hnh vi v thng pht. Th nhng, gt ra ngoi tt c sai bit ng
12
php, c v khng, tn ti hay khng tn ti, nghip vn hm ngha chung, l bt c hnh
vi no nht nh dn n kt qu hoc hu ch, hoc tn hi, cho mnh v cho ngi, trong i
ny v i sau, hnh vi y c gi l nghip. im khc bit l trong Bhagavadgta nghip
trn phng din bn th l nguyn l ca tn ti, v trong x hi n l nguyn l hnh ng.
ngha ct yu pht xut t nghip nh l hnh vi t t ca Veda nh c thy trong Prva-
Mmms.
Chng ta dn thm mt t tng vn t Bhagavadgta c nhn thc khi qut v din tin ca
ni dung v t ngha ny.
Gta iii. 14-15: Cc loi hu sinh xut sinh t thc phm. Thc phm pht sinh t ma. Ma
pht sinh t t t. T t l s pht sinh ca nghip. Nn bit rng, nghip xut sinh t Brahman.
Brahman l s xut sinh t Bt hoi. Cho nn, Brahman l ng Bin hnh, thng hng an tr
trong t t.[40]
Aks ara trong bi tng ny ch cho bn tnh khng hy dit, khng bin i ca Brahman, v
cng ch cho vn t, mu m, hay m vn, m tit; y l nguyn ngn ca Veda, bt dit.
Nghip c ni y l hnh vi t t. a kara gii thch t t ni y chnh l s lm pht
sinh yu t aprva nh c ni trong Mmms. Nghip c ni nh vy khng ch hnh
ng ca con ngi, m bao trm tt c mi thc th mi hin tng; khng tn ti no, hu
hnh hay v hnh m bt ng. Hoa ri, l rng, ct bay, chy, cho n hnh vi thin c ca
con ngi, thy u c bao trm trong nghip, pht xut t th tnh bt dit, bt bin ca
Brahman, c phn truyn trong Veda. Hnh vi no phn nghch phn truyn ca Veda s phi
nhn hnh pht.
II. LC S NGOI O
Lin h n vn v nghip c ni n trong Thnh in nguyn thy l nhng v trong
nhm gi l Lc S ngoi o. Chi tit tng i y ca su v tng s ng thi Pht
ny c gii thiu trong kinh Sa-mn qu.[43]
1. Pran a Kassapa
13
Trong s , Pran a Kassapa (Ph-lan-na Ca-dip) vi thuyt v tc (akriya-vda) cho rng mi
hnh vi ti c chng dn n nghip bo g: ... i n b nam sng Hng m git, sai bo git,
ct x, sai bo ct x, luc chn, sai bo luc chn, khng do nhn duyn ny m c ti c; cng
khng v vy m dn n hu qu ca ti c. i n b bc sng Hng b th, t t, khng do
nhn duyn ny c phc, cng khng v vy m dn n kt qu ca phc...[44]
Thm na, trong kinh Mahli[46], mt ngi Licchavi tn l Mahli ni vi Pht v ch trng
v nhn lun (ahetuka-vda) ca Pran a, rng Khng c nhn, khng c duyn cho s thanh
tnh ca cc chng sinh... Ch trng ny trong kinh Sa-mn qu c k l ca Makkhali nh
s thy di y.
Kinh Lokyatikasuttam[49] tng thut hai ngi b-la-mn thuc nhm Thun th (lokyatik
brhman ) k vi Pht rng Pran a t tuyn b l v nht thit tri, nht thit kin; ng ny ni
D khi ta i hay ng, thc hay ng, tri kin lun lun hin tin. C th do tuyn b ny m
ng c gi l Pran a, theo ngha l vin mn tr tu? y c th ng tin l ngun gc cho
tn gi ca ng.
Pran a c bit l cui cng t kt thc i mnh trong mt ao sen. Bin c ny c tng
thut rt kh li cun trong S gii Dhammapada, chuyn k v cu Php c 181.[52] Basham
cho rng chuyn k ny khng ng tin; nhng s kin Pran a t st th c th chp nhn; bi
v t st mang tnh tn gio l iu rt thng thy trong cc tu s jvika khi h thy cc cn
ca mnh bt u thoi ha.[53]
2. Makkhali Gosla
Makkhali Gosla (skt. Maskar Golputra, Mt-gi-l-c-x-li) vi thuyt lun hi tnh ha
(samsrasuddhi-vda), theo s gii thot lun hi dit tn kh au ca mi loi l qu trnh
tin ha t nhin, khng do bt c hnh vi hay nghip bo g. Khng c nhn, khng c duyn
cho s nhim hay thanh tnh ca cc loi hu tnh. Ta khng phi l tc gi, ci khc khng
phi l tc gi, con ngi khng phi l tc gi. Khng c ci gi l lc, l n lc, nng lc ca
con ngi. Ht thy chng sinh, ht thy mi sinh loi, ht thy mi sinh vt, ht thy loi c s
sng, tt c u khng t ch, bt lc, yu ui; chng l s t hi ca nh mnh, b chi phi
bi nh mnh, bin chuyn theo nh mnh (niyatisa gatibhvaparin at) m cm nghim kh
hay lc trong su ng cp chng loi[54]; dn u bi 1 triu bn trm nghn loi sinh thc kh
(yoni: sinh mn), v thm su nghn v su trm na. C 500 loi nghip (paca kammuno
satni), v nm loi nghip (paca ca kammni), ba loi nghip (tn i ca kammni), trong nghip
v trong na nghip.[55] C 62 o tch (pat ipda); 62 trung kip (antarakappa), 6 ng cp
chng loi, 8 v tr ca con ngi[56]; 49 nhm hot mng ngoi o (jvaka); 49 nhm xut
gia ngoi o (paribbjaka); 49 tr x ca rng (ngvsa); 2 nghn quan nng (indriya: cn), ba
nghn a ngc; 36 vi trn gii (rajodhtu); 7 loi thai bo hu tng (sagabbha); 7 loi thai
bo v tng (asagabbha); 7 loi kt h thai (nigan t higabbha); 7 loi ch thin; 7 loi
ngi; 7 loi c qu (pisca: t-x-x); 7 h nc... C 8 triu i kip (mahkakkino), trong
khong , bt lun k ngu hay bc tr, sau khi lu chuyn lun hi, s tn cng dt kh. y
khng c iu ny, rng Ti, do bi gii, do bi cm nguyn, bi kh hnh, bi phm hnh, s
lm chn nghip cha chn; hoc lin tc nhn th m dit tr nghip chn. Kh v lc
c ong y, lun hi c vch gii hn, khng c g thm hay bt, khng c g hn
hay km. Nh cun ch c nm ra, n bung ra trong khi ln; cng vy, ngu hay tr sau khi lu
chuyn lun hi s tn cng dt kh.
Bnh lun v cc im ch trng ny, Malalasekera cho rng chng rt kh hiu, ngay c cc
nh S gii cng thy s gii thch l mt vic lm v vng.[57]
Gii thch ngha tn gi cng nh l do Makkhali sng la th, S gii kinh Sa-mn qu thut
chuyn: ng vn l mt tn n l; mt hm bng h du m i qua vng t snh, mc d ch
cnh gic coi chng t! (tta m khali) nhng do v ng trt ng v lm du. Tn
15
ng sau c gi l Makkhali do bi li cnh gic m khali! Do s kin ny, ng b chy
nhng ch nm o ko li; ng vn vt chy do y b tut v ng sng la th t .
[58] Buddhaghosa thng c xu hng k lai lch khng my tt p ca cc nh ngoi o,
cho nn chuyn k ny khng ng quan tm. Tuy nhin, trong ni ng nguyn ca
Makkhali l do t m khali cng c Patajali nhc n vi gii thch khc hn. Gii thch ny
ni, tn ng l Maskar khng phi v ng l mt maskara, m v ng ch trng rng Ch to
cc nghip. Tch tnh l ti thng (m kr ta karmni, ntir vah reyas). Tmaskara c nhc
n y c ngha l gy trc v t maskar ch cho ngi cm gy trc. y l ng nguyn
theo ng php Pn ini. Nhng Patajali cho rng maskar l do cu ni m kr ta: ch lm, gn
vi Pli m khali.[59] Gii thch ng nguyn ny ph hp vi quan im ch trng ca
Maskar.
Trong cc im ch trng ca Makkhali c nu trong kinh Sa-mn qu, thuyt khng nhn
khng duyn cng c ni khc trong Kinh tng Pli, k l ch trng ca Pran a Kassapa.
Phn loi su ng cp cng vy. V li, s nh gi cao ca Pran a Kassapa dnh cho
Makkhali c th cho thy nh hng gia hai thng th ca cc jvaka ny.
16
3. Ajita Kesakambala
V tng s th ba, Ajita Kesakambala (skt. Ajita-Keakambal), c k cng bc b nghip v
nghip qu: khng c b th, khng c hin sinh (yit t ha), khng c cng vt (huta), khng c
qu d thc cc nghip thin c, khng c i ny, khng c i khc.. con ngi do bn i
hp thnh ny, khi mnh chung, ci g l t tr li nhp vo thn t, nc tr li nhp vo
thn nc, ... b th l thuyt by t ca k ngu n; nhng ai ch trng thuyt tn ti
(atthikavda) li ni ca chng l h lun, gi di, rng tuch. Ngu cng nh tr sau khi thn r
thy u ct t, tiu hy, khng cn tn ti sau khi cht.
Tn ng l Ajita, v c gi l Kesa-kambala v ng bn tc lm y
phc. Kesakambalasuttam ch trch thi hnh tr cng nh thuyt l ca ng: Trong cc loi y
phc, c bn bng tc l loi y phc bi thm nht, thp hn nht (kesakambalo tesam
pat ikit t ho khyti). Bi v, ma nng th n lm cho nng thm, ma lnh n khin cho cng
lnh; xu x, hi thi. [64]
Pysi l mt tiu vng trong th trn Setavya thuc vng quc Kosala. Thuyt ca ng c
tm tt nh sau: Khng c th gii khc, khng c chng sinh ha sinh; khng nghip v qu
bo d thc ca nghip thin v c.[67] Trng lo Kumra-kassapa kh vt v bc b
quan im c cho l sai lm t kin ny, v kt qu Pysi chp nhn khut phc, t b quan
im t kin ca mnh.
Cuc tranh lun gia tiu vng Pysi v Kumra-kassapa cng c ghi chp trong Kinh
in ca K-na gio, vi tn gi l vua Paesi v Kesi. Sutrakga nhc n thuyt ny trong hai
bi tng 11 v 12: ngu cng nh tr u c mt linh hn (jva); linh hn tn ti khi thn xc cn
tn ti; sau khi cht, linh hn cng khng cn, khng c s ti sinh; khng c ti, khng c
phc, khng c th gii khc; sau khi thn xc tan r th linh hn cng khng tn ti. [68]
Chi tit y v cuc hi thoi gia vua Paesi v Kesi cng c ghi trong Paesi-kahn ayam,
vi bn dch Anh ca Williem B. Bolle.[69] Trong y, Kesi c ghi y l Kesi kumra-
saman a, sa-mn tn Kesi xut gia t u th, r l ng nht vi Kumra-kassapa trong
kinh Pysi. Ni dung bin lun tng thut trong Paesi-kn ayam i tng ng. Cui cng
Paesi chp nhn thua l v thay i quan im.[70]
4. Pakudha Kaccyana
17
Thuyt c k tip theo ca Pakudha Kaccyana (skt. Kakuda-Ktyyana)[71] c th lit vo
loi ch ngha duy vt c i n-: By yu t ny (sattky, by thn: t, nc, la, gi,
kh, lc, linh hn, c t nhin (akat a), khng do ai sng to... y khng c ngi git hi,
hoc c ngi b git hi, ngi nghe hoc ngi ni, ngi bit hoc ngi khin cho bit. Khi
mt ai dng li kim sc bn chm u, thi khng c ai tc ot sanh mng ca ai c, li
kim ch ri vo gia by thn m thi.
Trong S gii on kinh lin h,[72] Buddhaghosa khng cho bit chi tit v cuc i ca
Pakudha, m c bit nhn mnh n s kin ng ny c tuyt dng nc lnh (studaka-
pat ikkhittako), d ngay sau khi i tin cng khng dng nc ra. Ch dng nc nng v
cho (kajiya). Mi khi i qua mt con sng hay ng nc, ng cho rng mt gii (slam
me bhinna). ng ch bc qua sau khi lm mt thp bng ct quyt h gii. Basham cho
rng cho nh l mn n hng ba v thp ct l nhng hnh tr thng thy trong cc tu s
jvika, do c th kt lun Pakudha cng thuc v mt nhm jvika, nhng khng c nh
hng bng Makkhali v Pran a. [73]
Trong bn nguyn t c in, Pakudha thm nguyn t jva, tc mng cn, hay t ng, hay ph
thng gi l linh hn. Jva l bn th thng hng c ni n trong Nigan t ha, nhng y
n khng c xem l thnh phn vt cht mc d b bao trm trong vt cht bi nghip cht.
Cc tng thut v ch trng ca Pakudha khng thy u xc nh r jva y l yu t vt
cht, hay n l tn ti tinh thn. Trong chn thc th thng hng ca Vaies ika, tma hay t
ng, iu m trong thuyt ca Pakudha n c gi l jva, cng l yu t thng hng tuy
khng phi l vt cht c cu to bi bn nguyn t vt cht. Thm na, hai yu t kh v
lc, Pakudha cng cho l thc th thng hng. iu ny mun ni rng kh v lc nhng yu
t t nhin, khng do ai to ra chng, khng do chnh ta m cng khng do ai khc. Cho nn,
quan im ny ch ng xp vo loi thng tr lun (sassata-vda) nh c k trong kinh
Pht, ch khng th gi l tin phong ca nguyn t lun, d hiu nguyn t theo phng din
no, t t tng Hy-lp c i, hay khoa hc hin i. Nu mun, ngi ta c th ni rng
Pakudha ch tp hp cc ch im c ph bin trong cc thuyt l ng thi m lp
thnh quan im ring, khng c g mi m. C l v th m trong t liu Pht gio cng nh
K-na gio, l hai ngun t liu ch yu hnh dung cc hot ng t tng ng thi n-
, u khng xem trng v ch tng thut s lc v ng ny.
Trong bn nh ni trn, hoc trc tip hoc gin tip, khng tha nhn nghip v nghip qu,
thy u c xp vo nhmakriya, ch trng v tc. Tiu s ca h cn m h. Nhng tng
thut trong Pht gio cng nh K-na gio mun gi rng h xut thn t giai cp thp km.
C l v th t tng ca h chng li h t tng chnh thng Veda; v phn no phn nh
18
tn ngng ph thng ca cc giai cp thp trong x hi n by gi thng tr bi cc giai cp
c quyn b-la-mn v st--l.
Thuyt ca ng c kinh Sa-mn qu thut nh sau: Nu hi, C th gii khc (paro loko)
khng?, nu ti ngh c i khc, ti s tr li, C th gii khc; nhng ti khng ni nh
vy, khng ni nh kia, khng ni khc nh th... Nu hi, Khng c th gii khc chng?,
nu ti ngh Khng c th gii khc, ti s tr li Khng c th gii khc; nhng ti khng
ni nh vy, khng ni nh kia, khng ni khc nh th...
S gii Pli lit thuyt ca ng vo nhm ngy bin lun nh c ni trong kinh Phm vng,
kiu l lun un o nh con ln (amarvikkhepika). Kinh ni, nhng v ny v khng bit mt
cch nh tht thin, hay bt thin, v v s vng ng (musvdabhay), khng mun vng ng,
ni li h di, nn h tr li, ti khng ni nh vy. Ti khng ni nh kia. Ti khng ni
khc nh kia...
Khng c nhiu t liu v cuc i cng nh hc thuyt ca ng trong ngun Pli cng nh
trong vn hin phng Bc.
S sch K-na gio chp rng c vua Bimbisra (Tn-b-sa-la) m h gi Sen ika, v con trai
ca vua l Ajtastru (A-x-th) m h gi l Knika u l t ca Mahvra. Chi tit ny c
v ph hp vi s kin c tng thut trong kinh Sa-mn qu, mc d trong y ni vua A-
x-th (Knika-Ajtasatru) n phng o Ni-kin Thn T ch mt ln m kt qu l khng hi
lng vi gii p ca ng ny cho nghi vn ca mnh.
19
(brahmacrya), tc tuyt dc. Trong nm iu cm gii ca Mahvra, c hai iu c ni l
nh hng ln i vi Gandhi sau ny: bt bo ng (ahims) v tn trng s tht (satya).
Bn phng h ca Thn T c nu trong kinh Sa-mn qu, theo S gii, iu th nht lin h
n nc. Kinh ni:sabbavrivrito ca hoti, S gii thch ngha: vri y c hiu l nc
(sabbauadako). Thn T ch trng cm ch i vi tt c loi nc lnh, v ng cho rng trong
nc lnh c chng sinh c tri gic [76] (sattasa), nu dng n c th st hi chng sinh y.
Th nhng, Bodhi dch Anh cm t ny cho thy c hiu khc: curbed by all curbs, c
thc bng tt c mi c thc.[77] Theo th t vri ngoi ngha l nc nh S gii
thch ngha, n cng cn c ngha l c thc, ngn cm nh trong t vrita vn l phn t
qu kh ca vreti. Th nhng, trong t in ca Pali Text Society, t vrikhng c ngha th
hai. T in Pli-Nht ca Vn Tnh Chiu Thin (Kumoi) cng ch nu mt ngha
ca vri l nc. C th Bodhi lin h bn phng h ca Nigantha vi bn cm nguyn ca
Prva nn cho vri thm mt ngha na, v trong bn cm nguyn ny khng ni g n nc.
Tuy nhin, nh S gii cho thy i tng ca iu phng h ny l cc chng sinh trong nc
lnh ch khng phi phng h ch v nc lnh. iu ny cng ph hp vi tin tng ca cc
K-na nh c nu trong crgastra, Thnh in ca K-na gio: C rt nhiu sinh vt
sng trong nc; v vi tu s K-na nc phi c ni l loi vt cht c s sng, ngha l c
linh hn. Cho nn, tu s K-na cn phi chp hnh cm ch i vi nc. Kinh ny cng ch
trch nhng ngi theo o Pht v nhng ngi ny t cho l h c php s dng nc mt
cch t do, c php ung v lm v sinh.[78]
Kinh Upli m u bng i thoi gia Pht v mt ngi Ni-kin tn l Dghatapass (Trng
Kh Hnh). c Pht hi Dghatapass: Nigan t ha Nt aputta thit lp bao nhiu nghip cho s
to tc c nghip v cho s chuyn khi c nghip? Dghatapass tr li: Nigan t ha Nt aputta
khng c tp qun thuyt v nghip, m c tp qun ni v pht (dan d a). c hi c bao
nhiu loi pht, tr li: c ba; l thn pht (kyadan d a), ng pht (vacdan d a) v pht
(manodan d a). Ba loi pht ny khc nhau, trong thn pht c cho l nghim trng nht.
Gii thch v cc loi pht ny, S gii Pli[80] ni, cc Nigan t ha cho rng hai loi pht thn
v ng thuc loi v tm; thn pht, cng nh gi thi lay cnh cy, lm nc tri, trong
khng c g l tm c. Ng pht, cng nh gi thi khin hai cnh cy c vo nhau pht ra
ting, v gi thi khin nc chy c ting, trong cng khng c ci g l tm. V vy, Ni-
kin Thn T ch trng thn pht l nghim trng nht.
Thuyt gio ca c Pht khc hn vi Nigan t ha. Ngi khng ni pht m ni nghip, v
trong ba nghip, nghip quan trng nht.
Trong cuc lun chin vi Pht, Upli cng khng a ra gii thch no v ch trng thn
pht, duy ch xc nhn tnh cch nghim trng ca n. Nhng c Pht nu nhiu th d chng
t chnh nghip c sc mnh hn thn nghip. Chnh nghip iu ng thn nghip.
Cui cng, Upli chp nhn thuyt ca Pht v cho rng Nigan t ha Nt aputta sai lm khi
ch trng thn pht. Sau , ng tr thnh t ca Pht.
iu c gi l linh hn ni trn, nguyn Sanskrit l jva. T ny trong kinh Kim cang, La-
thp dch l th gi khin cho hu ht cc nh s gii kinh ny u hiu sai. Ni khc, Huyn
Trang dch l mng hay mng cn c hiu l yu t duy tr s sng. Ci m cc Jaina gi
l jva, trong cc h phi khc gi n l tman, t ng; Samkhy gi n l purus a. Jaina phn
loi tt c tn ti thnh nm phm tr trong hai nhm: jva - mng hay hu mng, loi c linh
hn; v ajva, v mng, khng linh hn. Nm phm tr c gi l nm astikya: hu thn, thn
hay b phn tn ti chim c mt im trong khng gian ln hay nh ty trng hp. Jva,
mng, hay t ng, hay linh hn, l mt thc th tn ti chim c mt khong khng gian nht
nh, ln hay nh ty theo c th ca loi m n thc sinh trong . Cc astikya khc,
gm dharma (php) ch cc d liu cho nhn thc gic quan; adharma (phi php), khc vi cc
loi d liu ni trn; ka (h khng), v pudgala. T cui ny cng thng thy trong kinh
Pht, hoc phin m l b-c-gi-la, hoc dch ngha l nhn, con ngi, hoc nhn cch
hoc nhn xng; n c hiu l c chc nng nh l ch th ca nhn thc v hnh ng;
n cng l t ng gi tng lu chuyn trong lun hi. Nhng trong tn l Jaina n khng hon
ton c ngha nh vy. Pudgala l loi phn t vt cht cc k vi t, vi t cho n mc khng
th phn tch c na, by gi ngi ta c th gi n l cc vi (paramn u). Cc phn t ny
tn ti trn y khp khng gian. Khi linh hn b khuy ng bi cc nhim tham, sn, si cc
th, khin mi trng quanh n b khuy ng, cc phn t vt cht pudgala ny theo ng
dn srava tri vo bm dnh linh hn; nhng phn t ny by gi tr thnh karma-pudgala,
cht th nghip. Cho nn, nghip i vi cc Jaina khng ch l hnh vi ca thn, ng, , m
bn cht ca n chnh l vt cht. Ngha l, nghip l mt yu t thuc trong loi astikya: hu
thn. Hn l do ngha ny m cc Ni-kin t ch trng thn pht, nh ch c s Upli
nu ln tranh lun vi Pht.
Kinh in ca K-na gio ghi chp xut x ca gio ch mnh t chng tc Jtr ka Ks atriya.
Jtr ka c ng nht vi Sanskrit l Jtiputra (Pli: Nt aputta), Hn dch l Thn T,
hoc phin m l Nh- T. Nirgrantha (Pli. Nigan t ha), Hn m l Ni-kin v dch l
Ly-h (ngoi o). Nirgrantha l danh t ch cho chng t xut gia, theo ngha g b tt c
mi rng buc th gian nh c ni trong Strakr tga.[81]T ny cng c ngha l ci b ht
y phc. Phi vetambara (Bch y) cho rng Mahvra sng la th nhng iu ny khng phi
l tt yu gii thot, v vy h ch trng vn y phc. Tri li Digambara (Thin y) cho rng
22
la th l tt yu c gii thot, v vy h ch trng tuyt i la th. Cc t tn xng
ng l Mahvra, ngha l ng i Hng. Nhng v t o c tn xng l Jina, ch cho v
chin thng, cng nh tBuddha ch cho v gic ng vy. Jaina l t phi sinh ca Jina.
Ni theo quan im lch s th tc, Mahvra cng nh c Pht, vn xut thn t giai cp
thng tr, nhng t b c quyn ca giai cp.[82] Gio l ca Mahvra cng nh ca Pht
v mt x hi chi b c quyn giai cp, v thuyt nghip bo l nn tng gii phng giai cp.
Nhng ch trng thn pht ca Ni-kin t c v nhum mu bi quan v chp nhn nh mnh,
cho thn th b hnh h v t m khng ch tm. Pht nu gio ngha pht, bng ch
m khng ch thn, vn dng tm khng ch vt, l con ng t gii phng.
***
Kinh in Veda cha ng ngun lc quan phn nh nhn sinh quan ca giai cp thng tr, v h
ch bit sinh ra hng th t nhng kh ly ca hng ngi m h xem l bn cng n l.
Tn ngng bnh dn do thng xuyn b p bc nn c xu hng bi quan. Mc d tn ngng
ny i b phn b bao trm trong bng ti nh mnh khc nghit cho nn tr thnh th ng
v do bt lc trc bt cng x hi m ny sinh nhiu th t tng m tn d oan. Th nhng,
thc v ni kh trin min t i ny sang i khc tr thnh tng v chui lun hi bt
tn; iu ny tt nhin hm cha chn l khng c thy trong cc h t tng chnh thng
Veda.
Nghip qu v lun hi l hai nn tng gio l trong Pht gio v K-na gio. Cc Upanishad
cng dn dn tha nhn nh hng ca tng v nghip bo v lun hi ny, nhng vn trong
gii hn ca lc quan giai cp. y cng ch l quan im bn ngoi tn ngng n- gio.
Nhng ngi n gio nht nh thy c s lin tc ca vn nghip bo v lun hi t Veda
ti c cho n tt c cc h t tng hin i, ngha l cho n c Vivekanada, Aurobindo v
Gandhi. Theo , thuyt l ca Pht v K-na lin h n nghip cng ch l s ci bin t nn
tng Veda v Upanishads. R rng y l thnh kin o ngc lch s.
Trong Hi ngh Tn gio ti Chicago (26 September 1893), Vivekanada i biu n- gio
tuyn b c Pht Thch-ca l ha thn ca Thng n gio, o Pht ca Thch-ca Mu-ni
l mt b phn ca n gio. Pht gio, nh c truyn b ti cc nc, nh Trung Hoa v
Nht Bn, l a con ng nghch (rebel child) ca n gio. Nhng n lc ca Kumrila v
akara cho ta hiu r ngha lch s ca tuyn b ny.
23
[1] Krishan, Y. (1988), The Vedic origins of the doctrine of karma, South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp 51-
55; m c 40 ln t karma c dng trong Rg-Veda, phn ln ch ngha hnh ng, c hiu l
hnh vi t t.
[2] Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. I. Cambridge, 1922, tr. 21.
[3] Mc s Kevin Williams vit v s ti sinh trong Kinh Thnh (Reincarnation in the Bible), l lun:
chnh Gio hi Thin cha do Paul lp Roma mi bc b s ti sinh. Gio hi Jurusalem sau khi
Roma xm lng Israel nm 70 b chy sang Ai-cp, Gio hi ny tha nhn c ti sinh. ng dn chng
Matthew 11: 13-14: "For all the prophets and the law have prophesied until John. And if you are willing
to receive it, he is Elijah who was to come." Kinh Thnh ting Vit, Ma-thu 11: 13 Cho n ng Gio-
an, tt c cc ngn s cng nh L Lut u ni tin tri.14 V nu anh em chu tin li ti, th ng
Gio-an chnh l -li-a, ngi phi n.15 Ai c tai th nghe. on ny ni Eliah ti sinh thnh John
Baptist. Elijah l v tin tri Do thi ni trong Cu c, th k 9 trc cng nguyn. Tt nhin Gio hi
La-m bc b tin tng nh vy.
[6] Joanna Jurewicz, The Rgveda, small scale societies and rebirth eschatology. Indologica
Taurinensia, 34 (2008); p. 183-210.
[7] kicpi, bho gotama, brhman nnmagge paapenti, addhariy brhman tittiriy brhman
chandok brhman bavhrijjh brhman , atha kho sabbni tni niyynik niyyanti takkarassa
brahmasahabyatya. Cc b-la-mn ny thit lp nhiu con ng khc nhau nhng tt c u dn n
cng tr vi Brahma: Addhariy brhman a: dng b-la-mn Adhvaryu truyn
thaRigveda hoc Yajurveda. Tittiiriy brhman : truyn tha Yajurveda ma thut, Br hadaranyaka-
upanishad thuc dng truyn tha ny. Chandok brhman : dng b-la-mn Chandoga
truyn Smaveda. Bavhrijjh brhman : dng b-la-mn Bahvr ca truynRigveda. K.N.
Jayatilleke, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge; Appendix. Routledge, 2008;
[8] yathkr yathcr tath bhavati, sdhukr sdhur bhavati, ppakr ppo bhavati; pun yah pun yena
karman bhavati, ppah ppena; athau khalv huh ; kmamaya evyam purus a iti, sa yathkmo
bhavati, tat kratur bhavati, yat kratur bhavati, tat karma kurute, yat karma kurute, tat
abhisampadyate. Br hadaranyaka Upanishad4.4.5.
[9] Lal Mani Joshi:Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. An Essay on their Origins and Interactions:
iv. Date of the Oldest Unpanishads. BPS Online Edition (2008).
[10] S. Dasgupta phng nh khong 200 trc Tl. A History of Indian Philosophy I (1922), p. 370.
[12] Wogihara, arthpatti: t minh, suy l, kt lun tt nhin; thng ngha. Ting Anh thng dch
l implication (hm ng), neccessary presupposition (gi nh tt yu).
[13] Sau pramn a theo Mmms: pratyaks a (hin lng), anumna (t lng), abda (thanh
lng), upamn a (th d), arthpatti(thng ngha), anupalabdhi (bt kh c). Dignga tha nhn ch c
hai: hin lng (trc gic), t lng (lun l); ngoi ra, cc ngun khc mang tnh gio iu, ch quan
v c bit, khng th da vo phn on gi tr ng hay sai.
24
[14] Wilhem Halbfass, Tradition and Reflection: Exploration in Indian Thought (1991), p. 302. Shlomo
Biderman (Scripture and Knowledge: An Essay on Religious Epistemology, 1995, p. 213, n. 87&88),
dn Halbfass, v ch thch thm: Jaimini cng c cp tn mn trong Mmmsstra I.2.9.
[15] S. Dasgupta, op.cit., dn kin ca Gngntha Jh, phng nh khong 57 trc Tl. Govinda
Chandr Pande, Life and Thought of Sakrcrya (ti bn 2004, tr. 276), phng nh khong u th k
2 Tl.
[17] Trong Sanskrit, abda va l m thanh c pht ra ni ming, v cng ch cho t ng; artha, ch
mc ch, i tng, v cng ch ngha. Cho nn, trong l thuyt thanh lun ny, abda = artha.
[18] bara-bhs ya 2.1.1, ato yas tasya vcakah abdas tatoprva pratyata iti/ tena bhvaabd
aprvasya codak iti brmah / na tu kaacchabdah sks d aprvasya vcakosti/...tasmd bhvrthh
karmaabdoprva codayantti. Ph lc t liu sanskrit bi Othmar Gchter: Hermeneutics and
Language in Prvaa Mmms: A Study in bara Bhs ya, 1990, p. 138.
[21] Mmmsstra (MS) vi. 1. 4: agahna ca,; vi.1. 5: udrasya pratis idhatvt. Vn bn Sanskrit:
The Sacred Books of the Hindus, vol. xxvii, part i: Mmmsstra of Jaimini, reprint 1923.
[22] Tantravrttika ad. 1.3.4: lobhdi kran am ctra bahv evnyat pratyate/ yasmin sannihite nsti
mlntarnum// kydaya ca sarvatra kurvn dharmadeanm/ hetujlavinirmuktam na kadcana
kurvate// Dn bi Kei Kataoka, Fukuok, Manu and the Buddha for Kumrila and Dharmakrti. Religion
and Logic in Buddhist Philosophical Analysis. Proceedings of the Fourth International Dharmakirti
Conference. Vienna, August 23-27, 2005. Ed. Helmut Krasser, Horst Lasic, Eli Franco, Birgit Kellner.
Wien. , pp.255-269.
[24] Vaies ikastra I.i.1: athato dharmmam vykhymah . Vn bn Sanskrit: The Sacred Books of the
Hindus, vol. vi: The Vaies ika stra of Kanada, 1923.
[28] ibid.
[29] Brahmastra (BS) III.2.38: phalam atah upapatteh / Brahmastra, with text and translation by
Swami Vireswarananda, 1847.
25
[32] Tradtion, p.295.
[33] BS. iv. 1. 13-15: tad-adhigama uttaraprvghayor ales avinaau, tad vyapadet/ itarasypy evam
asamles ah , pte tu/ anrabdhakrye eva tu prve, tad avadheh //
[40] annd bhavanti bhtni parjanyd annasambhavah / yajd bhavati parjanyo yajah
karmasamudbhavah //
karma brahmodbhavam viddhi brahmks arasamudbhavam/ tasmt sarvagatam brahma nityam yaje
pratis t itam//
[42] evam pravartitam cakram nnuvartayatha yah aghyur indriyrmano mogham pha sa jvati.
[43] Smaaphala-sutta; D. 2; Hn dch tng ng: Trng A-hm 17, kinh 27 Sa-mn qu.
[44] ibid.
[50] Arthur Llewellyn Basham, History and Doctrines of the jvikas, a Vanished Indian Religion;
Delhi, 2002; p. 81, 20-202.
[51] Benimadhab Barua, A History of PreBuddhist Indian Philosophy, Calcuta, 1921; p. 279.
[60] William-Monier cho t makha 2 nh ngha: a. ngi ngm vnh trong cung nh
(royal bard or panegyst); b. tu s hnh kht thuc mt h phi no (a mendicant of a partic. order).
[65] Benimadhab Barua, A History of Pre-Buddhist Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, (January 1,
1998); tr. 290.
[66] Hn dch tng ng, Trng A-hm quyn 7, kinh s 7: T-t kinh.
[67] D. 23 (PTS) ii. 253: itipi natthi paro loko, natthi satt opaptik, natthi sukatadukkat nam
kammnam phalam vipko ti.
[68] Cf. Jaina Sutras, Part II (SBE45), tr. by Hermann Jacobi, [1895], Sutrakr tga I. 1., 11-12; tr. 237.
[70] Cf. Erich Frauwallner, History of Indian Philosophy: The Nature-philosophical schools and the
Vaies ika; Delhi 1993; vol. II, p. 218.
[74] nigan t ho sabbavrivrito ca hoti, sabbavriyutto ca, sabbavridhuto ca, sabbavriphut o ca.
[75] Kailash Chand Jain Lord Mahvra and His Times, Dehli 1991, tr. 16.
[76] MA. (PTS) 1.168: so kira stodake sattasa hoti, tasm na tam val ajeti.
27
ny:
obstructed by all waters, conjoined with all waters, cleansed with all waters, suffused with all waters.
[78] Hermann Jacobi, crga-stra, Jaina Sutras, Part II (Sacrd Books of the East vol.22), tr. by
Hermann Jacobi, [1884], p. 6.
[79] M 56 (PTS 1.372 ff): Uplisuttam. Hn, Trung A-hm quyn 13, s 133 u-b-li kinh. M 14
(PTS 1.91 ff)
Cl adukkhakkhandhasuttam. Hn,Trung A-hm, quyn 25, s 100 Kh m kinh.
[81] Strakr tga, Anh dch H. Jacobi, Book 1 Lecture 14 The Nirgrantha. The Sacred Books of the
East, vol. 45, 1895.
[82] Cc t K-na cho rng Mahvra l con trai ca vua Siddhrtha, v vua rt c th lc
cai tr thnh Kun d apura (hoc Kun d ugrma). Nhng Jacobi (Jaina-stra I, introduction,
The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 45, 1895; p. xi) cho rng y ch l s khoa i.
Kun d apura c ng nht vi th trn Kot igma. N ch l mt khu ngoi ca Vaiali (V-x-li)
th ph ca Videha. V vy, Siddhrtha c th ch l mt qun trng hay x trng ca mt th trn
mc d ng thuc giai cp ks a triya; v v ng ch c gi l ks atriyn (st-l n) ch cha h c
gi l dev (vng hu hay hong hu).
28